ELECTROSCOPE

M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR It is a device used to detect the presence and nature of electric charge on a body. A very commonly used
Notes 2024- 2025 electroscope is the Gold leaf electroscope
Working of Gold Leaf Electroscope:
Section : Boys / Girls Date : 15-03-2024
i. Divergence of the two halves of the gold leaf of a gold leaf electroscope shows the presence of electric
Class & Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
charge on the gold leaf.
Lesson / Topic : ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD
ii. When a charged body is touched with an already charged electroscope and
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a) If the charge on the charged body is of opposite type as that on the electroscope, then the two halves of
CHAPTER-01
the gold leaf converge.
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD
b) If the charge on the charged body is of the same type as that on the electroscope, then the two halves of
Electrostatics is the branch of Physics, which deals with static electric charges or charges at rest.
the gold leaf diverge further.
Frictional electricity
Basic properties of electric charge:
The substances which acquire charges on rubbing are said to be ‘electrified’ or charged. The electricity
1. Additivity of electric charge:
produced by friction is called frictional electricity. If the charges in a body do not move, then, the frictional
It means that the total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all the individual charges located at
electricity is also known as Static Electricity.
different points in the system.
Kinds of charges
If a system has n charges as q1, q2,......, qn the total charge of the system is given as:
(i) If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, it acquires positive charge while the silk cloth acquires an equal
q = q1 + q2 + .....................................+ qn
amount of negative charge.
2. Quantisation of electric charge:
(ii) If an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, it becomes negatively charged, while the fur acquires equal amount
It means that the electric charge on any charges object is always an integral multiple of a basic unit of
of positive charge.
charge in nature. This implies that the charges on objects can change only by discrete amounts and not in
Thus, charging a rod by rubbing does not create electricity, but simply transfers or redistributes the charges
a continuous manner. The basic unit of charge, in nature, is the charge on an electron (e). Hence the total
in a material.
charge of the system is always an integral multiple of the charge on an electron. (e)
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other – experimental verification.
q = ne, where n = 0, ±1, ± 2, ..............
A charged glass rod is suspended by a silk thread, such that it swings horizontally. Now another charged
3. Conservation of electric charge:
glass rod is brought near the end of the suspended glass rod. It is found that the ends of the two rods repel
It states that the total charge of an isolated system remains conserved. In other words, charge can neither
each other. However, if a charged ebonite rod is brought near the end of the suspended rod, the two rods
be created nor be destroyed.
attract each other. The above experiment shows that like charges repel and unlike charges attract each
Coulomb’s law
other.
Coulomb’s law states that: The electrostatic force of repulsion or attraction between two stationary point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square
of distance between them.

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Let q1 and q2 be two point charges placed in air or vacuum at a distance r apart. Then, according to ∴ ε= ɛ𝟎 ɛ𝐫
Coulomb’s law, the force (F) of repulsion (or attraction) between the charges is, F
Since Fm = , the force between two point charges depends on the nature of the medium in which the two
ɛr

charges are situated.

Coulomb’s law – vector form
where k is a constant of proportionality. In air or vacuum,
1
k=
4πɛ0

where εo is the permittivity of free space (i.e., vacuum) and the value of εo is 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2.

If → is the force exerted on chargeq2 by charge q1

F21

and

where is the unit vector from q1 to q2.

If q1 = q2 = 1C and r = 1m then, If → is the force exerted on q1 due to q2,
F12

One Coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge, which when placed at a distance of 1 metre in air or
vacuum from an equal and similar charge, experiences a repulsive force of 9 × 109 N.
Dielectric constant or relative permittivity
It is defined as the ratio of the force between two charges placed some distance apart in free space to the
force between the same two charges kept the same distance apart in a material medium.
Force between two charges placed some distance apart in free space is,

So, the forces exerted by charges on each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Force between the same two charges kept the same distance apart in a material medium is,
Principle of Superposition

Then,

ɛ
The ratio = ɛr is called the relative permittivity or dielectric constant (K) of the medium. The value of
ɛ0

ɛr for air or vacuum is 1.

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The principle of superposition is to calculate the electric force experienced by a charge q1 due to other Electric Field
charges q2, q3 ……. qn. The total force on a given charge is the vector sum of the forces exerted on it due Electric field due to a charge is the space around the test charge in which it experiences a force. The
to all other charges. presence of an electric field around a charge cannot be detected unless another charge is brought towards
It states that the total force acting on a given charge due to any number of charges is the vector sum of the it. When a test charge qo is placed near a charge q, which is the source of electric field, an electrostatic
individual forces acting on it due to each of the individual charges. force F will act on the test charge.
The force on q1 due to q2 Electric Field Intensity (E)
Electric field at a point is measured in terms of electric field intensity. Electric field intensity at a point is
defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge kept at that point.

The electric field intensity is also referred as electric field strength or simply electric field. So, the force
exerted by an electric field on a charge is F = qoE.
Electric lines of force
The concept of field lines was introduced by Michael Faraday as an aid in visualizing electric and magnetic
fields.
Electric line of force is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a unit positive charge tends to
Continuous Charge distribution:
move in an electric field.
A system of closely spaced electric charges forms a continuous charge distribution.
Linear Charge Distribution:
It is charge distribution along a line. Linear charge density is defined as the charge per unit length. If a
charge Q is uniformly distributed over a line of length l, the linear charge density λ, would be given by:
𝐐
λ=
l

SI unit of λ is C/m
Surface Charge Distribution:
It is charge distribution over a given surface of a plane. Surface charge density is defined as charge per unit
area. If a charge Q is uniformly distributed over an area A, then surface charge density σ is,
Q
σ=
A
SI unit of σ is C/m2
Volume Charge Distribution:
It is charge distribution over a given volume. Volume charge density is defined as charge per unit volume.
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed over a volume V, then volume charge density ρ would be given by:
Q
ρ=
V

SI unit of ρ is C/m3

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Properties of lines of forces:
(i) Lines of force start from positive charge and terminate at negative charge.
(ii) Lines of force never intersect.
(iii) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field (E) at that point.
Two point charges +q and –q are kept at a distance 2l apart. The magnitude of the dipole moment is given
(iv) The number of lines per unit area, through a plane at right angles to the lines, is proportional to the
by the product of the magnitude of the one of the charges and the distance between them.
magnitude of E. This means that, where the lines of force are close together, E is large and where they are
∴ Electric dipole moment, p = q2l or 2ql.
far apart, E is small.
It is a vector quantity and acts from –q to +q. The unit of dipole moment is C m.
Electric field due to a point charge
Dimension of electric dipole moment is [ALT]
Let q be the point charge placed at O in air. A test charge qo is placed at P at a distance r from q. According
Electric field intensity at any point on the axial line of an electric dipole:
to Coulomb’s law, the force acting on qo due to q is
The axial line of a dipole is the line joining the negative and positive charges of the electric dipole.
AB is an electric dipole of two point charges –q and +q separated by a small distance 2d. P is a point along
the axial line of the dipole at a distance r from the midpoint O of the electric dipole.

The electric field at a point P is, by definition, the force per unit test charge.

The direction of E is along the line joining O and P, pointing away from q, if q is positive and towards q,
if q is negative.
In vector form,

where r̂ is a unit vector pointing away from q.

Therefore, the magnitude of resultant electric field (E) acts in the direction of the vector with a greater
Electric field due to system of charges
magnitude. The resultant electric field at P is,
If there are a number of stationary charges, the net electric field (intensity) at a point is the vector sum of
the individual electric fields due to each charge.

Electric dipole and electric dipole moment

Two equal and opposite charges separated by a very small distance constitute an electric dipole.

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If the point P is far away from the dipole, then d <<r

[∵ Electric dipole moment p = q x 2d]

E acts in the direction of dipole moment.
Electric field intensity at any point on equatorial line of an electric dipole:
An equatorial line of a dipole is the line perpendicular to its axial line and passing through a point mid way
between the charges.
Consider an electric dipole AB. Let 2d be the dipole distance and p be the dipole moment. P is a point on
the equatorial line at a distance r from the midpoint O of the dipole

The direction of E is along PR, parallel to the axis of the dipole and directed opposite to the direction of
dipole moment.
Electric field intensity at an axial point is twice the electric field intensity at an equidistant point on the
equatorial line.
Eaxial = 2Eequatorial

TORQUE ON AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE PLACED IN ELECTRIC FIELD:

Consider a dipole AB of dipole moment p placed at an angle θ in a uniform electric field E. The charge +q
The magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. Resolving E1 and E2 into their horizontal and vertical components,
experience a force qE in the direction of the field. The charge –q experiences an equal force in the opposite
the vertical components E1 sin θ and E2 sin θ are equal and opposite, therefore they cancel each other. The
direction. Thus the net force on the dipole is zero.
horizontal components E1cos θ and E2cos θ will get added along PR.

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 Note : If the dipole is placed in a non−uniform electric field at an angle θ, in addition to a torque, it also
experiences a force.
Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field.
Electric potential energy of an electric dipole in an electrostatic field is the work done in rotating the dipole
to the desired position in the field.

The two equal and unlike parallel forces are not passing through the same point, resulting in a torque on
the dipole, which tends to set the dipole in the direction of the electric field.
Torque = either force × perpendicular distance between the forces.

When an electric dipole of dipole moment p is at an angle θ with the electric field E, the torque on the
dipole is

In vector form,

Note: i) if θ= 00
Then system is said to be in stable equilibrium
τ = PE sin0
τ=0
ii) If θ=1800
Then the system is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
iii) if θ = 900
τ = PE sin900
τ = τmax
iv) if θ = 300
τ = PE sin300
τ𝑚𝑎𝑥
τ=
2

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Special cases: q
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗⃗ ds
ɸ =∮ E.
ɛ0

This closed imaginary surface is called Gaussian surface. Gauss’s law tells us that the flux of E through a
closed surface S depends only on the value of net charge inside the surface and not on the location of the
charges.
Applications of Gauss’s Law
i) Field due to an infinite long straight charged wire
Consider an uniformly charged wire of infinite length having a constant linear charge density λ (charge
per unit length). Let P be a point at a distance r from the wire and E be the electric field at the point P.
A cylinder of length l, radius r, closed at each end by plane caps normal to the axis is chosen as Gaussian
surface. Consider very small area ds on the Gaussian surface.

Electric flux
The electric flux is defined as the total number of electric lines of force, crossing through the given area.

Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface (Q) = λ l

According to the gauss theorem
Q
E . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ds = ɛ
0

The electric flux dφ through the area ds is,

∫circular ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ +∫
E . ds ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = λ𝑙
E . ds
curved ɛ0

The total flux through the closed surface S is obtained by integrating the above equation over the surface.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ for the circular surfaces is 900 and for curved surface is 00. So,
⃗ and ds
The angle between E

∫circular ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0, then

E . ds
The electric flux is a scalar quantity. Its unit is N m2 C−1
Gauss’s law λ𝑙
∫curved E ds =
1 ɛ0
The law states that the total flux ɸ of the electric field E over any closed surface is equal to times the
ɛ0
So,
net charge enclosed by the surface.
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 λ𝑙 So,
E ∫curved ds =
ɛ0
σA
E × 2A =
But ∫curved ds = 2πrl, (The surface area of the curved part) ɛ0

λl
σ
E × 2πrl = ɛ E=
0
2ɛ0

λ Field due to a Uniformly Charged conducting Spherical Shell

E=
2πrɛ0
Case (i) At a point outside the shell.
Electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite sheet: Consider a charged shell of radius R. Let P be a point outside the shell, at a distance r from the centre O.
Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge with surface charge density σ. Let P be a point at a distance r Consider a Gaussian surface with r as radius. The electric field E is normal to the surface. The flux crossing
from the sheet and E be the electric field at P. Consider a Gaussian surface in the form of cylinder of cross
the Gaussian sphere normally in an outward direction is,
sectional area A and length 2r perpendicular to the sheet of charge.

Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface (Q) = σA Applying Gauss’s theorem

Applying gauss theorem ɸ =∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = q
E . ds
ɛ0
Q
E . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ds =
ɛ0

∫circular ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ +∫

E . ds ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = σA
E . ds E . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ɸ =∫s⃗⃗⃗⃗ ds =∫sE ds cos0 (since angle between E and ds is zero)
curved ɛ0

Hence the angle between ⃗E and ⃗⃗⃗⃗

ds for the curved surface is 900 and for circular surface is 00. So electric
= ∫sE ds =E ∫sds = E (4πr 2 )
flux will exists only through the circular surface.
Then,
q
E (4πr 2 ) = ɛ
∫curved ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
E . ds 0

1 q
σA E=
4πε0 r2
∫circular E ds =
ɛ0
Case (ii) At a point on the surface.
The electric field E for the points on the surface of charged spherical shell is,
σA
E ∫circular ds =
ɛ0
1 q
But ∫circular ds = 2A (where A being the area of two circular surfaces) E = 4πε R2
(because r = R)
0
th th
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Case (iii) At a point inside the shell.
Consider a point P′inside the shell at a distance r′from the centre of the shell. Let us construct a Gaussian
surface with radius r′. The total flux crossing the Gaussian sphere normally in an outward direction is

For region I:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗A + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EI = E EB
𝜎 𝜎
= - 2𝜀𝐴 + (- 2𝜀𝐵 )
0 0

There is no charge enclosed by the gaussian surface, according to Gauss’s Law, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 1
EI = - 2𝜀 (𝜎𝐴 + 𝜎𝐵 )
0

If 𝜎𝐴 = +𝜎 and 𝜎𝐵 = -𝜎
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗
EI = - 2𝜀 (𝜎 − 𝜎) = 0………….(1)
So the field due to a uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points inside the shell. 0

Graph between E and r For region II:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗A + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EII = E EB
𝜎𝐴 𝜎
= 2𝜀0
- 2𝜀𝐵
0

1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
EII = (𝜎𝐴 − 𝜎𝐵 )
2𝜀0

If 𝜎𝐴 = +𝜎 and 𝜎𝐵 = -𝜎
1 2𝜎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
EII = (𝜎 + 𝜎) =
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
𝜎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
EII = …………(2)
𝜀0

For region III:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗A + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
EIII = E EB
Electric field due to two parallel charged sheets 𝜎𝐴 𝜎
= + 2𝜀𝐵
2𝜀0 0
Consider two plane parallel infinite sheets with equal and opposite charge densities +σ and –σ.
1
σ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
EII = (𝜎𝐴 + 𝜎𝐵 )
The magnitude of electric field on either side of a plane sheet of charge is E = 2 and acts perpendicular to 2𝜀0
0
If 𝜎𝐴 = +𝜎 and 𝜎𝐵 = -𝜎
the sheet, directed outward (if the charge is positive) or inward (if the charge is negative).
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
EIII = (𝜎 − 𝜎) = 0………….(3)
(i) When the point P1 is in between the sheets, the field due to two sheets will be equal in magnitude 2𝜀0

and in the same direction. The resultant field at P1 is, From equations (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that, in case of equal and opposite charged sheets, electric field
is existing only between the sheets.

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 M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR Potential Difference:
Notes 2024- 2025 The potential difference between two points is the amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge
from one point to the other against the electrostatic forces.
Section : Boys / Girls Date : 03-04-2024
The unit of potential difference is volt OR JC-1 . The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if 1
Class & Div.: XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
joule of work is done in moving 1 Coulomb of charge from one point to another against the electric force.
Lesson / Topic: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

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CHAPTER-02
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
When a test charge q0 is moved from A to B, a work WAB has to be done against the electrostatic forces
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
of q. Hence Potential Difference between two points A and B is:
Electric potential means the capability to do work by a charge to overcome the forces of electrostatics in
order to move from infinity to a point in the field of another charge.
The electric potential in an electric field at a point is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric forces. Electric Potential due to a Point Charge:

Mathematically,
W
V=
q0

Relation between electric field and potential

(To show that electric field is the negative of potential gradient)
Consider a positive point charge +q placed at the origin O. The electric potential at P would be the amount
of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to P. Let a test charge q0 be placed at A at a
distance x from the source charge q located at O. By Coulomb’s Law, electrostatic force on q0 is,
Let the small distance between A and B be dx. Work done in moving a unit positive charge from A to B is
dW
dV = q0

But dW = F.dx And F = q0E Then the small work done in moving q0 from A to B through a small distance dx against the electrostatic
So, force is,
dW = q 0 E. dx
Then,

dV =
q0 E.dx So total work done in moving q0 from ∞ to P is,
q0

dV = E.dx ; dV = Edx cos 1800 ; dV = -Edx

dV
E=-
dx
So electric field is the negative of potential gradient.
The unit of electric field intensity is Vm−1 OR NC-1

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 Electric Potential at any point due to a dipole:

1 q q0
W = 4πε
0 r

Then the electric potential at point p is

W
V=
q0
Let BP = r1 and AP = r2
1 q
V= Net Potential at P due to the dipole is
4πε0 r
V= V1 + V2
Variation of electric potential and electric field with distance r :
𝑞 1 1
V= [ − ] ………….(1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2

From the Figure,

𝑟12 = (a-rcos𝜃)2 + r2 sin2 𝜃

= a2 – 2ar cos𝜃+ r2 cos2𝜃+ r2 sin2𝜃

𝑟12 = a2 – 2ar cos𝜃+ r2

If a<<r then neglect a

𝑟12 = r2 – 2ar cos𝜃
Variation of electric potential with the reciprocal of distance (1/r) :
2ar cos𝜃
𝑟12 = r2 [1 − ]
𝑟2

2a cos𝜃
𝑟12 = r2 [1 − ]
𝑟

1
2a cos𝜃 2
r1 = r [1 − ]
𝑟

1
1 1 2a cos𝜃 −2
= [1 − ]
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟

Apply binomial theorem in the above equation. Then,

1 1 a cos𝜃
= [1 + ]……………..(2)
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟

Similarly

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 1 1 a cos𝜃 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
= [1 − ]……………..(3)
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟
Any surface that has same potential at every point is called an Equipotential Surface.
Sub eq (2) and eq (3) in eq (1)
Properties:
1) No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.
𝑞 1 a cos𝜃 1 a cos𝜃
V=
4𝜋𝜀0
[𝑟 [1 + 𝑟
]−
𝑟
[1 −
𝑟
]]

𝑞 a cos𝜃 a cos𝜃
V=
4𝜋𝑟𝜀0
[[1 + 𝑟
] − [1 −
𝑟
]]

𝑞 a cos𝜃 a cos𝜃
V= [1 + −1+ ]
4𝜋𝑟𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟

q2a cos𝜃
V=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
2. Electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point.
But P = q 2a, so
p cos𝜃
V=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

If point P is on the axial line, then 𝜃 = 00, so cos0 = 1

p
V=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

If point P is on the equitorial line, then 𝜃 = 900, so cos90 = 0

Then
V=0 3. Equipotential surfaces indicate regions of strong or weak electric fields.
Electric Potential due to a system of charges:

This implies equipotential surfaces are farther apart in the region of weak fields and vice versa.
4) Two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect.
If two equipotential surfaces intersect then at the point of intersection, there would be two values of electric
potential which is not possible.
Equipotential Surfaces of some charge distributions:
I. Equipotential surfaces of a positive point charge.

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 II. Equipotential surfaces of a dipole and two equal positive charges:

b) Potential energy of a system of three point charges:

III. Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field:

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

When two like charges lie at an infinite distance apart, no work is done and hence electric potential energy
is zero. But for same charges when kept very close to each other, work has to be done against the forces of
repulsion. This work is stored in the form of Potential Energy of two charges.
The electric potential energy of a system of point charges is defined as the amount of work done in
assembling the charges at their locations by bringing them from infinity.

a) Potential energy of a system of two point charges: The work (W3) done to bring charge q3 from infinity to its position at point P3 when charges q1 and q2 are
already present in the region.

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Behaviour of Conductors in electrostatic fields:
1) Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of a conductor.

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6) Electric field at any point on the surface of charged conductor, is proportional to the surface charge
density there.

The electric field inside a cavity of any conductor is zero. All charges reside only on the outer surface of a
conductor with cavity. There are no charges in the cavity.

Applications of electrostatic shielding:

I. In a thunderstorm accompanied by lightning, it is safe to sit inside a car than standing under a
tree or on open ground because the metallic body of the car gives electrostatic shielding from
lightning.
II. Electrostatic Shielding can be achieved by placing sensitive instruments in a hollow conductor.
This helps to save them from the effects of stray electrical disturbances.
Dielectrics and polarization
Dielectrics
The non conducting materials in which equal and opposite induced charges are produced on their opposite
faces on applying an external electric field are called dielectrics.
Example: air, H2 gas, glass, mica etc.
There are two types of non conducting substances or two types of dielectrics, Polar and non- polar
dielectrics.
A. Polar dielectrics:
A molecule, in which the centre of positive charges does not coincide with the centre of negative charges,
when no external field is applied, is called a polar molecule.
Examples: HCl , H2 O, NH3 , CO2 , etc.
In the absence of an external field, the dipole moments of polar molecules orient themselves in random
directions. Hence no net dipole moment is observed in the dielectric. When an electric field is applied, the
dipoles orient themselves in the direction of electric field. Hence a net dipole moment is produced
Electrostatic Shielding:
Electrostatic shielding means protecting from electrostatic fields.
The phenomenon, of making a region free from the effects of electric fields is called Electrostatic Shielding.
It is based on the fact that electric field is zero inside a hollow conductor. A field free region of this type is
also called ‘Faraday cage.’

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B. Non -Polar substances:
A molecule in which the centre of positive charges coincides with the centre of negative charges is called
a non- polar molecule. The ‘dipole moment’, associated with such a molecule, is zero.
Examples: N2 ,O2 ,H2 etc.
A non- polar molecule has zero electric dipole moment p
⃗ of its own.
⃗ = qE
When an electric field is applied, a force (F ⃗ ) is applied in the direction of field on the positive charges
⃗ = - qE
of the molecule and a force (F ⃗⃗⃗⃗ on the
⃗ ) is applied in the direction opposite to the applied field (E)
negative charges of the molecule.
As a result, the positive charge gets pulled in the direction of the field and the negative charge in the
opposite direction and the molecule acquires a dipole moment Thus, a non – polar molecule becomes a
polar molecule and becomes an induced electric dipole.
This induced electric dipole moment disappears as and when the external electric field is removed.
Polarization of a Dielectric Slab: Dielectric Constant:
It is a process of inducing equal and opposite charges on the opposite faces of the dielectric through the The ratio of the applied electric field intensity, to the reduced electric field intensity on placing a dielectric
application of an external electric field. between two oppositely charged plates, is called the dielectric constant (K) of the concerned dielectric.

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

Consider two parallel conducting plates separated by a certain distance and having vacuum/air between Capacitors are special (quite small sized) systems designed to store large amounts of charge. A capacitor
them. consists of two conducting bodies separated by a non-conducting medium. It was earlier called a condenser.
The following symbols are used to represent a capacitor of

Capacitance:
After introducing a non-polar dielectric slab between the plates, each atom behaves as a polar molecule. The measure of the ability of a capacitor to store charges is called capacitance or capacity of that capacitor.
Therefore, the net effect is that the opposite faces of the dielectric will have equal and opposite charges Let q be the charge on a capacitor and V be its potential. It is then observed that
called induced charges. This process is called polarization of the dielectric. VαQ ; QαV
Q=CV
where C, the constant of proportionality, is called capacitance or capacity of the capacitor. Thus,
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 Q
C=V

The S.I. unit of capacitance is farad (F).

1 farad (F) = 1CV-1
Purpose of capacitor:
It is used in electrical appliances such as radio sets, television sets, computers etc.
The capacitor is almost an essential component of a very large number of electronic and electric circuits.
Parallel Plate Capacitor:
It consists of two plane parallel conducting plates separated by a small distance.
These plates are given equal and opposite charges.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium.
Principle of parallel plate Capacitor:
Consider a capacitor of capacitance ’C’, plate area ‘A’, and separation between the plates ‘d’. The
Capacitance of a charged conductor gets increased by bringing another similar grounded uncharged
capacitance of the capacitor is given by,
conductor near to it.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor:

Now a dielectric slab of thickness‘t’ is introduced in between the plates of the capacitor.

Then net electric field inside the slab is,

Electric field between the plates of the capacitor is,
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸0 - ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸𝑝
The total potential difference between the plates, is the work done in crossing unit positive charge from
one plate to another in the field E0 over a distance (d−t) and in the field E over a distance t, then

𝜎 𝐸0
But, E0 = and E =
𝜀0 𝐾

𝐸0
So, V = E0(d-t) + t
𝐾
𝑡
V = E0[(d-t)+ 𝐾]
𝜎
But, E0 =
𝜀0
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 𝜎 𝑡
Then V = 𝜀 [(d-t)+ 𝐾]
0

𝑄
Capacitance C=𝑉
𝑄
C= 𝜎 𝑡
[(d−t)+ ]
𝜀0 𝐾

𝑄
but 𝜎 =
𝐴
𝑄
C= 𝑄 𝑡
[(d−t)+ ]
𝐴𝜀0 𝐾

𝐴𝜀0
C= 𝑡
[(d−t)+ ]
𝐾

Grouping or Combination of Capacitors:

Capacitors can be grouped in two ways: Capacitors in parallel:
(i) Series (ii) Parallel In the following diagram, capacitors C1 , C2 , C3 are shown to be connected in parallel.
Let V be the potential difference between A and B.
In the parallel combination, the potential is the same across all the capacitors.
Capacitors in Series: Total charge in the circuit is the sum of individual charges across all the capacitors.

In the following diagram, capacitors C1, C2, C3 are connected in series.

Let V be the potential difference between A and B.
In series combination, the charge (q) is the same on the plates of all the capacitors.
Also, total potential is the sum of individual potentials across each capacitor, i.e. V1, V2, V3, across C1,
C2, C3 respectively.

Q = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
If C is the equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination, we would also have
Q = CV.
Hence CV = V (C1 + C2 + C3)
The equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination is given by
C = (C1 + C2 + C3)
For n capacitors: C = (C1 + C2 +………… Cn)

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 Let q be the charge and V be the potential difference between the plates of the capacitor. If dq is the
additional charge given to the plate, then work done is,
dw = Vdq
Polarization vector:
It measures the degree of polarization of the dielectric and is defined as the (induced) dipole moment per
unit volume of the polarised dielectric.
When the dielectric is homogeneous, each atom or molecule has the same dipole moment p
⃗ . If n is the
⃗ ) is :
number of atoms or molecules per unit volume of the dielectric, the polarisation vector (P

Energy density of electric field in a capacitor:

When a capacitor is charged, the work done in charging the plates of the capacitor is stored in form of
Susceptibility and Dielectric Constant:
energy. The energy stored per unit volume is termed as the energy density’σ′ of the electric field.
⃗ is proportional to the electric field acting on it.
In most of the dielectrics, the polarization vector P Consider a parallel plate capacitor having plate area A and capacitance C. The separation between the
plates is ‘d’.

Energy stored in a capacitor

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor. Work has to be done to store the charges in a capacitor. This work done
is stored as electrostatic potential energy in the capacitor.

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 Loss of energy in redistribution of the charges in capacitors:

Common Potential After joining conductors final potential energy of the system is,

When two differently charged capacitors are connected in parallel, the charges gets transferred between
the capacitors and reaches a constant potential difference between the plates. This is known as common
potential (V)

Initial charge on the first capacitor is, Q1 =C1V1

Initial charge on the second capacitor is, Q2 =C2V2

Total charge before sharing = C1V1 + C2V2…………..(1)

Total charge after sharing = (C1+ C2)V……………………(2)

The difference in the energy is positive value. This suggests that there is loss of energy in redistribution of
According to law of conservation of charge, the charges. The energy is lost in the form of heat energy.

C1V1 + C2V2 = (C1+ C2)V

𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2
V=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

This is called common potential.

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 1 2

Cause of resistance of a conductor:

M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA - QATAR
Resistance of a given conducting wire is due to the collisions of free electrons with the ions or atoms of the
Notes 2024- 2025 conductor while drifting towards the positive end of the conductor which in turn depends upon the
arrangement of atoms in the conducting material.
Section : Boys/Girls Date 20
: 06-05-2024 Resistivity - The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
Class & Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
i.) It is directly proportional to the length (l) of the conductor.
Lesson / Topic: CURRENT ELECTRICITY Rαl
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
ii.) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross section (A) of the conductor.
UNIT – 2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 1
Rα
𝐴
Current Electricity – Study of charges in motion 𝑙 𝜌𝑙
Rα R=
𝐴 𝐴
Electric Current: It is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through any section of a wire.
𝝆 is a constant called Resistivity (or) Specific resistance of the material of the conductor.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟g𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜wi𝑛g
Electric Current =
𝑇i𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑅𝐴
𝝆= SI unit of 𝝆 is Ohm–metre (Ωm)
𝑄
I = ⁄𝑡
𝑙
When A = 1𝑚2 and l = 1m 𝝆=R
Q = ne
𝑛𝑒 Resistivity of the material of a conductor is defined as the resistance offered by unit length and unit area of
I= cross section by a wire of the given material of conductor.
𝑡

SI unit is ampere (A). Current is a scalar quantity. The resistivity of the conductor depends upon
1𝐶
1A = 1) nature of material of the conductor
1𝑠
2) temperature of the conductor
Direction of Current
(Resistivity is independent of the dimensions (length, area of cross section) of the conductor.
 The direction of flow of positive charge gives the direction of current, this is called Conventional
Current. Conductance (G)
 The direction of flow of electrons gives the direction of Electronic Current.
 The direction of electronic current is opposite to that of Conventional Current. It is the reciprocal of resistance of a conductor.
1
G= Its SI unit is 𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 (or) mho (or) siemen (S)
𝑅
Electrons
I
Conductivity (σ)
+ -
Cell The inverse of resistivity of a conductor is called its electrical conductivity

Ohm’s Law: It states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential 1
𝜎= Its SI unit is 𝑂ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1 (or) mho 𝑚−1
difference (V) across the ends of the conductor, provided physical conditions of the conductor such as 𝜌
temperature, mechanical strain etc. are kept constant.
Drift Velocity (𝖯𝑑):
ie. I 𝖺 V (or)V 𝖺I
V = RI Drift Velocity is defined as the average velocity with which the free electrons get drifted towards the positive
V
= R = a constant end of the conductor under the influence of an external electric field applied.
I
R is known as resistance of the conductor. It depends upon the length, shape and the nature of the material of Expression for Drift Velocity
the conductor.
It is independent of the values of V and I When an electric field is applied across the two ends of a conductor, the electrons get accelerated in a
SI unit if resistance is Ohm (Ω) direction opposite to the electric field, i.e. the velocity of an electron increases but it happens only for a short
time called relaxation time (𝑟)
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𝑞
l Current flowing through the conductor I =
𝑡
𝖯𝑑 𝑒−
𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒
I=
→ 𝑙/𝖯𝑑
E
+ -
V I=𝒏𝒆𝑨𝝑𝒅
Relaxation time is the time interval between two successive collisions.
Deduction of Ohm’s Law
By using the first eqn of motion (Same dig and explanation as above)
The relation between current (I) and drift velocity (𝖯𝑑) is given by
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 I=𝑛𝑒𝐴𝖯𝑑
u – Initial net velocity of an 𝑒− =0 𝑉𝑒𝑐
but 𝖯𝑑 =
𝑚𝑙
ϑ – Final net velocity of an 𝑒− = 𝖯𝑑 (drift velocity)
𝑉𝑒𝑐
I = neA
t=𝑟 𝑚𝑙
𝑛𝑒2𝐴𝑉𝑐 𝑛𝑒2𝐴𝑐
∴ 𝖯𝑑 = 0 + a 𝑟 ⇒ 𝖯𝑑 = a 𝑟 I= ⇒I=( )V
𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑙
F = ma ∵ F = Eq
= Ee n, e, A, m and l are constants
𝐸𝑒
a = 𝐹⁄𝑚 = When temperature is constant 𝑟 is also constant
𝑚
𝐸𝑒 𝑉 ∴ I𝖺V
𝖯𝑑 =
𝑚
𝑟 ∵E=
𝑙 This is Ohm’s Law

To derive an expression for the resistivity of a conductor in terms of relaxation time

𝑉𝑒𝑟 → = Strength of Electric Field
E (Same dig and explanation)
𝖯𝑑 =
𝑚𝑙 e – Charge of an 𝑒− Relation between current and drift velocity is given by
m – Mass of an 𝑒−
I=𝑛𝑒𝐴𝖯𝑑
l – Length of the conductor
𝑉𝑒𝑐
V – P.d across the ends of conductor
𝖯𝑑 =
𝑚𝑙
Relation between current and drift velocity
𝑉𝑒𝑐 𝑛𝑒2𝐴𝑐𝑉
l A I = neA =
𝑚𝑙 𝑚𝑙
𝖯𝑑 𝑒− v 𝑚𝑙
=
I 𝑛𝑒2𝐴𝑟
→
E
V
+ - ∵ = 𝑅 = 𝜌𝑙
I 𝐴
V
𝜌𝑙 𝑚𝑙
*Consider a conductor having area of cross section “A” and length “ l ” =
𝐴 𝑛𝑒2𝐴𝑟
Let “n” be the number density of electrons. (no. of free electrons per unit volume)+ 𝑚
𝜌=
Volume of the conductor = Al 𝑛𝑒2𝑟
Total no of electrons crossing the conductor = nAl
1
Total Charge flowing through the conductor q = nAle 𝜌 𝖺 n varies with nature of material of the conductor
𝑛
Time taken by free electron to cover the distance “ l ” is given by 1
𝜌 𝖺 𝑟 changes with temperature
𝑙 𝑠 𝑐
𝑡= (∵ ϑ = 𝑡 ) ∴ 𝜌 depends on nature of the material and temperature of the conductor but does not depend on the
𝖯𝑑
dimensions of the conductor.

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Effect of Temperature on Resistance For alloys

Resistance of metallic conductor is given by The value of 𝖺 is very small as compared to that for metals.
𝑚 𝑙 For manganin (80% copper 12% manganese and 4% Nickel)
R=
𝑛𝑒2𝑐 𝐴
1
𝖺= 0.000015 °C−1
For a given conductor R 𝖺
𝑐 Due to high resistivity and low temperature coefficient of resistance these alloys are used in

For metals i) in making standard resistance coils

When the temperature of metal conductor is raised, the ions/atoms of the metal vibrate with greater ii) as metre bridge wire
amplitudes and greater frequencies about their mean positions. Due to increase in thermal energy, the
frequency of collision of free electrons with atoms/ions while drifting towards positive end of the conductor iii) as potentiometer wire
also increases. This reduces the relaxation time 𝑟. Hence the value of resistance R increases with rise of The other commonly used alloys are Constantan and Nichrome.
temperature.
Graph between 𝝆 and T for Nichrome
T ↑ R ↑ 𝜌 ↑ 𝜎↓

The resistance 𝑅𝑡 of a metal conductor at temperature t°c is given by ↑

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅o (1+𝖺 𝑡) 𝜌

Where
T →
𝖺 is the temperature coefficient of Resistance
For Semiconductors
𝑅o is the resistance of conductor at 0°C.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity of semiconductors is negative.
Their values vary from metal to metal.
i.e. Resistivity of semiconductor decreases when its temperature increases.
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅 o + 𝑅 o 𝖺 𝑡
Graph between 𝝆 and T for Semiconductors
𝑅 o 𝖺 𝑡 = 𝑅 𝑡 − 𝑅o
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅o i𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 i𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠i𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝖺= = ↑
𝑅o𝑡 𝑜𝑟i𝑔i𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠i𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 x 𝑟i𝑠𝑒 𝑜ƒ 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌
Temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the increase in resistance per unit original resistance per
degree rise of temperature
T →
The unit of 𝖺 is 𝐾−1 or °C−1

For metals, like silver, copper etc. the value of 𝖺 is positive. (𝖺= 10−2 °𝐶−1 𝑡𝑜 10−4 °C−1)
For Insulators
Graph between 𝝆 and T for Copper
The resistivity increases exponentially with decrease in temperature. It becomes infinitely large at
temperatures near absolute zero i.e. the conductivity of insulator is almost zero at 0 K.
↑
Super Conductivity
𝜌 x 10−8
Ωm The phenomenon due to which a substance looses all signs of its resistance when cooled to its critical
temperature is called Super Conductors.
Temp (T) K →
For mercury, critical temperature is 4.2 K

For Lead, critical temperature is 7.25 K

th
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Applications of Super Conductors Ohmic Conductors

1. Super Conductors are used for making very strong electromagnets. Conductors which obey Ohm’s Law are called Ohmic Conductors.
2. Super Conductivity is used to produce very high speed computers.
Eg: Metals
3. Super Conductors are used for the transmission of electric power.
Graph between R and T for Mercury V-I graph is a straight line for these conductors.

↑ ↑
R
in Ω V

4.2 K T in kelvin →

Charge Carriers I →

Charge carriers are of different types in different Conductors: Non-Ohmic Conductors

i) In metals and alloys the charge carriers are electrons. Conductors which do not obey Ohm’s Law are called Non-Ohmic Conductors.
ii) In semi-conductors these are electrons and holes. Eg: Semiconductors
iii) In ionized gas, charge carriers are electrons and positive ions.
iv) In electrolytic solution charge carriers are positive and negative ions. V-I graph is not a straight line
An important Characteristic of all these charge carriers is mobility.
Mobility (µ)
↑
Mobility of charge carrier is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field.
V
𝖯𝑑
µ=
𝐸
𝑚𝑠−1 2 −1 −1 I →
S.I unit is =𝑚 𝑉 𝑠 Colour code for Carbon Resistors
𝑉𝑚−1
𝐸𝑒 A carbon resistor has usually four concentric rings (or) bands A, B, C and D of different colours. The colours of
𝖯𝑑 = 𝑟
𝑚 first two bands A and B indicate the first two significant figures of the resistance in Ω, the colour of third band
𝐸𝑒𝑟
C indicates the decimal multiplier, and the colour of fourth band D (which is silver or gold) tells the tolerance.
𝜇=
𝑚𝐸 A B C D

𝑒
𝜇= 𝑟
𝑚

Current density ( j ) Sometimes only three coloured bands A, B and C are marked. To read the value of carbon resistance the
following sentence can be used
Current density at a point in a conductor is defined as the amount of current flowing per unit area of the
B B R O Y of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife wearing Gold Silver Necklace
conductor around that point provided the area is held in a direction normal to the current.
Letter Colour Figure Multiplier Tolerance
I B Black 0 10O
Current Density j = B Brown 1 101 Gold – 5%
A
SI unit is A 𝑚−2 R Red 2 102
O Orange 3 103 Silver – 10%
But I = neA𝖯𝑑 Y Yellow 4 104
neA𝖯𝑑 G Green 5 105 No Colour – 20%
j= = ne𝖯𝑑 B Blue 6 106
𝐴
V Violet 7 107
𝖯𝑑=𝜇𝐸 G Grey 8 108
W White 9 109
j = neµE
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Grouping of Resistors It depends upon:

(i) Nature of the Electrodes
Resistors in series (ii) Nature of Electrolytes
Terminal P.d of a cell (V)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 The potential difference between the two poles of a cell in closed circuit (when current is drawn from the cell)
is called the terminal P.d of the cell.
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 Its SI unit is volt (V)
I Internal resistance of the cell (r)
+ V - The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell when the electric current flows through it is known as
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3 internal resistance of the cell.
Its SI unit is Ω
𝑉 = 𝑉 1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 It depends upon
𝑉 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3) →① (i) Separation between electrodes – directly
(ii) Area of electrodes in the Solution – inversely
Total P.d = Total Current x Total Resistance (iii) Concentration of electrolytes – directly
Expression for internal resistance of a cell
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑠 → ②

Comparing Equations ①&②

V
K Voltmeter measures emf
𝐼 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3)

+ - ( )
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅 1 + 𝑅 2 + 𝑅 3

Resistors in Parallel
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
R
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐼1 𝑅1 V
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 K Voltmeter measures Terminal P.d

𝐼 = 𝑉(
1
+
1
+
1
) → ①
𝐼2 𝑅2
+ - ( )
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐼3 𝑅3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃.𝑑 I I r
Total Current = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑠i𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐼=
𝑉
→ ② R
𝑅𝑃 + V -
Let us consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance “r” connected to an external resistance R and a one-way
Comparing Equations ① and ②
key K. A voltmeter is connected across the poles of a cell.
1 1 1 1
= + + When the circuit is open the reading of voltmeter is equal to the emf E of the cell. When the circuit is closed
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 the voltmeter reading is terminal P.d (V) of the cell.

V<E due to the internal resistance of the cell. This difference is called lost volt which is equal to “Ir”
Electromotive Force (emf) and Terminal P.d
i.e. E – V = Ir
Electromotive Force of the cell (E)
The total resistance of the circuit is R+r
The potential difference between the two poles of a cell in an open circuit (when no current is drawn from the
Current flowing through the circuit
cell) is called the electromotive force of the cell. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚ƒ
𝐼=
W 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠i𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐸= Its S. I unit is Volt (V)
𝑞 𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟

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 11

1
Terminal P.d = P.d across external resistor

V = IR
M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA - QATAR
𝐸𝑅
𝑉= Notes 2024 - 2025
𝑅+𝑟

Section : Boys/Girls Date : 06-05-2024

𝐸𝑅 𝐸𝑅
𝑅+𝑟 = ⇒ 𝑟= −𝑅 Class & Div. : XII (All Divisions) Subject : Physics
𝑉 𝑉
Lesson / Topic: CURRENT ELECTRICITY
𝐸
𝑟 = ( − 1) 𝑅 xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
𝑉
Electric Power (P)
The rate at which electric work is done by the source of emf in maintaining the current in electric circuit is
Graph between E and R Graph between V and R called electric power of the circuit.
If a current I ampere flows through a conductor of resistance R for a time t second under a potential
difference of V volt, then electric work done to maintain the current is given by
E W
↑ ↑ W = VIt joule ∵V =
q
E V 𝐄⁄
𝟐 ∴ Electric power W = Vq
W VIt
r P= = = VI watt or Js−1
R → R → t t
1 watt = 1 volt x 1 ampere
1 kW = 1000 W 1 MW = 106W 1 H. P = 746 W
V2
P = VI = I2R =
R
Electric Energy
The total electric work done or energy supplied by the source of e.m.f in maintaining the current in an electric
circuit for a given time is called electric energy consumed in the circuit.
Electric energy W = VIt = Pt
i. e. Electric energy = Electric power x time
SI unit of electric energy is joule.
The commercial unit of electric energy is called a kilo watt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh is the total electric energy consumed when an electrical appliance of power 1 kW works for one hour.
1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J
Joule’s law of heating
The amount of heat produced (H) when a current I flows through a conductor of resistance R for a time t is
given by
H 𝖺 I2Rt
Grouping of cells
Cells in series

Consider two cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 connected in series.
Let I be the current flowing through the cells.
The potential difference between A and B is
VAB = E1 − Ir1

F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020
 2 3

The potential difference between B and C is Cells in parallel

VBC = E2 − Ir2
The potential difference between A and C is
VAC = VAB + VBC
VAC = (E1 − Ir1) + (E2 − Ir2)
VAC = (E1 + E2) − I(r1 + r2) → ①
If we replace the two cells between points A and C by a single cell of emf Eeq and internal resistance req and if
the same current I flows through it then
Consider two cells of emfs E1 and E2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 connected in parallel. The current
VAC = Eeq − Ireq → ②
through cell of emf E1 is I1 and that through the cell of emf E2 is I2
∴ I = I1 + I2 → ①
Comparing equations ① and ②
The potential difference between B and C through cell E1 is
Eeq = E1 + E2 and req = r1 + r2 V = E1 − I1r1
E1 − V
I = → ②
1
r1
Special Cases The potential difference between B and C through cell E2 is
(i) If n cells of emfs E1, E2 ⋯ ⋯ En V = E2 − I2r2
and internal resistances r1, r2 ⋯ ⋯ rn E2 − V
I = → ③
2
are connected in series. r2

Eeq = E1 + E2 + ⋯ ⋯ + En and req = r1 + r2 + ⋯ ⋯ + rn Substituting eqns ② and ③ in eqn ①

E1 − V E2 − V
I= +
r1 r2
(ii) If n identical cells (each having emf E 1 1
E1 E2
and internal resistance r) in series I = ( + ) − V( + )
r1 r2 r1 r2
combination are connected to an
1 1 E E
external resistance R. V ( + ) = ( 1 + 2) − I
Total emf = nE r1 r2 r1 r2
Total resistance = nr + R r1 + r2 E r + E2r1
V( )= 1 2 −I
Current flowing through the circuit r 1r 2 r 1r 2
Total emf E r + E2r1 r r r r
I= V=( 1 2 x 1 2 )− I( 1 2 )
Total resistance r 1r 2 r1 + r2 r1 + r2
E r + E2r1 r r
nE V= 1 2 − I( 1 2 ) → ④
I= r1 + r2 r1 + r2
nr + R
If the combination is to be replaced by a single cell of emf Eeq and internal resistance req then
V = Eeq − Ieq → ⑤
(iii) If two cells are connected such that the
negative terminal of the first cell is connected Comparing eqns ④ and ⑤
to the negative terminal of the second cell.
Then the equivalent emf E1 r21 + E2 r1
Eeq =
( if E1 > E2) r1 + r2
E =E −E
eq 1 2

r 1r 2
req = r1 + r2 req =
r1 + r2

F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020
 4 5

Special Case
If m identical cells (each having emf E and internal resistance r)
in parallel combination are connected to an external resistance R
Eeq = E
req = r⁄m
Total resistance of the circuit = R + r⁄m
Current flowing through the circuit
E
I= I1 − I2 − I3 + I4 − I5 = 0
R + r⁄m I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5

The sum of currents flowing to the junction is equal to the sum of currents flowing away from junction.
Mixed Grouping of cells Sign Convention
While applying the above law the current flowing towards the junction is taken as positive and the current
flowing away from the junction is negative.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law (Loop Rule)
It states that the algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed path of electric circuit involving
resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
∑∆V=0

Eeq = n E req = nr⁄m

nr
Total resistance of the circuit = R +
m
nE
I=
R + nr⁄m

mnE
I= ABCDA
mR + nr E1 − I1R1 − I3R3 = 0
DCFED
The current in the circuit will be maximum when the denominator (mR + nr) is minimum. I3R3 + I2R2 − E2 = 0
nr ABFEA
i.e. when nr = mR current is maximum R = m
E1 − I1R1 + I2R2 − E2 = 0
Total number of cells in the combination = mn

Sign Convention
Electric Measurements
Kirchhoff gave two laws for determining current and resistance in a complicated circuit which cannot be (i) The emf of a cell is positive when we jump from positive to negative terminal.
solved by Ohm’s law. (ii) The emf of a cell is negative when we jump from negative to positive terminal.
(iii) P.d across the resistor is positive if we move along the direction of current.
Kirchhoff’s first law (Junction rule or Current rule) (iv) P.d across the resistor is negative when we move opposite to the direction of current.
The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in the circuit is zero.
i.e. ∑ I = 0

F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020
 6

Wheatstone’s Bridge

M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR

Notes 2024- 2025

Section : Boys / Girls Date : 18/05/2024

Class &Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
Lesson / Topic : Moving Charges and Magnetism
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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENT CARRYING WIRES: -

OR
Wheatstone designed a circuit by using four resistances P, Q, R and S and a galvanometer G as shown above. Derive a mathematical expression for the force per unit length experiencedby
Applying Kirchhoff’s first rule at B and D
At B: each of the two long current carrying conductors placed parallel to each other in
I1 − I3 − I g = 0 → ①
At D: air. Hence define one ampere.
I2 + Ig − I 4 = 0 → ②

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law in loops ABDA and BCDB Case-1: Parallel wire carrying currents in the same direction.
At ABDA
I1P + IgG − I2R = 0 → ③
At BCDB
I3Q − I4S − IgG = 0 → ④
The resistances P, Q, R and S are so adjusted that no current flows through the galvanometer. This is called the
balanced condition of the bridge and points B and D are at the same potential.
When the bridge is balanced there is no effect on the balance on inter-changing the position of galvanometer
and battery.
When Ig = 0
Equations ① and ② can be written as
I1 = I3
I2 = I4
Equation ③ can be written as
I1P = I2R → ⑤
Equation ④ can be written as
I3Q = I4S → ⑥

P R
=
Q S

This is the condition for balance. F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 1
This is called Wheatstone’s Principle.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020

  When 2 parallel, current carrying wires are placed at some distance r  Note: Both the forces FA/B and FB/Aare equal and towards each other,

from each other, they will experience a force on each other, due to meaning both thecurrent carrying wires will be attracted towards each

magnetic field produced by each other other

 Let the wires A and B (two parallel conductors) , carrying current iA and iB  In the above equation of force F, putting iA = iB = 1A, and r = 1m

respectivelyare placed r distance apart and parallel to each other

Magnetic field B A at a point distance r from wire A (on wire B) due to current iA
F = μo×1×1/(2π×1) =μo/(2π)
𝝁𝒐 𝒊𝑨
𝐁𝑨 = =4 π x 10-7 /(2π)
𝟐𝝅𝒓
This field is perpendicular to the plane of paper, at which wire B is placed. The ∴F = 2×10-7 N/m So, we can define 1Ampere current as the amount of current
conductor B experience a force. flowingin the 2 parallel straight wires placed 1meter apart in vaccum, when the
Force per unit length (FB/A) on wire B due to magnetic field (BA) produced force acting on each wire per unit length is equal to the 2×10-7N/m

by wire A will be given by: Case-2: Parallel wire carrying currents in the opposite direction:

FB/A =𝒊𝑩𝑩𝑨 sin90° = 𝒊𝑩𝑩𝑨

𝝁𝒐 𝒊𝑨 𝒊𝑩
∴ FB/A = .
𝟐𝝅𝒓

According to Fleming’s left hand rule, this force is towards conductor A.

Magnetic field BB at a point distance r from wire B (on wire A) due to current iB
𝝁𝒐 𝒊𝑩
𝐁𝑩 =
𝟐𝝅𝒓

This field is perpendicular to the plane of paper, at which wire A is placed. The
conductor A experience a force.
Force per unit length (FA/B) on wire A due to magnetic field (BB) produced by On proceeding in the similar manner as the first case, we will find that the
wire B will be given by: values of forces will be the same, only their directions get reversed (refer the
diagram above)
FB/A =𝒊𝑩𝑩𝑩 sin90° = 𝒊𝑩𝑩𝑩  The forces will be equal but this time away from each other, i.e., the
𝝁𝒐 𝒊𝑨 𝒊𝑩 wires will move away from each other (repel each other).
∴ FB/A = .
𝟐𝝅𝒓
According to Fleming’s left handrule, this force is towards conductor B.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 2 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 3
 TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP: Force on a current i carrying conductor of length l making an angle θ with the
external magneticfield B is given by: F = ilBsinθ
 We already know that a current carrying wire experiences a force when For section pq of wire, length = b, current = i, angle θ = 90°.Hence, the net force
placed in external magnetic field (in direction other than the magnetic field on the currentloop pqrs will be
lines). In this section wewill discuss what happens when a current loop is
places in the external magnetic field
Fnet = Fpq + Fqr + Frs + Fsp = ibB + 0 + (-ibB) + 0
 A rectangular loop of vertical dimension b and horizontal dimension a,
carrying current i, is placed in an external magnetic field B as shown below:
∴Fnet = 0

 Hence, no net force acting on the rectangular loop

 But the force on pq and rs are equal and opposite and acting on 2
different points of abody so together they constitute a couple. Hence, the
net torque on the loop pqrs due to couple will be:
Torque = F×a = i(ba)B = iAB = mB

Here, A = ab = area of the loop pqrs, and m = magnetic moment = iA (having

direction same asthe area vector of the loop, i.e. perpendicular to the plane of
paper outwards)

If the plane of the loop is rotated by angle θ in clockwise direction from

bottom, then the area vector (or magnetic moment vector) would make an
angle θ with the magnetic field lines, thenthe torque would be given by:

ꞇ = F×asinθ = i(ba)B sinθ = iABsinθ = mBsinθ

The above equation shows that torque depends on the

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 4 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 5
 angle θ betweenmagnetic moment and magnetic field. MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER: -

 Torque will be maximum when θ = 90°(magnetic moment is normal to

 Moving coil galvanometer is an electromagnetic device that can measure
the magneticfield)
small values ofcurrent. It is also known as Weston galvanometer.
 Torque will be minimum (Torque = 0) when θ = 0° or 180° (magnetic
 It works on the principle that when a current loop is placed in an external
moment isparallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field). In this case, the
magnetic field, it experiences torque, and the value of torque can be changed
system is said to be in equilibrium.
by changing the current in the loop

 Moving coil galvanometer consists of permanent horse-shoe magnets,

 In the case of θ = 0°, the system will be in stable equilibrium, i.e. if the coil, soft ironcore, pivoted spring, non-metallic frame, scale and pointer
loop is given a small angular displacement, the loop will come back to the  We know that a current loop having N number of turns,and the cross
initial position and angle will be0 again sectional area A, carrying current i, when placed in and along the direction
of external magnetic field B, experiences a torque given by:
 In the case of θ = 180°, the system is said to be in the unstable
Torque = NiAB
equilibrium, i.e. if theloop is given a small angular displacement, the
angular displacement will increase further
Note: For N number of turns, the magnetic moment will be given by:
m = NiA

The above equation of torque on a loop in a magnetic field is comparable to the

torque on a dipole in an electric field: Hence, we can see that current loop behaves

as a magnetic dipole with when viewed as anticlockwise current loop representing

north pole, and when viewed as clockwise current looprepresenting south pole.
F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 6 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 7
The pivoted spring of spring constant k would oppose the above torque with
restoring torque C
given by: C = kΦ
Here, Φ is the angular deflection of spring
 Both, the torque, and the restoring torque would be equal:
kΦ = NiAB

Φ = NiAB/k

 In the above equation, except for current, every other quantity on the
right hand side isconstant for a galvanometer, hence:
I =Ig +Is .Current through Shunt resistance Is = I – Ig. Potential difference
Φ α i acrossgalvanometer = Potential difference across Shunt resistance
So, the angular deflection Φ produced in the pointer could be measured in terms of
current in the scale calibrated on the basis of above equations. Current sensitivity Ig Rg = ( I - Ig) Rs
(deflection per unit current) of galvanometer is given by:
Rs = Ig Rg /( I - Ig)
Equivalent resistance R of ammeter will be:
Φ/i = NAB/k
R = RgRs/(Rg +Rs)
Voltage sensitivity (deflection per unit voltage) of galvanometer is given by: Rg ˃˃ Rs
∴ R = RgRs/Rg = Rs
Φ/V = NAB/(kR)  So, the equivalent resistance of ammeter is very less, which is a must for

Clearly the voltage sensitivity depends on current sensitivity and the sensitivity of ammeter to be higher. Also, most of the current will pass

resistance of galvanometer. If we increase current sensitivity and resistance R is through the shunt, thus protectingthe galvanometer from any damage.

larger, then it is not certain that voltage sensitivity will be increased. Thus the  Ammeter is connected in series with the circuit where current is to be
measured.
increase of current sensitivity does not implythe increase of voltage sensitivity.
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER: -
CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER: -
 To use galvanometer as a voltmeter, we need to connect a wire, with
 To use galvanometer as an ammeter (to measure higher values of
very high resistance(Rw˃˃Rg), in series with the galvanometer to ensure that
current), we need toconnect a shunt wire, with very small resistance(Rs), in
our voltmeter equivalentresistance is high and so that it will draw a very
parallel with the galvanometer (which have very low resistance of Rg
F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 8 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 9
 small current. Equivalent resistance will begiven by:
R = Rg + R w
M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
Notes 2024- 2025

Section : Boys / Girls Date : 23/06/2024

Class &Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
Lesson / Topic : Magnetism and Matter
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Magnets – Known facts: -

Rw = V/Ig - Rg o Earth behaves as a magnet
o Attractive property: -A magnet attracts magnetic substances like iron, cobalt etc.
Voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit where voltage is to be measured. o Directive property: -When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points to the NS direction

o When two North poles are brought together, they repel each other. Similar effect is observed
for South pole also

o However, when a North pole and South pole is brought together, they attract each other

o Magnetic monopoles do not exists which means we cannot have a magnet with North pole
alone or South pole alone, monopole will not exist.

o If a bar magnet is broken in two halves, we get two similar bar magnets with weaker
properties

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 10

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 1

 o With the help of iron and its alloys, we can make magnets

Magnetic field: - Some of the properties of the magnetic field lines are:
Magnetic field is defined as the space around a magnet, in which it exerts a force on
o The lines are continuous and outside the magnet, the field lines originate from the North pole
other magnets.
and terminate at the South pole
B = F/m
o They form closed loops traversing inside the magnet. But here the lines seem to originate
from the South pole and terminate at North pole to form closed loops.

o More number of close lines indicate stronger magnetic field

Magnetic field lines: -
o The lines do not intersect each other
Magnetic line of force can be defined as the path along which an isolated north pole o The tangent drawn at the field line gives the direction of the field at that point.

would move, if it is free to do so.

Coloumb’s Law in magnetism: -
The force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles separated by a
o When iron fillings are sprinkled on a sheet of glass placed over a short bar magnet, we
distance is directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely
observe a pattern. The pattern indicates that the magnet has two poles.
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
o This pictorially represents magnetic field lines. Thus, magnetic field lines are imaginary lines
F α m1m2 /r2
of magnetic field inside and around the magnet.
𝑘𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2
𝜇𝑜 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝑟 2
μ0 - permeability of free space or vaccum. μ0 - 4π x10-7 Tm/A
S.I unit of pole strength is A-m.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 2 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 3
Magnetic Field Lines:-( refer page 175,fig 5.3)

Consider a circular coil carries current I. The lower surface behaves like south as field enters and
upper surface behaves like north as field leaves. Thus coil behaves like magnetic dipole.
Prove that monopole will not exist in magnetism: -

Magnetic moment α I

Magnetic moment α A

m α IA

m = KIA k=1
Consider a small vector area element ∆S of a closed surface. Let ∆S be the area vector.
The number of lines entering the surface is balanced by the number of lines leaving the surface. If there are N number of turns in the coil, then m = NIA

The net magnetic flux is zero.

Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular loop, of a radius R, carrying a steady current I.
Gauss’s law for magnetism states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.

φ = ∑ B . S = 0. This shows that a monopole does not exist.

and its direction is along the axis and given by the right-hand thumb rule.
Explain how does circular current loop behave as a magnetic dipole: -
Here, x is the distance along the axis from the centre of the loop. For x >> R, we may drop the
R2term in the denominator. Multiply and divide by π

B = μ0IπR2/2πx3 = μ0IA/2πx3 = μ0m/2πx3 = μ02m/4πx3 .

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 4 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 5
 This expression is similar to the expression of electric field for a dipole

E=1/4πε0 2p/x3.Thus current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole.

where R is the radius and x is the distance of the point from the centre of
the circular loop

(Using-Electric field intensity due to dipole alone axial and equatorial line, obtain expression for Magnetic moment of the solenoid is given by (total number of turns * current * cross-sectional
magnetic field intensity due to a bar magnet along axial line and equatorial line – Give this topic area) which is m = NIA
to students as webinar topic)
B = μ02m/4πx3
Show that a solenoid produces the same magnetic field as a bar magnet:-
A bar magnet may be considered as a large number of circulating currents
o Length of the solenoid – 2l
analogous to a solenoid: -
o Radius of the solenoid – a
o Number of turns = N
o Number of turns / unit length – n
S.No. Bar magnet Solenoid
Also, consider,

o dx - a small element dx in the solenoid The field lines of bar

o x - distance of dx from the centre of the solenoid magnet are similar to Continuous field lines like bar
o r –distance of the point P from the centre of the solenoid O 1 Solenoid magnet

Cutting a bar magnet into two

pieces results in smaller bar Cutting of solenoid results in
magnets but monopoles are smaller solenoid of slightly
2 not possible weaker fields

3 Magnetic field at a far axial point is same

4 Magnetic moment is the same

As the magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop is

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 6 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 7
 Dipole in a uniform magnetic field: - Electrostatics & Magnetism – Dipole Analogy: -

Let a bar magnet of length 2l, pole strength m and magnetic M, placed in a uniform
magneticfield B, with its axis inclined at an angle θ with the direction of magnetic field B.

Force acting on north pole F = pB, in the direction of magnetic field

Force acting on south pole F = pB, in the direction opposite to magnetic field.
These forces are equal and opposite, constitute a couple
Torque τ = moment of the couple.
= Force x perpendicular distance between forces.
= pB x 2lsinθ ( m = p x 2l )
τ =mxB
Expression for finding the value of magnetic potential energy:- Feature Electrostatics Magnetism

The magnetic potential energy (Um) is the work done in taking the magnetic dipole(NS) Field lines are not continuous
Field lines are continuous
in the magnetic field B from the initial position to the final position. Small amount of work done
in rotating the dipole through a small angle dθ is given by

dw = τ dθ = mBsinθ dθ

Field Lines
An expression for magnetic potential energy can also be obtained on lines similar to electrostatic
potential energy. We have emphasized in Chapter 2 that the zero of potential energy can be
fixedat one’s convenience. Taking the constant of integration to be zero means fixing the zero
of potential energy at θ = 90º, i.e., when the dipole is perpendicular to the field. The potential
energy is minimum (–mB) at θ = 00 (most stable position) and maximum (+mB) at θ = 180º
(most unstable position).

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 8 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 9
 B = B0 + Bm

= B0 + µ0M
Terms used in Magnetism: -
Dividing by µ0, B / µ0 = B0 /µ0 + M
(a) Intensity of Magnetization (M):-
B / µ0 = H + M [ H = B0 /µ0, the variation of magnetic field with permeability Is called
As we know, the nucleus of the atom consists of Neutrons and positively charged
Magnetic intensity]
protons. The electrons which are negatively charged revolve around. Thus, the circulating
B = µ0 (H + M)
electron in an atom has a magnetic moment.
H depends on external factors like current flowing etc. Its unit is A/m2
In a material made of many atoms, these magnetic moments add up vectorially and give a net

magnetic moment which is non-zero. M depends on the material inside the solenoid

Hence, Magnetization M = mnet / V which is net magnetic moment per unit volume.

(c) Magnetic flux (ϕ): -

Magnetization M = p x 2l / a x 2 l = pole strength/Area of cross section. Its unit is A/m
Magnetic flux through a surface is defined as the number of magnetic field lines
(b) Magnetic Intensity / Magnetizing force (H):- passing normally through the surface.
Consider a solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a current I. Hence, B0 = µ0 n I φ = B . ∆S = B ∆S cosθ

S.I unit of φ is weber (Wb)

The interior of the solenoid is filled with a material of non-zero magnetization (M).

(d) Magnetic induction (B) or Magnetic flux density: -

It is the number of magnetic lines crossing per unit area normally through the
magnetic surface

B=φ/A

S.I unit of magnetic flux density is Wb/m2

1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m2

(e) Magnetic Susceptibility χ:-

In the expression, B = µ0 (H + M)
M can also depend on external factors. Hence, M = χ H

χ = M/H

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 10 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 11
 where the χ dimensionless quantity is called Susceptibility. It gives how a magnetic material
responds to an external field. It determines how easily a specimen can be magnetized. It is
dimensionless quantity.

(f) Magnetic permeability µ: -

B = µ0 (H + M) Field lines do not Field lines prefer to Field lines prefer to

Field Lines prefer to pass through pass through pass through closely
B = µ0 (H + χH)

B = µ0 (1 + χ) H Antimony, Bismuth,
Copper, Gold, Quartz, Aluminium, Platinum,
=µ0µr H Mercury, Water, Chromium,
Alcohol, Air and Manganese, Crown Nickel, Iron, Cobalt
[ µ = µ0µr = µ0 (1 + χ)] Examples Hydrogen glass and Oxygen and their alloys

Magnetic moments of
µr = (1 + χ) µ is called magnetic permeability of the substance. µr is relative magnetic Small magnetic Individual dipole different domains are
Placed in moment is produced in moment align along aligned with B ext and
permeability of the substance. Its unit is Tm uniform each atom / molecule with B ext and the the substance gets
magnetic proportional to B ext but substance is weakly strongly magnetised
field (Bext) opposite in direction magnetised

Placed in
non-uniform
Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic substances: - magnetic Tends to move from Tends to move from Tends to move towards
field high to low field weak to strong field high field

Feature Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

Small and positive
Individual
0<χ <a
Individual constituents have net Susceptibilit Small and negative Very large and positive
constituents do not Individual constituents magnetic moment on y a – small +ve number
Nature have net magnetic have net magnetic their own and domain -1 < χ < 0 χ > 1000
moment on their own moment on their own formation occurs
Effect of Independent of
temperature temperature χ proportional to
χ proportional 1/T 1 / T - Tc

Relative Positive and less than 1 Positive and greater

permeability than 1
0 <µr< 1 Large µr> 1000
1 <µr< 1 + a where a is
small number

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 12 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 13
 M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
Notes 2023 - 2024
Section: Boys / Girls Date: 31.08.2023
Meissner’s effect: Class &Div.: XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
o Superconductors are diamagnetic and hence repel and are also repelled by magnets
Lesson / Topic: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
o When cooled to very low temperature, it exhibits perfect conductivity and diamagnetism
o This phenomenon is called Meissner effect
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o Hence used in levitated superfast trains. CHAPTER 06
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Curie’s law:
Electromagnetic Induction
o Magnetization of paramagnetic substances is inversely proportional to absolute temperature
o M = C B0/T which is equivalent to
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit an emf is
χ = C µ0 / T known as Curie’s law
Hence, the value of µ and χ depends not only on the material but also on the temperature. produced. This emf is known as the induced emf and the current that flows in the closed
As field is increased or temperature is lowered (B /T), the magnetization increases and circuit is called induced current. The phenomenon of producing an induced emf due to the
reaches saturation Ms. Beyond this point Ms, Curie’s law is not obeyed changes in the magnetic flux associated with a closed circuit is known as electromagnetic

Curie Weiss’s law: induction.

The Curie–Weiss law describes the magnetic susceptibility χ of a ferromagnet in the Faraday’s Experiment
paramagnetic region above the Curie point. At high temperature, Ferro magnet becomes Experiment - 1
paramagnet. The domain structure disintegrates with temperature. This transition
A coil C1 is connected to a galvanometer. A magnet is moved into or withdrawn from the
temperatureis called Curie Temperature Tc. χ = C / (T – Tc ) for temperature above Curie
temperature coil.

Observations
a) When the magnet introduced into the coil, galvanometer will deflect.

b) When magnet is withdrawn, deflection reversed.

c) Faster the movement of magnet, greater the deflection.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 14 d) When the magnet is kept stationary there is no deflection.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020

 e) When the coil moves relative to the magnet, the same effects are observed. immediately.
Experiment -2 b) When the key is released, the deflection is in the opposite direction and returns to zero.

In this experiment magnet is replaced by current loop C2` c) Deflection of galvanometer increases when an iron core is inserted into the coils along

their axis.
Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction
1) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, induced emf is produced.

2) The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.

3) The magnitude of induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic

flux through the circuit.

(–ve sign indicates that induced emf opposes the change in flux).
Steady current in the coil C2 produce a steady magnetic field.
Lenz’s law and conservation of energy
Observations
Lenz’s law gives the polarity of induced emf. This law states that the polarity of induced
a) As C2 is moved towards C1 the galvanometer shows a deflection.
emf is always such as to oppose the cause producing the change of magnetic flux.
b) As C2 is moved away the galvanometer shows opposite deflection.

c) The deflection lasts as long as the coil C2 in motion.

d) When the coil C2 is held fixed and C1 is moved, the same effect is observed.
Lenz’s law is an example for the law of conservation of energy. When the north of magnet
approaches the coil, the plane of the coil facing the magnet becomes north pole. So, there
Experiment -3
is a repulsion between magnet and the coil. Thus, work must be done against the force to
bring the magnet towards the coil.

Similarly, when north of magnet moved away, the plane of the coil facing the magnet
becomes south pole. Thus, work must be done against the force to move away from the
coil.

The mechanical work is done in moving the magnet with respect to the coil. This work is
In this experiment there is no relative motion between C1 and C2.
changed into electrical energy. Thus, energy is being transformed only.
Observation
a) When the key (K) of C2 is pressed galvanometer shows a deflection and returns to zero

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
 dA = l d x

Methods of producing induced emf

𝑑𝑥
e = Bl v ( Where v = - 𝑑𝑡 )
We know that the induced emf is given by the expression
Ф= BA cosθ This induced emf is called motional emf.
𝑑Ф
E=− Energy conservation
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 By using experiment of motional emf we shall discuss Lenz’s law in consistent with the law of
=− (𝐵𝐴 cosθ)
𝑑𝑡
conservation of energy.
Let r be the resistance of movable arm PQ of the rectangular conductor. We assume that
Hence, the induced emf can be produced by changing
the remaining arms have negligible resistance.
(i) the magnetic induction (B)
𝐸
(ii) area enclosed by the coil (A) and Induced current, 𝐼 = 𝑅

(iii) the orientation of the coil (θ) with respect to the magnetic field. Force on conductor F = BIl sinθ

Motional emf F = BIl (θ= 90 0)

Induced emf produced by changing the area of a closed circuit by the movement of the
F = B.Blv.l /R
circuit through a uniform magnetic field is known as motional emf.
Consider a closed circuit MSRN in which the conductor PQ is free to move as shown in
F = B2 l 2v /R
figure. Here ‘x’ is the length and ‘l’ is the breadth
This energy is spent mechanically in moving the loop.

P = F v = B2 l 2v /R x v

𝐵2𝑙2𝑣2
𝑃=
𝑅

Q. Derive an expression for induced emf in a rotating rod of length l, moving with uniform
angular speed ω, in magnetic field B.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Consider a conducting rod OQ of length l rotating about O at constant angular speed ω in a where L is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of self-induction or self-
plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B. inductance.
If I = 1A, Ф = L × 1, then L = Ф
Therefore, coefficient of self-induction of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux
linked with
a coil when unit current flows through it. According to laws of electromagnetic induction.

According to Faraday’s law of EMI,

The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is numerically equal to the opposing emf induced in
𝑑Ф
E=− ------------------(1)
𝑑𝑡 the coil when the rate of change of current through the coil is unity. The unit of self-
But 𝑑Ф = 𝐵𝑑𝑠 inductance is henry (H).
One henry is defined as the self-inductance of a coil in which a change in current of one
For one complete rotation, ds = π l2
ampere per second produces an opposing emf of one volt.
2
𝑑Ф = 𝐵 π l --------------------(2)
Self-inductance of a long solenoid
dt = T = 2π/ω ------------------(3)

using (2) and (3) in (1) we get Let us consider a solenoid of N turns with length l and area of cross section A. It carries a
current I. If B is the magnetic field at any point inside the solenoid, then
𝐸 = −𝐵 πl2 ω/2π
1
𝐸 = − Bl2 ω
2

Self-Induction
The phenomenon by which an opposing induced emf is produced in a coil when there is a
change in the current or magnetic flux linking to the coil is called self-induction.

Coefficient of self-induction
When a current I flow through a coil, the magnetic flux (φ) linked with the coil is proportional
to the current.
Ф α I or Ф = LI

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
 Mutual induction

Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil, there is also a change of
flux linked with the neighboring coil, producing an induced emf in the second coil. This
phenomenon of producing an induced emf in a coil due to the change in current in the other
coil is known as mutual induction.

Energy stored in an inductor

Consider an inductor of self-inductance L and I0 be the current flowing through it.

The amount of workdone to increase the current in the inductor from 0 to I0 against induced
emf is stored in the form of energy.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Coefficient of mutual induction ( Mutual Inductance ) S1 and S2 are two long solenoids each of length l. The solenoid S2 is wound closely over the
solenoid S1.N1 and N2 are the number of turns in the solenoids S1 and S2 respectively. Both
the solenoids are considered to have the same area of cross section A as they are closely
wound together. I1 is the current flowing through the solenoid S1. The magnetic field B1
produced at any point inside the solenoid S1 due to the current I1 is

The magnetic flux linked with each turn of S2 is equal to B1A.

Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the emf
induced in one coil when the rate of change of current through the other coil is unity. The
unit of coefficient of mutual induction is henry.
One henry is defined as the coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils when a
change of current of one ampere per second in one coil produces an induced emf of one volt
in the other coil.
The coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils depends on the following factors:
(i) Size and shape of the coils
(ii) Number of turns and permeability of material on which the coils are wound.
(iii) Distance between two coils.

AC generator
Mutual inductance of a pair of coils with different radii
The ac generator is a device used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
The generator was originally designed by a Yugoslav scientist Nikola Tesla.
Principle
It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.ie) whenever magnetic flux linked
with a coil changes, an emf induced in the coil. The direction of current induced is given by
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Construction Whenever, there is a change in orientation of the coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
It consists of four main parts. changes, producing an induced emf in the coil. The direction of the induced current is given
(i) Armature by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Armature is a rectangular coil consisting of a large number of turns of insulated copper wire Suppose the armature ABCD is initially in the vertical position. It is rotated in the
wound over a laminated soft iron core or ring. The soft iron core not only increases the anticlockwise direction. The side AB of the coil moves downwards, and the side DC move
magnetic flux but also serves as a support for the coil upwards. Then according to Flemings right hand rule the current induced in arm AB flows
(ii) Field magnets from B to A and in CD it flows from D to C. Thus, the current flows along DCBA in the coil. In
The necessary magnetic field is provided by permanent magnets in the case of low power the external circuit the current flows from B1 to B2.
dynamos. For high power dynamos, field is provided by electromagnet. Armature rotates On further rotation, the arm AB of the coil moves upwards, and DC moves downwards. Now
between the magnetic poles such that the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic the current in the coil flows along ABCD. In the external circuit the current flows from B 2 to
field. B1. As the rotation of the coil continues, the induced current in the external circuit keeps
(iii) Slip rings changing its direction for every half a rotation of the coil. Hence the induced current is
The ends of the armature coil are connected to two hollow metallic rings R1 and R2 called alternating in nature. As the armature completes rotations in one second, alternating current
slip rings. These rings are fixed to a shaft, to which the armature is also fixed. When the shaft of frequency ν cycles per second is produced.
rotates, the slip rings along with the armature also rotate. 𝑑Ф
The induced emf at any instant is given by e= −
𝑑𝑡
(iv) Brushes
B1 and B2 are two flexible metallic plates or carbon brushes. They provide contact with the 𝑑(𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
=−
𝑑𝑡
slip rings by keeping themselves pressed against the ring. They are used to pass on the
= - NBA (-ω sin ωt)
current from the armature to the external power line through the slip rings.
e= NBAω sin ωt
e=Eo sin ωt
The peak value of the emf, Eo = NBAω
where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the area enclosed by the coil, B is the
magnetic field and ω is the angular velocity of the coil
(i) When ωt = 0, the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field B and hence e = 0.
(ii) When ωt = π/2, the plane of the coil is parallel to B and hence e = Eo
(iii) When ωt = π, the plane of the coil is at right angle to B and hence e = 0.
(iv) When ωt = 3π/2, the plane of the coil is again parallel to B and the induced emf is e = −Eo.
(v) When ωt = 2π, the plane of the coil is again perpendicular to B and hence e = 0.

Working

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
TRANSFORMER
Transformer is an electrical device used for converting low alternating voltage into high
alternating voltage and vice versa. It transfers electric power from one circuit to another.
In a step-down transformer the number of turns in the secondary Ns is less than the number
Principle
of turns in the primary Np. (Ns < Np)
It works on the principle of mutual induction. I.e., if two coils are inductively coupled and
when current or magnetic flux is changed through one of the coils then, induced emf is
A transformer consists of primary and secondary coils insulated from each other, wound on a
produced in the neighboring coil.
soft iron core. To minimize eddy currents a laminated iron core is used.
Construction
Working and Theory
Step-up transformer
The a.c. input is applied across the primary coil. The continuously varying current in the
primary coil produces a varying magnetic flux in the primary coil, which in turn produces a
varying magnetic flux in the secondary. Hence, an induced emf is produced across the
secondary.
Let Ep and Es be the induced emf in the primary and secondary coils and Np and Ns be the
number of turns in the primary and secondary coils respectively. Since same flux links with
the primary and secondary, the emf induced per turn of the two coils must be the same.

𝑑Ф
Ep = - Np ………………….(1)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑Ф
Es = - Ns ………………….(2)
𝑑𝑡
In a step-up transformer the number of turns in the secondary Ns is greater than the number
2/ 1 gives
of turns in the primary Np. (Ns >Np)
Step-down transformer

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
 (3) Eddy current loss (Iron loss)
The varying magnetic flux produces eddy current in the core. This leads to the wastage of
energy in the form of heat. This loss is minimized by using a laminated iron core.
(4) Flux loss
The flux produced in the primary coil is not completely linked with the secondary coil due to
leakage. This results in the loss of energy. This loss can be minimized by using a shell type
core. In addition to the above losses, due to the vibration of the core, sound is produced,
which causes a loss in the energy.
Long distance power transmission
The electric power generated in a power station situated in a remote place is transmitted to

In a step-up transformer Es > Ep implying that Is < Ip. Thus, a step up transformer increases different regions for domestic and industrial use. For long distance transmission, power lines

the voltage by decreasing the current, which is in accordance with the law of conservation of are made of conducting material like Aluminium. There is always some power loss associated

energy. Similarly, a step-down transformer decreases the voltage by increasing the current. with these lines.
If I is the current through the wire and R the resistance, a considerable amount of electric

Efficiency of a transformer power I2R is dissipated as heat. Hence, the power at the receiving end will be much lesser

Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power. than the actual power generated. However, by transmitting the electrical energy at a higher
voltage, the power loss can be controlled as is evident from the following two cases.

The efficiency η = 1 (ie. 100%), only for an ideal transformer where there is no power loss.
But practically there are numerous factors leading to energy loss in a transformer and hence
the efficiency is always less than one.
Energy losses in a transformer
(1) Hysteresis loss
The repeated magnetization and demagnetization of the iron core caused by the alternating
input current, produces loss in energy called hysteresis loss. This loss can be minimized by
Therefore, if transmission is done at low voltage without using a transformer, thick wires
using a core with a material having the least hysteresis loss.
have to be used. Hence cost of transmission will increase, further stronger poles would be
(2) Copper loss
needed to support the thicker wires.
The current flowing through the primary and secondary windings lead to Joule heating effect.
But if transmission is done at high voltage using a step-up transformer. The dissipation of
Hence some energy is lost in the form of heat. Thick wires with considerably low resistance
energy( H= I2RT) is much reduced and the transmission becomes more economical.
are used to minimize this loss.
*****************************************************************************

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
 M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
Notes 2024- 2025

Section : Boys/Girls Date: 16/09/2024

Class & Div :XII (All Divisions) Subject: Physics
Lesson /Topic : Alternating current
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F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 Page 3 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 Page 4
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F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 Page 7 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 Page 8
 Wattless current: The component of current differing in phase π/2 relative to voltage,is called
wattless current

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 Page 9 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 Page 10
 M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
Notes 2024- 2025
Section :Boys & Girls Date :24.09.2023
18.09.2024

Class &Div: XII(All Divisions) Subject: Physics

Lesson / Topic: Electromagnetic Waves
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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The waves propagating in space through electric and magnetic fields verifying in space and time
simultaneously are called electromagnetic waves.
ORIGIN OF E.M WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges.  Electric field and magnetic field in an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other

SOURCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES and to the direction of propagation.

 Neither stationary charge nor charges in uniform motion can be sources of electromagnetic  The figure shows a typical example of a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along z axis.
waves.  The electric field is along x axis and the magnetic field is along y axis given by

 An oscillating charge is an example of accelerating charge. Ex = Eo sin (kz -ωt)

 An oscillating charge is an example of accelerating charge. By = Bo sin (kz – ωt)

2π 2π
 A charge oscillating with some frequency produces an oscillating electric field in free space where k = λ
and ω = 𝑇
z direction of propagation
which in turn produces an oscillating magnetic field.
 The oscillating electric and magnetic fields regenerate each other causing propagation of waves CHARACTERISTICS OF EM WAVES
through space. 1. The magnitude of the peak values of electric and magnetic fields in EM wave is related as
 The frequency of this wave is equal to the frequency of oscillation of the charge.
 The energy associated with the propagation of waves comes at the expense of the energy of the where E0is the amplitude of electric field and B0is the amplitude of magnetic field.
source.
2. The direction of propagation of EM wave is perpendicular to both electric field and magnetic
NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
fields.
3. EM wave is produced by accelerated charges.
4. It does not require any material medium for propagation.
5. In free space EM waves travel with speed

= 3 x 108 m/s
where µ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space and ℰ0 is the electric permittivity of free
space.

6. It obeys the principle of superposition.

7. The energy of EM waves is divided equally between electric and magnetic field vectors.

F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020 1 F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020 2
 8. EM waves are transverse in nature.
9. Any optical phenomenon is governed by electric vectors. Hence, electric vector is also known
as light vector.
10. They transfer as well as momentum to the objects kept in their path.
11. EM waves of different wavelengths travel at the same speed in vacuum, but travel with
different speeds in each medium.
12. Speed of EM waves in a medium is given by

MICROWAVES ( Short wavelength and Radio waves)

where µ and ℰ are the permeability and permittivity of the medium respectively.  Microwaves with frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range , are produced by special vacuum
tubes called klystrons , magnetrons and gunn diodes.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM  Due to their short wavelength, they are suitable for the radar system used in aircraft navigation.
 The electromagnetic waves have continuous wavelengths from short gamma rays to long radio  Radar provides the basis for the speed guns to time fast balls; tennis serves and automobiles.
waves.  Domestic application – microwave ovens the frequency of the microwave is selected to
 The orderly distribution of EM waves is called electromagnetic spectrum. match the resonant frequency of water molecules so that energy from the waves is transferred
 EM spectrum in ascending order of frequency (descending order of wavelength) is given as efficiently to the kinetic energy of the molecules.
R – radio waves
M- micro waves INFRARED WAVES
I - infrared waves Increasing order of frequency.  Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
V – visible light  Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as heat waves.
U – ultraviolet rays  Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.
X – x rays  These rays play a major role in maintaining earth’s warmth or average temperature through the
G – gamma rays greenhouse effect.
 Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites, both for military purposes and to observe the
RADIO WAVES growth of crops.
 Radio waves are produced by accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires.  Semiconductor light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used in remote switches of household
 Used in radio and television communications systems. electronic systems.
 The frequency range is from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.
 The AM (amplitude modulated) band is from 530 kHz to 1710 kHz
 Higher frequencies up to 54 MHz are used for short wave bands.
 TV waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz
 The FM (frequency modulated) radio band extends from 88 MHz to 108 MHz
 Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit voice communication in the ultrahigh frequency.
(UHF) band.

4
F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020 3 F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020
 VISIBLE RAYS X-RAYS
 Visible rays are the most familiar form of EM waves.  Lies beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
 It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye.  Convers wavelengths from 10-8m (10 nm) down to 10-13m(10-4 nm)
 It’s wavelength range is from 700 nm to 400 nm.  One common way to generate-rays is to bombard a metal target by high energy electrons.
 Our eyes are sensitive to this range of wavelengths.  X Rays are used as diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer.
 Different animals are sensitive to different range of wavelengths. For example, snakes can
detect infrared waves, and the visible range of many insects extends well into the ultraviolet.

GAMMA-RAYS
 Gamma rays has the largest penetrating power
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
 They lie in the upper frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum and have wavelengths
 It’s wavelengths ranging from about 400 nm to 0.6 nm.
of from about 10-10m to less than 10-14 m
 UV radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot bodies.
 This high frequency radiation is produced in nuclear reactions and also emitted by radioactive
 The sun is an important source of UV rays.
nuclei.
 UV rays are absorbed by ozone layer and thereby stopping them to reach the earth.
 They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.
 Exposure to UV rays induces the production of melanin, causing tanning of the skin.
 UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass.
Displacement current and Maxwell’s correction to Ampere's circuital law
 Welders wear special glass goggles with glass windows to protect their eyes from large amount
To understand how the changing electric field induces magnetic field, let us consider a situation
of UV rays produced by welding arcs.
of charging a parallel plate capacitor which contains non−conducting medium between the
 UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
plates.
 UV rays can be focused into very narrow beams for high precision application such as
Let a time dependent current Ic, called conduction current, be passed through the wire to charge
LASIK(Laser Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis) eye surgery.
the capacitor.

F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020 5 F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020 6
 REPRESENTATION OF DIFFERENT E.M RADIATIONS WITH THEIR
Therefore, using Ampere's circuital law
CHARACTERISTICS

Applying Ampere's circuital law to the loop enclosing surface S2 ,

The change in electric flux is

where Id is known as displacement current. The displacement current can be defined as the
current which comes into play in the region in which the electric field and the electric flux **********************************THE END************************************
are changing with time. In other words, whenever the change in electric field takes place,
displacement current is produced. Maxwell modified Ampere's law as

where I = Ic + Id which means the total current enclosed by the surface is sum of conduction
current and displacement current. When a constant current is applied, displacement current I d =
0 and hence Ic = I. Between the plates, the conduction current Ic = 0 and hence Id = I.

8
F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020 7 F061,Rev 01,Dated 10th March 2020
 Image formed by a concave mirror
M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
Notes 2022 - 2023
Section : Boys & Girls Date : 02-10-2022
Class & Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
Lesson / Topic: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
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Reflection of light
The phenomenon of bouncing back of light after hitting a polished surface is called the reflection of light.

Laws of Reflection

 The angle of reflection (i.e., the angle between reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface or the
mirror) equals the angle of incidence (angle between incident ray and the normal).
 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence lie in the
same plane
Reflection by Spherical mirrors

There are two types of spherical mirrors, namely

1) Concave mirror 2) Convex mirror

Concave Mirror Convex mirror

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
1 2
Image formed by a convex mirror  The distances measured in the same direction as the incident light are taken as positive and those measured
in the direction opposite to the direction of incident light are taken as negative.
 The heights measured upwards with respect to x-axis and normal to the principal axis (x-axis) of the
mirrors are taken as positive. The heights measured downwards are taken as negative.

Relation between focal length (f) and Radius of curvature (R)

i) For a Concave Mirror:-

From the diagram, Triangle MNF,

MN
tan2𝜃 =
NF

Since 𝜃 is very small, tan2𝜃 ≈ 2𝜃, Also NF ≈ PF

Sign conventions for a Spherical mirror
MN
2𝜃 = …………………..(1)
PF

From the triangle MNC,

MN
tan𝜃 =
NC

Since 𝜃 is very small, tan𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, Also NC ≈ PC

MN
𝜃= …………………..(2)
PC

Substitute eqn (2) in eqn (1)

MN MN
 All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror 2 =
PC PF

2 1
=
PC PF
th
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According to the sign convention, PC= - R & PF = -f, then 2 1
=
PC PF
2 1
= According to the sign convention, PC= - R & PF = -f, then
−R −f

2 1
R =
f= R f
2

ii) For a convex mirror:- R

f=
2

Mirror Formula

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗

u …. Object distance
v …..Image distance
f ……Focal length

From the diagram, Triangle MNF, i) For a Concave Mirror:-

MN
tan2𝜃 =
NF

Since 𝜃 is very small, tan2𝜃 ≈ 2𝜃 , Also NF ≈ PF

MN
2𝜃 = …………………..(1)
PF

From the triangle MNC,

MN
tan𝜃 =
NC

Since 𝜃 is very small, tan𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, Also NC ≈ PC

MN From the diagram,

𝜃= …………………..(2)
PC
∆𝐴𝐵𝑃 & ∆AIBIP are similar
Substitute eqn (2) in eqn (1)
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴
MN MN = …………(1)
2 = 𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝑃𝐴𝐼
PC PF
Again,
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∆𝑁𝑀𝐹 & ∆AIBIF are similar ii) For a convex mirror:-
𝑁𝑀 𝑁𝐹
=
𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝐹𝐴𝐼

But, NM ≈AB & NF ≈ PF, Also FAI = PAI- PF, Then

𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
= ……………(2)
𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝑃𝐴𝐼 −𝑃𝐹

From eqn (1) and (2)

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹
=
𝑃𝐴𝐼 𝑃𝐴𝐼 −𝑃𝐹

According to sign conventions,

From the diagram,
PA = -u, PAI = -v, PF = -f, then
∆𝐴𝐵𝑃 & ∆AIBIP are similar
−𝑢 −𝑓
=
−𝑣 −𝑣+𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴
= …………(1)
𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝑃𝐴𝐼
𝑢 −𝑓
=
𝑣 𝑓−𝑣 Again,

-uv+ uf = -vf ∆𝑁𝑀𝐹 & ∆AIBIF are similar

Now dividing throughout by uvf on both sides 𝑁𝑀 𝑁𝐹

=
𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝐹𝐴𝐼
−𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑓 −𝑣𝑓
+ =- But, NM ≈AB & NF ≈ PF, Also FAI = 𝑃𝐹 − 𝑃𝐴𝐼 , Then
𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓

−1 1 −1 𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
+ = = ……………(2)
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝑃𝐹−𝑃𝐴𝐼

From eqn (1) and (2)

1 1 1 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹
= + =
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 𝑃𝐴𝐼 𝑃𝐹−𝑃𝐴𝐼

According to sign conventions,

This relation is known as the mirror equation. PA = -u, PAI = +v, PF = +f, then

−𝑢 𝑓
=
−𝑣 𝑓−𝑣

-uv+ uv = vf

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Now dividing throughout by uvf on both sides Laws of Refraction
−𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑣 𝑣𝑓 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
+ =-
𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓 𝑢𝑣𝑓 plane.
−1 1 1 Snell’s law:-
+ =
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant.
Now

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

This relation is known as the mirror equation.

Magnification (m) Where n21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.

The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object are called magnification.

𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒

m= Where n1- absolute refractive index of the first medium and n2- absolute refractive index of the second medium.
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
Refractive index
• The refractive index of a medium depends on
ℎ𝑖 𝑣
m= =- • Nature of the pair of medium
ℎ𝑜 𝑢
• Wavelength of light
Relative refractive index
It is the ratio of the refractive index of one medium with respect to another medium.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
• The phenomenon of change in path of light as it goes from one medium to another is called refraction.

Also,
𝑛2
𝑛21 =
𝑛1
Refractive index is independent of the angle of incidence. A medium having larger value of refractive index is
called optically denser medium. A medium having smaller value of refractive index is called optically rarer
medium

Absolute refractive index

The ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in a medium is called absolute refractive index.

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Where C - velocity of light in vacuum, and V- Velocity of light in the medium.
When light enters from a rarer medium to denser medium, the refracted ray bends towards the normal.When light
enters from a denser medium to rarer medium, the refracted ray bends away from the normal.

According to Snell’s law,

sin 𝑖
𝑛21 = ………………………..(1)
Refractive index has no unit sin 𝑟

Refraction through a glass slab - Lateral shift For the reflected ray,
sin 𝑟
For a rectangular slab, refraction takes place at two interfaces (air-glass and glass-air). When a light ray enters a 𝑛12 = ………………………..(2)
sin 𝑖
glass slab it undergoes lateral displacement/ shift with respect to the incident ray. The perpendicular distance
Multiplying eqn (1) and eqn (2)
between the incident ray and the emergent ray, when the light is incident obliquely on a parallel sided refracting
sin 𝑖 sin 𝑟
slab is called lateral shift. x = 𝑛21 x 𝑛12
sin 𝑟 sin 𝑖

Then, 𝑛21 x 𝑛12 = 1 so,

1
𝑛21 =
𝑛12
Applications of refraction
1. Apparent depth
If an object in a denser medium is viewed from a rarer medium the image appears to be raised towards the surface.
The bottom of a tank filled with water appears to be raised due to refraction.

Principle of reversibility of light

The refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium is equal to the reciprocal of the refractive
index of first medium with respect to the second medium.

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For viewing near the normal direction • When light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium at the interface, it is partly reflected back
into the same medium and partly refracted to the second medium. This reflection is called the internal
reflection.
• When a ray of light enters from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.
2. Apparent position of sun
The sun is visible a little before the actual sunrise and until a little after the actual sunset due to refraction of light • As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases.

through the atmosphere. Time difference between actual sunset and apparent sunset is about 2 minutes. • For a particular angle of incidence the angle of refraction becomes 900.
• If the angle of incidence is further increased the ray gets totally reflected into the same medium.
• This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Conditions for total internal reflection:-
• The light ray should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.
Critical Angle:-
• It is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction becomes 900.

As we go up, the density of air in the atmosphere continuously decreases, and thus the light coming from the
CRITICAL ANGLE OF SOME TRANSPARENT MEDIA
sun undergoes refraction. Thus we see the sun at an apparent position raised above the horizon. This is the
reason for early sunrise and delayed sunset.
3. Twinkling of stars
The light rays coming from the sun undergo refraction and hence the star is viewed at the apparent position.
As the density of air in the atmosphere continuously changes, the apparent position also changes continuously.
Thus the star appears to be twinkling.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T I R) Relation connecting refractive index and critical angle
When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium, if the angle of incidence is greater than the critical
angle it gets totally reflected in to the same medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

By Snell’s law

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Here the ray goes from denser to rarer medium • During a hot summer day, a distant patch of road appears to be wet due to mirage.
• When i = iC , r =900, thus 2. Brilliance of Diamond
• Brilliance of diamond is due to total internal reflection.
• The critical angle for diamond-air interface (≅ 24.4°) is very small, therefore once light enters a diamond;
undergo total internal reflection inside it.
• By cutting the diamond suitably, multiple total internal reflections can be made to occur.
3. Optical fibres

If the rarer medium is air, n1= 1, and let n2= n, then

Optical fibre consists of a core and cladding.

• The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding.
• When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it undergoes repeated
Applications of Total Internal Reflection
total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out at the other end.
1. Mirage
• Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the
• Mirage is due to total internal reflection.
light signal.
• Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily travel along its length.
Uses of Optical fibres
• Optical fibres are used as a light pipe for visual examination of internal organs.
• Optical fibres are used to carry electrical signals which are converted to light.
4. Total reflecting prisms
• Total reflecting prisms are designed to bent light or to invert images without changing their size, based on total
internal reflection.

In hot sunny days the layer of air in contact with sand in a desert (or tar road), becomes hot and rarer.
• The upper layers are comparatively cooler and denser.
• Therefore the ray of light coming down from a distant object like a tree is travelling from a denser medium to a
rarer medium and it suffers total internal reflection.
• Thus for an observer the image of a distant object is seen inverted.
• This makes the illusion that the tree is standing near a pool of water. This phenomenon is called mirage.

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Total reflecting prisms are used in periscopes. But NO ≈ 𝑃𝑂 & NC ≈ 𝑃𝐶, so
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
i= + …………………(2)
Expression for refraction at a convex surface 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶

Consider an object O placed in a medium of refractive index n1 forms an image at I in a medium of refractive
From ∆MCI
index n2. C is the centre of curvature and R is the radius of curvature of the spherical surface. Let u be the object 𝛾=𝑟+ 𝛽
distance and v be the image distance.
𝑟= 𝛾− 𝛽
Assumptions:
 The aperture of spherical refracting surface is very small. Since 𝛾 & 𝛽 are very small,

 The object is point sized. 𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛽

 The angles made by the incident ray and the refracted ray with the principle axis are very small.
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
r = −
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐼
But NC ≈ 𝑃𝐶 & NI ≈ 𝑃𝐼, so
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
r = − …………………………..(3)
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

Substitute eqn (2) & eqn (3) in eqn(1),

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
n1[ + ] = n2 [ − ]
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

1 1 1 1
n1[ + ] = n2 [ − ]
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

But PO = -u, PC = R, and PI = v, then

According to Snell’s law, 1 1 1 1
n1[ + ] = n2 [ − ]
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2 −𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
=𝑛
1 −𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
+ = −
For small angles, sin i ≈ i & sin r ≈ r, then 𝑢 𝑅 𝑅 𝑣

𝑖 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1
𝑟
= 𝑛2 − = −
1 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅 𝑅

n1 i = n2 r……………….(1) 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
− =
From ∆OMC 𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

i=𝛼+𝛾
This is the equation of refraction at convex surface.
Since 𝛼 & 𝛾 are very small,
i = tan 𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛾 Note:-
Dividing the above equation by n1 on both sides,
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
i= +
𝑁𝑂 𝑁𝐶
th
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 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛
⁄𝑛1 ⁄𝑛1 ⁄𝑛1 − 1⁄𝑛1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
For refraction at the surface ADC
𝒏 𝟏 𝒏−𝟏
− = • Light ray travels from n2 to n1. Here I1 is the object and II is the image and
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

Refraction by a lens - Lens maker’s formula

Here R2 is the radius of curvature of ADC
Consider a double convex lens made of two refracting faces ABC and ADC of refractive index n2. Let R1 and R2
be the radii of curvature for the two refracting faces. A point object O placed on the principal axis, the image
formed by the face ABC is II. This image will act as virtual object for the second surface ADC.
Let u be the object distance and v be the final image distance.

Assumptions:
 The lens is considered to be thin. Adding equation 1 and 2, we get
 The object is point sized.
 Aperture of the lens is very small.

Dividing by n1

If the first medium is air n1 = 1 and, let n2= n, then

The image formation has two steps:
The first refracting surface forms the image I1 of the object O. The image formed by the first refracting surface
acts as the virtual object for the second refracting surface and the final image is formed at I.
We have the curved surface formula

If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at the principal focus. Thus if u = ∞, v = f, then equation 4

For refraction at the surface ABC becomes

• Light ray travels from n1 to n2 and O is the object and I is the image.
1

Here R1 is the radius of curvature of ABC. Thus Thus the lens maker’s formula is given by

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 𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝐹𝐵𝐼
=
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐹
But, OC=AB
𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝐹𝐵𝐼
Hence, = ………………………(2)
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐹
Note:- Equating eq (1) and (2), we get
We have from eqn 4, 𝑂𝐵𝐼 𝐹𝐵𝐼
=
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐹

But, FB = OBI – OF
I

And the lens maker’s formula

𝑂𝐵𝐼 𝑂𝐵𝐼 – 𝑂𝐹
=
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐹

Substituting the sign convention, we get

Then from eqn (4) and eqn (5) OB = -u, OB’ = v and OF = f
Then
𝒗 𝒗−𝒇
This equation is the thin lens formula. The formula is valid for both convex as well as concave lenses and for −𝒖
= 𝒇
both real and virtual images. vf = −uv + uf or uv = uf − vf
Thin lens formula / Lens Equation / Law of distances for a lens. Dividing both the sides by uvf, we get
Consider a convex lens with an optical center O. Let F be the principle focus and f be the focal length. An object 𝒖𝒗 𝒖𝒗 𝒖𝒗
= -
AB is held perpendicular to the principal axis at a distance beyond the focal length of the lens. A real, inverted 𝒖𝒗𝒇 𝒖𝒗𝒇 𝒖𝒗𝒇

and magnified image AIBI is formed as shown in the figure.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= -
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

The above equation is known as the Lens formula.

Linear magnification of a lens

Magnification (m) produced by a lens is defined, as the ratio of the size of the image to that of the object.

From the given figure, we notice that △ABO and △A’B’O are similar.
Therefore,
𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝑂𝐵𝐼
= ……………………..(1)
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐵
Similarly, △A’B’F and △OCF are similar, hence

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The value of m is negative for real images and positive for virtual images.
Power of a lens
The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam of light
falling at unit distant from the optical centre.
For the image formed by the first lens A,

For the image formed by the second lens B,

Adding eqn (1) & eqn (2)

Let f be the focal length of the combination, then

For small angles tan 𝛿 ≈ 𝛿 , then

From eqn (3) and eqn (4)

So, Power of a lens is the reciprocal of focal length expressed in metre.
Power of a lens is a measure of the convergence or divergence, which a lens introduces in the light falling on it.

If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2, f3,... are in contact, the effective focal length of their combination is
given by
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D).
Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens.
Combination of thin lenses in contact In terms of power, it can be written as
Consider two lenses A and B of focal length f1 and f2 placed in contact with each other. Let the object be placed
at a point O beyond the focus of the first lens A. The first lens produces an image at I1. Since image I1 is real, it
The total magnification m of the combination is a product of magnification (m1, m2, m3,...) of individual lenses
serves as a virtual object for the second lens B, producing the final image at I.

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Combination of lenses is commonly used in designing lenses for cameras, microscopes, telescopes and other i=e and r1 =r2 = r
optical instruments. from eqn (3)
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM r + r =A, 2r = A
Consider a ray of light is passing through a triangular prism ABC. The angles of incidence and refraction at the 𝐴
r = ……………….(5)
first face AB are i and r1, while the angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second face AC is r2 and the angle 2

of refraction or emergence e. The angle between the emergent ray RS and the direction of the incident ray PQ is from eqn (5)
called the angle of deviation𝛿. 𝑨 + 𝐷𝑚 = 𝒊 + 𝒊 = 𝟐𝒊

𝑨+ 𝑫𝒎
i= ……………………….(6)
𝟐

According to snell’s law,

sin 𝑖
n=
sin 𝑟

𝐴+ 𝐷𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛[ ]
2
n= 𝐴
sin[ ]
2

From the quadrilateral AQNR, two of the angles (at the vertices Q and R) are right angles. Therefore, the sum
Prism formula for a small angled prism
of the other angles of the quadrilateral is 180º. So
For a small angle prism, or a thin prism, Dm is also very small, then
𝐴+ 𝐷𝑚 𝐴+ 𝐷𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛[ ] [ ]
From the triangle QNR, 2 2
n= 𝐴 = 𝐴
sin[ ] [ ]
2 2
From eqn (1) & eqn (2) Therefore
𝐴+ 𝐷𝑚
So,
n = 𝐴
nA = A + 𝐷𝑚
Again from ∆𝑄𝑀𝑅,
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑛𝐴 − 𝐴
Dm = A(n - 1)
𝜹 = 𝒊 + 𝒆 − (𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 )

𝑨 + 𝜹 = 𝒊 + 𝒆……………..(4) Plot of i verses 𝛿 (i-d Curve)

If 𝜹 = Dm , then the refracted ray is parallel to the base of the prism.then It is the plot between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence.
th
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Angle of minimum deviation (D):-
The angle of deviation for which the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base is called angle of
minimum deviation.

Cause of dispersion:-
Different colours of light suffer different refraction due to their different wavelengths. The refractive index of
the material of the prism is related to the wavelength of light by a formula known as “Cauchy’s Formula”.
𝑏 𝑐
DISPERSION BY A PRISM n=a+ + ………………..etc
𝜆2 𝜆4
The phenomenon of splitting of light into its component colours is known as dispersion. The pattern of colour
where a, b, c are constants
components of light is called the spectrum of light.
Since wave length of violet light is less than that of red, so refractive index for violet is more than that of red.

ie, nv > nr
For small angled prism, 𝛿 = A(n - 1), then

𝛿𝑣 > 𝛿𝑟
So, violet light deviates more than red.
Dispersive medium
The medium in which the different colours of light travel with different velocities is called a dispersive medium.
Thick lenses could be assumed as made of many prisms, therefore, thick lenses show chromatic aberration due to Eg :- Glass
dispersion of light. Non-Dispersive medium
• When white light is passed through a prism, it splits into its seven component colors (VIBGYOR). The medium in which all colours travel with the same speed is called nondispersive medium.
• If we place a second prism in an inverted position, close to the first prism, the second prism recombines the Eg:- vacuum
colors and we get white light. Chromatic abberation
The inability of a lens to focus all wave length to a single point is called chromatic aberration.
Blue color of the sky, clouds appears in white and the sun appears in red colour during sunrise and sunset are due
to scattering of light.

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 But 𝑄𝐴𝐼 = AB,
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴𝐼
Simple Microscope m= X
𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵
Microscope is used to get magnified images of near objects. It consists of a convex lens of small focal length. 𝑂𝐴𝐼
It is based upon the fact that an object placed between the optical centre and the focus of a convex lens, gives a
m=
𝑂𝐴
virtual, erect and enlarged image on the same side of the lens. 𝐼
But 𝑂𝐴 = -v, 𝑂𝐴= -u
𝑣
m=
𝑢
…………………… (1)

1) Final image formed at near point:- From thin lens formula,

1 1 1
𝑓
=𝑣−𝑢
1 1 1
= − 𝑓…………………(2)
𝑢 𝑣
Substitute eqn (2) in eqn (1), then
1 1
m = v [𝑣 − 𝑓 ]
𝑣
m = 1-
𝑓
But v = -D
𝐷
m = 1+
𝑓
Consider a convex lens of focal length f. let AB be an object which lies between the optical centre O and the focus
2) Final image formed at infinity:-
F of the lens. Let AIBI be the image formed, which is virtual erect and magnified.
Magnifying Power:- It is defined as the ratio of angle subtended by the image at the eye to the angle subtended
by the object at the eye when both are placed at the least distance of distinct vision.
ie,
𝛽
m=𝛼
For smaller values of 𝛼 and 𝛽,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
m=
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴𝐼
m= X
𝑂𝐴 𝑄𝐴𝐼
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29 30
 𝛽 Principle:-
m=
𝛼 When a small object is placed between fo and 2fo of the objective lens, a real, inverted and magnified image is
For smaller values of 𝛼 and 𝛽, formed on the other side of this lens. This image AIBI acts as the object for the eye piece lens. The distance
between the objective and eye piece is adjusted, then the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
m = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 vision. The final image produced by this lens is virtual, inverted and highly magnified.
Construction:-
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴𝐼
m= X It consists of two lenses, an objective of short focal length and short aperture and an eye piece of large focal length
𝑂𝐴 𝑄𝐴𝐼
But 𝑄𝐴𝐼 = AB, and large aperture. The two lenses are placed co-axially at the two ends of a tube.

𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴𝐼 Working:-
m= X
The object AB placed between fo and 2fo produces an inverted image AIBI. This image will be the object for eye
𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵
𝑂𝐴𝐼 piece and a virtual and enlarged image formed as shown in figure.
m=
𝑂𝐴 Final image formed at near point:
But 𝑂𝐴𝐼 = -D, 𝑂𝐴= -f Magnifying Power,
𝛽
m=𝛼
𝐷
m=
𝑓 For smaller values of 𝛼 and 𝛽,
Limitation of simple microscope:- 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
• A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification (≤ 9)
m = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
Compound microscope
𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝑄
• Compound microscope consists of two convex lenses objective and eye piece. The focal length and aperture of But, tan 𝛼 = and
𝑂𝐼 𝐴𝐼𝐼
objective is less than those of eye piece. It is used to see extremely small objects.
𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝐵 𝐼𝐼
tan 𝛽 =
𝑂𝐼 𝐴𝐼𝐼

then,
𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝐵 𝐼𝐼 𝑂𝐼 𝐴𝐼𝐼
m= X
𝑂𝐼 𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝑄

But 𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝑄 = AB
𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝐵 𝐼𝐼
m=
𝐴𝐵
Multiplying & dividing by 𝐴𝐼 𝐵 𝐼
𝐴𝐼𝐼 𝐵 𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐼 𝐵 𝐼
m= X
𝐴𝐼 𝐵 𝐼 𝐴𝐵
F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
31 32
The total magnification of the combination of objective and eye piece is given by

m = mo x me………………….(1)
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
But mo = and me = 1+
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Then eqn (1) becomes

𝑣𝑜 𝐷
m=
𝑢𝑜
(1 + 𝑓𝑒
)
If 𝑢𝑜 ≈ -fo and 𝑣𝑜 ≈ 𝐿 then
−𝐿 𝐷
m=
𝑓𝑜
(1 + 𝑓𝑒
)
Special case:-
If final image is formed at infinity
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
mo = and me = 2. Final image is formed at infinity (Normal adjustment)
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
m=
𝑢𝑜
(𝑓 )
𝑒

If 𝑣𝑜 ≈ 𝐿 and 𝑢𝑜 ≈ -fo, then

−𝐿 𝐷
m=
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Telescope
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects. The objective has a large focal length
and a much larger aperture than the eyepiece. Refracting telescopes can be used both for terrestrial and
astronomical observations. Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real and inverted image is formed
at its focus (Fo). The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image with respect to the object.
1. Final image at the near point (least distance of distinct vision)

Magnifying Power,

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33 34
 𝛽
m=
𝛼
For smaller values of 𝛼 and 𝛽,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
m = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
But from the figure,
𝐴𝐵
tan 𝛽 =
𝑂𝐼 𝐴
𝐴𝐵
tan 𝛼 = The advantages of a reflecting type telescope
𝑂𝐴
• There is no chromatic aberration in a mirror.
Then,
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴 • If a parabolic mirror is chosen as the objective, spherical aberration can be removed.
m= X
• Mechanical support is much less of a problem since a mirror weighs less.
𝑂𝐼 𝐴 𝐴𝐵
I
But OA = fo and O A = -fe , then
𝑓𝑜
m= IMPORTANT FORMULAE TO REMEMBER:
−𝑓𝑒
sin 𝑖
𝑓𝑜  Snell’s law:- 𝑛21 =
m= - sin 𝑟
𝑓𝑒
 Absolute refractive index:

Length of the telescope, L = f o + fe  Relation connecting refractive index and critical angle:
Nature of final image:-
• The final image is enlarged, inverted and virtual with respect to the object.
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
Disadvantages of refracting telescope:-  Expression for refraction at a convex surface: − =
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
• In refracting telescopes, to get better resolving power objective lens of large aperture is needed.
• Big lenses are very heavy and therefore, difficult to support by their edges.
It is difficult and expensive to make such large sized lenses.  Lens maker’s formula:
• Chromatic aberration is a main defect in a lens.
Reflecting telescopes
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
In reflecting type telescopes, a concave mirror is used as objective instead of convex lens. The light from the  Thin lens formula: = -
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
object is reflected by the concave mirror to the secondary mirror, which again reflects the light into the eyepiece.
This type of reflecting telescope is known as cassegrain telescope. Linear magnification of a lens:

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35 36
 M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
 Power of a lens: Notes 2023- 2024

Section : Boys & Girls Date : 15.10.2023

𝐴+ 𝐷𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛[ ]
2 Class &Div. : XII (All Divisions) Subject: Physics
 Prism formula: n= 𝐴
sin[ ] Lesson / Topic: WAVE OPTICS
2
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 Prism formula for a small angled prism: Dm = A(n - 1) WAVE OPTICS

INTRODUCTION
1
 Rayleigh’s scattering law: Is 𝛼 4
Wave optics deals with the wave characteristics of light. With the help of wave optics, we are going to
𝜆 learn in detail the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization. Even the law of reflection
and refraction are proved only with the help of wave optics. Though light propagates as a wave, its
Simple Microscope
direction of propagation is still represented as a ray.
𝐷 Christian Huygens proposed that light energy travels from one place to the other in the form of a wave
 Final image formed at near point:- m = 1+
𝑓 motion. This chapter deals with various phenomena related to the wave nature of light.
WAVE FRONT
𝐷
 Final image formed at infinity:- m= The locus (surface) or envelope of all the particles of the medium which at any instant are vibrating in
𝑓
the same phase is called a wave front.
Compound microscope i.e A wave front is a surface of constant phase.
If we drop a small stone in a calm pool of water, then on observing the pattern, we can see concentric
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
 Final image formed at near point: m=
𝑢𝑜
(1 + 𝑓
) circular rings or ripples on the surface of the water which grow as the disturbance travels. The circular
𝑒
rings on the water surface are points where the particles of the water with constant or zero phase
−𝐿 𝐷 difference. Similarly, if we consider a light source, the velocity of light waves in all directions is the
 Final image formed at infinity: m=
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 same. Therefore, the disturbance reaches all points which are at the same distance from the source at the
same time.
Telescope

𝑓𝑜
 Final image formed at infinity: m= -
𝑓𝑒

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37

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020

An example of wave propagation is the spreading of circular ripples on the surface of still water from a Let AB be the wavefront at a time, t = 0. According to Huygens’ principle, every point on AB acts as a
point at which a stone is dropped. The molecules or particles of water are moving only up and down source of secondary wavelet which travels with the speed of the wave (speed of light c). To find the
(oscillate) when a ripple passes out that part. All these particles on the circular ripple are in the same position of the wavefront after a time t, circles of radius equal to ct are drawn with points P, Q, R ... etc.,
phase of vibration as they are all at the same distance from the center. The ripple represents a wave front as centers on AB. The tangent or forward envelope A’ B′ of the small circles is the new wavefront at
as shown in Figure. The wave front is always perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the that instant. The wavefront A’ B′ will be a spherical wavefront from a point object which is at a finite
wave. distance and it is a plane wavefront if the source of light is at a large distance (infinity) as shown in
TYPES OF WAVEFRONTS figure.
The shape of a wavefront observed at a point depends on the shape of the source and also the distance There is one shortcoming in the above Huygens’ construction for propagation of a wavefront. It could
at which the source is located. not explain the absence of back wave which also arises in the above construction. According to
 A point source located at a finite distance gives spherical wavefronts. electromagnetic wave theory, the back wave is ruled out inherently. However, Huygens’ construction
 An extended (or) line source at finite distance gives cylindrical wavefronts. diagrammatically explains the propagation of the wavefront.
 The plane wavefronts are received from any source that is located at infinity as shown in Figure.
PROOF FOR LAWS OF REFLECTION USING HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE

HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
Huygens’s wave theory could give the position and shape of a wave front at any time from its initial
 Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN.
position into the same or in any other medium. According to Huygen’s Principle:
 If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if τ represents the time taken by the
 Every Point on a wave front act as a source of secondary disturbance called secondary wavelets and
wavefront to advance from the point B to C then the distance BC = vτ.
these spread in all directions with the speed of the light.
 In order to construct the reflected wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius vτ from the point A as
 A common tangent in the forward direction drawn to all these secondary wavelets gives the position shown in Fig.
and shape of the new wave fronts called as secondary wavefront.  Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from point C to this sphere.
 Obviously, AE = BC = vτ
 Since triangles EAC and BAC are congruent, the angles i and r would be equal. This is the law
of reflection.
 Also, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie on the
same plane.
Hence laws of reflection of light are proved using Huygen’s theory.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
PROOF FOR LAWS OF REFLECTION USING HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE (b) Refraction of a plane wavefront from a denser to a rarer medium.
(a) Refraction of a plane wavefront from a rarer to a denser medium. We now consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium, i.e., v2 > v1. Proceeding in an
exactly similar manner we can construct a refracted wavefront as shown in Fig.

Refraction of a plane wave by (a) a thin prism, (b) a convex lens. (c) Reflection of a plane wave by a
concave mirror.
 Let AB be an incident wavefront making an angle i as shown in fig.
 Let v1 and v2 represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively and let τ
be the time taken by the wavefront to travel the distance BC.
 Thus, BC = v1 τ
 To determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius v2τ from the point
A.
 Let CE represent a tangent plane drawn from point C on to the sphere.
 Then, AE = v2 τ and CE would represent the refracted wavefront.
 If we now consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain.
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐸
sin i = and sin r =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
sin 𝑖 𝐵𝐶 𝑣1
⸫ = = =n INTERFERENCE
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐸 𝑣2
This is Snell’s law of refraction. The phenomenon of addition or superposition of two light waves which produces an increase in intensity
 Also, the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, all lie on the at some points and decrease in intensity at some other points is called interference of light. i.e
same plane. Interference is the phenomenon of nonuniform distribution of energy in a medium due to superposition
Hence laws of refraction are proved by using Huygen’s principle. of two light waves.
Coherent sources
Two light sources are said to be coherent if they emit continuous waves of same amplitude, same
frequency or wavelength and should be in phase or have a constant phase difference.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Note:
 Coherence is a property of waves that enables to obtain stationary interference patterns.
 Two independent monochromatic sources can never be coherent, because they may emit waves
of same frequency and same amplitude, but not with same phase. This is because, atoms while
emitting light, produce change in phase due to thermal vibrations. Hence, these sources are said
to be incoherent sources.
Phase difference and path difference
Phase is the angular position of a vibration. As a wave progresses, there is a relation between the phase
of the vibration and the path travelled by the wave. One can express the phase in terms of path and vice
versa. In the path of the wave, one wavelength λ corresponds to a phase of 2π as shown in Figure 6.53.
A path difference δ corresponds to a phase difference ϕ as given by the equation,
Condition for constructive interference and destructive interference
Let y1 = a1 sin ɷt --------------------(1)
y2 = a2 sin (ɷt+ɸ) ---------------(2)
According to principle of superposition, the resultant displacement at that point will be
y = y1+y2
Substituting the values of y1 and y2 from (1) and (2),we get
y = a1 sin ɷt + a2 sin (ɷt + ɸ)
Using trigonometric relation
sin (ɷt + ɸ) = sin ɷt cos ɸ + cos ɷt sin ɸ,
we get
Double slit as coherent sources
y = a1 sin ɷt + a2 (sin ɷt cos ɸ + cos ɷt sin ɸ)
= (a1 + a2 cos ɸ) sin ɷt + (a2 sin ɸ) cos ɷt ---------(3)
Let a1 + a2 cos ɸ = A cos θ -----------------(4)
and a2 sin ɸ =A sin θ ------------------(5)
where A and θ are new constants.
Then equation (3) gives y = A cos θ sin ɷt + A sin θ cos ɷt = A sin (ɷt + θ)
This is the equation of the resultant disturbance. Clearly the amplitude
of resultant disturbance is A and phase difference from first wave is θ.
Squaring and adding eqns (4) and (5),we get
(a1 + a2 cos ɸ)2 + (a2 sin ɸ)2 = A2 cos2 θ + A2 sin2 θ
or a1 + a2 cos2 ɸ + 2a1a2 cos ɸ+ a22 sin2 ɸ = A2(cos2 θ + sin2 θ)
2 2

Double slit uses the principle of wavefront division. Two slits S1 and S2 illuminated by a single As cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, we get

monochromatic source S act as a set of coherent sources. The waves from these two coherent sources A2 = a12 + a22(cos2 ɸ + sin2 ɸ) + 2a1a2 cos ɸ

travel in the same medium and superpose. The constructive and destructive are shown in figures. Amplitude, A=√a12 + a22+2a1a2cosɸ
As the intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of amplitude, I = A2

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Therefore, intensity of resultant wave Young’s double slit experiment (YDSE)
I =A2 = 2 2
a1 + a2 + 2a1a2cosɸ
Clearly the intensity of resultant wave at any point depends on the amplitudes of individual waves and
the phase difference between the waves at the point.
Constructive Interference:
For maximum intensity at any point cos ɸ = +1
Or phase difference ɸ = 0,2π,4π,6π……….
= 2nπ (n=0,1,2,3….)
The maximum intensity
Imax = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 = (a1+a2)2
2π
Phase difference, ɸ = ( path difference )
λ
2π
= x
λ
Thomas Young, a British Physicist used an opaque screen with two small openings called double slit S1
⸫ x = n λ where n = 0,1,2,3…..
and S2 kept equidistance from a source S as shown in Figure. The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm
Clearly the maximum intensity is obtained in the region of superposition at those points where waves
and they are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm. As S1 and S2 are equidistant from S, the light
meet in the same phase or the phase difference between the waves is even multiple of π or path difference
waves from S reach S1 and S2 in-phase. So, S1 and S2 act as coherent sources which are the requirement
between them in the integral multiple of λ and maximum intensity is (a1 + a2)2 which is greater than the
of obtaining interference pattern.
sum intensities of individual waves by an amount 2a1a2.
Wavefronts from S1 and S2 spread out and overlapping takes place to the right side of double slit. When
Destructive Interference:
a screen is placed at about 1 meter from the slits, alternate bright and dark fringes which are equally
For minimum intensity at any point cos ɸ = -1 spaced appear on the screen. These are called interference fringes or bands.
Or phase difference, ɸ= π,3π,5π,7π….
= (2n +1)π, n=0,1,2,3……
In this case the minimum intensity ,
Imin = a12+a22-2a1a2 = (a1-a2)2
λ
Path difference, x = x phase difference
2π
λ
= x (2n+1) π
2π
At points where the crest of one wave meets the crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave meets
x = (2n +1) λ/2 where n=0,1,2,3…..
the trough of the other wave, the waves are in-phase. Hence, the displacement is maximum, and these
Therefore maximum intensity is produced in the region of superposition at those points
points appear bright. This type of interference is said to be constructive interference. At points where
where the path difference is an odd multiple of half the wavelength. the crest of one wave meets the trough of the other wave and vice versa, the waves are out-of-phase.
Hence, the displacement is minimum, and these points appear dark. This type of interference is said to
be destructive interference.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Expression for fringe width Intensity pattern of interference

The schematic diagram of the experimental set up is shown in figure. Let d be the distance between the
DIFFRACTION
double slits S1 and S2 which act as coherent sources of wavelength λ. A screen is placed parallel to the
Diffraction is a general characteristic of all types of waves, be it sound wave, light wave, water wave
double slit at a distance D from it. P is any point at a distance y from O. The waves from S1 and S2 meet
etc. Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp edges into the geometrically shadowed region. This
at P either in phase or out-of-phase depending upon the path difference between the two waves.
is a violation to the rectilinear propagation of light, we have studied in ray optics, which says light should
Equation for path difference
travel in straight line in a medium without bending. But the diffraction is prominent only when the size
Path difference, δ = S2P – S1P
of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light. This is the reason why sound waves get
yd
It has been found that δ = diffracted prominently by obstacles like doors, windows, buildings etc. The wavelength of sound wave
𝐷
is large and comparable to the geometry of these obstacles.
Condition for bright fringe (or) maxima
The condition for the constructive interference or the point P to be have a bright fringe is, Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions
Based on the type of wavefront which undergoes diffraction, the diffraction could be classified as
Path difference, δ = n λ where, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions. The differences between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffractions are
Equation for bandwidth
shown in Table.
Bandwidth (β) is defined as the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
th th
The distance between (n+1) and n consecutive bright fringes from O is given by
β = yn+1 - yn
𝐃𝛌
It has been found tha β =
𝒅
Condition for dark fringe (or) minima
Path difference, δ = (2n + 1) λ/2 where, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
⸫ β = yn+1 - yn
𝐃𝛌
β=
𝒅
Hence in interference pattern, the bright fringes and dark fringes are equally spaced.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Diffraction at single slit Here θcm is the angular width of central maximum and βcm is known as the linear width of central
maximum.
Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a single slit AB of width a as shown in figure. The diffracted
Therefore, θcm = 2θ1
beam falls on a screen kept at a distance to produce a diffraction pattern.
𝝀
θcm = 𝟐 .This is angular width of central maximum
𝒂
𝑎𝑟𝑐 βcm
Since, angle = , θcm =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝐷
βcm = D θcm
𝟐𝑫𝝀
βcm =
𝒂
This is the expression for linear width of central maximum.

Intensity pattern of diffraction:

Expression for path difference:

Let the path difference BN = x
𝑥
From Δ ABN, sin θ =
𝑎
x = a sinθ ---------------------(1)
Conditions for minima:
The path difference, x = nλ , where n=1,2,3…...
a sin θ = nλ ---------------------(2)
Conditions for maxima:
Path difference, a sinθ = (2n+1) λ/2 -----------(4)
where n= 1,2,3…….
Width of central maximum: Differences between interference and diffraction:

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020
Important formulae:

2 =a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cosɸ

interference
M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
𝐃𝛌 Notes 2024- 2025
β= , fringe width of interference pattern
𝒅
Section : Boys & Girls Date : 20/10/2024
𝟐𝑫𝝀
βcm = , linear width of central maximum Class &Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
𝒂
𝝀 Lesson / Topic : Dual nature of Radiation and Matter
θcm = 𝟐 , angular width of central maximum
𝒂
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HERTZ’S OBSERVATIONS:-
In 1887 by Heinrich Hertz observed that when light falls on a metal surface, some
electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the
attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface. After gaining sufficient energy from
the incident light, the electrons escape from the surface of the metal into the surrounding space.

HALLWACH’S and LENARD’S OBSERVATIONS:-

By a series of experiments, Hallwachs’ and Lenard’s observed that there is a certain
minimum frequency, known as threshold frequency, below which no electrons were emitted.

TYPES OF ELECTRON EMISSION:-

There are 4 types of electron emission; a) Thermionic emission, b) Field emission, c)
Photoelectric emission, and d) Secondary emission.

Thermionic emission:
o Thermionic emission is the process in which thermal energy is used to overcome the work
function of metal in order to force out the free electrons from the metal surface. It is used
in thermionic converter.

Field Emission:

o Field emission is the process where free electrons are forced out of metal surface using a
strong electric field .

F 061, Rev 01, Dated 28th December 2021 1

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020

o It is used in field electron microscopes, vacuum nano- electronics and other such fields of o Monochromatic light of short wavelength (meaning high frequency)
study. o Battery to accelerate emitted electrons through a potential difference
o Voltmeter to measure the potential difference between the emitter and the collector plates
Photoelectric Emission:
due to photoelectric current flow
o Photoelectric emission is the process where free electrons are removed from a metal surface o Ammeter to measure the value of photoelectric current.
using a light of certain frequency on that metal

o It is used in image sensor (where optical image is transformed into electric signals), applied
mainly in digital cameras.
o It is also used in gold leaf electroscope, used to detect and measure static electricity.

Secondary Emission:
In this method a high velocity beam of electrons strikes the metal surface, and causes
the free electrons of the metal to be knocked out

PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT:-

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metallic surface when illuminated by EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT:-
electromagnetic radiations of appropriate wavelength or frequency is known as photoelectric
effect. (1) Effect of intensity of radiation on photoelectric current:-
 The electrons so emitted are called photoelectrons o When the values of photoelectric current were plotted against the different values for
 The current due to these electrons is called photo electric current intensity of light, it was observed to be a straight line passing through the origin.
 The substance which emits photoelectrons is called photo sensitive substance.
o It proved that Photoelectric current, which is number of photoelectrons flowing per unit time,
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:- is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light

The experimental setup consists of:

o Evacuated tube consist of photosensitive plate (emitter) and the metal plate (collector), so
that electrons could freely flow from emitter to collector without any air resistance.
o Photosensitive plate (emitter) to absorb visible light and emit electrons
o Metal plate (collector) to receive electrons emitted from the emitter, thus constituting a
photoelectric current flow from collector plate to the emitter plate (opposite to the flow of
electrons)
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 (2) Effect of photoelectric current with the potential applied:-

Case-1-When collector plate was kept at higher potential (accelerating potential) with
respect to the emitter.
o As the positive potential of collector rises, photoelectric current rises for a certain period of
time because the electrons emitted experience a strong attractive force by the collector

o On further increasing the positive potential, photoelectric current reaches a maximum value,
beyond which it remains fixed even when positive potential is increased. This is because
number of free electrons in a metal surface is always fixed.

o This maximum value of photoelectric current beyond which it remains fixed, no matter how
high the positive potential gets, is called the saturation current.

Case-2-When collector plate was kept at lower potential (retarding potential) with respect
to the emitter.

o As the negative potential of collector rises, photoelectric current falls. This is because the
electrons emitted will experience a strong repulsive force from the collector. Case-3-When the variation of photoelectric current was plotted against the potential for 3
different values of intensity of incident light (keeping the frequency constant).
o As the retarding potential is further increased, even the electrons having maximum kinetic o It was observed that stopping potential was constant for all the values of intensity. Thus,
energy will be repelled by the repulsive force of the collector, and hence, the photoelectric stopping potential is independent on the intensity of incident light.
current becomes zero. o On the other hand, saturation current got higher for higher values of intensity of absorbed

o This corresponding minimum value of retarding (negative) potential for which the
photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential, or cut-off potential for the
given frequency of incident radiations. It is denoted by (V0).

o Mathematically, stopping potential could be expressed as

F 061, Rev 01, Dated 28th December 2021 4 F 061, Rev 01, Dated 28th December 2021 5
 light

(3) Variation of photoelectric current with the frequency of incident light:-

o The variation of photoelectric current was plotted against the potential for 3 different values

of frequency of incident light (keeping the intensity constant)

o It was observed that saturation current was constant for all the values of frequency. Thus,
saturation current is independent on the frequency of incident light.

o However, stopping potential got higher in the negative direction for higher values of
frequency of absorbed light

LAWS OF PHOTO-ELECTRIC EMISSION:-

The results of the experimental studies of photo electric effect are regarded as the laws of
photoelectric effect as mentioned below:-

1. For a given metallic surface, there is a minimum value of frequency of the

incident radiations called threshold frequency below which there is no photo-
electric emission, whatever may be the intensity of the incident radiations.
2. Above the threshold frequency the number of photo electrons emitted per second
o It was also found that, after reaching a certain minimum frequency value, stopping potential is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiations.
followed a linear relationship with the frequency of incident light. 3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted

o This minimum value of frequency of incident light required for photoelectric emission to photoelectron is independent of intensity of incident radiations, but depends upon

take place is called as threshold frequency the frequency of incident radiations. K.E α frequency of incident radiations.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time taken by the
o The value of threshold frequency is fixed for a specific material, and it changes from one
incident radiations and emission of photoelectrons is very small, even less than
material to another
one nanosecond.
o The maximum wavelength of incident light for a metal surface above which the light cannot
eject electrons is called threshold wavelength for that metal surface. EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION:-
λ0 = c/ν0
o Since wave theory could not explain the photoelectric effect, Einstein proposed a particle
theory of light for the first time

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 so number of electrons emitted rises, and hence, photoelectric current increases
iαI
o He said that radiations are made up of specific and discrete packets of energy called
as quanta of radiation energy. Each energy quantum has a value equal to hv, where h = o Since saturation current is just a maximum value of photoelectric current, saturation current
Planck’s constant, and v = frequency of incident light gets higher with increasing intensity of incident light
o These specific packets of quanta of energy are known as photons o For every metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency below which no photoelectric
o When a light of frequency(v) (having energy hv ) is incident on a metal surface of work effect occurs. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
function(Φo), 3 cases could be possible
hvo = Φo
o Case-1-When (hv < Φo), i.e., energy of photon is less than the work function of metal , no
photoelectric emission occurs Here, vo = threshold frequency of incident light, Φo = work function of metal

o Case-2- When (hv = Φo), i.e., energy of photon is exactly same as the work function of o Stopping potential (Vo) and Maximum kinetic energy (K.Emax) doesn’t depend upon the

metal, then electrons get enough energy to just escape the metal surface. intensity. Because intensity is the number of photons in unit area and unit time, and the

Case-3- When (hv > Φo),e., energy of photon is greater than the work function of metal. photoelectric effect take place when one electron takes one photon.
o
Then electron, apart from getting energy to escape the metal surface, the remaining energy is o Stopping potential (Vo) and Maximum kinetic energy (K.Emax) is directly proportional to the
provided to the electron as kinetic energy. Mathematically, it can be expressed as: frequency (ν)
The relation between stopping potential, maximum kinetic energy and the frequency of
incident light could be expressed mathematically as follows: using Einstein’s photoelectric
hv = Φo + K.Emax
equation
Here, K.Emax is the maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron
The above equation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation hv = Φo + K.Emax

K.Emax = hν - Φo
Also, K.Emax = eVo
∴ eVo = hν - Φo
∴ eVo = hν – hν0
On rearranging the above equation: Vo = (h/e)v + (Φo/e)

Plotting the above equation graphically, we get: Slope of the graph = h/e = V0/ν

From the Einstein’s photoelectric equation, following points are clear:

o Photoelectric current (i) is directly proportional to the intensity (I) of radiation. As the
intensity rises, number of photons received by metal surface in a unit area per unit time rises,

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 De-Broglie waves – derivation of wavelength:-
De Broglie equated the energy equations of plank and Einstein and derived a relation
between the wavelength λ of matter waves and momentum of matter
By plank’s relation
E = hν
By Einstein’s mass energy relation
E = mc2
hν = mc2

hc/λ = mc2
λ = h/mc
Particle nature of light:- The photon-
λ = h/p. This equation is known as de-Broglie wave equation
Photo electric effect gave evidence to the fact that light in interaction with matter
and λ is called the de Broglie wavelength associated with the particle.
behaved as if it was made of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy hν.

Einstein arrived at the important result that the light quantum can also be associated with Case-1- (Macroscopic object):-
momentum (hν/c). p = h/λ p = hν/c If we take an example of a car of mass= 900kg, moving with the velocity of 36km/hr (10m/s).

A definite value of energy hν as well as momentum (hν/c) is a strong sign that the The wavelength associated with the car will be:
light quantum can be associated with a particle. The particle like behaviour of light was further
confirmed by the experiments.

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER: DE BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS:-

o De Broglie proposed that if the radiations could possess dual nature, matters could also
possess dual nature.

o A particle of mass (m), moving with velocity (v) could behave like a wave under suitable
conditions. And the corresponding wave related to that matter is called matter waves. De-
Broglie made a bold suggestion that small particles of matter such as electrons, protons,
We can observe that the wavelength associated with the car is insignificant and can’t be detected
neutrons etc have a corresponding property of behaving like waves. Matter in motion must
experimentally.
be associated by waves called De- Broglie waves.

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 M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR
Hence, for the macroscopic objects, the mass is so large that the matter wave associated with
Notes 2023 - 2024
them becomes insignificant and negligible Section: Boys / Girls Date: 12-11-23
Class &Div.: XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics
Case-2- (Microscopic object):-
Lesson / Topic: ATOMS
If we take an electron, mass=9.1 X 10-31 kg, moving with the speed of light (3 X 108 m/s).
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The wavelength associated with an electron will be:
CHAPTER 12
2 2 2
Kinetic energy K.E= (1/2)mv = (mv) /(2m) = p /2m ATOMS
Rutherford’s α - particle scattering experiment (Geiger – Marsden Experiment)
Rutherford and his associates studied the scattering of the α - particles by a thin gold foil in
Using De-Broglie’s Hypothesis:
order to investigate the structure of the atom. An α-particle is a positively charged particle
having a mass equal to that of helium atom and positive charge in magnitude equal to twice
the charge of an electron. They are emitted by many radioactive elements. The scattering of
α-particles provides useful information about the structure of the atom.
Putting the value of V = 50V
Experimental arrangement

The wavelength associated with electron is quite large and is experimentally observable. This is
because the mass of a microscopic object is very small, so wavelength becomes sufficiently large
and hence, observable.

The α-particle from 83Bi214 (radioactive source) contained in a lead cavity are collimated into a
narrow beam with the help of a lead plate with a narrow slit. The collimated beam falls on a
thin gold foil, of thickness of the order of 2.1 x 10 -7 m. The scattered alpha particles were
detected with the help of an α-particle detector, ZnS screen produces flash on the screen.
Observations
(i) Most of the α-particles pass straight through the gold foil or suffer very small angle
F 061, Rev 01, Dated 28th December 2021 12
scattering.
(ii) Very few α-particles scatter through large angles (more than 900 )
(iii) Rarely, α-particle rebounces (scattering through 1800)

F 061, Rev 01, dtd10th March 2020

Explanations
(i) As most of the α-particles passed Impact Parameter: Impact parameter (b) is the

undeviated. The atom has a lot of empty perpendicular distance between the initial velocity

space. vector of α particle and the centre of the nucleus.

(ii) Since the fast and the heavy α-particles The trajectory of the α particle is determined by

could be deflected even through 1800 , the impact parameter. If the impact parameter is less,

whole mass of positive charge , the entire angle of scattering will be more- more deviation for

mass is confined to an extremely small central core, nucleus. the α particle.

Distance of closest approach

An α particle directed towards the centre of the nucleus will move close up to a
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atom Model
distance ro as shown in Fig, where its kinetic energy will appear as electrostatic potential
Since electron travels in a circular orbit, it is constantly accelerated. Accelerated charges
energy. After this, the α particle begins to retrace its path. This distance ro is known as the
radiate electromagnetic wave which carries away energy. Thus, the potential energy of the
distance of the closest approach.
electron is reduced and it moves closer to the nucleus and finally falls into the nucleus. So,
atom is unstable as per Rutherford’s model.

According to Rutherford’s model, electron can exist anywhere outside the

nucleus. So, the spectrum of the emitted EM radiation would be
continuous. But sharp spectral lines are observed, not a continuum.

BOHR ATOM MODEL

Bohr’s atom model retains all the features of Rutherford’s atom model but added some
additional postulates in order to overcome the limitations of Rutherford’s model

Postulates:

(i) Electron moves in circular orbits around the nucleus under the influence
of the attractive electric field.

(ii) Not all orbits are allowed. The electron can only have an orbit for which the
ℎ
angular momentum of the electron, L, is an integer multiple of
2𝜋

(h = 6.63 x10-34 J s is the Planck's constant).

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 L = m v r = n ℎ/2𝜋 Bohr ’s quantizatio n condition.
where n = 1,2, 3.. is the principal quantum
number Bohr radius is the radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom.
An electron does not emit EM radiation when it is in one of these states.(orbits). The above equation shows that radius of orbits is quantized
Hence these orbits are called stationary states (orbits) or non-radiating orbits. i.e. can take only certain specific values.

(iii) When electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy state, it emits
energy. When electron goes to higher energy state from lower energy state it
absorbs energy. The energy of emitted EM radiation
hv = Ei - Ef Bohr's frequency condition.

where v= frequency of the radiation

Ei and Ef = energy associated with initial and final states respectively.

BOHR'S THEORY APPLIED TO HYDROGEN ATOM

In a hydrogen atom an electron of charge -e revolves around the nucleus having a

charge + e in a circular orbit. The electrostatic force of attraction between them
provides the necessary centripetal force.

𝑚𝑒4
Where 𝐸𝑜 = = 13.6 𝑒𝑉 is the energy of the electron in the orbit n=1
8𝜀𝑜2ℎ2

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 This is the lowest possible energyof the electron. This energy level is known as
(v) Pfund Series: it is the visible region and is due to the transition to the second orbit. Therefore,
ground state. The energy levels with n=2,3,….are known as excited states(higher nf=5 and ni =6,7,8……
energy states)
Energy increases with increase in ‘n’ and the energy levels become crowded
and almost becomes a continuum at large values of ‘n’

The significance of negative sign in the expression for energy is that the force
between electron and nucleus is attractive in nature i.e. electron is bound to the
nucleus. Energy must be supplied to free an electron.

SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN ATOM

At room temperature, hydrogen gas does not emit light. When heated to high temperatures, hydrogen
emits radiation. Distinct spectral lines can be observed. From Bohr’s frequency condition, when an
electron makes transition from a higher energy level Ei to a lower energy level Ef, energy is emitted in
de BROGLIE EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S QUANTISATION RULE
the form of radiation. I.e.
de Broglie considered electron as a stationary matter wave of wavelength
hν= Ei - Ef
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣

SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM Where m- mass of electron v- velocity of electron in the orbit

The spectra of hydrogen atom include the following spectral series. Each series is due to the transition The stationary states of the electrons in the atom should be such that there is an integral
of electron to a particular energy state from higher states. The wavelength of the spectral lines can be number of a wavelength around the circumference of the orbit. I.e.
calculated using the formula 2πr =nλ (n= 1,2,3..)

1 1 1 His reasoning was that, unless there are a finite number of complete wavelengths round the
= 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖 orbit, the waves would interfere destructively, and atom
becomes unstable.

2πr =nλ =nh/mv (using de Broglie’s equation for

(i) Lyman Series: it is the ultraviolet region and is due to the transition to the first orbit. Therefore,
nf=1 and ni =2,3,4…… wavelength)
(ii) Balmer Series: it is the visible region and is due to the transition to the second orbit. Therefore,
nf=2 and ni =3,4,5…… Rearranging, mvr = nh/2π which is Bohr’s quantization
(iii) Paschen Series: it is the infrared region and is due to the transition to the third orbit. Therefore, condition.
nf=3 and ni =4,5,6……
(iv) Bracket Series: it is the visible region and is due to the transition to the second orbit. Therefore,
nf=4 and ni =5,6,7……

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 Eg. Isotopes of carbon (126C), (136C), (146C).
 Isobars: -The nuclei which have different atomic number but same mass number are known
M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR as isobars.
Notes 2023- 2024 Eg: Nitrogen (147N) and Carbon (146C)
Section : Boys & Girls Date : 07/11/2023  Isotones: -Isotones are those nuclei which have different atomic number but same number of
Class &Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics neutrons
Lesson / Topic : Nuclei Eg: Boron (125B) and Carbon (136C).
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Composition of Nucleus Volume of a nucleus ∝ mass number.

Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.Protons are positively charged particles which are present V = (4/3)πR3 ,
3
inside the nucleus and neutrons are neutral as they don’t have any charge (R) ∝A
R ∝(A)1/3

Atomic number: R=R0A1/3

Atomic number constitutes the total number of protons which are present in the nucleus of that
where A = mass number and R0=constant.
atom. It is denoted by ‘Z’.
R0=1.2x10-15m.
𝐑𝟏 𝐀𝟏 1/3
Note: =( ) .
Atomic mass: 𝐑𝟐 𝐀𝟐

Q: Show that density of nucleus is independent of mass number

 Atomic mass is the total number of neutrons and protons which are present inside the
Answer:-
nucleus.
Nuclear density =mass/volume
 It is also known as Mass Number. It is denoted by ‘A’.
=1.6x10-27xA/((4 π /3)(R)3
 Nucleons-- Protons + Neutrons
=1.6x10-27xA/((4 π /3)(R0A1/3)3
 General representation of the element: (ZXA)
=1.6x10-27xA/((4 π /3)(1.2x10-15)3A
where A = atomic mass and Z = atomic number
= 2.29 × 1017 kg m–3
Nuclear density is a constant. It is independent of mass number
Atomic mass unit
 Mass of atom is very small as compared to the measurable masses which we see around us.
Einstein’s Mass-Energy equivalence
Therefore, Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u) is used to measure mass of an atom. It is denoted by u.
According to Einstein mass is also a form of energy. Mass – energy can also be converted
 Atomic mass unit is defined as (1/12th) of the mass of the carbon.
into other forms of energy. Any object which has got mass ‘m’ has mass energy associated with it
1 a.m.u = (1/12) x 1.992647 x10-26 kg
and it is given as
where 1.992647 x10-26 = mass of 1 carbon atom.
E=mc2.
1 a.m.u =1.67 x10-27kg.
Energy equivalent to 1 a.m.u= 931 MeV
 Isotopes: - Two nuclei with the same atomic number and different mass number are isotopes
of each other

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 Mass defect Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number
Mass defect is the difference in the mass of nucleus and its constituent nucleons.
It is denoted by ΔM.

ΔM = [Z mp+ (A-Z) mn]- M

Where mp=mass of 1 proton,

Z=number of protons,
(A-Z)= number of neutrons,
mn = mass of 1 neutron
M =nuclear mass of the atom.
Binding energy
It is the energy required to hold protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. It can
also be defined as the energy needed to separate the nucleons from each other.  Following are the observations from the graph:-
If nuclear binding energy is high - high amount of energy is needed to separate the 1. Initially the graph was increasing. This implies that Ebn is very less for lesser mass number (below
nucleons this means nucleus is very stable. 30).So lighter nuclei are less stable.
If nuclear binding energy is low - low amount of energy is needed to separate the 2. In the middle range (30<A<170) Ebn becomes constant. This means Ebn is independent of mass
nucleons. This means nucleus is not very stable. number.
Relation between Mass defect and Nuclear binding energy:- 3. In the end Ebnstarts decreasing. This shows Ebn is less when mass number is more. Heavier nuclei
Nuclear binding energy is denoted by Eb. are less stable.
Give reason:
Eb= ΔMc2
1. Binding energy per nucleon is less for heavier nuclei : It is due to increased coulomb
where Eb = nuclear binding energy, ΔM=mass defect. repulsion between protons inside the nucleus.
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon 2. Heavy nuclei undergo fission : Binding energy per nucleon is less for heavy nuclei.
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon is defined as the average energy per nucleon This means that they are less stable. So they will split into lighter nuclei of more
needed to separate a nucleus into its individual constituents. binding energy and stability will be achieved.
It is denoted by Ebn. 3. Lighter nuclei undergo fusion: Binding energy per nucleon is less for lighter nuclei.
This means that they are less stable. So they will fuse together to form heavier nuclei of
Ebn = Eb/A more binding energy with the release of energy and stability will be achieved.
4. Ebn is almost constant for middle nuclei: Nuclear force is saturated and short ranged
force. So a nucleon will interact only with its neighboring nucleons. Thus Ebn remains
constant.

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 Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear force
In nuclear fusion reaction two lighter nuclei will combine to form a heavier nucleus with the
The force with which the nucleons are bound together inside the nucleus is known as nuclear force.
release of large amount of energy.
Characteristics of nuclear force
1. It is the strongest force in nature-1038 times stronger than gravitational force. Example:1H1 +1H1 → 1H2 + e++ υ + energy
2. It is independent of electric charge.
Thermonuclear fusion
3. It is short range force-the force is attractive but becomes strongly repulsive
when the separation is less than 0.8fm. The source of energy of sun and other stars is thermonuclear fusion. In this reaction the temperature
4. It is saturated force-nucleons interact only with their immediate neighbors of nuclei will be increased until it is able to overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion.
Variation of potential energy of nucleons with distance of separation
Example: proton-proton cycle

PE(MeV)
→ 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

r(fm)  For thermonuclear fusion to take place, extreme conditions of temperature and pressure are
required.

→ 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒  In about 5 billion years, however, the sun’s core, which by that time will be largely helium, will
begin to cool and the sun will start to collapse under its own gravity. This will raise the core
temperature and cause the outer envelope to expand, turning the sun into what is called a red
Nuclear Fission
giant.
The phenomenon of splitting up of a heavier nucleus into lighter nuclei with the release of large
amount of energy is called nuclear fission. **********************************************************************************

Example: 0n1 + 92U235→ 92.U236 (unstable)→ 56.Ba144 + 36kr89 +30n1

Note:

 The difference in mass energies of initial and final products will be released as energy. First
this energy appears as the kinetic energy of the products. Later it changes to heat energy.
 The source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produce electricity, is nuclear fission.
 The enormous amount of energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear
fission.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020 F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020
 Insulators

 In case of insulators, a large energy gap exists between the valence band and the conduction
M.E.S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA -QATAR band
Notes 2024- 2025  The energy gap is so high that the electrons from the valence band cannot move to the
Section : Boys & Girls Date : 19/09/2024 conduction band by thermal excitation
Class &Div. : XII (All divisions) Subject: Physics  As there is no electrons in the conduction band, electrical conduction is not possible
Lesson / Topic : Electronic Devices
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Energy Bands
The set of closely spaced energy levels possessed by an electron in a solid is called energy band.
Valence Band
The energy band which includes the energy levels of the valence electrons is called the valence
band
Conduction Band
Semiconductors
The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band. Electrons present in this band
take part in the conduction of current.  A finite but a small energy gap exists between the valence band and the conduction band.

Energy Band Gap  At room temperature, some of the electrons from the valence band acquire energy and move

The minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction band is called into the conduction band.

energy band gap.  Hence, at high temperature, semiconductors have conductivity and resistance is also not as

On the basis of energy bands solids can be classified into conductors, insulators and high as insulators

semiconductors
Conductors

 The conduction band and the valence band partly overlap each other and there is no forbidden
energy band gap in between
 The electrons from the valence band can easily move into the conduction band
 Hence, large number of electrons are available for conduction
 The resistance of such materials is low and conductivity is high Types of semiconductors
There are two types – Intrinsic semiconductor and Extrinsic semiconductor
1.Intrinsic semiconductor
o A pure semiconductor, free from impurities is called intrinsic semiconductor

o The electrical conductivity of pure semiconductor is called intrinsic conductivity

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Crystalline structure: Energy band diagram-intrinsic semiconductor
At temperature zero Kelvin –

o In the crystal structure, the four valence electron of the Si atom forms four covalent bond by At temperature 0K –

sharing of electron with the neighboring atoms o In terms of energy band theory, the valence band is full and the conduction band is totally empty

o By forming covalent bond, each Si atom in the crystal behaves as if the outermost orbit of each
atom is complete with 8 electrons, having no free electrons in the crystal

o At 0K semiconductor behaves as insulator

At room temperature -

o The thermal vibrations of the atoms provide energy to the electrons in the valence band to cross
the energy gap and move into the conduction band as free electrons

o As electrons move to the conduction band, the holes move to the valence band and electrical
At room temperature: conduction in semiconductors is possible
o As the temperature increases some electrons will get sufficient energy to break the covalent bond o This results in electrical conductivity of the semiconductor
and become free electrons.

o When electron breaks away from the covalent bond, the empty space or vacancy left in the bond is
called a hole.

o Thus electron hole pairs are produced due to thermal agitation.

o An electron from the neighboring atom can break away and can be attracted by the hole, creating
hole in the other place.
1. Extrinsic semiconductor
o Thus movement of holes and electrons produces hole current and electron current when an electric
field is applied. o A doped semiconductor or a semiconductor with suitable impurity added to it is called extrinsic
semiconductor
o In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes = number of electrons. Thus ne = nh = ni
o There are two types – n-type and p-type

 n-type semiconductor

o When pure Si or Ge which has four valency electrons is doped with controlled amount of
pentavalent atoms, like Arsenic, Phosphorus, Antimony or Bismuth, we get a n-type
semiconductor

o The four valence electron from the impure atom will combine with four electrons of the Si or Ge
atom to form 4 covalent bonds and the fifth electron will be set free.

F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020 3 F 061, Rev 01, dtd 10th March 2020 4
o Thus, each atom of the impure substance, donates a free electron for conduction. Hence, it is called o Thus in p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.
as donor atom Energy band diagram
o Due to intrinsic action, a few number of electron hole pairs will be formed. o Si or Ge doped with trivalent impurities produces energy level which is situated in the energy gap
o Thus in n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are minority carriers. slightly above the valence band

o This is called as acceptor energy level

o At room temperature, the electrons in the valence band can easily be transferred to the acceptor
level. This produces a large number of holes in the valence band.

Energy band diagram

o The free electrons occupy discrete energy levels called the donor energy level between the valence
band and the conduction band

o This donor energy level is below the bottom of the conduction band

o Thus, very small energy supplied can excite the electron from the donor level to the conduction
band, hence, conductivity of semiconductor becomes remarkably improved Formation of p-n junction
Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small quantity of
pentavelent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift.

 p-type semiconductor

o When pure Si or Ge which has four valency electrons is doped with controlled amount of trivalent Diffusion:
atoms, like Gallium, Indium, Boron or Aluminium, we get a p-type semiconductor o In the formation of the p-n junction, due to the concentration gradient across the p and the n sides,
o The three valence electron from the trivalent atom will combine with three electrons of the Si or the electrons diffuse from n region to p region and the holes diffuse from p region to n region
Ge atom to form 3 covalent bonds. o This motion of charge carriers gives rise to diffusion current.
o For the fourth Si or Ge atom, no electrons will be left to form covalent bond. This vacancy of o As the diffusion continues, it leaves behind immobile positive ions on n side and negative ions on
electron will apprear as a hole. p side.
o The trivalent atoms are called acceptor ions. o The region with immobile ions on both the sides of the junction is called depletion region.
o Due to intrinsinsic action a few number of electron hole pairs are produced.

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Drift: o If the applied voltage is small a few number of charge carriers will cross the junction and a small

o The depletion region formation results in setting up an electric field at the junction with positive current will flow

polarity in n region and negative polarity in p region. o If we increase the applied voltage significantly, the barrier height will be reduced and more
number of carriers will have the required energy. Thus the current increases.
o Due to the electric field developed at the junction, the electrons from the p-region move to the n-
o When the applied voltage is increased above threshold voltage current will increase exponentially.
region. Similarly, the hole from the n-region move to the p-region. This results in drift current.

o The drift current is in a direction opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Reverse biasing
o At a particular stage, the drift current becomes equal to the diffusion current and the junction
o If the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the n-side and the negative terminal
attains equilibrium.
of the external battery is connected to the p-side, then the p-n junction is said to be reverse biased
o The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region causes a difference
o The direction of the applied voltage is same as that of the barrier potential
of potential across the junction of the two regions. This is called internal potential barrier.
o As a result, the barrier height increases and the depletion region widens
p-n junction diode
Reverse characteristics
o A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the
The graphical relationship between the reverse bias voltage applied and the reverse current through the
application of an external voltage
p-n junction is called reverse characteristics
o Thus p-n junction diode is a two terminal device represented as

Forward biasing
If the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the p-side and the negative terminal of
the external battery is connected to the n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased

The direction of applied voltage is opposite to the barrier potential.

o As the applied voltage increases no current will flow through the junction due to majority charge
As a result of this, the depletion layer width decreases and the barrier height is reduced.
carriers.

o However a small current (in the order of µA) will flow through the junction due to minority charge
Forward characteristics
carriers.
The graphical relationship between the forward bias voltage applied and the forward current through
the p-n junction is called forward characteristics o This current remains constant upto breakdown voltage.

o At breakdown voltage current increases rapidly. If the current is not limited the junction will be
destroyed.

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 (ii) During negative half cycle
o End A will be negative with respect to B

o The diode will be reverse biased

o It will not conduct current

o No current flows through load resistor RL

o No output voltage is obtained.

Thus the output voltage is unidirectional. Since the rectified output is only for half of the
input ac wave it is called half wave rectifier.
Full wave rectifier
Circuit diagram:

pn-Junction diode as a rectifier

A device which converts ac to dc is called a rectifier
Principle: When the diode is forward biased it will conduct current. When it is reverse biased it will
not conduct current.

Half wave rectifier

Working:
Circuit diagram
(i)During positive half cycle:.
End A will be positive with respect to centre tap
 The diode D1 will be forward biased and D2 will be reverse biased.
 D1 will conduct current
 Current flows through load resistor RL from X to Y
 We get an output voltage
(ii)During negative half cycle:
 End A will be negative with respect to centre tap. Voltage at B will be positive
Working:
 The diode D2 will be forward biased and D1 will be reverse biased.
(i)During positive half cycle:
 Diode D2 will conduct current
o End A will be positive with respect to B
 Current flows through load resistor RL from X to Y
o The diode will be forward biased
 We get an output voltage
o It will conduct current
Thus we get output voltage corresponding to both the half cycles. Hence it is called full wave rectifier.
o Current flows through load resistor RL from X to Y
********************THE END********************
o We get an output voltage.

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