DOMINION MODEL SCHOOLS

MOTTO: THY O LORD IS DOMINION

LESSON NOTE
EDUCATOR’S NAME:

SUBJECT: FURTHER – MATHEMATICS

CLASS: SENIOR CLASS (S.S.S.1)

TERM: THIRD TERM ( 3RD TERM )

SESSION: 2023 – ACADEMIC – SESSION

WEEK 2
Reference Materials: New Further Mathematics project 1, by Adigun et al. Page 178
Previous Knowledge: Students can identify calculating devices.
Instructional Materials: Charts showing flowcharts.
Content FLOWCHART
A flowchart is a diagrammatical representation of a solution to a problem.

Example: The perimeter of a rectangle is 2(l+b). Draw a flowchart to determine and represent the
information.
Advantages of flowcharts
1. A flowchart plays a very important role in computer programming.
2. It facilitates the interpretation and solution of problems.
3. It can be easily understood.
4. It can help in planning and development of algorithm for solving problems.
WEEK 3
Topic: Gradients of straight lines and curves
Sub-topic: Gradients of straight lines
Duration: 40 minutes
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to calculate the gradient of a
straight line.
Reference Materials: i. New General Mathematics for SSS 2, by M.F Macrae et al. Pages 184 – 192.
Previous Knowledge: Students can draw the graph of a linear equation (straight-line graph).
Instructional Materials: Graph board and graph book.
Content: GRADIENT OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The gradient of a straight line is the rate of change of y compared with x.

For example, if the gradient is 2, then for any increase in x, y increases two times as much.

Gradient of AB = Increase in y from A to B = MB

Increase in x from A to B AM
Example
Find the gradient of the line joining P(7, -2) and Q(-1, 2)

Gradient of PQ = increase in y = - AQ
Increase in x PA
−4 −1
8
= 2

Example 2
Find the gradient of the line 7x + 4y – 8 = 0
Re-arrange the equation: 4y = - 7x + 8
−7
y= +2
4
−7
Therefore, gradient (m) = , y – intercept (c) = 2
4
SKETCHING GRAPHS OF STRAIGHT LINES
Given the equation
y = 3x – 2 , gradient = 3, y – intercept(c) = -2
−2
2x + 3y = 6, gradient = , y – intercept(c) = 2
3

Example
Sketch the graph of the line whose equation is 4x – 3y = 12
Solution
When x = 0 ,- 3y = 12
y=-4
The line crosses the y – axis at (0, - 4).
When y = 0 , 4x = 12
x=3
The line crosses the x – axis at (3, 0).

From the graph:

y 2− y 1
Gradient m =
x 2−x 1
 0+4 4
= =
3+0 3
y – intercept = - 4

Lines parallel to axes

Any line parallel to the x – axis has a gradient of zero. The equation of such lines is always in the form
y = c, where c may be any number.
The figure below shows the graph of y = 5 and y = - 3.
Notice that the equation of the x – axis is y = 0

------------------------------------

-------------------------------------

The gradient of a line that is parallel to the y – axis is undefined. The equations of such a lines are always
in the form x = a , where a may be any number.
The figure below shows the graph of line x = 2 and x = - 4.
Notice that the equation of the y – axis is x = 0

EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

Equation of a straight line is of the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient and c is the y – intercept.

Example 1
−1
Determine the equation of a straight line whose gradient is and passes through the point (- 3, 2).
3
Solution
Using the formula y – y1 = m(x - x1)
−1
Where (x1, y1) = (- 3, 2) and m =
3
 −1
y–2= (x + 3)
3
3y – 6 = - x – 3
x + 3y = 3

Example 2
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (1, 4) and (- 2, 6).
Using the formula
y− y 1 x−x 1
=
y 2− y 1 x2 −x1
Where = (x1, y1) = ( 1, 4) and (x2, y2) = (- 2, 6), the equation is
y−4 x−1
6−4
= −2−1
cross multiply
- 3y + 12 = 2x – 2
2x + 3y = 14
GRADIENT OF A CURVE
Example
1 2
Draw the graph of y = x for values of x from –2 to 3. Find the gradient of the curve at the point where x
4
has the value (a) (b) – 2
Solution

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 1 ¼ 0 ¼ 1 2¼

(a) Gradient of the curve where x = 3

= gradient of tangent PT

= |MP| = 2.25 = 2¼ = 9 = 11/2

|TM | 1.5 1.5 6
(b) Gradient of curve where x = - 2
= gradient of tangent QR
= - |QN | =- 1 =-1
|NR| 1

WEEK 4
Topic: Straight line
Sub-topic: Angle of slope and angle between lines
Duration: 80 minutes
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to calculate the angle of slope and
angle between two lines.
Reference Materials: New Further Mathematics Project 2 by M. R Tuttuh Adegun
Previous Knowledge: Students can draw the graph of a linear equation (straight-line graph).
Instructional Materials: Graph board and graph book.
Content: ANGLE OF SLOPE
Example: Find the gradient of the line joining (3, 2) and (7, 10) and the angle of slope of the line.
Solution
Let m be the gradient of the line, then
10−2 8
m= = =2
7−3 4
Let θ be the angle of slope of the line; then:
tanθ=2
θ=63.43 °

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

Condition for Parallelism
If two lines are parallel, the angle between them is zero, hence tanθ=0
Example: Determine if AB is parallel to PQ in each of the following.
1. A(3, 1); B(4, 3) and P(4,6); Q(5, 8)
2. A(-1, -2); B(2, -3) and P(5, 4) ; Q(6, 7)
Solution

1. Let m1 be the gradient joining A and B and m2be the gradient joining P and Q.

3−1
m 1= =2
4−3
8−6
m 2= =2
5−4

Since m1=m2; AB||PQ

2. Let m1 be the gradient joining A and B and m2be the gradient joining P and Q.

−3−(−2) −1
m 1= =
2−(−1) 3
7−4
m 2= =3
6−5
 Since m1 ≠ m2; AB is not parallel to PQ

CONDITION FOR PERPENDICULARITY

If the lines are perpendicular, α =90 ° and tanα=∞; therefore:

1 + m1 m2=0
m1 m2=−1

−1
m 1=
m2

Example: Determine if AB is parallel to PQ in each of the following.

1. A(5, -1); B(3, 2) and P(2, 4); Q(5, 6)
2. A(-1, -2); B(2, -3) and P(5, 4) ; Q(6, 7)
Solution

1. Let m1 be the gradient joining A and B and m2be the gradient joining P and Q.

2−(−1) −3
m 1= =
3−5 2
6−4 2
m 2= =
5−2 3

Since m1 m2=−1; AB is perpendicular to PQ

2. Let m1 be the gradient joining A and B and m2be the gradient joining P and Q.

−3−(−2) −1
m 1= =
2−(−1) 3
7−4
m 2= =3
6−5

Since m1 m2=−1; AB is perpendicular to PQ

EQUATION OF A LINE
The equation of a straight line is given by: y =mx + c
Example: Find the gradient and intercept on the y-axis of the following lines:
1. y = 3x – 4
2. y = - ½x – 3
Solution:
1. Compare y = 3x – 4 with y = mx + c ; Hence the gradient is 3, intercept on y-axis is -4
2. Gradient is – ½ , intercept on y-axis
GRADIENT AND ONE POINT FORM
Example: Find the equation of a straight line of slope 2, if it passes through the point (3, -2)
 y - y 1=m(x−x 1 )

m = 2; x 1=3∧ y 1=−2

Hence the equation of the straight line is:

y – (-2) = 2(x – 3)
y + 2 = 2x – 6
y = 2x -6 -2 = 2x – 8
y = 2x – 8

WEEK 5
Topic: Vectors
Sub-topic: Modulus of a vector
Duration: 80 minutes
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to perform simple operations on
vectors.
Reference Materials: New Further Mathematics Project 2 by M. R Tuttuh Adegun
Previous Knowledge: Students can perform arithmetic operations on vectors
Instructional Materials: Mathematical set.
Content: MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR
The magnitude of a vector a, sometimes called the modulus of the vector is represented by |a|.

Zero Vector: The zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude.

Unit Vector: The unit vector is the vector represented by a and is such that a = |a| a

Negative Vector: The negative vector of a is written as – a

Equality of vector: Two vectors are equal when they have same magnitude and direction.

Example: Find the modulus of each of the following vectors

1. 3i + 4j
2. -2i – 5j
3. isinθ− jcosθ
Solution

1. Let r = 3i + 4j ; then |r| = √ 32 +4 2=√ 25=5

2. Let r = -2i – 5j ; then |r| = √−22−52= √ 4+25=√ 29
3. Let r = isinθ− jcosθ ; then |r| = √ sinθ 2 +¿ ¿
Example: If r 1=7 i+3 j , r 2=2 i−5 j ; find the modulus and direction cosines of:

1. r 1 +r 2
2. r 2−r 1

Solution
r 1=7 i+3 j , r 2=2 i−5 j

1. r 1 +r 2=9i−2 j

|r1 + r2| = √ 92 +¿ ¿

Let cosα 1∧cos β 1 be the direction cosines of r 1 +r 2

9
cosα 1=
√85
−2
cos β 1=
√ 85

3. r 2−r 1=−5 i−8 j

|r 2−r 1| = √ (−5)2 +¿ ¿

Let cosα 2∧cos β 2 be the direction cosines ofr 2−r 1

−5
cosα 2=
√ 89
−8
cos β 2=
√ 89
UNIT VECTOR
Example: Find the unit vectors in the directions of the following vectors
1. r = 21 + 3j
2. q = 4i – 5j
3. p = 7i + 2j – 3k
4. t = 3i -5j -3k

Solution
1. Let r^ be the unit vector in the direction of r; then
r 1
=r^ = ( 2i+3 j )
|r| √13
2. Let q^ be the unit vector in the direction of q; then
q 1
q^ = = ( 4 i−5 j )
|q| √ 41
3. Let ^p be the unit vector in the direction of p; then
p 1
^p= = ( 7 i+2 j−3 k )
| p| √ 62
 4. Let t^ be the unit vector in the direction of t; then
t 1
t^ = = ( 3 i−5 j−3 k )
|t| √ 43
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON VECTORS
Example: If p = 2i - 3j; q = 3i + 5j and r = i + j; Find the values of
1. 2p + q + 3r
2. 3p – 2q
Solution
1. 2p = 2(2i – 3j ) = 4i – 6j
3r = 3( i + j ) = 3i + 3j
Therefore; 2p + q + 3r = (4i – 6j) + (3i + 5j) + (3i + 3j)
= 10i + 2j
2. 3p = 3(3i – 3j) = 9i – 9j
2q = 2(3i + 5j) = 6i + 10j
Therefore 3p – 2q = (9i – 9j) – (6i + 10j) =3i – 19j

Example: Given that ⃗

OC = a – b and ⃗
OD = 2a + 3b, where a = 2i + 3j and b = 3i – 2j, find ⃗
CD
⃗
CD=⃗
CO+ ⃗
OD=⃗
OD−⃗
OC
= (2a + 3b) – (a – b)
= 2a + 3b – a + b = a + 4b
= (2i + 3j) + 4(3i – 2j) = 14i – 5j

Evaluation: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no 5
Conclusion: Teacher summarizes the topic, marks the students’ notes, does correction and allows the
students to copy.
Assignment: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no
6

WEEK 6
MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR
The magnitude of a vector a, sometimes called the modulus of the vector is represented by |a|.

Zero Vector: The zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude.

Unit Vector: The unit vector is the vector represented by a and is such that a = |a| a

Negative Vector: The negative vector of a is written as – a

Equality of vector: Two vectors are equal when they have same magnitude and direction.
Example: Find the modulus of each of the following vectors
4. 3i + 4j
5. -2i – 5j
6. isinθ− jcosθ
Solution

4. Let r = 3i + 4j ; then |r| = √ 32 +4 2=√ 25=5

5. Let r = -2i – 5j ; then |r| = √−22−52= √ 4+25=√ 29
6. Let r = isinθ− jcosθ ; then |r| = √ sinθ 2 +¿ ¿

Example: If r 1=7 i+3 j , r 2=2 i−5 j ; find the modulus and direction cosines of:

4. r 1 +r 2
5. r 2−r 1

Solution
r 1=7 i+3 j , r 2=2 i−5 j

2. r 1 +r 2=9i−2 j

|r1 + r2| = √ 92 +¿ ¿

Let cosα 1∧cos β 1 be the direction cosines of r 1 +r 2

9
cosα 1=
√85
−2
cos β 1=
√ 85

6. r 2−r 1=−5 i−8 j

|r 2−r 1| = √ (−5)2 +¿ ¿

Let cosα 2∧cos β 2 be the direction cosines ofr 2−r 1

−5
cosα 2=
√ 89
−8
cos β 2=
√ 89
Evaluation: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no
10
Conclusion: Teacher summarizes the topic, marks the students’ notes, does correction and allows the
students to copy.
Assignment: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun
UNIT VECTOR
Example: Find the unit vectors in the directions of the following vectors
5. r = 21 + 3j
6. q = 4i – 5j
7. p = 7i + 2j – 3k
8. t = 3i -5j -3k

Solution
5. Let r^ be the unit vector in the direction of r; then
r 1
r^ = = ( 2i+3 j )
|r| √13
6. Let q^ be the unit vector in the direction of q; then
q 1
q^ = = ( 4 i−5 j )
|q| √ 41
7. Let ^p be the unit vector in the direction of p; then
p 1
^p= = ( 7 i+2 j−3 k )
| p| √ 62
8. Let t^ be the unit vector in the direction of t; then
t 1
t^ = = ( 3 i−5 j−3 k )
|t| √ 43
Evaluation: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no
10
Conclusion: Teacher summarizes the topic, marks the students’ notes, does correction and allows the
students to copy.
Assignment: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no
12
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON VECTORS
Example: If p = 2i - 3j; q = 3i + 5j and r = i + j; Find the values of
3. 2p + q + 3r
4. 3p – 2q
Solution
3. 2p = 2(2i – 3j ) = 4i – 6j
3r = 3( i + j ) = 3i + 3j
Therefore; 2p + q + 3r = (4i – 6j) + (3i + 5j) + (3i + 3j)
= 10i + 2j
4. 3p = 3(3i – 3j) = 9i – 9j
2q = 2(3i + 5j) = 6i + 10j
Therefore 3p – 2q = (9i – 9j) – (6i + 10j) =3i – 19j

Example: Given that ⃗

OC = a – b and ⃗
OD = 2a + 3b, where a = 2i + 3j and b = 3i – 2j, find ⃗
CD
⃗
CD=⃗
CO+ ⃗
OD=⃗
OD−⃗
OC
 = (2a + 3b) – (a – b)
= 2a + 3b – a + b = a + 4b
= (2i + 3j) + 4(3i – 2j) = 14i – 5j

Evaluation: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no 5
Conclusion: Teacher summarizes the topic, marks the students’ notes, does correction and allows the
students to copy.
Assignment: New Further Mathematics Project 2, by M.R Tuttuh Adegun et al. Page 262, Exercise 14, no
6

WEEK 8
Topic: Straight line
Sub-topic: Angle between lines
Duration: 80 minutes
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to calculate the angle between
two lines.
Reference Materials: New Further Mathematics Project 2 by M. R Tuttuh Adegun
Previous Knowledge: Students can draw the graph of a linear equation (straight-line graph).
Instructional Materials: Graph board and graph book.
Content: ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
The acute angle between lines of gradient m1 and m2

tanα=
| m2−m1
1+m1 m2 |
Example: Find the acute angle between the lines x + 4y = 12 and y – 2x + 6 =0.
Solution
The gradients are -1/4 and 2

| |
−1
−2
4
tanα= = |4.5| =77.47o
−1
1+( .2)
4

GRADIENT INTERCEPT FORM

The gradient intercept form of the equation of a line is y = mx + c
Example: Determine the equation of the line whose gradient is -2 and y-intercept is 3..
Solution
Let the equation of the line be y = mx + c, where m = -2 and c = 3
Hence, the equation of the line is y = -2x + 3
Presentation:
Step I: Teacher revises the last topic with the students and does necessary corrections.
Step II: Teacher introduces the new topic to the students and explains by giving illustrative examples.
Step III: Teacher welcomes and answers questions from the students.
Step IV: Teacher gives notes to the students and ensures they copy correctly.
Step V: Teacher evaluates the students on topic discussed.
Evaluation: 1. Determine the equation of the line whose gradient is 3 and y-intercept is -4.
2. Find the acute angle between the lines 2y = 3x – 8 and 5y = x + 7.
Conclusion: Teacher summarizes the topic, marks the students’ notes, does correction and allows the
students to copy.
Assignment: 1. Determine the equation of the line whose gradient is 3¼ and y-intercept is -6.
2. Find the acute angle between the lines 2y = - 5x + 8 and y = 3x - 7.

PERIOD 3
Topic: Equation of a straight line
Sub-topic: Gradient and one point form and two point form
Duration: 40 minutes
Learning Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to determine the equation of a line
in different forms.
Reference Materials: i. New Further Mathematics for SSS 2 Project 2.
Previous Knowledge: Students can calculate angle between two lines.
Instructional Materials: Graph book.
Content: GRADIENT AND ONE POINT FORM
Equation of a line through (x, y) with gradient m is y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Example: A straight line has a gradient of -3/2 and passes through the point (1, 4). Find its equation and
its intercept on the y-axis
Solution
In this case (x, y) = (1, 4) and m = - 3/2
So the equation is
3
y – 4 = - (x – 1)
2
 2y – 8 = -3(x – 1)
 2y + 3x =11
 3 11
So y = - x + ; Hence the intercept on y-axis is 5½
2 2

GRADIENT AND TWO POINT FORM

y– y1 x – x1
Equation of a line through the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)is y − y = x −x
2 1 2 1

Example: Find the equation of a line AB which passes through the points (1, -1) and (-2, -13)
Solution
y – y1 x – x 1 y−(−1 ) −13−(−1 )
Using = x2 −x1 ; x−1
=
y 2− y 1 −2−1

Therefore y + 1 = 4x – 4
 y = 4x – 5.
Thus the gradient of AB is 4.
Evaluation: Find the equation of a line AB which passes through the points (-2, -3) and (-2, -13)
Conclusion: Teacher summarizes the topic, marks the students’ notes, does correction and allows the
students to copy.
Assignment: Find the equation of a line AB which passes through the points (-1, 2) and (3, 0)
Assignment: New General Mathematics for SSS 2, by M.F Macrae et al. Page 190, Exercise 16d, no 2a,
2c

WEEK: 8 & 9

TOPIC: MEASURE IN DISPERSION AND HISTORY OF NATURE OF OPERATION RESEARCH

MEASURES OF DISPERSION OF A GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

CONTENT

 Range
 Mean Deviation
 Variance
 Standard Deviation

MEASURES OF DISPERSION: also known as measures of spread or variation describes how the data
given in any distribution are spread about the ‘Mean’, or the overall spread of the data. These measures are
the range, mean – deviation, standard deviation, variance, coefficient of variation, etc.

The Range: The range of data is the difference between the highest and the lowest value in the data. The
formula for calculation of range is:

Range = Highest value – Lowest value

Example:

The data below shows the weight of 50 students to the nearest kg.

65 58 51 36 23 40 53 59 70 51 46 59 50 67 46 39 61 62 73 60 71 51 47 32 48 40 40 51 58 67 60 69 43 52
37 26 38 50 59 40 44 54 42 68 74 45 39 48 55.

1. Prepare a grouped frequency table

2. Calculate:

 The range
 The mean deviation
 The variance
 The standard deviation

NB: Note that the standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance.

_ _ _ _
Mid-point
Class F FX /X- X/ F/X-X/ (X-X )2 F(X-X)2
X
21-30 2 25.5 51 25.5 50.4 635.04 1270.08
31-40 10 35.5 355 15.2 152 231.04 2310.40
41-40 12 45.5 546 5.2 62.4 27.04 324.48
51-60 15 55.5 832.5 4.8 72 23.04 345.60
61-70 8 65.5 524 14.8 118.4 219.04 1752.32
71-80 3 75.5 226.5 24.8 74.4 615.04 1845.12
50 2535 529.60 7848
General evaluation

1. How is the mid-point (X) ascertained in a grouped frequency table?

2. State two advantages of the mean over other measures of central tendency (i.e. median and mode)
3. The table below shows the income of forty Workers in a factory in N

61 78 70 83 92 67 66 83

76 68 79 84 82 86 81 60

78 77 86 77 81 92 80 70

70 40 75 60 74 82 77 87

63 94 76 87 81 77 87 84.

Using a class interval of 40-49, 50-59 etc.

1. Construct a grouped frequency table of the distribution.

2. Calculate the mean of the distribution.

OPERATIONS RESEARCH: DEFINITION, HISTORY AND NATURE

Operation research is an area of study which applies mathematics and statistics to

problems of management. Industry, business, commerce, organization and
production. It deals with effective management of man and machine.
System in any business enterprise or organization in order to minimise cost and
maximise profit. It is a scientific method of optimally allocating scarce resource for
effective management decision making.
Operation research started informally before the Second World War but was largely
developed during the Second World War to meet the urgent need for research in
military operations of machines and military techniques for enhancing efficiency.

STEPS IN OPERATION RESEARCH

The major steps involved in the applications of operations research in solving
management problems are:
• Identification and formulation of the problems at hand
• Construction of a (mathematical) model to solving the problems.
• Analysing or solving the model.
• Drawing or solving the model
• Drawing conclusions from the solution to the model
• Implementation of the findings or results.

MODELS: LINEAR PROGRAMMING AND TRANSPORT MODEL AND

ITS APPLICATION.
A model from the content of operations research is an idealised representation of
natural phenomenon. It is the ideal representation of a real-life situation.
Mathematical models are constructed to solve problem involving decision making.
In considering the linear programming model; the two popular methods of solving
linear programming models are the graphical and simplex method.
Example
Two types of loaves of bread A and B are made from composite flour from wheat,
corn and cassava.
Table below shows the quantity in kg of flour required for a loaf, the total
quantity of flour required in kg, and the profit on each type of loaf of bread.
Wheat flour Corn flour Cassava flour Profit
A 2 1 1 N75
B 1 2 1 N60
Quantity of 8 8 5
flour available
a) If x loaves of A and y loaves of B are made, write down five inequalities
connecting x and y.
b) Find the values of x and y if the profit is to be maximized.
c) Find the maximum profit made.
Solution
The quantity of wheat flour used for types A and B bread is (2x + y) kg. Since the
quantity of wheat flour available is 8kg it means that 2x + y ≤8. The quantity of

∴ x + 2y ≤8
com flour used is (x + 2y) kg

Similarly, the quantity of cassava flour used is (x + y)kg

:. x + y ≤5.
Also x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0
Hence the five inequalities are:
2x + y ≤ 8
x + 2y ≤ 8
x+y≤5
x≥0
y≥0
The shaded region enclosed by the polygon ABCDE satisfies the five inequalities,
The comer points are:
A(O, 4), B(2, 3), C(3, 2), D(4, 0) and E(O, 0)
Let the profit be P then P = 75x + 60y.
Comer Points Value of p = 75x + 60y
A(0,4) P = 75(0) + 60(4) = 240
B(2, 3) P = 75(2) + 60(3) = 330
C(3,2) P = 75(3) + 60(2) = 345
D(4,0) P = 75(4) + 60(0) = 300
E(O,O) P = 75(0) + 60(0) = 0
Hence the values of x and y that maximize the profit are x = 3 and y = 2.
The maximum profit made is 345.

TOPIC: OPERATIONS RESEARCH

CONTENT:

 Definition, History and nature of operations research

 Steps in operations research
 Models of operations research:

i. Linear programming models

ii. Transportation models (least cost and North Westcorner)

iii. Assignment models

 Practical application of the models.

Definition, History and nature of operations research

Operations research is called decision science or management science. It is the application of scientific
especially mathematical methods to the study and analysis of complex decision making problems. It also
means a mathematical science which is concerned with determining the maximum (of profit, performance
or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk or cost) of some real – world objective.

In a nutshell, operations research is an area of study which applies mathematics and statistics to problems
of management, industry, business, commerce, organization and production.

There are many techniques that operations research employs from other mathematical sciences such as
mathematical modelling, statistical analysis and mathematical optimization to mathematical treatment of a
process, problem or operation to determine its purpose with a view to gaining maximum efficiency. The
common characteristic of operations research is maximization of profit, performance or yield on one hand
or minimization of loss, risk or cost on the other hand. The use of operations research was first known in
1945. Operations research originated in the effort of military planners during the second world war as a
formal discipline. Charles Babbage used the principles or techniques of operations research intuitively (able
to understand situations without being told) in his research into the cost of transportation and sorting of mail
which led to England’s universal “penny cost” in 1840.

A Scientist, Percy Bridgman also used operations research techniques to solve problems in physics and
made attempt to extend it to social sciences. Scientists in the United Kingdom and United States of
America began to look for ways of making better decisions in such areas as logistics and training schedules
during the Second World War.

Around the same period about 1000 men and women were engaged in operations research activities in the
United Kingdom and about 200 operations research Scientist worked for the British Army in logics, planning
and training schedules. Operations research was no longer limited to military operational activities as a
result of growing awareness and its attendant expanded techniques but was extended to encompass
logistics, training infrastructures and equipment procurement.

There are many problems addressed by operations research which include: 1. Project training 2. Critical
path analysis 3. Network optimization 4. Facility allocation 5. Assignment problem 6. Optimal search 7.
Routing 8. Supply chain management 9. Transportation problem 10. Scheduling 11. Queuing models.

It is also widely used in government where evidenced – based policy is to be used.

CLASS ACTIVITY:

1. Define operations research.

2. Mention techniques operations research employs from other mathematical sciences.
3. Write out the common attribute of operations research
4. When was operations research first used?
5. Where did operations research originated.
6. List out the Scientist that used operations research techniques or principles to solve problems.
7. Mention problems addressed by operations research.

STEPS IN OPERATIONS RESEARCH.

There are many steps involved in the application of operations research in solving problems real world.
These steps are:

1. Identification of the management decision problem of the real world.

2. Formulation of a model for the real world problem. This step may involve the following procedures:
3. Identification of the parameters and variables which are involved in the problem;
4. Selection of the most influential variables that will make the model as simple as possible;
5. Classification of the variables into controllable and non – controllable;
6. Making verbal or written statements about the relationship between the variables based upon known
principles9 we may need to make some assumptions about the behaviour of non – controllable
variables);
7. Performance of symbolic manipulation:- manipulation through solving certain equations or in-
equations, repeat of a set of steps or a process or using statistical methods to optimize – certain
measures;
8. Interpretation of the model conclusion in terms of the characteristics of the real world problems;
9. Test and evaluation of result;
10. Implementation of the result;
11. Revision of the test as and when necessary.

The steps of operations research can be illustrate in the flow chart:

Problem Identification

Model formation of real world problem

Performance of symbolic manipulations

Test and valuation of results

Implementation of the results

Interpretation of model conclusion

Revision of the test as and when necessary

CLASS ACTIVITY:

1. Define operations research.

2. Write out the common attribute of operation research.
3. Where did operations research originated.
4. List out the Scientists that used operations research techniques or principles to solve problems.
5. Mention problems addressed by operations research.
6. Draw the flow chart that illustrate steps of operations research.
7. Mention all the steps of operations research.
8. Draw the flow chart that illustrate steps of operations research.

MODELS OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH

Definition and brief explanation of models of operations research A model is an abstraction of reality.
The map is an abstraction of reality. The map of Nigeria is an example of a model of the real shape of the
entity called Nigeria. The maps of all the continents of the world in the globe is another example of a model
of a planet called Earth. A model can also be formulated mathematically through an equation. An
operations research model is an idealized representation of a real life solutions to real world problems.

SIMULTANEOUS INEQUALITIES AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION

The solution set of a system of linear inequalities in two variables can be found by graphing the inequalities
and sharing the region of their intersection (if any) of the graphs of the solution sets of each inequality. We
now illustrate with the following

Example 1: Find the solution set of:

X+y<2

3x – y = ≥ 6

Solution:

We draw the graph of each inequalities and shade as shown above the region that satisfy each inequality.

-6

The solution set of the two simultaneous inequalities is the intersection of the two shaded portions which is
represented by the double shaded area A.

1. Show the region which satisfies simultaneously the inequalities

2x + 3y ≤ 8

X – 2y ≥ -3
X≥0

Y≤0

Solution

The graph satisfying the inequality simultaneous is the shaded region enclosed by the polygon ABCD as
shown in the figure below.

C(4,0)

B(4,0)

D(0,0)

-3

It can be verified that the vertices A, B, C and D are respectively (0, ), (1, 2), (4,0) and (0,0) as follow:

A(0, ) is obtained by solving x – 2y = -3 and x = 0 simultaneously

B(1, ) is obtained by solving x – 2y = -3 and 2x + 8y = 8 simultaneously

C(4, ) is obtained by solving simultaneously 2x + 8y = 8 and y = 0 and D(0,0) is the origin.

Note that any point in the shaded region satisfies all the inequalities

LINEAR PROGRAMMING MODELS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION Linear programming Models: It

is one of the mathematical model constructed to solve problems involving decision – making. If we wish to
obtain the optimum value of a linear function subject to constraints expressed as linear equations or in
equations. Linear programming provides the method of achieving that. For simple problems involving two
variables, the graphical method may be consider.

Examples 1:

Maximize P = 2x + 3y subject to the constraints of the inequalities.

3x + 2y = 5

2x + 3y = 4

x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0

Solution

Q
Consider the Q region called feasible region bounded by the polygon whose vertices are O, A, B, C. The
point o has coordinates (0,0)

The vertex A has coordinate (0, ) and is obtained by solving simultaneously the equation: 3x + 2y = 5 and x
=0

B( ) is obtained by solving the equations 3x + 2y = 5 and 2x + 3y = 4 simultaneously.

Coordinates of the vertex C (0, ) is obtained by solving the equation 3x + 2y = 5 and y = 0 simultaneously.

Hence we have O(0,0) , A(0, ), B() and C(0, ) as the vertices of the polygon, we call the matrix corner points

At O(0,0); P = 2(0) + 3(0) = 0

At A(0,); P = 2(0) + 3() = 7.5

At B(); P = 2() + 3() = 4

At C(); P = 2(+ 3() = 3.33

The maximum value occurs at the corner point A(0,)

Hence maximum value of p = 7.5

Example 2:

A carpentry workshop produces two types of furniture A and B which are first processed by a cutting
machine and then sent to another machine for finishing.

Types A and B require 10man hours and 6 man hours respectively by the cutting machine while types A
and B also require 5man hours and 4 man hours of finishing.

Cutting requires up to 1000 man hours per week while finishing requires up to 600 man hours per week.

Given that x and y are the units of type A and B furniture produced respectively.

1. Write down four inequalities in terms of x and y satisfying all the conditions in this problem.
2. Illustrate these inequalities graphically.

Solution

C(100,0)

100

B(16,126)

200

A(0,200)

126

16
yy

Let the cutting machine = x

Also the finishing machine = y

The constraint of cutting is

10x + 5y = 1000

The constraint of finishing is

6x + 4y = 600

The production is given by

P=x+y

Hence there is need to maximize

P=x+y

Subject to the constraints

10x + 5y = 1000

6x + 4y = 600

X>0,y>0

Using the above figure, the corner points have coordinate

0(0,0); A (0,200); B(16,126) and C(100,0).

At 0(0,0); P = 0 + 0

At A(0,200); P = 0+ 200 =200

At B(16,126); P = 16+ 126 =142

At C(100,0); P = 100 + 0 =100

Class Activity

1. Explain linear programming model.

2. Illustration graphically (by shading) the region P of all points (x,y) which satisfy simultaneously the
following inequalities

Use your graph to find the region

1. The minimum values of x and y

2. The maximum values of x and y
3. The maximum and minimum value of
TRANSPORTATION MODELS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION.

Transportation models

Transportation models are another class of programming problems in operations research. It is a problem
in which goods are transported from specified set of destinations based on the supply and demand of the
source and destination respectively, such that the total cost of transportation is minimized.

Two types of transportation problems are:

1. Balanced transportation problem: In this problem, the sum of all the supplies is equal to the sum of
demands of all the destinations.
2. Unbalanced transportation problem: This type of problem is when the sum of all the supplies from all
the sources is not equal to the sum of the demands of all the destinations.

Three most popular techniques or methods for solving transportation problems are:

1. Northwest corner cell method

2. Least cost cell method
3. Vogel’s approximation method

In secondary school level we shall consider northwest corner cell method and least cost cell method for the
solution of our transportation problem each method can be illustrate as worked.

Example 1

The transportation costs in thousands of naira, the available stock of supplies from three sources and the
demands at three destinations are shown below:

II

III

Demand

Sources

Supply

Destinations
3 8 5
4 4 2
6 5 8
6 9 5

Using the northwest corner cell method:

1. Find how much units of stocks should be transported from each source to each destination.
2. Find the minimum total transportation cost.

SOLUTION:

(a)

Destinations

I II III Supply
3 85 5
4

Sources 4 2 8

B
6
58 7
C
6
95
Demand

We observe that total supplies are equal to the total demands. Let us proceed to the next stage now;

The explanation from the above table is as follow;

We start from Northwest corner or upper left corner.

We increase the cost from A to III to I. Then source A to I, II and III will be equal to 5 and so forth.

(b)Minimum Transportation cost

Least cost cell method.

Example 2:

The costs of transportation in thousands of naira, the available stocks of goods at three difference sources
and the requirements at three different destinations are shown below:

Requirement

11

13
A

P3

R3

Sources

Available stock

10

12

6
10

Using the least cost method

Example 1:

1. Find how much units of stock of good that should be transported from each source to each
destination;
2. Find the minimum total transportation cost.

Solution (a) ::

Requirement

PQR

Sources

ABC

Available stock

Destination
3

10

11 14 7 10/0
17 8 14 12/0
9 23 3 8/0
6 11 13 30

In this method, you start your increase or decrease of stock from the least value e.g the least value in this
table is 3.

ASSIGNMENT MODEL AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Assignment models

An assignment problem is a special type of transportation problem whereby each source has the capacity
to satisfy the demand of any of its destinations. The assignment problem can be classified into two namely:

1. Balanced assignment problem.

2. Unbalanced assignment problem.

In balanced assignment problem, the number of rows (Jobs) is equal to number of columns (operators)
while in an unbalanced assignment problem the number of rows is not equal to the number of columns.

We have many ways of solving the assignment problems but one way that saves time and labour is called
Hungarian method and this method provides easy solution of an assignment problem through row and
column reduction of a matrix but the optimization of the solution on the basis of iteration. This Hungarian
method is also known as Reduction matrix method or Flood’s technique.

Example 1:

Four operations A,B,C and D are assigned to four machines I,II,III and IV as shown below:

I II III IV
A 9 4 12 14
2 8 17 2
B 96 1 1

C
4 10 8 6
D
Assign operators to machines so that total cost is minimized.

Solution:

Step 1:- Subtract the minimum element of each row from all the elements, e.g from row A, 4 is the least
element, subtract it from all the elements in row A.

A I II III IV
10
0
B 5 8
0
0
C 6 15 0
85
D 64 2

Step II- put on one zero in the table of each row or column

Step III- cross (x) all the other zeros in the same column indicating that the assignment cannot be made
there.

Step IV- From the table, one can observe that there is one assignment in each row and in each column.

An optimal assignment in this dispensation can be obtain as follow:

Row A, Column II

Row B, Column I

Row C, Column III

Row D, Column I

Hence optimal assignment plan is:

Location A, Contractor II

Location B, Contractor I

Location C, Contractor IV

Location D, Contractor I

I II III IV
A 9 4(1) 12 14
2(1) 8 17 2
B 9 6 1(1) 1

C
4(1) 10 8 6
D

Total minimum cost

Class Activity

1. Explain assignment problem.

2. List two classes of assignment problem we have discussed
3. Outline ways of solving assignment problem.
4. Assign jobs to operators in the assignment problem shown in the table below

Operators

Jobs

A I II III IV
12 4 7 9
B 8 14 17 9
11 13 9 9
C D 9 13 8 11

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

1. What is a model of Operations Research?

2. Using a scale of 2cm to 1 unit on each axis, illustrate graphically the region R of the plane defined by
the following inequalities

Use your diagram to determine on the region R, the maximum and the minimum value

1. Illustrate graphically, the region R of all points which satisfy the inequalities

Use your graph to find in the region R the maximum value; minimum value of

1. The costs in thousand of naira, the source availabilities and the destination requirement of a
transportation problem are given in the table below

Destination

Sources

Requirement 25 20 18 12

Availability

P 1234
8366
Q5576
6443
R
5153
S

25

20

3
3

Using the northwest corner cell method?

(a)Write down the transportation plan;

(b)Find the least total cost of transportation plan.

1. Four different operators for each machine in hundreds of naira are indicated in the table below

A 6 8 12 7
9 6 10 7
Operators 5 8 11 8

C 11 5 9 4

a. Assign operators to machines so that total cost is minimized

Machines

b. Calculate the minimum total cost.

ASSIGNMENT

1. In what year was operation research first used?

2. Operations research originated from where?
3. Name the Scientists that used operations research.
4. Draw the flow – chart that illustrate steps of operations research.
5. Study about models operations research, linear programming transportation (least cost and not west
corner) and assignment practical application of the models.

REFERENCE TEXTS:

1. Further mathematics project 1 by M. R. Tuttuh- Adegun et al 5th revised edition.

2. New further mathematics scholastic series by T. R. Moses.
3. NPS Further Mathematics Project by Tuttuti-Adegun M. R
4. Further mathematics by Egbe E and Co
5. Additional Mathematics for W. A by J. F Talbert and Co
6. New Further Mathematics Scholastic Series by T. R Moses; Spectrum Books Limited
7. Hidden Facts in Further Mathematics by

WEEK: 10

TOPIC: MODELLING

DEFINITION OF MODELLING

Modelling in Mathematics is the application of mathematics to real life situations.

USES OF MODELLING IN MATHEMATICS

  Industry
 Commerce
 Government
 Weather forecasting
 Health institution
 Educational institutions etc.

AREAS MOSTLY USED OF MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

 Predictions of population growth

o Financial business (stock trading)
o War and conflicts
o The spread of deceases and epidemics.

MODEL: Model in Mathematics is a concept that represents a real life situation. This is developed to help in
the understanding of the physical phenomena, such as: to make observations, collections of data and to
carry out an experiment.

EXAMPLES OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL

1. Theory of Malthusian population growth. i.e. ( the rate of food is growing arithmetically while the
population is growing geometrically)
2. House hold financial budget
3. Geographical projection of an area or region on earth surface.(planning).
4. The behavior of consumers choice in the prices of commodities.

VARIABLES

There are basically six variables in Mathematical modeling. i.e.

Output variables, input variables, random variables, decision variables, state variables and exogenous
variables.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: This represents the output or outcome whose variation is being studied to see if
and how much it varies as the independent variables vary in the simple stochastic (randomly determined)

linear model. i.e. =a+ + . The term is the ith value of the dependent variable , is ith value

of the independent variable and is the error and contains the variability of the dependent variable not
explained by the independent variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Are the inputs or causes (potential reasons for variation). i.e. x is input and y

is output. Y = f(x). for multiple independent variables z = f(x,y). =a+ + + …+ + .

Where n is the number of independent variables.

ASSESSMENT: New Further mathematics project 3, page 225, exercise 15, question 3, 4, 6 and 7.

MODELLING (II)

EXOGENOUS VARIABLE: These are independent variable that affects a model without being affected by
it, and whose qualitative characteristics and method of generation are not specified by the model builder.
An exogenous variable is used for setting arbitrary external conditions and not in achieving a more realistic
model behavior.
CONSTRUCTION OF MODELLING AND IT`S APPLICATION.

CONSTRUCTION

Let x(t) be the amount of substance still present at time t. From differential calculus is the time rate of

change of decay. Then, the time rate of change is proportional to x. i.e. = kx…..(i)

EXAMPLE

Observations have shown that the rate of change of the atmospheric pressure. Given that the pressure at

6000m above the sea level is half its value at sea level. Find the formula for the pressure at any height

h.= Inp = kh +c

P= P= , (A = )

=A …..(i)

When the height (h) is zero

=A =A

Therefore, at height (h) = 6000m

P=

=P =

= 1 (formula for the pressure at any height h).

ASSESSMENT: work out the following questions: New Further Mathematics project 3, page 224, Exercise
15. Questions 3 ,9 and 10