SEHS4653

Control System Analysis

Unit 1
Introduction to Control Systems and Elementary
Mathematics
(Reference: [1] chapter 1, Appendices A and B )

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 Content
• Introduction
• Definitions
• Examples of Control Systems
• Closed-loop Control Versus Open-loop Control
• Design and Compensation of Control Systems
• Review on Calculus
• Laplace Transform
– Properties and Theorem
– Step and Ramp Functions
– Inverse Laplace Transform
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 Introduction
• Historical Review
– James Watt (1781)
• First significant work in automatic control
• Centrifugal governor speed controller of a steam engine

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 Introduction
• Historical Review
– Nyquist (1932)
• developed a relatively simple procedure for determining the
stability of closed-loop systems on the basis of open-loop
response to steady-state sinusoidal inputs.
– H. W. Bode (1945)
• Bode-diagram method
(frequency-response method) Core of classical
control theory
– W. R. Evans (1948)
• Root-locus method

Can design control systems that are in stable and acceptable, but not
optimal in any meaningful sense. 4
 Introduction
• Historical Review
– Late 1950s: focus on designing optimal systems
– 1960s: digital computers help the development of

Modern control theory

modern control theory to cope with the increased
complexity of modern plants
– 1960 to 1980: optimal control of both deterministic and
stochastic systems
– 1980 to present: focus on robust control and H control
– Recent applications to non-engineering: biological,
biomedical, economics, …

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 Definitions
• Controlled Variable and Control Signal or Manipulated Variable
– Controlled variable: quantity or condition that is measured and controlled.
Normally, it is the output of the system
– Control signal (or manipulated variable): quantity or condition that is varied by the
controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable
– Control means measuring the value of the controlled variable of the system and
applying the control signal to the system to correct or limit deviation of controlled
variable
• Plants
– Any physical object to be controlled, e.g. a mechanical device, a heating furnace, a
chemical reactor, or a spacecraft
• Processes
– Any operation to be controlled, e.g. chemical, economic, and biological processes

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 Definitions
• Disturbances
– A signal that tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a system, can be
generated internally or externally

• Feedback Control
– An operation that, in the presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the difference
between the output of a system and reference input
– Here only unpredictable disturbances are so specified, since predictable or known
disturbances can always be compensated for within the system.

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 Examples of Control Systems
• Speed Control System

• Plant (controlled system): Engine

• Controlled variable: speed of the engine
• Error signal: difference between desired speed
and actual speed
• Control signal: the amount of fuel
• Disturbance: unexpected change in the load

Watt’s speed governor for an engine.

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 Examples of Control Systems
• Temperature Control System

• Plant (controlled system): electric furnace

• Controlled variable: temperature of the furnace
• Error signal: difference between desired and actual temperature
• Control signal: the current of the heater
• Disturbance: heat loss in the electric furnace

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 Closed-loop Control Versus Open-loop Control
• Feedback Control Systems
– A system that maintains a prescribed relationship between the
output and the reference input by comparing them and using the
difference as a means of control
– Examples: room temperature control system, human body

• Closed-loop Control System

– The actuating error signal (the difference between the reference
input signal and the feedback (or output) signal) is fed to the
controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the
system to a desired value

The terms feedback control and closed-loop control are used

interchangeably.

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 Closed-loop Control Versus Open-loop Control

• Open-loop Control System

– The output has no effect on the control action, i.e. neither
measured nor fed back for comparison with the input
– The accuracy of the system depends on calibration
– only if the relationship between the input and output is known
and if there are neither internal nor external disturbances
– Example: washing machine, traffic control by means of signals
(operate on a time basis)

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 Closed-loop Control Versus Open-loop Control
• Closed-loop and Open-loop Control Systems

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 Design and Compensation of Control System
• Compensation
– modification of the system dynamics to satisfy the given
specifications
– Examples: root-locus [Unit 4], and frequency-response (Bode
diagram) [Unit 5]
• Performance Specifications
– The requirements imposed on the control system
– May be given in terms of transient response and steady-state
requirements [Unit 3], or frequency-response requirements [Unit
5]
– May be given in terms of precise numerical or qualitative
statements
– Examples: accuracy, relative stability, speed of response

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 Design and Compensation of Control System
• System Compensation
– Adjusting the system gain value will improve the steady-state
behavior but will result in poor stability or even instability.
– Modifying the structure (redesign) or by incorporating additional
devices or components to alter the overall behavior
– A device inserted into the system for the purpose of satisfying
the specifications is called a compensator [Unit 6]

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 Design and Compensation of Control System
• Design Procedures
1. Set up a mathematical model of the control system and adjust the
parameters of a compensator
2. Checking of the system performance by analysis with each
adjustment of the parameters (use available computer software to
avoid much of the numerical drudgery necessary for this checking)
3. Construct a prototype and test the open-loop system after obtaining a
satisfactory mathematical models
4. Close the loop and test the performance of the resulting closed-loop
system in case that absolute stability of the closed loop is assured
5. Adjust system parameters and make changes in the prototype until the
system meets the specifications by analyzing each trial, and the
results of the analysis must be incorporated into the next trial
The final system meets the performance specifications; and is reliable
and economical

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 Review on Calculus
Solution of Quadratic Equations YouTube video

• An equation of the form 𝑎 0 , is said to be a

quadratic equation
• The equation can have at most 2 solutions (or roots)
• The solutions can be obtained by factorization or Quadratic Formula
𝑏 𝑏 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥
2𝑎
• The term, , is called the discriminant
Discriminant Nature of Roots Roots
Case 1: > 0 2 distinct real roots
𝑥 and 𝑥
Case 2: = 0 Double real roots 𝑥 𝑥
Case 3: < 0 No real roots ⇒ 2
𝑥 and 𝑥
complex roots 16
 Example 1
Solve the equations, (a) 2𝑥 3𝑥 1 0, (b) 𝑥 6𝑥 9 0, and (c)
𝑥 2𝑥 5 0.

Answer: 3 9 8
𝑥 0.5
3 3 4 2 1 4
(a) a = 2, b = 3, c =1, 𝑥
2 2 3 9 8
𝑥 1
Case 1: two real roots 4

6 6 4 1 9 Case 2: double real

(b) a = 1, b = 6, c = 9, 𝑥
2 1
3 roots

2 2 4 1 5 2 16 𝑥 1 𝑗2
(c) a = 1, b = 2, c = 5, 𝑥
2 1 2 𝑥 1 𝑗2

Case 3: no real roots (2 complex roots) Complex conjugate

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 Review on Calculus
Complex Number
• The following equation is not solvable in
• Then, we introduce a new number (it is not real), denoted by i
𝑖 1 0, 𝑖 1
• This number is quite useful in studying electricity and sometimes
it is denoted by j
• Hence, we have
Imaginary unit (j2 = −1)

z = a + jb Imaginary part (Im)

Real part (Re)
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 Review on Calculus
Complex Number
• A complex conjugate is found by changing the sign of the imaginary
part from positive to negative (or negative to positive) of a complex
number (Example 1)
𝑧 𝑎 𝑗𝑏, 𝑧̅ 𝑎 𝑗𝑏

• Complex Plane
Complex conjugate Polar Form:
in polar form? 𝑧 𝑟∠𝜃

Equations for changing

rectangular and polar forms?
Rectangular Form:
Polar form of real number, 1 and ‐2 ?
𝑧 𝑎 𝑗𝑏
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 Review on Calculus
Ordinary Differential Equations YouTube video

• Focus on 2nd order homogenous equations with constant coefficients

𝑦 𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑦 0
• Consider the characteristic equation (or auxiliary equation), we have
𝜆 𝑎𝜆 𝑏 0
• It’s now like a quadratic equation!
• Hence, the general solution of the 2nd order differential equation will be
Case Roots General Solution
1 (> 0) Distinct real: 𝜆 , 𝜆 𝑦 𝑐 𝑒 𝑐 𝑒
2 (= 0) Double real: 𝜆 𝑦 𝑐 𝑐 𝑥 𝑒
3 (< 0) Complex conjugate:
𝜆 ,𝜆 𝑦 𝑒 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑥 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑥

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 Review on Calculus
Partial Fraction Decomposition YouTube video
• Use to find the inverse of Laplace transform
• In control systems analysis, F(s), usually occurs in the form 𝐹 𝑠 ,
where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials
2𝑠 5 3 1
For example,
𝑠 3𝑠 2 𝑠 1 𝑠 2

• There are 4 types of partial fraction decomposition

(1) Non-repeated linear factors in denominator
𝐹 𝑠 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑐 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑐

(2) Repeated linear factor in denominator

𝐹 𝑠 𝐴 𝑋 𝑌
⋯
𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎
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 Review on Calculus
Partial Fraction Decomposition

(3) Non-repeated quadratic factors in denominator

𝐹 𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝐵 𝐶𝑠 𝐷
𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑐𝑠 𝑑 𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑐𝑠 𝑑

(4) Repeated quadratic factor in denominator

𝐹 𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝐵 𝑊𝑠 𝑋 𝑌𝑠 𝑍
⋯
𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑏

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 Example 2
Find the partial fraction of
1 0 0 4 1 9
𝑠 3
𝑠 9 2 1
Answer:
Write
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝑠 3 𝐵 𝑠 3
𝑠 9 𝑠 3 𝑠 3 𝑠 9
So that
𝐴 𝑠 3 𝐵 𝑠 3 1
Put s = 3, and s = 3 respectively on both sides of the above equality. We have,
1
𝐴 3 3 𝐵 3 3 1⇒𝐵
6
1
𝐴 3 3 𝐵 3 3 1⇒𝐴
6
1 1 1 1 1
∴
𝑠 9 6𝑠 3 6𝑠 3
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 Example 3
1
Find the partial fraction of 𝑠 𝑠 .
2

Answer:
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝑠 2 𝐵𝑠
Write
𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 2

𝐴 𝑠 2 𝐵𝑠 1

1
𝑠 2, 2𝐵 1 ⇒𝐵
2
1
𝑠 0, 2𝐴 1 ⇒𝐴
2

1 11 1 1
∴
𝑠 𝑠 2 2𝑠 2𝑠 2
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 Laplace Transform: Introduction
• Time domain and transform domain
– The study of control systems, linear systems and signal
processing will usually analyse the systems or signals either in
time domain or other transform domain
– Transform domain: Laplace, Fourier and z-transforms
• Fourier, Laplace and z-transforms
– Fourier transform (FT) decomposes a function of time (a signal)
into its constituent frequencies  Frequency domain
– Laplace transform (LT) transforms a function of a real variable t
(often time) to a function of a complex variable s  s-domain
– Z-transform is considered as a discrete-time equivalent of the
Laplace transform  z-domain
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 The Laplace Transform
• Convert sinusoidal, exponential functions into algebraic
functions
• Use to solve linear differential equations  algebraic
equations in a complex variable s
• Simultaneously obtain both transient component and steady-
state components

Behaviour
Algebraic
described by
manipulation
differential Solution
of equations
equation
Laplace Inverse Laplace
Transformation s-domain Transformation
Time domain Time domain

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 The Laplace Transform

f (t) = a function of time t such that f (t) = 0 for t < 0

s = a complex variable (= 𝜎 𝑗𝜔
ℒ = Laplace transform operator
F(s) = Laplace transform of f (t)

Inverse Laplace Transform

ℒ = Inverse Laplace transform operator

c = the abscissa of convergences, a real constant and is chosen larger than
the real parts of all singular points of F(s)
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 Properties and Theorem
Addition and Subtraction

Multiplication

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 Properties and Theorem
• Differentiation

where f (0) is the initial value of f (t) evaluated at t = 0

• Integration

where 𝑓 0 𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 evaluated at t = 0

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 Properties and Theorem
• Final Value Theorem

→ →

where lim 𝑓 𝑡 exists

→
It relates to the steady-state behaviour of f (t) to the behaviour of sF(s)

• Initial Value Theorem

→
where t > 0
It is the counterpart of the final value theorem

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 Step Function

t
0

A 𝐴
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠

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 Ramp Function

t
0 1

𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝑒
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 𝐴𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
𝐴 𝐴
𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
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 Example 4
Use the Laplace Transform Table to determine the Laplace Transform
of the following functions:
(a) 𝑡𝑒 and (b) 𝑒 sin 377𝑡

Answer:

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 Example 5
Find the solution of x(t) of the differential equation with zero initial
condition, 𝑥 𝑡 2𝑥 𝑡 3𝑥 𝑡 3, using Laplace Transform

Answer:
From the Laplace transform table,
3
𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 𝑠𝑥 0 𝑥 0 2 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 𝑥 0 3𝑋 𝑠
𝑠
With zero initial condition, 𝑥 0 0, 𝑥 0
0. We have,
3
𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 2𝑠𝑋 𝑠 3𝑋 𝑠
𝑠
3
𝑠 2𝑠 3 𝑋 𝑠
𝑠
3
∴𝑋 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 2𝑠 3
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 Example 5
Answer:
3 3
𝑋 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 2𝑠 3 𝑠 𝑠 3 𝑠 1
By partial fraction decomposition,
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴 𝑠 1 𝑠 3 𝐵𝑠 𝑠 1 𝐶𝑠 𝑠 3
𝑋 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 3 𝑠 1 𝑠 𝑠 3 𝑠 1
So that,
𝐴 𝑠 3 𝑠 1 𝐵𝑠 𝑠 1 𝐶𝑠 𝑠 3 3
Put s = 0, s = 3, and s = 1 respectively on both sides of the above equality. We
have
𝐴 0 3 0 1 𝐵 0 0 1 𝐶 0 0 3 3⟹𝐴 1
1
𝐴 3 3 3 1 𝐵 3 3 1 𝐶 3 3 3 3⟹𝐵
4
3
𝐴 1 3 1 1 𝐵 1 1 1 𝐶 1 1 3 3⟹𝐶
4

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 Example 5
Answer:
By partial fraction expansion,
1 3
1 4 4
𝑋 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 3 𝑠 1

Hence, the inverse Laplace transform becomes,

1 3
∴𝑥 𝑡 1 𝑒 𝑒
4 4

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 Example 6
Find the solution of v(t) of the differential equation with zero initial condition,
1
2𝑣 𝑡 𝑣 𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
2
Answer:
Taking Laplace Transform, we have
1 1
2𝑉 𝑠 𝑠𝑉 𝑠 𝑣 0
2 𝑠
With zero initial condition and rearranging the terms, we have

1 1 1 1 2
2𝑉 𝑠 𝑠𝑉 𝑠 → 𝑉 𝑠 2 𝑠 → 𝑉 𝑠
2 𝑠 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 4

Taking Inverse Laplace Transform from the Table, we have

1 1
𝑣 𝑡 2 1 𝑒 1 𝑒
4 2
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