INVESTIGATION OF PHYSICAL

AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

SISAL, JUTE AND COIR REINFORCED
EPOXY MATRIX COMPOSITES

A Project Report (Project work – 2)

Submitted by

GOWRISANKAR V 21ME015
HARIHARAN S 21MEL22
SYED AMEEN S 21MEL49

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

ERODE – 638052

MAY 2025
 NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

Certified that this project report “INVESTIGATION OF PHYSICAL AND

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SISAL, JUTE AND COIR REINFORCED
EPOXY MATRIX COMPOSITES” is the bona-fide work of

GOWRISANKAR V 21ME015
HARIHARAN S 21MEL22
SYED AMEEN S 21MEL49

Who carried out the project work under my supervision. Further that to the best of my
knowledge the work reported here in does not form part of any other project work on the
basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other
candidates

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Dr. M. MUTHUKUMAR, M.E., Ph.D., Mr. M. MOHAMED AJMAL MAHASIN, M.E.,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGG.
NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE NANDHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
ERODE 638 052 ERODE 638 052

Submitted for the End Semester Project Viva-Voce Examination held on ……………

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We first and foremost, our heart full thanks to our Parents for giving us an
opportunity to do this engineering course successfully.

We wish to express profound gratitude to Thiru. V. Shanmugam, Chairman, Sri

Nandha Educational Trust, Thiru. S. Nandhakumar Pradeep, Secretary, Sri Nandha
Educational Trust and Thiru. S. Thirumoorthi, Secretary, Nandha Educational
Institutions for providing opportunities in all possible ways for our improvement.

We wish to convey our gratefulness to our cherished

Principal, Dr. U.S. Ragupathy, Ph.D., for his strong support and motivation towards a
great level of success in our career.

We take this opportunity to express our thanks to our beloved

Head of the Department, Dr. M. Muthukumar, M.E., Ph.D., for their help and
encouragement.

We articulate our genuine thanks to our Project Co-ordinator,

Dr. N. Senniangiri, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor who have been the key spring of
motivation to us throughout the completion of our project work.

We sincerely thank to supervisor Project Guide, Mr. M. Mohamed Ajmal

Mahasin, M.E., Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering for his

valuable guidance to complete this project.

We express our sincere thanks to all Mechanical Engineering Department Faculty

Members for their help in completing this project.

 ABSTRACT

The use of natural fibers focuses on the investigation of the physical and mechanical
properties of natural fiber-reinforced epoxy matrix composites using Sisal, Jute, and
Coir fibers. With growing interest in sustainable and eco-friendly materials, natural
fibers have gained attention as potential reinforcements in polymer composites due to
their biodegradability, low cost, and favorable strength-to-weight ratios. In this study,
composite specimens were fabricated by reinforcing an epoxy matrix with Sisal, Jute,
and Coir fibers in various combinations. To evaluate their mechanical behavior, a series
of standardized tests were conducted, including tensile, compression, flexural, and
impact tests. The results were analyzed to compare the performance of each fiber-
reinforced composite, highlighting the influence of fiber type on the mechanical
properties. The study aims to identify the most effective natural fiber reinforcement for
structural applications and contribute to the development of sustainable composite
materials in engineering. The experimental work involved preparing specimens using
hand lay-up techniques followed by controlled curing processes. The mechanical tests
were conducted according to ASTM standards to ensure accurate and reliable results.
The study provides valuable insights for the use of natural fiber composites in
automotive, construction, and packaging industries, promoting the shift toward greener
engineering solutions

Keywords - Natural fibers, hybrid composites, sisal, jute, coconut fiber, natural fiber-
reinforced composites, mechanical properties, ASTM standards.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No. Title Page No.

ABSTRACT i

LIST OF FIGURES v

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Natural Fiber Composites 1

1.2 Classification of Composite Materials 2

1.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) 2

1.2.2 Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) 3

1.2.3 Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) 3

1.3 Function of Fibers 4

1.4 Types of Fiber Reinforcements 4

1.4.1 Carbon Fiber 5

1.4.2 Glass Fiber 5

1.4.3 Ceramic Fiber 6

1.4.4 Natural Fiber 6

1.5 Composite Manufacturing Processes 7

1.5.1 Hand Lay-up Process 7

1.5.2 Spray Up Process 8

1.5.3 Filament Winding Process 9

ii
 1.5.4 Resin Transfer Moulding Process 9

1.5.5 Pultrusion Process 10

1.5.6 Vacuum Bag Moulding 11

1.5.7 Vacuum Injection Moulding 11

1.5.8 Autoclave Process 12

1.5.9 Compression Moulding Process 13

1.6 Advantages of Fiber Reinforced

15
Composites

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 17

3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 22

3.1 Problem Identification 22

3.2 Possible Solution 22

4 METHODOLOGY 23

5 MATERIALS AND METHODS 24

5.1 Epoxy Resin 24

5.2 Sisal 25

5.3 Jute 26

5.4 Coir 27

5.5 Composition Properties 28

5.6 Epoxy Resin Properties 29

5.7 Composites Manufacturing 30

5.8 Testing Methods 32

iii
 5.8.1 Tensile Test 32

5.8.2 Compression Test 33

5.8.3 Flexural Test 34

5.8.4 Impact Test 35

6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36

6.1 Tensile Properties 36

6.2 Bending Properties 38

6.3 Compression Properties 41

6.4 Izod Impact Properties 45

7 CONCLUSION 47

References 48

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

1.1 Hand Lay-up Process 8

1.2 Spray up Process 8

1.3 Filament Winding Process 9

1.4 Resin Transfer Moulding Process 10

1.5 Pultrusion Process 10

1.6 Vacuum Bag Moulding 11

1.7 Vacuum Injection Moulding 12

1.8 Autoclave Process 13

1.9 Compression Moulding Process 14

4.1 Methodology 23

5.1 Epoxy Resin 24

5.2 Sisal 25

5.3 Jute 26

5.4 Coir 27

5.5 Fabricated Composite Plate 1 31

5.6 Fabricated Composite Plate 2 32

5.7 Tensile Test 32

5.8 Compression Test 34

5.9 Impact Test 35

6.1 Graphical Representative of Tensile Test 38

v
6.2 Comparison of Tensile Test 38

6.3 Graphical Representative of Bending Test 41

6.4 Comparison of Tensile Test 41

6.5 Graphical Representative of Compression Test 44

6.6 Comparison of Tensile Test 44

6.7 Graphical Representative of Izod Impact Test 46

6.8 Comparison of Tensile Test 46

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

5.1 Composition Properties 28

5.2 Epoxy Resin Properties 29

5.3 Composition ratios of Fibers and Resin 31

6.1 Tensile Test Result 37

6.2 Bending Test Result 40

6.3 Compression Test Result 42

6.4 Izod Impact Test Result 45

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATION EXPANSION

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

NFC Natural Fiber Composite

PMC Polymer Matrix Composite

MMC Metal Matrix Composite

CMC Ceramic Matrix Composite

CFRP Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers

GFRP Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics

FRC Fiber Reinforced Composite

SFRC Sisal Fiber Reinforced Composites

viii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Natural fiber-reinforced composites are emerging as eco-friendly alternatives to

synthetic materials. Sisal, Jute, and Coir fibers offer advantages like low cost,
renewability, and biodegradability. When combined with epoxy resin, they can improve
mechanical strength and sustainability. This study focuses on the mechanical behavior
of these hybrid composites to evaluate their potential for industrial applications.

1.1 NATURAL FIBER COMPOSITES

Natural fiber composites (NFCs) have emerged as a sustainable alternative to

traditional synthetic fiber composites due to their eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness,
and abundance. These composites are made by reinforcing a polymer matrix with
natural fibers such as sisal, jute, hemp, coir, and kenaf. The use of natural fibers offers
significant benefits, including low density, biodegradability, and reduced carbon
footprint, making them ideal for a range of applications. Natural fibers possess good
specific strength and stiffness, making them suitable for lightweight composite
materials.

These fibers are derived from renewable resources, ensuring sustainable material
development. Additionally, NFCs can be manufactured with natural fillers such as wood
powder, wheat straw, or rice husk to further enhance their properties. The combination
of fibers and fillers results in improved mechanical, thermal, and acoustic properties,
making NFCs versatile and multifunctional. The primary applications of natural fiber
composites are found in the automotive, construction, packaging, and furniture
industries. For instance, door panels, dashboards, and roofing materials are increasingly
being made from NFCs due to their light weight and durability.

Furthermore, the reduced dependency on synthetic materials aligns with global

sustainability goals. However, challenges such as moisture absorption, variability in

1
fiber quality, and weak fiber-matrix adhesion remain obstacles. These issues can be
addressed through chemical treatments, surface modifications, and hybridization with
other materials. Such advancements have significantly improved the compatibility and
performance of NFCs in recent years. Overall, natural fiber composites are transforming
material science by offering a sustainable, efficient, and cost-effective alternative for
diverse applications. Their growth reflects the increasing emphasis on renewable and
environmentally responsible material solutions.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

The composite materials are classified based on many parameters and it is prepared
by different processing techniques. The classification has been discussing in this chapter
based on the types of matrix and reinforcement used. The composite materials are
classified based on the matrix into three types, are

1. Polymer matrix composite

2. Metal matrix composite

3. Ceramic matrix composite

1.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) are materials composed of a polymer matrix

reinforced with fibers such as glass, carbon, aramid, or natural fibers. The polymer
matrix binds the fibers, ensuring load transfer, and provides shape and environmental
resistance. PMCs are lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and exhibit high specific strength
and stiffness, making them ideal for demanding applications. The polymer matrix in
PMCs can be classified into two types: thermosets, such as epoxy and polyester, which
offer excellent heat resistance and dimensional stability; and thermoplastics, like
polypropylene and nylon, known for their recyclability and impact resistance.

The reinforcement fibers significantly enhance the mechanical properties, such as

tensile strength and stiffness, of the composite. PMCs are widely used in industries such
2
as aerospace, automotive, marine, and sports equipment due to their superior
performance-to-weight ratio. Their ability to be molded into complex shapes makes
them versatile for various structural applications. Moreover, the incorporation of natural
fibers into PMCs has gained attention as a sustainable and cost-effective alternative,
promoting eco-friendly material solutions.

1.2.2 Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) are advanced materials consisting of a metal or

metal alloy matrix reinforced with a secondary phase such as ceramic particles, fibers,
or whiskers. Common matrix materials include aluminum, magnesium, titanium, and
copper, while reinforcements often include silicon carbide (SiC), aluminum oxide
(Al₂O₃), or carbon fibers. The reinforcement enhances mechanical, thermal, and wear
properties, making MMCs suitable for high-performance applications. MMCs exhibit
superior strength, stiffness, and thermal conductivity compared to conventional metals.

They are also more resistant to wear, creep, and high-temperature deformation,
making them ideal for use in aerospace, automotive, and defense industries. For
example, MMCs are employed in aircraft structures, engine components, brake rotors,
and thermal management systems. Despite their advantages, MMCs face challenges in
manufacturing, such as achieving uniform reinforcement distribution and bonding
between the matrix and reinforcement.

Advanced fabrication methods like powder metallurgy, stir casting, and squeeze
casting are used to overcome these challenges. Overall, MMCs offer a unique
combination of properties, bridging the gap between traditional metals and ceramics,
and are driving innovations in high-performance material design.

1.2.3 Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) are a class of advanced materials where a

ceramic matrix is reinforced with ceramic fibers, whiskers, or particulates to improve
mechanical properties. Common matrix materials include silicon carbide (SiC),
3
aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), and zirconium dioxide (ZrO₂), while reinforcements often
consist of SiC or carbon fibers. These reinforcements address the inherent brittleness of
ceramics by enhancing toughness and resistance to crack propagation.

CMCs exhibit exceptional properties such as high-temperature resistance, low

density, excellent thermal stability, and superior wear and corrosion resistance. These
characteristics make them suitable for applications in aerospace, power generation, and
industrial sectors, such as turbine blades, heat exchangers, and spacecraft components.
The manufacturing of CMCs involves methods like chemical vapor infiltration,
polymer infiltration and pyrolysis, and hot pressing, which ensure strong bonding and
optimal performance. However, high production costs and complex fabrication
processes remain challenges to their widespread use.

Despite these limitations, CMCs are increasingly replacing traditional materials in

extreme environments, driving innovation in industries that demand lightweight,
durable, and thermally stable materials. Their role in advancing high-temperature
technologies underscores their importance in material science.

1.3 FUNCTION OF FIBERS

The primary function of fibers in a composite material is to serve as the reinforcing

phase, providing strength, stiffness, and load-bearing capability.

Fibers help distribute applied loads uniformly across the composite, enhancing its
mechanical properties. They also contribute to improved resistance against cracking,
deformation, and fatigue. Depending on the application, fibers can be natural, synthetic,
or metallic.

1.4 TYPES OF FIBER REINFORCEMENTS

The major category of the reinforcement material comes carbon fibers, glass fibers,
ceramic fibers, and natural fibers.

4
 1.4.1 Carbon fiber

Carbon fiber is a lightweight, high-strength material made from carbon atoms

bonded in a crystalline structure. It is known for its exceptional tensile strength,
stiffness, and resistance to high temperatures and corrosion. These properties make it a
highly sought-after material in applications requiring both strength and low weight,
such as aerospace, automotive, sporting goods, and military equipment.

Carbon fibers are usually combined with a polymer matrix to form carbon fiber-
reinforced polymers (CFRPs), which are used in a wide range of industries. The process
involves heating precursor materials like polyacrylonitrile (PAN) at high temperatures
in an oxygen-free environment to create long, thin fibers. These fibers are then woven
into fabrics or arranged as unidirectional sheets and combined with resin for forming
composite materials.

Despite its superior properties, carbon fiber is expensive to produce, which limits its
widespread use. However, ongoing research aims to reduce production costs and
improve manufacturing efficiency, making carbon fiber composites more accessible for
various applications in the future.

1.4.2 Glass fiber

Glass fiber is a versatile reinforcement material made from fine strands of silica-
based glass, known for its high strength, durability, and resistance to heat and corrosion.
It is lightweight and cost-effective, making it a popular choice in composite materials
for a variety of industries, including construction, automotive, aerospace, and marine.

Glass fibers are commonly used in polymer matrix composites, forming Glass Fiber
Reinforced Plastics (GFRPs). These composites exhibit excellent mechanical properties,
such as high tensile strength, good impact resistance, and dimensional stability. Types
of glass fibers include E-glass (electrical insulation), S-glass (high strength), and C-
glass (chemical resistance), each tailored for specific applications.

5
 The manufacturing of glass fibers involves melting raw materials like silica sand,
limestone, and alumina, followed by extrusion into fine filaments. While glass fiber
composites are not as strong as carbon fiber, their affordability and performance make
them suitable for a wide range of applications. They are particularly valued for their
resistance to moisture and environmental degradation.

1.4.3 Ceramic fiber

Ceramic fiber is a high-performance material made from inorganic, non-metallic

materials such as alumina, silica, and zirconia. Known for its excellent heat resistance,
low thermal conductivity, and good insulating properties, ceramic fiber is primarily
used in high-temperature applications. It can withstand temperatures up to 1,500°C
(2,732°F) and is commonly used in industries like aerospace, metallurgy, and energy for
insulation and heat protection.

Ceramic fibers are typically produced by melting raw materials and spinning them
into fine filaments. These fibers are often used in the form of blankets, mats, ropes, and
felts for thermal insulation, as they provide lightweight, non-combustible solutions for
various industrial needs.

Ceramic fiber composites, when reinforced with other materials like metals or
ceramics, offer enhanced durability and performance under extreme conditions. Despite
their high-temperature capabilities, ceramic fibers can be brittle and may pose health
risks when inhaled as fine dust. As such, protective handling and specific safety
measures are required during their manufacture and use.

1.4.4 Natural fiber

Natural fibers are materials derived from plants, animals, or minerals, and are used
as reinforcement in composite materials due to their renewable nature, low cost, and
environmental benefits. Common plant-based natural fibers include sisal, jute, flax,
hemp, and coir, while animal-based fibers like wool and silk, as well as mineral fibers
like asbestos (though less common due to health concerns), are also used. These fibers

6
are biodegradable, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic fibers like glass and
carbon. Natural fibers are prized for their low density, good specific strength, and ease
of processing.

They are used in a variety of applications, including automotive, construction, and

textiles, due to their ability to improve mechanical properties such as tensile strength,
impact resistance, and vibration damping. Additionally, they are considered eco-friendly
as they have a smaller environmental footprint compared to synthetic fibers. However,
natural fibers also present challenges, such as high moisture absorption, which can
affect their mechanical properties and lead to degradation over time.

Research into improving fiber-matrix adhesion and modifying fibers to enhance

their performance has led to the development of natural fiber composites that meet
demanding technical requirements while offering sustainable, cost-effective solutions.

1.5 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

The composite material is manufactured using several processing techniques. The

most commonly used composite manufacturing processes are given in detail.

1.5.1 Hand Lay-Up Process

The hand layup process shown in Fig 1.1 is one of the primary processes of the
composite manufacturing process, where the reinforcement is placed by hand and the
resin is applied to wet the 11 fibers, then the rollers are rolled over the fibers to
distribute the resin even lyto theen tire surface. The fibers are manually laid so the
production rate is low.

The mould has a shape of the product and the product has a better surface finish
over the side that is in contact with the mould surface. The mould will be in an open
form, so it is called an open mould process. It requires less equipment for the process.
This process used mainly used to fabricate fiber reinforces composite. It is possible to
prepare glossy, mat, and texture types of surface finish by using a respective mould.

7
 Fig1.1 Hand lay-up process

1.5.2 Spray up Process

The spray-up process shown in Fig 1.2 is an open-mould low to medium volume
composite manufacturing process where the chopped fiber and resin are simultaneously
deposited on the open mould. Usually, glass fiber rovings are used in the process. The
resin and glass fibers are applied in a combined stream from a chopper gun and several
small fragments of the glass fiber roving are fed through a chopper and propelled into
the resin stream which is directed towards the mould so the mixing can happen inside of
the mixing chamber and then it can spray. The large size part geometry with simple to
complex shapes can manufacture and surface finish can move from good to excellent
and a tooling cost is also low.

Fig 1.2 Spray up process

8
 1.5.3 Filament Winding Process

The Filament Winding process is shown in Fig 1.3 is one of the most important
composite manufacturing process, used to prepare cylindrical surfaces and axis
symmetry parts. The resin is impregnated with fiber in a resin bath and it is wound over
a rotating mandrel at the desired angle. The roving feed runs on a trolley that travels the
length of the mandrel. The mandrel can be made up of wood or metal. The filament is
laid down in a predetermined geometric pattern to provide maximum strength in the
directions required and when sufficient layers have been applied, the laminate is cured
on the mandrel. The moulded part is then stripped from the mandrel.

Fig1.3 Filament winding process

1.5.4 Resin Transfer Moulding Process

Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) is a closed mould semi- mechanical composite

manufacturing process, used to manufacture thermo set polymer products. The fibers
are placed inside the mould with the required orientation and transfer of resin happening
into the mould through injection, wets the fiber completely and then cures. RTM can be
done at room temperature; however, heated moulds are required to achieve fast cycle
times and product consistency. Commonly glass fiber is used in the RTM process. RTM
process shown in Fig 1.4 gives a faster production rate than the hand lay-up process
since fast curing resins are used. This process gives the best sound quality products and
the process can be automated. The large parts and very high strength in materials can be
achieved in RTM.

9
 Fig 1.4 Resin transfer moulding process

1.5.5 Pultrusion Process

Pultrusion process shown in Fig 1.5 is the Low cost, high volume composite
manufacturing process, in which the resin- impregnated fibers are pulled through a
heated die and its cures. This process is similar to the metal extrusion process. The
fibers are uniformly wetted with resin and then allow inside the die. The axis symmetry
parts of complex thin-wall shapes with a constant cross- section and continuous length
can be produced through pultrusion process. The parts produced from pultrusion are
final products, there is no secondary process required, and less amount of scrap
produced during the process.

Fig 1.5 Pultrusion process

10
 1.5.6 Vacuum Bag Moulding

The vacuum bag holding process shown in Fig 1.6 is used for producing complex
parts in smaller numbers, both large and small parts also can be made. The products that
are fabricated by hand lay processes can be consolidated by this process. The products
that are fabricated are also consolidating using vacuum bag moulding. The pressure,
temperature, and other parameters can be control in a precise manner.

Fig 1.6 Vacuum bag moulding

1.5.7 Vacuum Injection Moulding

The vacuum injection moulding process shown in Fig 1.7 is a combination of

vacuum impregnation and resin injection process. The lower half of the mould is rigid
and the upper half of the mould is more flexible. The vacuum Chanel is built around the
periphery of mould for better mould closer. The upper half of the mould is sucked out
by vacuum and the resin starts flowing inside the mould. The flexible top half force
there’s in to flow through the reinforcement instead of through the space between the
reinforcement and the mould surface. The resin is injected until the impregnation
happens and the vacuum is maintained till the resin is cured. This process is used for

11
producing complex parts with large and small sizes. The multi injection can be used to
manufacture a large component.

Fig 1.7 Vacuum injection moulding

1.5.8 Autoclave Process

The autoclave process shown in Fig 1.8 is the extension of the vacuum bag process.
The autoclave is a closed vessel in which the curing occurs under high temperature and
pressure. It is a furnace where pressure time temperature can be controlled. The
temperature initiates the curing reaction and the pressure aids in consolation. The mould
may a negative or positive one.

The temperature and the pressure range are 100-400°C and 1-20 bar respectively for
the preparation of polymer matrix composite. During the moulding process, the
viscosity of their resin decreases due to this it starts flowing to fills and voids created
due to the removal of air. The quality of the product made from the autoclave process is
very good as compare to all other processes. Autoclave mould is preferred for aerospace
industries.

This method ensures uniform heat and pressure distribution, resulting in composites
with superior mechanical properties and minimal defects. Due to its precision and
reliability, the autoclave process is widely used for manufacturing high-performance
structural components.
12
 Fig 1.8 Autoclave process

1.5.9 Compression Moulding Process

The compression moulding process shown in Fig 1.9 is a closed mould composite
manufacturing process in which part is produced by the use of dies. A predetermined
quantity of a mould charge of polymer and reinforcing agent placed in a die cavity. The
reinforcement agent can be a chopped strand mat and the polymer can be thermoplastic
or thermo set. There are three important parameters are to be optimized in the
compression moulding process, they are pressure time and temperature and it has
weightage over a sound quality output. The pressure range of 2000-3000 psi,
temperature 100- 200°C can be used and the curing time varies depending upon the size
of the pat. There are two types of press are used in this process, hot press, and cold
press.

In a hot press the two die plates start applying heat because they wanted to have a
small thermal gradient, this gradient will try to increase the flow ability inside the
cavity. The mould charge is heated while it is getting shaped and then the plates keep
continuing to apply the heat for some more time until the die moment is locked. If the
required time is reached the die is removed and then the component is being released
from the die plate.

13
 In a cold pressing, the product is cured without applying heat, the heat has a direct
influence over the polymer matrix and more the heat for a thermo set charring will
happen, more the heat for a thermoplastic, the viscosity, and the flow pattern changes.

The heat has to be handled carefully. The product is cured without applying heat,
the soundness of the product is better. If no heat is applied, it has to compensate it by
the load and pressure. A heavy load to be applied to the component. The parts are made
up by hand layup process are cold-pressed for better consolidation and better surface
finish. This process ensures uniform thickness and reduces air entrapment within the
composite structure. Cold pressing is particularly useful for natural fiber composites
where thermal degradation may occur. Proper die design and controlled pressing
parameters are essential for achieving consistent and high-quality output. Additionally,
post-processing operations such as trimming and surface finishing may be applied to
improve dimensional accuracy. The compression moulding technique is widely adopted
due to its cost-effectiveness and suitability for medium to high-volume production.

Fig 1.9 Compression moulding process

14
 1.6 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Fiber reinforced composites (FRCs) are known

for their exceptional strength combined with low weight, making them highly
advantageous in industries where minimizing weight is crucial. Their superior strength-
to-weight ratio makes them ideal for aerospace, automotive, and sporting goods
applications, where performance, fuel efficiency, and ease of handling are paramount

For instance, in aerospace, FRCs help reduce the overall weight of aircraft, leading
to better fuel efficiency and performance. In automotive industries, they improve
vehicle performance while contributing to fuel savings and environmental sustainability.

Corrosion Resistance: Unlike metals, fiber reinforced composites are highly

resistant to corrosion, making them suitable for environments exposed to moisture,
chemicals, and other harsh conditions.

Durability: Fiber reinforced composites (FRCs) are known for their exceptional
durability and long service life, particularly in demanding applications. They offer
superior resistance to wear, fatigue, and environmental degradation compared to many
traditional materials like metals and plastics.

This makes them ideal for use in harsh environments where materials are subjected
to constant stress, such as in automotive, aerospace, and marine industries. FRCs
maintain their structural integrity over time, even under exposure to extreme
temperatures, moisture, and chemicals, ensuring reliable performance and reducing the
need for frequent maintenance or replacement..

Design Flexibility: The manufacturing processes for FRCs allow for complex and
customized shapes, enabling design flexibility for a wide range of applications, from
structural parts to intricate components.

Thermal Insulation Fiber reinforced composites often exhibit excellent thermal

insulating properties due to the low thermal conductivity of the fiber and matrix

15
materials used. This makes them particularly well-suited for applications in high-
temperature environments such as aerospace, automotive, and industrial sectors.

Low Thermal Expansion: Certain fiber reinforced composites, such as carbon

fiber, have low thermal expansion, making them ideal for precision applications that
require dimensional stability under temperature changes.

Impact Resistance: Fiber reinforced composites (FRCs) are known for their
superior impact resistance, outperforming metals in many applications. Due to their
high energy absorption capacity, FRCs are less likely to crack or break under sudden or
high-impact forces.

This makes them particularly beneficial in industries like automotive, aerospace,

and sports equipment, where materials must withstand harsh impacts or collisions
without failing. The ability of FRCs to distribute stress more evenly across the material
further enhances their durability and prevents catastrophic failure, offering a safer and
more reliable option in high-risk environments.

Sustainability: With the growing focus on sustainability, natural fiber reinforced

composites (NFRCs) made from renewable materials such as hemp, flax, or sisal offer a
more eco-friendly alternative to synthetic fiber composites, reducing dependence on
non-renewable resources.

Cost-Effectiveness: Fiber reinforced composites, especially those made with

natural fibers, can be less expensive than traditional metal or plastic materials, making
them cost-effective for a variety of applications.

Reduced Maintenance: Fiber reinforced composites (FRCs) require less

maintenance compared to traditional metals due to their superior durability, resistance to
corrosion, and resistance to wear. This makes FRCs ideal for use in marine, aerospace,
and infrastructure applications where long-term performance is critical.

16
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

[1] Alcivar-Bastidas et al. (2023): Analyzed the paper gives an insight into the
effect of three different treatments on abaca fibers: hornification, NaOH 3%
concentration solution, and a coating of silica fume with natural latex into cementitious
composites; fibers have been characterized before and after through SEM, XRD, FT-IR,
TGA, and tensile tests to analyze structural and chemical changes. Cementitious
composites through setting time and flexural strength (7, 14, 28 days) were analyzed for
determining the optimum treatment and, afterward, the best dosage and length. It was
found that HS treatment with 30 mm and 0.2% dosage showed 8.2 MPa in terms of
flexural strength. (NaOH) had better behaviour in terms of flexural and compressive
strength, Silica fume with natural latex treatment (LS) showed the poorest results in
terms of tensile test and flexural strength.

[2] Alomayri et al. (2014) analyzed the effect of water absorption on the
mechanical properties of cotton fabric-reinforced geo polymer composites. Cotton
fabric reinforced geo-polymer composites are fabricated with fiber loadings of 4.5, 6.2,
and 8.3 wt. %. The flexural strength, flexural modulus, impact strength, hardness, and
fracture toughness are increased as the fiber content increased. The better mechanical
properties were achieved for the fiber content of 8.3 wt. %. The magnitude of maximum
water uptake and diffusion coefficient is increased with an increase in fiber content.

[3] Bledzki et al. (2015): Investigated the presented research study compares
different types of common natural fibers used as a reinforcement in plastic composite
industry. It contains characterization of each fiber type, its preparation method, and its
chemical and physical properties. It follows from a description of the polypropylene
biocomposite manufacturing process and physical properties of the obtained
biocomposite materials. The biocomposites were manufactured in the same way and
have the same matrix-to-fibre content (60/40 wt%).Kenaf fibers gave outstanding
strengths for their biocomposites. Abaca fibers gave the best improvement of impact
17
resistance. Jute fibers are the most temperature stable among investigated fibers. Wood
microfibers can provide relatively good strength at low expense.

[4] Choudary et al. (2018): Investigated the micro structural characteristics of the
Chicken Feather Fiber (CFF), it was found that it has a required characteristic to use as
a reinforcing material, and also it has good acoustic and better thermal insulation
properties. The CFF has a low specific gravity due to the availability of honeycomb
structure.

[5] K.Dutta, et al. (2016): Analyze the Fiber composites show promise for
construction in cold regions, but data on their performance in low temperatures is
limited. Low temperatures and thermal cycling can cause strength degradation due to
residual stresses from differing thermal expansion rates in composite materials. This
degradation is especially pronounced in unidirectional and off-axis fiber orientations,
necessitating careful design considerations

[6] Faruk et al. (2012) carried out a study on bio-composites reinforced with
natural fibers and reported the natural fiber-reinforced bio-composites were the high-
value materials that have developed significantly, due to their significant advantages
such as biodegradability, low cost, low relative density, high specific strength, and
renewable nature. The new environmental regulations and sustainability of the
governmental concepts of ecological, social, awareness, used to develop the bio-based
composites.

[7] Graupner et al.(2008) investigated the influence of fiber fineness, fiber

maturity of cotton fiber-reinforced composite by cold- setting laminate resin system.
The fiber maturity values of 83 % were measured for the cotton CIS-ELS but cotton
Greece only 70 % and improved tensile strength. 24 The better impact characteristics of
these examined composites can be used especially impact claimed areas in the car
interior. Because of the high elongation at break, cotton can also be used as admixtures
to basalt fibers for improving the impact strength of composites. In today's time, cotton
plays an important role in technical applications.

18
 [8] C.L. Holloway et al. (2014): Analyzed this paper presents three equivalent-
layer models for analyzing carbon-fiber composites used in aircraft and EMC/EMI
shielding, enabling efficient calculations of reflection, transmission coefficients, and
shielding effectiveness. The study demonstrates that increased geometric detail
enhances the models' accuracy and validity at higher frequencies compared to finite-
element method solutions

[9] J.F. Mandell, et al. (2015): Studied the Short Fiber Composites Range From
High-fiber, Aligned Systems With Fatigue Properties Near Advanced Laminates, To
Moderately Enhanced Thermoplastics For Injection Moulding. Widely Studied Types,
Like Chopped Strand Reinforced Polyesters, Are Used In Fatigue-sensitive
Applications Such As Automotive Parts. This Chapter Reviews Data On Various Short
Fiber Composites, Examining Fatigue Trends, Material Variables, Wear Mechanisms,
And Future Development Toward More Fatigue-resistant, Complex-shaped Composites.

[10] Rajashekar Patil et al. (2015): Investigated the review explores advanced
composite materials made from thermoplastic, elastomer, and thermosetting polymers,
reinforced with organic and inorganic fibers and various fillers. It details the
development and synthesis of macromolecular matrices such as polycarbonate and
epoxy resin, highlighting their superior mechanical performance, thermal resistance, and
other beneficial properties.

[11] S M Sapuan et al. (2013): Determined the analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
was used to select the most suitable natural fiber composite for automotive dashboard
panels, based on a systematic database of 29 materials with properties like density,
Young's modulus, and tensile strength. Key criteria and sub-criteria were considered in
the hierarchy model, with sensitivity analysis applied to understand the impact of
various factors on material selection. This approach helps avoid poor material choices in
product development.

[12] Sahari et al. (2011) conducted a review on natural fiber reinforced

biodegradable polymer composites and reported, these bio- composite materials have a

19
very bright future in a wide range of applications due to their various interesting
properties. NFC’s are going to compete with the existing fossil plastic materials. The
hydrophilic properties present in the natural fibers make the real challenge to design the
product which can be a good candidate for outdoor applications. The research and
improvement used in biodegradable NFC are helpful for environmental issues.

[13] Tami1 et al. (2019): Applied the research study discusses the modulus of
elasticity of concrete using abaca fibers. The addition of abaca fiber to concrete mix is
done with the composition of abaca fiber 0% (normal concrete), 0.15%, 0.20%, 0.25%
with a fiber length of 50 mm. Concrete compressive strength test results with variations
in length of 50 mm with a fiber volume of 0.15% produces an elastic modulus of
23057.14 MPa. For a volume of 0.20% the modulus of elasticity is 19575.44 MPa. Then
for the fiber volume of 0.25% the modulus of elasticity is 17104.90. Normal concrete
modulus value 20058 Mpa. From these results it can be concluded that the more fiber
volume, the smaller the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity of abaca fiber
concrete with a fiber length of 50 mm and a fiber volume of 0.15% is the best and gives
an increase of 14.96% to normal concrete.

[14] R. S. Taufik et al. (2018): Analyzed the use of rice husk as a natural fiber in
tin-lead alloy composites, enhancing flexural and hardness properties while maintaining
tensile modulus. A novel manual mixing technique was developed for uniform
distribution during solidification. Although tensile strength showed limited
improvement compared to standard tin-lead alloy, the findings indicate potential for rice
husk in engineering applications. Volumetric weight of samples ranged from 1966
kg/m3 to 2249 kg/m3. Measured compressive strength and flexural ranged from 19.56
MPa to 36.84 MPa, and 2.41 MPa to 6.25 MPa, respectively. Foaming resulted to
weaker composites. The interaction of H2O2 and curing temperature affect the
compressive strength. Addition of foaming agent was observed to weaken the composite
flexural strength.

[15] R. Vijaya Ramnath et al. (2014): Analyzed the composite is made up of five
layers with three layers of jute and abaca enclosed by two layers of glass fibers. The
20
composites are manufactured with three different fiber orientations and the
compositions are varied in three different proportions. From the test results, it is
observed that fiber orientation plays a vital role in determining the mechanical
properties of the composite. Morphological analysis is done using Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM). Tensile strength and flexural max at high content of abaca with 45
fiber orientation. 75%abaca& 25% jute high impact strength.

[16] Vijaya Ramnath et al. (2014): Measured each composite is made up of five
layers with three layers of jute and abaca enclosed by two layers of glass fibers. The
composites are manufactured with three different fiber orientations and the
compositions are varied in three different proportions. From the test results, it is
observed that fiber orientation plays a vital role in determining the mechanical
properties of the composite. Morphological analysis is done using Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM). Tensile strength and flexural max at high content of abaca with 45
fiber orientation. 75%abaca& 25% jute high impact strength

[17] Vignesh et al. (2016): Investigate and Fabricate the mechanical properties of
abaca-raffia hybrid composite fabricated by hand layup process. Since, abaca fiber has
more strength than other fibers like kenaf, banana and sisal, the composite with this
fiber can be suitable replacement material for automotive applications. The ultimate
strength in the double shear test of the composite(GFRP + Abaca + Raffia) composite is
0.044 kN/mm2 which is higher than that of the (GFRP + Abaca) composite with 0.037
kN/mm2 and (GFRP + Raffia) composite with a value of 0.019 kN/mm2 . Also,
(GFRP+Abaca+Raffia) composite exhibits high hardness of 109.5 HRC.

[18] Yogeshwaran et al. (2020): Presented the Jute and Abaca fiber with tyre
particles reinforcement hybrid composites by hand layup method. The resin used in the
preparation of composites was epoxy. The different five proportion of fiber and matrix
material such as 80:0:20, 50:30:20, 40:40:20, 30:50:20, 0:80:20 without any
pretreatment and were taken as the base line reference.

21
 CHAPTER 3

PROBLEM STATEMENT

3.1 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

• Limited tensile strength improvement in rice husk-reinforced tin-lead alloy

composites, despite enhanced flexural and hardness properties.
• Lack of comprehensive data on the performance of fiber composites in low-
temperature environments, which affects their application in cold regions.
• Challenges in selecting optimal natural fiber composites for automotive
applications, given diverse material properties and the need for systematic
decision-making.

3.2 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

• Using techniques like vacuum bag molding or compression molding can

improve the quality and consistency of the composite compared to hand lay-
up.
• Maintaining an optimal fiber-to-resin ratio ensures better load distribution and
avoids issues like poor bonding or fiber clumping.
• Combining two or more natural fibers (e.g., Sisal-Jute, Jute-Coir) can
improve overall mechanical performance by balancing the strengths of each
fiber.
• Aligning fibers in specific directions (e.g., unidirectional or woven patterns)
can significantly influence tensile and flexural strength.

22
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

• Literature Review

• Problem Identification

• Fiber Selection

• Fabrication

• Testing

• Results & Discussion

• Conclusion

Fig.4.1 Methodology

The methodology involves a systematic process starting with a literature review and
problem identification, followed by the selection of natural fibers like Sisal, Jute, and
Coir. Composite specimens were fabricated using the compression moulding technique
and tested for mechanical properties such as tensile, flexural, compression, and impact
strength. The results were analyzed to identify the most effective fiber reinforcement for
sustainable composite applications.

23
 CHAPTER 5

MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.1 EPOXY RESIN

Epoxy resins are known for their high strength, excellent adhesion, and
resistance to chemicals, moisture, and environmental degradation, making them ideal
for demanding applications. In composite materials, epoxy resin is often used as the
matrix to bind reinforcement fibers such as glass, carbon, or natural fibers, forming
epoxy-based fiber-reinforced composites (FRPs).

Fig.5.1 Epoxy Resin

Epoxy resin is a type of thermosetting polymer widely used in adhesives, coatings,

and composite materials due to its excellent mechanical properties and versatility. It is
created through the reaction of an epoxide (a reactive compound) with a hardener or
curing agent, which causes the resin to harden into a durable, rigid structure. These
composites exhibit superior mechanical properties, including high tensile strength,
flexural strength, and impact resistance, making them popular in industries such as
aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction.

Epoxy resin offers a wide range of benefits, including high resistance to heat,
moisture, and chemicals, making it ideal for demanding environments such as
aerospace, automotive, construction, and electronics. Additionally, epoxy resin exhibits

24
excellent dimensional stability, ensuring minimal shrinkage during curing, which is
crucial for precision applications.

5.2 SISAL FIBER

Sisal fiber is a natural fiber derived from the leaves of the Agave sisalana
plant, which is primarily cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions.

Fig.5.2 Sisal Fiber

Sisal known for its strength, durability, and sustainability, sisal fiber is widely used
in various industrial applications, particularly in the production of ropes, twines, mats,
and textiles. Its high tensile strength and resistance to abrasion make it an ideal material
for applications that require long-lasting, durable products.

In addition to its traditional uses, sisal fiber has gained popularity as a reinforcement
material in composite materials, particularly in combination with polymers to form sisal
fiber reinforced composites (SFRCs). These composites offer a sustainable alternative
to synthetic fibers, as sisal is a biodegradable and renewable resource. Sisal fiber
25
composites are used in industries like automotive, construction, and packaging, where
their lightweight and high strength properties are advantageous.

5.3 JUTE FIBER

Jute fiber, often referred to as the "golden fiber," is one of the most versatile
and sustainable natural fibers available. It is derived from the stalks of plants belonging
to the Corchorus genus, primarily grown in regions with a warm, humid climate, such as
India, Bangladesh, and Southeast Asia.

Fig.5.3 Jute Fiber

Jute is composed mainly of cellulose and lignin, making it both strong and
biodegradable. Its long fibers, typically ranging from 1.5 to 4 meters in length, are
known for their excellent tensile strength, low extensibility, and high breathability.
These characteristics make jute an ideal material for a wide range of applications,
including ropes, sacks, mats, and geotextiles. In recent years, jute has gained significant
attention as a reinforcement material in composite manufacturing.

When used in composites, jute enhances mechanical properties like strength,

stiffness, and impact resistance while maintaining lightweight characteristics.
Furthermore, its natural luster and texture make it appealing for use in decorative items
and eco-friendly packaging. From an environmental perspective, jute is highly

26
sustainable. It grows quickly, typically within four to six months, and requires minimal
chemical fertilizers or pesticides.

5.4 COIR

Coconut coir is a natural fiber extracted from the outer husk of coconuts,
known for its excellent durability, water resistance, and biodegradability. Coir is made
up of a mixture of short fibers and coarse particles, commonly referred to as coir pith or
dust, which are both used in various industrial and consumer applications.

Fig.5.4 Coir

Coir fibers are widely used in products such as ropes, mats, brushes, and mattresses
due to their resilience and flexibility. In recent years, coconut coir has gained popularity
as a sustainable material in the production of fiber-reinforced composites. The fibers'
strength and low density make them ideal for reinforcing plastics, particularly in
automotive, packaging, and construction industries.

Coconut coir composites offer a biodegradable and environmentally friendly

alternative to synthetic fibers, which are typically derived from petroleum-based
materials. Coir’s high water resistance and ability to absorb moisture also make it ideal
for applications in horticulture, where it is used in potting mixes, soil conditioners, and
erosion control products. Additionally, its ability to act as a natural insulator gives it
utility in thermal and acoustic applications.

27
 While coconut coir offers numerous benefits as a reinforcement material, its
properties can vary depending on factors such as fiber length and processing methods.
Proper treatments, such as chemical modification or hybridization with other fibers, can
enhance its performance and reduce some of its limitations, such as moisture absorption
and fiber-matrix adhesion

5.5 COMPOSITION PROPERTIES

Table.5.1 Composition Properties

Category Property Sisal Jute Coir

Mechanical Tensile Strength (MPa) 400–700 200–500 100–250
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 9.4–22 10–30 4–6
Elongation at Break (%) 3–7 1.5–1.8 15–30
Chemical Cellulose Content (%) 65–78 60–71 36–43
Lignin Content (%) 8–10 12–14 40–45
Physical Density (g/cm³) 1.45 1.3–1.5 1.15–1.25
Moisture Content (%) 10–14 12–14 8–12
Water Absorption (%) 60–70 60–70 100–130
Thermal Thermal Stability (°C) 240–270 200–230 150–190

Sisal, jute, and coir are natural fibers known for their distinct mechanical and
physical properties, making them versatile in various applications. Sisal fiber stands out
for its high tensile strength (400–700 MPa) and moderate elongation (3–7%), offering
excellent toughness and resistance to wear and tear. It is commonly used in ropes, mats,
and reinforcement in composites.

Jute fiber, often referred to as the "golden fiber," provides moderate tensile strength
(200–500 MPa) and a relatively high Young’s modulus (10–30 GPa), making it suitable
for products like sacks, carpets, and eco-friendly packaging. It is also widely used in
composite applications due to its good balance of strength and stiffness.
28
 Coir fiber, derived from coconut husks, has a lower tensile strength (100–250 MPa)
and a higher elongation at break (15–30%), giving it superior flexibility and resilience.
Its high lignin content (40–45%) provides natural resistance to microbial degradation
and moisture, making it ideal for use in brushes, mattresses, and geotextiles. These
fibers' unique properties, combined with their sustainability and cost-effectiveness,
make them valuable materials for industries focused on eco-friendly solutions.

5.6 EPOXY RESIN PROPERTIES

Table.5.2 Epoxy Resin Properties

Category Property Typical Values/Description

Mechanical Tensile Strength 35–90 MPa
Properties Flexural Strength 80–150 MPa
Compressive Strength 100–200 MPa
Impact Resistance Moderate to High
Hardness Shore D 75–90
Physical Density 1.1–1.4 g/cm³
Properties Shrinkage 1–2% (low during curing)
Adhesion Excellent to various substrates
Dimensional Stability Very good
Thermal Glass Transition 50°C to 250°C (dependent on
Properties Temperature (Tg) formulation)
Thermal Conductivity 0.2–0.4 W/m·K
Chemical Resistance to Chemicals Highly resistant to acids, alkalis, and
Properties solvents
Moisture Resistance Low water absorption (0.1–0.4% after
24 hrs)

29
 Epoxy resin is a highly versatile thermosetting polymer known for its exceptional
mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. It exhibits high tensile strength (35–90
MPa) and flexural strength (80–150 MPa), making it ideal for structural applications.

Its excellent adhesion to various substrates, including metals, wood, and

composites, enhances its utility as a strong bonding agent. Epoxy resin offers
outstanding chemical resistance, effectively withstanding exposure to acids, alkalis, and
solvents, while its low water absorption ensures excellent moisture resistance.

5.7 COMPOSITE MANUFACTURING

Compression molding is a widely used and efficient manufacturing technique for

producing natural fiber-reinforced composites. This process involves placing a pre-
formed composite material, which consists of natural fibers such as jute, sisal, and coir
core, into a mold cavity. The mold is then closed, and both heat and pressure are applied
to cure the material into a solid composite part.

The natural fibers, which are typically chopped or cut to the desired lengths, are first
dried to eliminate moisture that could affect the quality of the final product. The
selected thermosetting resin, such as epoxy or polyester, is then mixed with a curing
agent. The fibers are either pre-impregnated with the resin in advance or mixed directly
with the resin. The impregnated fiber mat or chopped fiber mixture is placed into the
heated mold cavity. Once the mold is closed, pressure is applied to compress the fiber-
resin mixture and ensure it fills the mold cavity. Heat is also applied to initiate the
curing process of the resin, allowing it to harden and bond strongly with the natural
fibers.

The temperature and pressure are maintained for a specific duration to ensure
complete curing of the resin. This process creates a solid, durable composite material
with excellent fiber-matrix bonding, contributing to enhanced mechanical properties
such as strength and durability. Once curing is complete, the mold is opened, and the

30
final composite part is removed. Compression molding is well-suited for producing
large quantities of natural fiber composite parts with consistent quality, making it an
ideal choice for industries like automotive, construction, and packaging, where cost-
effectiveness and sustainability are key considerations. One of the standout advantages
of compression molding is its ability to produce parts with complex geometries and
detailed surface finishes.

This design flexibility enables manufacturers to create intricate shapes that would be
challenging or costly to achieve using other methods. Moreover, compression molding
is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small-batch production and high-volume
manufacturing. It allows for the production of complex shapes and large parts with high
dimensional accuracy and minimal material waste.

Table.5.3 Composition ratios of Fibers and Resin

Plate no Resin % Sisal % Jute % Coir%

1 65 15 10 10
2 60 10 15 15

Fig.5.5 Fabricated Composite Plate 1

31
 Fig.5.6 Fabricated Composite Plate 2

5.8 TESTING METHODS

5.8.1 Tensile Test

Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to achieve
material parameters such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation, % area of
reduction and Young's modulus.

Fig.5.7 Tensile Test

These important parameters obtained from the standard tensile testing are useful for
the selection of engineering materials for any applications required. The tensile testing
is carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension rate to a
32
standard tensile specimen with known dimensions (gauge length and cross sectional
area perpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The test generates a stress-strain
curve, from which mechanical properties are derived. It helps in evaluating the ductility
and brittleness of materials. The type of fracture surface after testing also provides
insight into material behavior.

This test is widely used for metals, polymers, composites, and even natural fiber-
reinforced materials. Accurate specimen preparation and alignment are crucial for
reliable and repeatable results. Moreover, the uniaxial tensile test plays a critical role in
validating material models used in finite element analysis and other simulations. It also
assists in quality control, failure analysis, and research and development by revealing
how materials respond to real-world mechanical stresses.

This test is essential for materials used in structural applications, including

composites, metals, polymers, and ceramics. During the test, a specimen—typically
cylindrical, cubical, or prismatic in shape—is placed between two parallel plates of a
compression testing machine. A gradually increasing compressive load is applied, and
the resulting deformation or strain is measured.

5.8.2 Compression Test

A compression test is a fundamental mechanical testing method used to determine a

material's behavior under a compressive load. It is designed to evaluate the material's
ability to withstand forces that tend to reduce its size, providing key insights into
properties such as compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and deformation
characteristics.

This test is essential for materials used in structural applications, including

composites, metals, polymers, and ceramics. During the test, a specimen—typically
cylindrical, cubical, or prismatic in shape—is placed between two parallel plates of a
compression testing machine. A gradually increasing compressive load is applied, and
the resulting deformation or strain is measured.

33
 Fig.5.8 Compression Test

The stress-strain curve obtained from the test helps identify the yield point, ultimate
compressive strength, and failure mode of the material. Additionally, the data collected
can be used for quality control, material selection, and design optimization in
engineering applications.

5.8.3 Flextural Test

A flexural test, also known as a bending test, is used to measure a material's ability
to resist deformation under an applied bending load. It evaluates the flexural strength,
modulus of elasticity, and deflection behavior of materials such as composites, metals,
plastics, and ceramics. The test is essential for understanding how materials perform in
structural applications where bending forces are prominent.

In a typical flexural test, a rectangular or cylindrical specimen is placed horizontally

on two supports, and a load is applied at the center or at two points along the span
(three-point or four-point bending setup). The specimen is subjected to both tensile and
compressive stresses, with the top fibers experiencing compression and the bottom
fibers experiencing tension.

The test continues until the material fractures or reaches a predetermined deflection
limit. In addition to assessing a material's flexural strength and stiffness, the test
provides crucial insights into its overall mechanical performance, including its failure

34
mechanisms. Materials may exhibit brittle failure, characterized by sudden fracture, or
ductile failure, where significant deformation occurs before breaking.

5.8.4 Impact Test

Impact testing is a critical evaluation process that determines a material or product's

toughness, resilience, and durability when subjected to sudden forces or shocks. This
testing is essential in various industries to ensure materials and products' safety,
performance, and reliability

Fig.5.9 Impact Test

An impact test is a mechanical test used to evaluate a material's toughness and

ability to absorb energy during sudden or high-velocity loading. This test determines
how a material responds to impact forces, providing critical insights into its behavior
under conditions such as collisions, shocks, or drops. Materials that can absorb a
significant amount of energy without fracturing are considered tough, while brittle
materials typically fail with little energy absorption.In an impact test, a standard
specimen is struck by a pendulum or hammer with a known energy. The two most
common types of impact tests are Charpy Impact Test: The specimen is supported
horizontally as a beam, and the impact is applied to the center.Izod Impact Test: The
specimen is vertically fixed at one end, and the impact is applied near the fixed point.

35
 CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Hybridized composites made from sisal, jute, and coir fibers reinforced in an epoxy
matrix were tested for their mechanical properties. The specimens were examined for
tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, and impact resistance. Standard
test methods were followed to ensure accurate evaluation of each property. The aim was
to analyze the effect of different natural fibers on the overall strength and behavior of
the composite. Results revealed the potential of using these natural fibers in lightweight
and sustainable engineering applications.

6.1 TENSILE PROPERTIES

The tensile properties of the fabricated composite specimens were assessed through
a standard uniaxial tensile test to determine key mechanical characteristics such as peak
load, percentage elongation, and ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Both Sample 1 and
Sample 2 had a uniform cross-sectional area of 75.000 mm².

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) Calculation for Each Sample

The UTS for each sample was calculated using the formula:

UTS = Peak Load (N) / Cross-sectional Area (mm²)

Sample 1

 Peak Load: 1144.081 N

 Elongation: 3.850%

 Cross-sectional Area: 75.000 mm²

UTS₁ = 1144.081 / 75.000 = 15.255 N/mm²

Sample 2

 Peak Load: 881.016 N

36
 Elongation: 2.590%

 Cross-sectional Area: 75.000 mm²

UTS₂ = 881.016 / 75.000 = 11.743 N/mm²

Table 6.1 Tensile Test Result

Sample No. CS Area (mm2) Peak Load [N] % Elongation UTS [N/mm2]

1 75.000 1144.081 3.850 15.255

2 75.000 881.016 2.590 11..743

Sample 1 recorded a peak load of 1144.081 N with an elongation of 3.850%,

resulting in a UTS of 15.255 N/mm². Sample 2 demonstrated a peak load of 881.016 N
and an elongation of 2.590%, leading to a UTS of 11.743 N/mm². The relatively higher
tensile strength and elongation in Sample 1 indicate strong interfacial bonding and
efficient stress transfer between the fibers and the epoxy matrix.

While Sample 2 exhibited slightly lower values, this suggests a different fiber-
matrix interaction that may offer benefits such as controlled flexibility and energy
absorption. These variations reflect the influence of natural fiber orientation and
distribution, which could be further optimized to enhance performance.

Both samples demonstrated the composite's ability to withstand tensile forces,

confirming its potential use in applications requiring lightweight and sustainable
materials with moderate tensile demands.

Further mechanical characterization, such as flexural and impact testing, could

provide a more comprehensive understanding of the material’s behavior. Future studies
may focus on hybrid fiber systems to balance strength and toughness.
Additionally, surface treatments or chemical modifications of the fibers might further
improve interfacial adhesion and composite performance.

37
 18

% Elongation

UTS (N/mm2)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4 %
Elongation
2
0 UTS
Sample 1 Sample 2 [N/mm2]

Fig.6.1 Graphical Representative of Tensile Test

18
16
14
12
10 %
8 Elonga
6 tion
4
2
0
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig.6.2 Comparison of Tensile Test

6.2 BENDING PROPERTIES

The bending strength of the composite specimens was evaluated using a

standard three-point flexural test to determine their flexural strength and flexural
modulus. Both samples were tested with a uniform cross-sectional area of 39.000
mm².

38
 Flexural Strength (𝜎𝑓)

The flexural strength was calculated using the formula:

𝜎𝑓 = (3FL) / (2bd²)

Where:

 F = Peak load (N)

 L = Support span (mm)

 b = Width of the specimen (mm)

 d = Depth (thickness) of the specimen (mm)

Flexural Modulus (𝐸𝑓)

The flexural modulus was calculated using the formula:

𝐸𝑓 = (L³m) / (4bd³)

Where:

 m = Slope of the initial straight-line portion of the load-deflection curve (N/mm)

 Remaining terms are as defined above.

Sample 1

 Peak Load (F₁): 68.356 N

 Flexural Strength (𝜎𝑓₁): 43.818 MPa

 Flexural Modulus (𝐸𝑓₁): 4121.172 GPa

Sample 2

 Peak Load (F₂): 72.104 N

 Flexural Strength (𝜎𝑓₂): 46.220 MPa

39
 Flexural Modulus (𝐸𝑓₂): 4027.422 GPa

Table 6.2 Bending Test Result

Flexural
Flexural
Sample No. CS Area (mm2) Peak Load [N] Modulus
Strength (MPa)
(GPa)

1 39.000 68.356 43.818 4121.172

2 39.000 72.104 46.220 4027.422

Sample 1 exhibited a peak load of 68.356 N, resulting in a flexural strength of

43.818 MPa and a flexural modulus of 4121.172 GPa. Sample 2 showed a slightly
higher peak load of 72.104 N, corresponding to a flexural strength of 46.220 MPa
and a modulus of 4027.422 GPa. The results indicate that both samples displayed
good resistance to bending loads, with Sample 2 showing slightly better flexural
strength. The high flexural modulus values reflect the material’s stiffness and ability
to resist deformation under bending stress.

These findings suggest that the hybrid composite made from sisal, jute, and
coir fibers has strong load-bearing capabilities and is suitable for applications where
bending resistance is critical. Minor variations in results may be due to differences
in fiber distribution, alignment, or bonding within the matrix, all of which can be
optimized for even better performance. Additionally, the smooth load response
during testing indicates a good interfacial bonding between fibers and matrix. The
natural fibers contribute to the composite’s ability to absorb and distribute stress,
reducing the chances of sudden failure. These results support the potential of such
eco-friendly composites in semi-structural applications. Further process
improvements could lead to enhanced performance and consistency across all
mechanical parameters.

40
 Flexural Strength (MPa)
46.5

(MPa)
Flexural Strength
46
45.5
45
44.5
44
43.5
43
42.5
Flexural Strength (MPa)
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig. 6.3 Graphical Representative of Bending Test

Flexural Strength (MPa)

46.5
46
45.5
45
44.5 Flexural Strength
44 (MPa)
43.5
43
42.5
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig.6.4 Comparison of Bending Test

6.3 COMPRESSION PROPERTIES

The compressive strength of the fabricated composite specimens was

evaluated through a standard compression test. Both Sample 1 and Sample 2 were
prepared with a consistent cross-sectional area of 39.000 mm².

41
 Compressive Strength (𝜎𝑐)

The compressive strength was calculated using the following formula:

𝜎𝑐 = F / A

Where:

 𝜎𝑐 = Compressive strength (N/mm²)

 F = Peak compressive load (N)

 A = Cross-sectional area (mm²)

Sample 1

 Peak Compressive Load (F₁): 701.052 N

 Cross-sectional Area (A): 39.000 mm²

 Compressive Strength (𝜎𝑐₁): 701.052 / 39.000 = 9.349 N/mm²

Sample 2

 Peak Compressive Load (F₂): 619.413 N

 Cross-sectional Area (A): 39.000 mm²

 Compressive Strength (𝜎𝑐₂): 619.413 / 39.000 = 8.260 N/mm²

Table 6.3 Compression Test Result

Compressive
Sample No. CS Area (mm2) Peak Load [N]
Strength [N/mm2]
1 39.000 701.052 9.349
2 39.000 619.413 8.260

Sample 1 recorded a peak compressive load of 701.052 N, resulting in a

compressive strength of 9.349 N/mm². Sample 2, on the other hand, showed a peak
42
load of 619.413 N, yielding a compressive strength of 8.260 N/mm². These results
indicate that the hybrid fiber-reinforced epoxy composites possess a reasonable
capacity to withstand compressive loads. The slightly higher compressive strength
of Sample 1 suggests improved internal structure, possibly due to better compaction
and fiber alignment during fabrication. The performance of both samples confirms
the potential of natural fiber composites in load-bearing applications where
compressive stress is involved.

The results also demonstrate that the combination of sisal, jute, and coir fibers
effectively contributes to the structural integrity and resistance to crushing forces.
Further improvements in the molding process and fiber distribution could enhance
the compressive performance of the composites even more.

Such composites also offer environmental benefits due to their biodegradable

and renewable fiber content. Their lightweight nature makes them attractive for
automotive and construction applications.

Introducing nano-fillers could help in refining the matrix-fiber interface and

boosting compressive strength. Standardizing fiber treatment methods might result
in more consistent mechanical properties. Long-term durability studies under
various environmental conditions would provide deeper insights. Exploring the
effects of varying fiber volume fractions can further optimize material performance.
Adopting automated fabrication techniques may increase precision and reduce
defects. These improvements could lead to broader acceptance of natural fiber
composites in industrial applications. With ongoing development, these composites
could serve as viable alternatives to traditional synthetic materials.

Furthermore, life cycle assessment (LCA) studies can be conducted to

evaluate the environmental impact of these composites from production to disposal.
Developing fire-retardant formulations could expand their usability in safety-critical
applications. Integration with smart materials technology may open doors to self-
sensing or self-healing composite structures. Educational and training initiatives

43
focused on natural fiber composite processing can help build skilled labor for future
industries. Overall, the multifaceted advantages of these materials position them as
key players in the advancement of sustainable engineering.

Compressive Strength [N/mm2]

9.6
9.4
9.2
9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
7.8 Compressive
7.6 Strength [N/mm2]
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig. 6.5 Graphical Representative of Compression Test

Compressive Strength [N/mm2]

9.6
9.4
9.2
9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
7.8 Compressive
7.6 Strength [N/mm2]
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig.6.8 Comparison of Compression Test

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 6.4 IZOD IMPACT PROPERTIES

The impact resistance of the composite specimens was evaluated using the
Izod impact test, which measures the material's ability to absorb energy during
sudden impact.

Impact Energy (𝐸)

𝐸 = Energy absorbed during fracture (J)

This value is directly measured by the Izod impact testing machine and is a critical
indicator of a material's toughness and resistance to crack propagation.

Sample 1

 Impact Energy (𝐸₁): 0.25 J

Sample 2

 Impact Energy (𝐸₂): 0.40 J

Table 6.4 Izod Impact Test Result

Sample No. Izod Impact Value [J]

1 0.25
2 0.40

Two samples were tested, and the results are expressed in joules (J). Sample 1
recorded an impact energy of 0.25 J, while Sample 2 showed a slightly higher value
of 0.40 J. These results indicate that the composite materials possess moderate
impact resistance, with Sample 2 demonstrating better energy absorption capability.
The difference in impact values may be attributed to variations in fiber distribution,
bonding strength, and micro structural integrity of the composite specimens. The
presence of natural fibers like sisal, jute, and coir contributes to the energy
dissipation during fracture, helping to delay crack propagation. While the values are

45
modest, they reflect the composite's potential for use in applications requiring
lightweight materials with basic impact resistance. Further optimization in fiber
orientation and matrix composition could lead to improved impact performance in
future trials.

Impact Value J
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Impact Value J
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig.6.7 Graphical Representative of Izod Impact Test

Impact Value J
0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 Impact Value J
Sample 1 Sample 2

Fig.6.8 Comparison of Izod Impact Test

46
 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION

In this study, the physical and mechanical properties of hybrid composites

reinforced with sisal, jute, and coir fibers in an epoxy matrix were investigated. The
composites were subjected to tensile, flexural, compression, and impact tests to evaluate
their mechanical performance. From the tensile test results, Sample 1 exhibited a UTS
of 15.255 N/mm² and Sample 2 had 11.743 N/mm², indicating good strength and
ductility. In the flexural test, both samples showed excellent stiffness, with flexural
strengths of 43.818 MPa and 46.220 MPa, confirming their ability to resist bending
forces effectively. Compression test results showed strengths of 9.349 N/mm² and 8.260
N/mm², respectively, reflecting good resistance under compressive loads. The Izod
impact values, though moderate (0.25 J and 0.40 J), highlight the composite's capacity
to absorb energy under sudden impact. Compared to composites reinforced with banana
fibers, which generally exhibit lower mechanical strength and durability, the selected
fibers—sisal, jute, and coir—offered better structural integrity and improved
mechanical performance. The enhanced bonding between fibers and epoxy matrix
contributed to the superior results. Thus, the choice of these natural fibers not only
ensures environmental sustainability but also provides a stronger and more reliable
alternative for low-to-medium load structural applications. Future improvements in
processing techniques and fiber treatment may further enhance the performance of such
bio-composites.

47
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