Social Work

Research Process UNIT 2 RESEARCH DESIGNS

*Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik

Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Research Designs
2.3 Experimental Research Design
2.4 Quasi Experimental Research Design
2.5 Exploratory Research Design
2.6 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Key Words
2.9 Suggested Readings

2.0 OBJECTIVES
Research designs provide a blueprint to carry out the research in terms of
approach, sampling design, methods and tools of data collection, type of data to
be gathered and degree of rigour to be used in data analysis, etc. After reading
this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the characteristic features of various research designs
• comprehend the types and components of experimental research designs
• assess the usage and applicability of exploratory research design; and
• examine the basic elements of descriptive and diagnostic research designs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Research Design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure. It is a procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher
logically and systematically to answer questions validly, objectively, accurately
and economically.
Research Design can also be called the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data.
Defining a Research Design:
• A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so
conceived as to obtain answers to research problems or questions. The
plan is the complete scheme of the research. It includes an outline of what
110 Prof. Sushma Batra & Prof. Archana Kaushik, Department of Social Work, University of Delhi
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 the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational Research Designs
implications to the final analysis of data.
• A Research Design is a blue print or detailed plan for how a research study
is to be completed – operationalizing variables so they can be measured,
selecting a sample of interest to study, collecting data to be used as a basis
for testing hypotheses, and analyzing the results.
Why do we need a Research Design?
A Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the
various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and
money. Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house,
we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house) well
thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance for data collection and analysis for our research
project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be
adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in its
analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of
staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design should be done with
great care as any error in it may upset the entire project. Research design, in
fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such
constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
The research design includes an outline of what the researcher will do and the
designing decisions happen in respect of:
i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being undertaken?
iii. Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
vi. What will be the time period of the study?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will be used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?
The Research Design must contain:
i. A clear statement of the research problem
ii. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information
iii. The population and the sample to be studied
iv. Methods to be used in processing and analysing data
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Social Work v. Chapterisation and reporting plan
Research Process
vi. Resources needed
Following factors are to be considered while selecting an appropriate research
design for a particular research:
i. The objective of the problem to be studied
ii. The nature of the problem to be studied
iii. Means of obtaining information
iv. The availability of time and money for the research work
v. Availability and skills of the researcher and the research staff

2.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research Designs differ depending on various criteria. This can be broadly
classified based on the nature of investigation as:
1. Experimental Research Design
2. Non-experimental Research Design
When the research design uses random assignment to groups it is called
Randomized Experimental or True Experimental Research Design. If random
assignment is not used but the design uses either control group or multiple waves
of measurement then it is known as Quasi Experimental Research Design. If it
does not use either then it is called a Non-Experimental Research Design.
A randomized experiment generally is the strongest of the three designs when
the interest is in establishing a cause-effect relationship. A non-experiment is
generally the weakest with respect to internal validity or causal assessment.
Internal validity is the approximate truth about inferences regarding cause -
effect or causal relationships.

IS RANDOM ASSIGNMENT USED

YES NO

TRUE EXPERIMENT CONTROL GROUP / MULTIPLE MEASURES USED

YES NO

QUASI EXPERIMENT NON EXPERIMENT

The schema above depicts the basic difference between two broad types of
research designs. Details of these research designs are provided below.
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 Research Designs
2.3 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
In experimental research studies, a relationship is studied from the cause to
establish an effect. The independent variable in these studies can be observed,
introduced, controlled or manipulated by the researcher or someone else.
Experimental studies are concerned with testing the causal hypotheses. The
hypotheses of causal relationship assert that a particular characteristic or
occurrence (X) is one of the factors that determine another characteristics or
occurrence (Y). Experiments are well suited to research projects involving
relatively limited and well-defined concepts and propositions. The experimental
model is especially appropriate for hypothesis testing.

Important Concepts:
Dependent and Independent variables: A factor which can take on different
quantitative values is called a variable. As such, the feature like weight,
height, income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the
attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of certain
attribute(s).
Any variable that is responsible for bringing about change is called an
independent variable. Any variable which is influenced by the exposure of
or change in the independent variable, is called a dependent variable. In other
words, if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of theother variable,
it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the
dependentvariable is termed as an independent variable.
For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent
variable and age is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being
dependent upon age, height also depends upon the individual's sex, then height
is a dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables.
Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous
variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children's performance in social studies achievement and
their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social
studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect
the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the
study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variable(s) is technically described as an 'experimental error'. A study must
always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed
entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or
variables.
Chance or Random variables: Sometimes, changes in the dependent variable
occur due to variation in the attitudes of the respondents or their state of mind
or mood at the time of data collection. These are called chance or random
variables.
Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize
the influence oreffect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term 'control' 113
Social Work is used when we design the study by minimizing the effects of extraneous
Research Process independent variables. In experimental researches, the term 'control' is used to
refer to restrained experimental conditions.
Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is said tobe confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Experimental and control groups: In an experimental research, when a group
is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a 'control group', but when the group
is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an 'experimental
group'. The experimental group is exposed to the assumed causal (independent
variable) variable while the control group is not. The two groups are then
compared in terms of the assumed effect (dependent variable). The comparison
of the control group and the experimental group at the end of the experiment,
points to the effect of the experimental stimulus.
It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups or
studies whichinclude both experimental and control groups.
Pre and Post Test: Measurement of the dependent variable before the
intervention of the independent variable is known as the Pre-Test and the
re-measurement of the dependent variable after it has been exposed to the
independent variable is known as the Post-Test.
Any difference between the first and the last measurements on the dependent
variable are then attributed to the independent variable.
In an experimental research we can say that:

Changes because of
independent variable

Change in dependent Changes because of

variable extraneous variables

Changes because of
chance variables

Selecting subjects in experimental and control group:

The cardinal rule of subject selection in experimentation concerns the
comparability of experimental and control groups. Ideally, the control group
represents what the experimental group would be like if it had not been exposed
to the experimental stimulus. Therefore, it is vital that the experimental group
and the control group are having similar composition of the subjects. To ensure
this, two methods can be used:
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i. Randomization: It is the process of random assignment of members Research Designs
of a group of subjects to experimental and control groups. The assignment
procedures must give each subject the same chance of being assigned to any
of the alternative groups. The procedure is such that in any selection of the
subject, researcher’s personal judgment is inconsequential. This does not mean
that the experimental and control groups will be exactly alike but that whatever
differences exist between them prior to exposure to the experimental variable
are solely by chance.
ii. Matching: Matching involves pairing the subjects for assignment to the
experimental or control group in a manner that a particular type of subject
assigned to, say the experimental group, is balanced by assigning its exact
counterpart to the control group. Matching ensures that the experiment will
reveal true differences brought about by the experimental variable. For example,
we have 100 students. We classify the students on the basis of sex, age, family
background. If we put, one male in experimental group, we put one in control
group. If we put one subject belonging to high economic status in experimental
group, we put one in the control group.
Types of Experimental Research Designs:
a. After Only Design:
In an after only research design, before measurement is not taken by the
researcher. The pre- test or before observation is usually constructed on the
basis of respondents’ recall of the situation before the intervention or from the
information available in the records. The baseline data (before the measurement)
is constructed retrospectively.

b. Before and After Design:

In this design, a before observation is taken of both the groups at the same time
(pre-test). The Pre Test is done before the intervention is introduced to the study
population unlike the after only research design. When the intervention has been
fully implemented or is assumed to have had its effects on the population, the
after observation (post-test) is carried out to ascertain the impact attributable to
the intervention.

Experimental Group (Y1) Intervention Y2

(Measurement of Self Esteem) (Re- Measurement of Self Esteem)

Control Group (Y*1) No Intervention Y*2

(Measurement of Self Esteem) (Re- Measurement of Self Esteem)

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Social Work Effects on Experimental Group (D1): Y2 - Y1
Research Process
Effects on Control Group (D2): Y*2 – Y*1
Net Effects: D2 - D1
Y2 - Y1= (Impact of program intervention) +/- (Impact of extraneous variables)
+/- (Impact of chance variables)
Y*2 – Y*1 = (Impact of extraneous variables) +/- (Impact of chance variables)
Difference between the Experimental and the Control group = (Y2 - Y1) – (Y*2
– Y*1)
which is - {(Impact of program intervention) +/- (Impact of extraneous variables
in experimental group) +/- (Impact of chance variables in experimental
groups)}- {(Impact of extraneous variables in control group) +/- (Impact of
chance variables in control group)}.
Need for Before Measurement:
a. A before measurement of the dependent variable is necessary for matching
the cases in the experimental and the control groups. This measure greatly
enhances the sensitivity of the experiment.
b. A before measurement makes it possible to determine the incidences of
changes in the dependent variable and to take these into consideration in
evaluating the effects of the experimental or independent variable.
c. If the hypothesis of the study specifies the initial position on the dependent
variable as one of the determining conditions, then obviously, the before
measurement is required to test the hypothesis. For example, the hypothesis
may state that an educational programme will have greater effect on persons
who have a set of specific characteristics than those who do not have
these particular characteristics. In such a case, an initial measure of such
characteristics as well as the ‘after’ measure is required for the hypothesis.
d. If the experimenter is interested in finding out whether the experimental
treatment has different effect on cases who were initially at different
positions on the dependent variable, he must, understandably have a before
measure of position on the dependent variable. In real life settings, the ideal
requirement of selecting the experimental and control groups on a purely
random basis is often hard to fulfill and certain compromises are called for.
In such cases, the evidence from a ‘before’ measure that the experimental
and control groups were initially equal in respect of the dependent variable
helps to increase the confidence that a difference found on the ‘after’
measure is due to the effect of the independent variable.

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 Research Designs
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Describe briefly “extraneous Variables”.
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2.4 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

DESIGN
This design of study is used when it is not possible to have maximum controlled
environment. Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups, upon
which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes. For
example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily
divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement. The division is
often convenient and, especially in an educational situation, causes as little
disruption as possible.
After this selection, the experiment proceeds in a very similar way to any other
experiment, with a variable being compared between different groups, or over
a period of time.
They have less internal validity than true experimental research designs but still
provide reasonably good amount of evidences for causal inferences.
Advantages:
• Especially in social sciences, where pre-selection and randomization of
groups is often difficult, quasi experimental design can be very useful in
generating results for general trends.
• Quasi-experimental design is often integrated with individual case studies;
the figures and results generated often reinforce the findings in a case study,
and allow some sort of statistical analysis to be undertaken.
• In addition, without extensive pre-screening and randomization needed
to be undertaken, they do reduce the time and resources needed for
experimentation.
Disadvantages:
• Without proper randomization, statistical tests can be meaningless.
• These results will not stand up to rigorous statistical scrutiny because the
researcher also needs to control other factors that may have affected the
results.
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Social Work
Research Process 2.5 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
Let us now look at non-experimental research designs. In non-experimental
research design a relationship is studied from the effects to trace the cause. The
researcher retrospectively links the cause to the outcomes.
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies are:
• Generating basic knowledge
• Clarifying relevant issues
• Uncovering variables associated with a problem
• Formulating a problem for more precise investigation
• Developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view
The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As
such, the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to
provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.
Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem,
broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning
in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data.
Designed to generate basic knowledge, clarify relevant issues, uncover variables
associated with a problem, uncover information needs, and/or define alternatives
for addressing research objectives.
The following three methods in the context of research design for such studies
are discussed in detail:
i. Survey of concerning literature
ii. Experience survey
iii. Analysis of 'insight-stimulating' examples.
Survey of concerning literature: This happens to be the most simple and
fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing
hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered
whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this way,
the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others.
But in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to
review the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it. He
should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in varied
research contexts.
Experience survey: It is the survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight
into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research
problem. For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute
118 new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation
of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be Research Designs
interviewed by the investigator. But the interview must ensure flexibility in
the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions
which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience-
collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours.
Analysis of 'insight-stimulating' examples: It is also a fruitful method for
suggesting hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where
there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive
study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For
this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude
of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher
to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the
main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking
insights.

2.6 DESCRIPTIVE AND DIAGNOSTIC

RESEARCH DESIGN
Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design: Descriptive research studies
are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of
a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated
are examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned
with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning
individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive research studies.
From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic
studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these
two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the
researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and must
find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of
'population' he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully
planned. The research design must make enough provision for protection
against bias and must maximise reliability, with due concern for the economical
completion of the research study. The design in such studies must be rigid and
not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
i. Formulating the objective of the study
ii. Designing the methods of data collection
iii. Selecting the sample
iv. Collecting the data
v. Processing and analysing the data.
vi. Reporting the findings.
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Social Work In descriptive/diagnostic designs, the first step is to specify the objectives with
Research Process sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not
done carefully, the study may not provide the desired information. This is
followed in devising techniques for collecting the information. Several methods
(viz., observation, interviewing, examination of records, etc.), with their merits
and limitations may be used. The researcher may use one or more of these
methods. While designing data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards
against bias and unreliability must be ensured. Whichever method is selected,
questions must be well examined and be made unambiguous; interviewers must
be instructed not to express their own opinion; observers must be trained so
that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour. It is always desirable to
pre-test the data collection instruments before they are finally used for the study
purposes. In other words, we can say that ‘structured instruments’ are used in
such studies.
In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies, the researcher takes out sample(s)
and then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the
sample analysis or analyses. More often than not, sample has to be designed. The
data collected must be processed and analysed. This includes steps like coding
the interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating the data; and performing
several statistical computations. Finally, the findings have to be reported to
others and the researcher must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the
report needs to be well planned so that all things relating to the research study
may be well presented in simple and effective style.
The difference between research designs in respect of the exploratory and
descriptive/diagnostic studies is given in the table below.

Type of Study
Research Design Exploratory Descriptive/
Diagnostic
• Overall design Flexible design Rigid design (design
(design must provide must make enough
opportunity for provision for
considering different protection against bias
aspects of the problem) and must maximize
reliability)
• Non-probability • Probability
sampling design sampling design
(Purposive or (Random Sampling)
Judgment Sampling) • Pre-planned design
• Sampling design • No pre-planned for analysis
• Statistical design design for analysis • Structured or
• Observational design • Unstructured well thought out
• Operational design instruments for instruments for
collection of data collection of data
• No fixed decisions • Advanced decisions
about the operational about operational
procedures procedures.

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 Research Designs
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the advantages of quasi experimental research design?
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2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we studied about the research designs, which are the frameworks for
conducting research. Broadly, research designs are grouped into two categories
- experimental and non-experimental research designs. For establishing cause-
effect relationship between social behaviour, event or phenomenon under study,
experimental research designs are used. These research designs have high
reliability and validity. Under non-experimental research designs, exploratory
and descriptive and diagnostic research designs have been discussed in detail.

2.8 KEY WORDS

Research Design : It refers to the overall strategy that a researcher
chooses to integrate the different components
of the study in a coherent and logical way,
thereby, ensuring effectively addressing the
research problem; it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement, and analysis
of data.
Experimental Research : A research design used to establish cause-
Design and-effect relationships between the
independent and dependent variables by
means of manipulation of variables, control and
randomization. A true experiment involves
the random allocation of participants to
experimental and control groups, manipulation
of the independent variable, and the
introduction of a control group for comparison
purposes. Participants are assessed after the
manipulation of the independent variable in
order to assess its effect on the dependent
variable (the outcome).
Quasi Experimental : Research in which individuals cannot be
Research Design assigned randomly to two groups, but they are
assigned according to alphabetical order or
some specific arrangement. 121
Social Work Exploratory Research : This design is conducted about a research
Research Process Design problem when there are few or no earlier
studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining
insights and familiarity for later investigation
or undertaken when problems are in a
preliminary stage of investigation.
Descriptive Research : It is a scientific method which involves
Design observing and describing the behaviours
of people, groups, communities, or social
events and phenomenon without influencing
it in any way. It is a study designed to depict
the participants in an accurate way.

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Lal Das, D. K. (2000). Practice of Social Research: A Social Work Practice.
New Delhi: Rawat Publications
Anastas, J.W. (1999). Research Design for Social Work and The Human
Services (2nd ed.) New York: Columbia University Press
Rubin, A. & Babbie, E. (2001). Research Methods for Social Work (4th Ed.).
California: Wadsworth
Burns, R.B. (2000). Introduction to Research Methods. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Ruane, J.M. (2005). Essentials of Research Methods: A guide to Social Science
Research. Melbourne: Blackwell Publishing.

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