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LIFE SPAN Development IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Applied Psychology (Amity University)

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LIFE SPAN
Imp questions
CLASS TEST INTERNALS

PATTERN:

SEC-A

5 questions 6 marks

SEC-B

3 questions 10 marks

SEC-C

1 question

2 parts (10m+ 6m)

So only 2 questions out of the 3 that are of 10m

Questions

1. Discuss the characteristics and stages of Prenatal Development

2. Explain Piaget's concepts of cognitive development during middle childhood.

3. Discuss psychosocial changes during late adulthood.

4. Define infancy. Discuss the various psychosocial development during infancy.

5. Discuss growth and development. Discuss the various areas in which a child's growth and
development takes place.

6. Explain motor development during early childhood.

7. Explain the process of developing identity and identity crisis during adolescence.

8. Discuss the theories of psychosocial changes during early adulthood.

9. Discuss the ageing process in lath adulthood.

10. Discuss the various methods and obstacles in studying life span development.

11. Describe psychosocial development during infancy

12. Describe social development during childhood.

13. Discuss psychosocial changes during middle-adulthood stage, highlighting the developmental
tasks during this stage.

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14. Explain motor development during early childhood.

15. Elucidate the role of school in development of a 6 child

16. Discuss the cognitive development during 6 adolescences.

17. How do adolescents acknowledge sexuality?

18. Explain the concept of ageing. Discuss ageing issues during middle-adulthood.

19. Discuss the characteristics and hazards during early childhood

20. Describe social development during early childhood.

21. Discuss the causes underlying acknowledging sexuality and high-risk behaviour during
adolescence.

22. Describe the cognitive changes during middle adulthood.

23. Discuss the phenomenon of growth and development of children.

24. Explain cognitive development during infancy.

25. Discuss Marcia's concept of self.

26. Elucidate the family life cycle during adulthood.

27. Any two environmental influences during prenatal period.

28. Discuss psychosocial changes during old age.

29. Explain the characteristic features of infancy period. Describe the physical and psychological
hazards during this stage.

30. Elucidate concept formation and language development during early school years.

31. Define and describe identity and identity crisis in adolescence.

32. Differentiate between generativity and stagnation. Discuss for developmental tasks of middle
adulthood.

33. Write a note on disorders of physical development during 6 - 11 years of age.

34. What do you mean by value education. Explain the importance of educational excursion.

35. Discuss school performance and cognitive 6 development during adolescence.

36. Explain Kohlberg's theory of moral development

37. Discuss the characteristics and types of hazards during early childhood.

38. Elucidate Piaget's concepts of cognitive development in middle childhood.

39. Comment on identity crisis in adolescence. How can it be resolved?

40. Discuss the cognitive changes during middle adulthood.

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41. What are the characteristics of prenatal development? How can environmental influences affect
the development of an infant?

42. Describe the development during adult years in terms of stage vs contextual theories.

43. Briefly describe the family life cycle during adulthood.

44. Write a note on coping with loss of normalcy during adolescence.

45. Compare Piaget's and Kohlberg's theories of moral development.

46. Explain the concept of Human Development. 4+6 Discuss the various obstacles in studying Life
Span Development.

47. Write short notes on the following : (a) Stages of prenatal development (b) Common behavioral
disorders during early school years.

48. Describe the physical and cognitive development during early childhood.

49. Elucidate Piaget's concept of cognitive development in middle-childhood period.

50. How does social development play a crucial role 10 in forming a child's personality? Support
your answers with relevant examples.

1. Discuss the characteristics and stages of Prenatal Development

Ans] Prenatal development refers to the process in which a baby develops
from a single cell after conception into an embryo and later a fetus.
Prenatal development starts with fertilization, in the germinal stage of
embryonic development, and continues in fetal development until birth.

Stages of Prenatal development

1] GERMINAL PERIOD -
• This happens 2 weeks after perception
• There is a formation of the zygote wall
• It causes continous cell division
• There is an attatchment of the zygote to the uterine wall
• There is Rapid cell division

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• By the end of the stage, the fertilized egg becomes a blastocyst and
plants itself in the of the uterus.
• The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg
cell unite in one of the two fallopian tubes
2] EMBRYONIC PERIOD -
• Human embryonic development, or human embryogenesis, is the development and
formation of the human embryo
• Happens 2 to 8 weeks after conception
• Zygote becomes Embryo
• cell differentiation intensifies
• Life-support systems for the embryo develop
• organs appear start to appear
• •At the end of four weeks:
• –Embryo is 1/4 inch in length
• –Heart, digestive system, backbone and spinal cord begin to form
• –Placenta (sometimes called "afterbirth") begins developing
• –The single fertilized egg is now 10,000 times larger than size at conception
• •At the end of 8 weeks:
• –Embryo is 1 1/8 inches in length
• –Eyes, nose, lips, tongue, ears and teeth are forming
• –Embryo is moving, although the mother can not yet feel movement
• –Heart is functioning
• Organogenesis begins to occur
• the process of organ formation during the first two months of pre- natal development
• As these three layers form (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm), the
support system for the embryo develop rapidly which are the:
–placenta
–umbilical cord
–amnion

3] FETAL PERIOD
• The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important
changes in the brain. This period of development begins
during the ninth week and lasts until birth.

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• This stage is marked by amazing change and growth.

• After 3 months of conception
− fetus is about 3 inches long
− it has become more active by moving its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth,
and move its head
− the genitals can now be identified as male or female
• The following are distinguished -
− –face
− –forehead
− –eyelids
− –nose
− –chin
− –upper and lower arms
− –hands
− –lower limbs
• After 4 months
− fetus is about 6 inches long
− stronger pre-natal reflexes
− first arm and feet movement are felt by the mother
• After 5 months
− fetus is about 12 inches long
− structures of the skin have formed
− fetus is more active
• After 6 and 7 months
− Fetus is about 14 inches long
− eyes and eyelids are completely formed
− Fine layer of hair covers the head
− Grasping reflex present and irregular movements occur
− Taste buds have developed
− Fat layers are forming
− Organs are maturing
− Skin is still wrinkled and red
− If born at this time, he/she will be considered a premature baby and require special
care
• After 9 Months
− Fetus is 19 to 20 inches long
− The lungs are mature
− Baby is now fully developed and can survive outside the mother's body
− Skin is pink and smooth

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− He/she settles down lower in the abdomen in preparation for birth and may seem less
active

2. Explain Piaget's concepts of cognitive development during middle

childhood.
ANS]
One of the most influential theories on the growth and development of
cognitive thinking in children was proposed by Jean Piaget
Piaget‘s theory of cognitive development follows stage approach to
cognitive development. Stage approach believes that, from birth through
adolescence, children pass through a series of four stages in the same
order.
Cognition unfolds in a sequence of four stages. Each stage is agerelated
and distinctive. Each stage is discontinuous from and more advanced
than the previous.
• The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking, and listening
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be
seen (object permanence)
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world
around them
• The Preoperational Stage

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Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures
to represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend
to think about things in very concrete terms.
• The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete
events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount
of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for
example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very
concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle
• The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly
and reason about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges

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Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social,

and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to
specific information
Piaget introduced some factors in cognitive development which help in
children to learn and grow.
Schemas - Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Assimilation - Incorporating new information into existing schemas
Accommodation - Adjusting existing schemas to fit new information and
experiences
Organization - Grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-
order system
Equilibration - A shift, a resolution of conflict to reach a balance

3. Discuss psychosocial changes during late adulthood.

ANS] Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s
controversial psychosexual theory and modified it into an eight-stage
psychosocial theory of development.
During each of Erikson’s eight development stages, two conflicting ideas
must be resolved successfully in order for a person to become a confident,
contributing member of society. Failure to master these tasks leads to
feelings of inadequacy.
According to Erikson, the last psychosocial stage is Integrity vs. Despair.
This stage includes, “a retrospective accounting of one's life to date; how
much one embraces life as having been well lived, as opposed to
regretting missed opportunities

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He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either
a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their
accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their
lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this
stage may feel as if their life has been wasted.

4. Define infancy. Discuss the various psychosocial development during

infancy.

ANS] the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language
approximately one to two years later is known as infancy.
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life,
known as trust vs mistrust. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love,
warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care
and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a
sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A
lack of this will lead to mistrust.

5. Discuss growth and development. Discuss the various areas in which a

child's growth and development takes place.
ANS]

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Defination – Growth is the progressive increase in the size of a child or

parts of a child.
Development is progressive acquisition of various skills (abilities) such
as head support, speaking, learning, expressing the feelings and relating
with other people. Growth and development go together but at different
rates.
Importance of assessing growth and development - The assessment of
growth and development is very helpful in finding out the state of health
and nutrition of a child. Continuous normal growth and development
indicate a good state of health and nutrition of a child. Abnormal growth
or growth failure is a symptom of disease. Hence, measurement of growth
is an essential component of the physical examination.
various areas in which a child's growth and development takes place. –
– Physical Development (Gross and fine motor) :
o The development of both gross and fine motor skills helps a child
go from being a completely dependent newborn to being an
independently functioning toddler in about three years.
o Gross motor skills coordinate the large muscle groups that control
our arms and legs and involve larger movements like balancing,
running, and jumping.
o Fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscle
movements, usually involving the hands working in coordination
with the eyes.
o Children meet a myriad of physical development milestones in the
first few years of life, from walking to drawing to self-feeding.

– Language Development :

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o There are four main stages of normal language acquisition: The

babbling stage, the Holophrastic or one-word stage, the two-word
stage and the Telegraphic stage.
o Language development is thought to proceed by ordinary processes
of learning in which children acquire the forms, meanings, and uses
of words and utterances from the linguistic input. Children often
begin reproducing the words that they are repetitively exposed to.
– Cognitive Development :
o Cognitive development means how children think, explore and
figure things out. It is the development of knowledge, skills,
problem solving and dispositions, which help children to think about
and understand the world around them.
o There were 4 cognitive stages introduced by piaget which are –
Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, the concrete operational
stage and the formal operational stage which play a role in the
cognitive development of children.
– Socio-emotional Development :
o Social-emotional development includes the child's experience,
expression, and management of emotions and the ability to establish
positive and rewarding relationships with others (Cohen and others
2005). Infants experience, express, and perceive emotions before
they fully understand them.
o Social and emotional learning in schools involves 5 key
abilities: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness,
relationship skills, and responsible decision-making. These skills
are seen as the foundation upon which people can build all other
relational skills.

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6. Explain motor development during early childhood.

ANS] In The early childhood [ 2 – 6 years ] Children grow and develop
rapidly in their first five years across the four main areas of
development. These areas are motor (physical), communication and
language, cognitive, and social and emotional.

Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening of a

child’s bones, muscles and ability to move and touch his/her
surroundings. A child’s motor development falls into two categories:
fine motor and gross motor.
Fine motor skills refer to small movements in the hands, wrists, fingers,
feet, toes, lips and tongue. Gross motor skills involve motor
development of muscles that enable babies to hold up their heads, sit and
crawl, and eventually walk, run, jump and skip.
Typical motor skill development follows a predictable sequence. It starts
from the inner body, including the head, neck, arms and legs, and then
moves to the outer body such as hands, feet, fingers and toes. Motor
development is important throughout a child’s early life, because
physical development is tied to other development areas. For example, if
a child is able to crawl or walk (gross motor skills), he/she can more
easily explore their physical environment, which affects cognitive
development. Social and emotional development progresses when a
child can speak, eat and drink (fine motor skills).

7. Explain the process of developing identity and identity crisis during

adolescence.
ANS] DEVELOPMENT OF IDENTITY –
Identity refers to a broad coherent, internalized view of who a person is
and what the person wants to be, believes and values. Constructing an
identity involves defining who you are, what you value and the

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directions you chose to pursue in life. Simply put, it is your theory about
yourself; it is the knowledge of the self.
• Aspects of our identity - gender identity, social identity, ethnic or
racial identity, national identity and religious identity.
• The Process of Identity Formation
1. Life is a search for identity.
2. At the end of each stage, the child’s sense of identity is
reconfirmed at a new level.
3. During adolescence the question of identity becomes of all
consuming importance
• Adolescent confront many issues at the same time such as
- bodily changes, mental powers and thinking abilities
rapidly expanding; social pressures to make decisions
about marriage, education or occupation; need to conform
to the friends’ opinions and thinking, which may be in
conflict with those held by the parents; relationships,
especially with the opposite sex.
• Adolescents have numerous alternatives available before
them and may experience conflicting emotions as they
grapple with varying demands.
• Expectations that the adults have about the person also
change; conflicting situations.
• IDENTITY CRISIS - is the experience of considerable uncertainty
about their self and role that they have to fulfil in society.
Through such explorations in a variety of areas – academics,
work, relationships, gender roles, ethnic, religious and
national identities - adolescents develop their philosophy of
life; a stable sense of who they are.
Identity crisis MAY LEAD TO

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• Identity achievement – resolving of identity crisis

• Identity confusion – not able to achieve integration of their
various roles, selves and identifications which they have developed
over the years of childhood. Appears directionless, without any
goals, and shallow.
• Negative identity - an identity that is in direct opposition to that
parents or other adults would support.
Influences on Development of Identity
1. Biological and Physical changes - The physical changes that take
place in the body during adolescence are universal, but the
psychological and social impact of these changes on the person vary
from culture to culture and within a culture from person to person.
2) Cognitive changes - The capacity for abstract thinking, logical and
analytical reasoning and hypothetico-deductive reasoning enables the
adolescents to imagine a variety of future possibilities
3) Socio-cultural contexts - Socio cultural contexts refer to the family
environment, the neighbourhood, the community and the culture the
person is part of.

8. Discuss the theories of psychosocial changes during early adulthood.

ANS] Erikson developed a theory on psychosocial development and
introduced 8 stages namely –
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion.

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Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair.
The stage 8 intimacy vs isolation was talked about by Erikson during the
early adulthood
He stated that Erikson (1950) believed that the main task of early
adulthood is to establish intimate relationships and not feel isolated from
others. Intimacy does not necessarily involve romance; it involves caring
about another and sharing one’s self without losing one’s self. This
developmental crisis of “intimacy versus isolation” is affected by how the
adolescent crisis of “identity versus role confusion” was resolved (in
addition to how the earlier developmental crises in infancy and childhood
were resolved). The young adult might be afraid to get too close to
someone else and lose her or his sense of self, or the young adult might
define her or himself in terms of another person. Intimate relationships are
more difficult if one is still struggling with identity. Achieving a sense of
identity is a life-long process, but there are periods of identity crisis and
stability. And, according to Erikson, having some sense of identity is
essential for intimate relationships. Although, consider what that would
mean for previous generations of women who may have defined
themselves through their husbands and marriages, or for Eastern cultures
today that value interdependence rather than independence.

9. Discuss the ageing process in late adulthood.

ANS] In optimum condition, the organs of the human body will
ultimately fail at the MAXIMUM point of about 115 to 120 years.
Because we do not live in optimum conditions, aging occurs for most of
us at a faster rate and leads to tissue failure and dysfunction.

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Our body cells have a built in mechanism to cease cellular replacement

which leads to natural process of aging.
As the natural biological process of aging occurs, people will
experience the following. The rate depends greatly on lifestyle,
environment and genetics.
• Skin and hair will became less vibrant (slower rate of cellular
replacement.
• Kidneys, heart, blood vessels, and other organs begin to wear out.
• Skeletal system and muscles may have degeneration, weakness.
• Mental flexibility will become reduced, difficulty forming new
memories may occur.
Socioemotional Consequences of Aging :
• In optimum condition, the organs of the human body will
ultimately fail at the MAXIMUM point of about 115 to 120 years.
• Because we do not live in optimum conditions, aging occurs for
most of us at a faster rate and leads to tissue failure and
dysfunction.
• Our body cells have a built in mechanism to cease cellular
replacement which leads to natural process of aging.
Cognitive Changes in Older Adults
Biologically, many older adults may loose some flexibility or ability
due to aging.
This often leads to society's perception that older people are stupid, or
childlike.
Dementia
This is a common illness in the elderly that effects the ability to recall
old information and form new memories. It can impair the person’s
ability to live independently.

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10. Discuss the various methods and obstacles in studying life span
development.
ANS] As we all know development is a continuous process in a
development of a child. It occurs over a life time period, thus we need to
special techniques are employed to study the life span development. These
techniques are –
1) Longitudinal method: For the study of developmental changes in the
same group or individual, over a period of time, this method is useful. The
same individual is tested at different age group. Example, case study of
children behaviour in classroom.
2) Cross-section method: This method studies the development changes
by testing individuals of different ages at the same time only once. This
method helps to get the norms or standards of typical pattern of
development for different age. This is faster and cheaper method than
longitudinal method. It does not loose subjects who dropout of the study
since the subjects are tested only once. Example for this method is eating
behaviour of 5 years old.
3) Sequential method: To overcome the drawback of longitudinal and
crosssectional method this method was used. This is best method which
combines the longitudinal and cross-sectional method. People in a cross-
sectional sample are tested more than once and the results are analysed to
determined the differences that show up overtime for the different groups
of subjects. This method gives a more realistic assessment.
4) Time lag method: This method is studying the development of different
age groups in different years to determine the effect of historical events
on behaviour. This method is rarely used in developmental psychology,
because it takes a long time and large numbers of subjects are required
and have to be the same age at the time of testing.
OBSTACLES IN STUDYING LSD ARE –

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Representative Sample: The representative sample of a subject is the first

obstacle for studying the developmental period. The different age level of
the subject is the main concern for the researcher. The data collection from
the school children is easy for the researcher but in the case of new born
or infant, it is not that much easy. They often face strong parental
objection and their mood.
Establishing rapport with the subject: The establishing personal rapport to
the subject is the second difficult task for the researcher. It is rather
difficult to get full personal detail about the subject. They will never share
their personal detail. It is also being noted that personal rapports vary from
one stage to another stage. Even school children and college students, who
often fill tests as a part of their class work, mostly they fill false
information
Appropriate Methodology: Adaptation of an appropriate methodology is
the main concern of a researcher. We take different age group subjects in
a study, some time our target group may be one child, some time the
subject may be an adult or some time he may be old person.
Accuracy of data: Accuracy of data is the fourth obstacle in studying the
life span development. The data obtained from the studies will be
accurate. Inaccuracy of the data may show the picture of false information
of normal development at a particular age given by the subject.
Ethical aspects: The ethical aspect is a difficult task for the study of life-
span development, as the rights of subject is to be considered by the
researcher, even if the subject is being paid by the researcher for the study.
Consent of the subject if adult and consent of parents/ guardians if child
is an important and necessary step before data collection.

11. Describe psychosocial development during infancy

ANS] The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage

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in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based

on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers, known as the
trust vs mistrust.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love,
warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care
and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a
sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A
lack of this will lead to mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson
believed that successful development was all about striking a balance
between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire
hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by
some wariness that danger may be present.

12.Describe social development during childhood.

ANS] Social development refers to the process by which a child learns to
interact with others around them. As they develop and perceive their own
individuality within their community, they also gain skills to
communicate with other people and process their actions. Social
development most often refers to how a child develops friendships and
other relationships, as well how a child handles conflict with peers.
➢ Socialization, is a process by which children become participating
and functioning members of a society.
➢ They interact with others, share the
groups symbol’s, norms, and values or culture.

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➢ During the preschool years, children find social contacts with

members of their own sex more pleasurable than those with members
of the opposite sex.
➢ Socialization, is a process by which children become participating
and functioning members of a society.
➢ They interact with others, share the
➢ groups symbol’s, norms, and values or culture.
➢ During the preschool years, children find social contacts with
members of their own sex more pleasurable than those with
members of the opposite sex.
➢ Between the ages of 2 and 3 years, children show a decided interest
in watching other children and they attempt to make social contacts
with them.
➢ Parallel play, in which young children play independently beside
other children rather than with them.
➢ Associative play, in which children engage in similar, of identical,
activities with other children.
➢ Cooperative play, in which they are a part of the group and interact
with group members.
➢ Onlooker, means watching other children at play but making no
attempt to plat with them. They usually understands the rudiments of
team play.
➢ They are conscious of the opinions of others and try to gain attention
by showing off

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13. Discuss psychosocial changes during middle-adulthood stage,

highlighting the developmental tasks during this stage.
ANS] The fourth psychosocial stage initiated by erikson takes place
during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through
social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success
leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of
inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers
develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who
receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will
doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development
leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a
belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
14. Explain motor development during early childhood.
ANS] Motor development means the physical growth and strengthening
of a child’s bones, muscles and ability to move and touch his/her
surroundings. A child’s motor development falls into two categories: fine
motor and gross motor.
Children’s motor development is dependent primarily on overall physical
maturation, especially on skeletal and neuromuscular development.
To a lesser extent, motor development is also influenced by the
opportunities children have for exercise & practice
Here, the parent’s role is highlighted. We need to provide ample
opportunities to the preschooler to practice rhythmic gross motor

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activities – kicking, waving, bouncing, rocking, banging, rubbing,

swinging, thrusting, and twisting.
The same holds true for fine motor activities. Let the child reach out for
objects, throw them, scribble, and pick up beads, peas, and raisins.
However, it would be pertinent to understand that there is a set timetable
for development and any efforts to speed up natural development would
be futile.

15. Elucidate the role of school in development of a 6 child

ANS] The school Is the place a child goes during his infancy stage and it
plays a very important role in his development.
The role school plays in development of a 6 year old are –
• ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT –
the school needs to make sure that each student reaches their full
potential academically. It is not enough to impart education and
consider the job done. It is also imperative that the school
supports the reception of education- through using engaging
teaching methods, creating festive learning atmospheres, and
making the classroom a space conducive to learning and growth.
• SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT –
For most children, school is the first place they socialize. Children
must have positive social experiences, especially at the primary
school level. Positive relationships in the school, such as those
with teachers, friends, and classmates, open up the mind to new
learning experiences. They also ignite excitement and interest in
the child to be present in school, which is the first prerequisite to
learning. Feeling a sense of safety and belonging is essential for
adolescents’ emotional development.
• PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT –

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A child, after conception, goes through various physical

development. While home provides a restricted outlet, in school,
a child can channelise his energy into more sociable avenues.
Studies have pointed out that while in familiar environment, the
child is equipped to deal with sudden bursts of energy, the learns
to be at his/her best behaviour only when exposed to same-aged
individuals.
• COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT –
School is the foremost fountain of knowledge children are
exposed to. It gives a chance for them to acquire knowledge on
various fields of education such as people, literature, history,
mathematics, politics, and other numerous subjects. This
contributes to cultivation in the thought process. When one is
exposed to the influences coming from various cultural sources,
his/her on world and existence becomes vast.

16. Discuss the cognitive development during adolescence.

ANS] The cognitive development was introduced by piaget in his theory
of adolescents. the final stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
– the formal operational stage.
Thinking abilities expand dramatically.
The chief change is that the adolescents can think in abstract terms
Becomes capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning which means that
when faced with a situation or a problem, they can systematically mentally
generate and evaluate potential solutions to a problem.
Thus they can solve problems like, “If radhika is shorter than Neerja but
taller than Rekha, who is the tallest?” without actually seeing the
individuals or mentally creating their images. In other words, along with
being able to think in abstract terms, they are able to use logic.

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They can grasp complex scientific principles, discuss social and political
issues and detect the hidden meaning of a poem or a story.
• Adolescence appears to begin with a series of changes in their thinking
ability
- Thinking and reasoning
• Developing abstract thinking skills.
• Systematic searching for solutions to the problems.
• Intellectual interests expand and gain in importance.
• Curiosity and interests expand and gain in importance. They want to
know more. Try out different hobbies, interests and explore the
talents
• Adolescents experience Egocentrism and Decentering
- Egocentrism
Egocentrism is the perception of one-self at the center of the world;
the view that others base their behavior on or events occur as a result
of one’s own perceptions
- Decentering
is gaining some objectivity over one’s own point of view, reducing
the dominance of one’s subjective perspective in the interpretation
of events

17. How do adolescents acknowledge sexuality?

ANS] adolescents acknowledge it by –
• Displays shyness, blushing and modesty
• Girls develop physically sooner than boys
• Increased interest in sex

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• Movement towards heterosexuality with fears of homosexuality

• Concerns regarding physical and sexual attractiveness to others
• Frequently changing relationships

18. Discuss ageing issues during middle-adulthood.

ANS] Ages 40-65ish, focus is on parenting, career, meeting goals.
– Female fertility ends, physical aging begins in both genders
• Health concerns become more prevalent:
– Healthy lifestyle to prolong healthy years and prevent disease
– Preventative care especially important
• The “Midlife” Crisis is Common
• Mental flexibility becomes limited, learning new skills and
changing habits harder.
• Physical Decline begins:
– Depends greatly on lifestyle choices.
– Fall from peak fitness by mid to late 30’s
– Women have onset of menopause in mid to late 40’s/early
50’s
• Lifestyle issues are catching up:
– Poor lifestyle choices may now lead to disease and chronic
health issues.
• Preventative care is very important:
– Many chronic diseases and concern can be treated early if
caught during this stage.

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19. Discuss the characteristics and hazards during early childhood

ANS]
• CHARACTERSTICS
- Most parents consider early childhood a problem age or a
troublesome age. Parents also often refer to early childhood as the
toy age.
- Psychologists have kept many names for the early childhood calling
it the
1. Pregang age-the time when children are learning the
foundations of social behavior.
2. Exploratory age- a label which implies that children want to
know what their environment is, how it works, how it feels,
and how they can be part of it.
3. Questioning age- common way of exploring in early
childhood by asking.
4. Imitative age-Imitations of speech and actions of others are
prevalent. Imitative nature develops creative talents.
5. Creative age-children show more creativity in their play
during early childhood than at any other time in their lives.
• HAZARDS
- There is Misdemeanor which is done by children during this stage -
Mild forms of breaking of rules or misbehavior.
- There are 3 common causes of misdemeanor during the early
childhood years.
1. young children may misbehave due to to ignorance of the fact
that their behavior is disapproved by the social group.
2. many young children learn that willful disobedience of a
minor sort will generally bring them more attention than a
good behavior.
3. boredom may be responsible for much misbehavior during
the years of the early childhood.

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20. Describe social development during early childhood.

ANS] ans 12

21. Discuss the causes underlying acknowledging sexuality and high risk
behaviours during adolescence.
ANS] adolescents acknowledge Sexuality it by –
• Displays shyness, blushing and modesty
• Girls develop physically sooner than boys
• Increased interest in sex
• Movement towards heterosexuality with fears of homosexuality
• Concerns regarding physical and sexual attractiveness to others
• Frequently changing relationships
- there are many risk taking actions undertaken by adolescents which
are –
• Dangerous dieting and eating disorders
• Using drugs and alcohol
• Running away, staying out all night
• Unprotected sexual activity
• Gang violence, weapons, bullying, or scapegoating
• Stealing, shoplifting

22. Describe the cognitive changes during middle adulthood.

ANS] ans 2

23. Discuss the phenomenon of growth and development of children.

ANS] Ans 5

24. Explain cognitive development during infancy.

ANS]

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Use of reflexes and senses to understand the world around them

Manipulate objects using the senses
Repetition of actions
Cause and effect
Goal directed behavior
Trial and error
There Major achievement includes
1. Object permanence
2. Mental representation
3. Imitation
4. Deferred imitation

25. Discuss Marcia's concept of self.

ANS]
James Marcia is another influential theorist who expanded upon
Erikson's concept of identity crisis and identity confusion. His initial
work was published during the 1960's but his theory continues to be
refined in accordance with recent research findings. Although Marcia's
theory originally conceptualized identity development in terms of a
progressive developmental trend, his theory has subsequently become
more descriptive and categorical, defining and identifying particular
configurations of identity exploration and commitment.
Marcia used the term identity status to label and describe four unique
developmental identity stations or points. These are: identity diffusion,
identity foreclosure, moratorium and identity achievement.
1. IDENTITY DIFFUSION - describes youth who have neither explored
nor committed to any particular identity. Thus, this identity status

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represents a low level of exploration and a low level of

commitment. These adolescents haven't considered their identity
at all, and haven't established any life goals. They are reactive,
passively floating through life and dealing with each situation as it
arises. Their primary motivation is hedonic; the avoidance of
discomfort and the acquisition of pleasure.
2. IDENTITY FORECLOSURE STATUS - This identity status represents a
low degree of exploration but a high degree of commitment. At
this identity status adolescents are not actively trying to
determine what is important to them. They are not questioning
the values and beliefs they have been taught. Instead, these youth
obtain their identity simply by accepting the beliefs and values of
their family, community, and culture. In a sense, they passively
accept the identity assigned to them. While these youth are
committed to values and life goals assigned to them, they do not
question why they should be, nor do they consider any
alternatives.
3. MORATORIUM - The third identity status is called moratorium.
This identity status represents high degree of exploration but a
low degree of commitment. At this status, youth are in the midst
of an identity "crisis" which has prompted them to explore and
experiment with different values, beliefs, and goals. However,
they have not made any final decisions about which beliefs and
values are most important to them, and which principles should
guide their lives. Thus, they are not yet committed to a particular
identity. They are keeping their options open
4. IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT - This identity status represents both a
high degree of exploration and a high degree of commitment.
Youth are said to have achieved their identity by a process of
active exploration and strong commitment to a particular set of

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values, beliefs, and life goals that has emerged from this active
exploration and examination. At this identity status youth will
have decided what values and goals are most important to them,
and what purpose, or mission will direct their life.

26. Elucidate the family life cycle during adulthood.

ANS]

27. Any two environmental influences during prenatal period.

ANS] Environment plays crucial role in building up any individual. Some
of the environmental influences that affect the prenatal development
can be listed as:
i. Mother’s age: Since the 1970s, the number of women
becoming mothers in their 30s and 40s has increased. o
Women who have a child after the age of 40 are at a
higher risk of developing a variety of health issues. o
These mothers are more likely to give birth prematurely
and have babies who are underweight at birth. o
According to studies, if a mother has not had any major
health problems before the age of 40, she is unlikely to
have prenatal problems. o Women who become mothers
during their adolescence are more likely to have
premature babies. o Teenage mothers frequently do not
receive social support, and as a result, they do not receive
adequate prenatal care. o Poverty and a lack of parental
involvement after birth may also be factors in the high
infant mortality rate, particularly among adolescent
mothers.
ii. Teratogenic agents: Most of the problems during prenatal
period are caused by Teratogenic agents during the
prenatal period. Teratogens are environmental factors

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that cause birth defects in developing embryos. The brain

is more vulnerable to teratogens during the first 15 to 25
days after conception, while the heart is more vulnerable
during the next 20 to 49 days.

28. Discuss psychosocial changes during old age.

ANS] Integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik
Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins
at approximately age 65 and ends at death. Psychologists, counselors,
and nurses today use the concepts of Erikson's stages when providing
care for aging patients.
Erikson’s theory suggests that people pass through eight distinctive
developmental stages as they grow and change through life. While
many developmental theories tend to focus purely on childhood
events, Erikson was one of the few theorists to look at development
across the entire course of the lifespan. He was also one of the first to
view the aging process itself as part of human development.
At each stage of psychosocial development, people are faced with a
crisis that acts as a turning point in development. Successfully resolving
the crisis leads to developing a psychological virtue that contributes to
overall psychological well-being.
At the integrity versus despair stage, the key conflict centers on
questioning whether or not the individual has led a meaningful,
satisfying life.
There are a number of different factors that can influence the integrity
versus despair stage of psychosocial development. Some factors that
influence the outcome of this stage include:
• Family: Having supportive relationships is an important aspect of
the development of integrity and wisdom.

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• Work: People who feel a sense of pride in their work and

accomplishments are more likely to experience feelings of
fulfillment at this stage of life.
• Contributions: Those who reach this stage feeling that they have
made valuable contributions to the world are more likely to
achieve a sense of integrity. This often involves contributing to
things that will outlast them through their children, friendships,
mentorships, work, or community involvement.

29. Explain the characteristic features of infancy period. Describe the

physical and psychological hazards during this stage.
ANS] nfancy is the shortest of all Developmental period - Infancy begins
with birth and ends when the infant in approximately two weeks old.
This period is divided into two namely
Period of the Partunate - from birth to fifteen to thirty minutes after
birth. The infant continues to be a parasite until the umbilical cord has
been cut and tied.
Period of the Neonate - from cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to
approximately the end of the second week of postnatal life. Now the
infant is an independent individual and not a parasite. During this
period, the infant must make adjustments to the new environment.
Infancy is a time of radical adjustment - although the human life span
legally begins at the moment of birth, birth is merely an interruption of
the developmental pattern that started at the moment of conception. It
is the graduation from an internal to external environment.

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Infancy is a plateau in development - The rapid growth and

development which took place during the prenatal period suddenly
comes to a stop with birth. The halt in growth and development,
characteristic of this plateau is due to the necessity for making radical
adjustment to the postnatal environment. Once these adjustments
have been made, infants resume their growth and development.
Infancy is a preview of later development. It is not possible to predict
with even reasonable accuracy what the individual's future
development will be on the basis of the development at birth.

Infancy is a hazardous period - physically it is hazardous because of the

difficulties of making the necessary radical adjustment to the totally
new and different environment. Psychologically infancy is hazardous
because it is the time when the attitudes of significant people towards
the infant are crystallized and change radically after the infant is born
or can remain unchanged depending on conditions at birth and on how
the parents adjust.

30. Elucidate concept formation and language development during

early school years.
ANS] EARLY CHILHOOD LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: ACC. TO JEAN
Piaget, the representational cognition has become more sophisticated
because of the rapid development of linguistic skills. The availability of
language is the most significant difference between the sensory-motor
stage and the pre-operation stage.
• Pre-schoolers may discuss the past and the future. They start
daydreaming and developing imaginations.

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• From the second to the fourth year of life, language develops at a

breakneck pace.
• Pre-schoolers learn how to use syntax and grammar correctly. By the
age of two, the child's vocabulary has grown to more than 200 words,
and by the age of six, the child's vocabulary has grown to around
14,000 words.
• There is a distinction between private and social speech.
• The children use private speech that is directed at themselves. Social
speech is directed at other people.
• Private speech serves as a guide for behaviour. Pragmatics refers to
the practical skills and social rules of speaking.
• They are useful when conversing with others. During the preschool
years, these abilities improve.
• Pre-schoolers are also taught how to use social speech effectively.
The media and other information mediums, such as the internet,
greatly aid learning.
MIDDLE CHILHOOD LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: Language development
in early middle childhood is comparable to that of adults, but it still
requires refinement. Some important topics in middle childhood
language development include :
1. Mastering the mechanics of language:Vocabulary continues to grow
rapidly during middle childhood, increasing by about 5000 words
between the ages of six and ten. There is also an improvement in
grammar mastery. Children's conversational skills improve as they gain
proficiency in using pragmatics.

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2. Meta linguistic awareness: helps children's understanding of their

own language. It can be defined as an understanding of one's own
language and how it relates to the world around them.
3. how language promotes self-control: Research shows that as
children's self-control grow their linguistic capabilities increase, as well
as their verbal and non-verbal abilities.
4. bilingualism: In India, children are educated in both their native
language and English or their state language. According to research,
being bilingual provides significant cognitive and physical advantages
over speaking only one language.

31. Define and describe identity and identity crisis in adolescence.

ANS] ANS 7

32. Differentiate between generativity and stagnation. Discuss for

developmental tasks of middle adulthood.
• ANS] Developmental Task:
– Generativity Vs. Stagnation
• Develop sense of purpose by seeing goals come to
realization:
– Children grow up
– Career is at peek
– Other goals academically, artistically, or socially
are met.
• If not, the sense of productivity and esteem is lost.
• This occurs due to major changes from the routine or
lifestyle conducted during early adulthood.

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• In early adulthood, everything is on the “up”.

1. Family is growing
2. Career in developing
3. Marriage is family centered, as is socialization.
• At middle adulthood, the focus often shifts back to the
individual.
1. Children no longer dependent.
2. Career is stable or (worse) declining/boring.
3. Marriage now returns to spouse centered.
4. May have insecurities related to physical
changes.
5. Any previous issues with identity are going to
resurface.
• Keeping the Picture “Big”
1. Adults who stay focused on healthy relationships
with their significant other and children are
happier as they reach later adulthood and
retirement.
2. Adults who are engaged in social activities and
meaningful hobbies are less likely to feel
stagnant and bored in later life.
3. Intellectually active adults are happier and
healthier.
4. Adults who protect their health earlier in life will
benefit from better health with aging.

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33. Write a note on disorders of physical development during 6 - 11

years of age.
ANS] are :
Sensory Deficits
 The most common problem in middle childhood is myopia, or
nearsightedness

Malnutrition
. By middle childhood, the effects of prolonged and serious
malnutrition are apparent in retarded physical growth, low intelligence
test scores, poor motor coordination, inattention, and distractibility
Obesity
 Obesity is 20 percent increase over average body weight, based
on the child’s age, sex, and physical build.
 Over 80 percent of obese youngster remain overweight as adults.
Bedwetting
 Nocturnal enuresis is bedwetting that occurs during the night
 In most cases, it is caused by a failure of muscular responses that
inhibit urination or a hormonal imbalance that permits too much
urine to accumulate during the night

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 The most effective treatment is a urine alarm that wakes the child
at the first sign of dampness. It works according to conditioning
principles.

34. What do you mean by value education. Explain the importance of

educational excursion.
ANS] Value Education is a stimulated process through which we impart
value-based education. The idea is about the educational procedure
that ingrains moral guidelines to make progressively polite and majority
rule social orders.
The objective is that kids in the future add to society through great
citizenship and morals. Moral education and character education,
morals, and theory-based training have endeavored to do comparable
things. Such education should assume a significant job in making an
understudy socially capable, socially rich, just and firm.
IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL EXCURSION –
1. Effective Learning:
Practical implementation of concepts is the most effective tool for
learning. While classroom learning may give them an opportunity to
apply their learning on hypothetical situations, an educational tour, on
the other hand, makes students face real-life problems. Coming up with
solutions makes them innovative thinkers. When learning is
accompanied by fun, excitement, and enjoyment, it stops being
burdensome and boring, and students learn as a part of their natural
growing up process.
2. Exchange of Ideas:

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An educational tour offers the perfect informal set-up for lively

discussions. Group- discussion is also one of the most effective tools of
education. Students can have group discussions not only amongst their
friends, classmates, and peers but also with new people. This reignites
their interest in studies. Real life experiences like educational tours to
science museums, museums of history and arts, places of research, or
factory visits are priceless as they make learning colorful and real.
3. Personal Development:
An educational tour away from the comfort of school and home fosters
independence, leadership skills, and communication skills. Students
learn to break down the barriers of language and learn how to
communicate across boundaries. An exchange of cultural values allows
for them to become more accommodating personalities. The
experience of travel makes them independent individuals and helps
establish lifelong values and priorities. Travel also makes them strong
individuals.
4. Enhances Perspective:
An educational tour to new places is not just a fun get-away. It is about
exploring new environments and cultures. One of the most important
benefits of an educational tour is that it subtly develops an
understanding of various social issues around the world. Students get a
better grip on the local and the global issues. They become more
empathetic and respectful towards other cultures as well as towards
their own surroundings. An educational travel empowers them with a
new and enhanced perspective to look at things and develops them
into considerate personalities, well aware of the world issues at large
and in depth.
5. Global Networking:

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As students travel to different places, they interact with different

people. Interacting with locals and other students on educational
tours they develop amazing social skills and networks. University visits
and school visits are particularly beneficial as students develop a family
outside of their own comfort zones and an extended network of
contacts and references. They learn the norms of acceptable social
behavior in different circumstances and learn to extend a hand of
friendship to people from different culture, socio-economic
backgrounds. This develops the most sought out people- skills in them.

35. Discuss school performance and cognitive development during

adolescence.
ANS] ANS 16

36. Explain Kohlberg's theory of moral development

ANS] Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses
on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's
theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages.
The theory also suggests that moral logic is primarily focused on
seeking and maintaining justice.
Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to
his study subjects. Participants were also interviewed to determine the
reasoning behind their judgments in each scenario
One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman
has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This
drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to
make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's
husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

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He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be

extended credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to
sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz
instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife.
Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"
STAGES OF HIS THEORY ARE –
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It
lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are
primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences
for breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:
•
Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of
moral development, obedience and punishment are especially
common in young children, but adults are also capable of
expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people
at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.
Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
• Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and
exchange stage of moral development, children account for
individual points of view and judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that
the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s
needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development,
but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of
social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time,

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adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have

learned from their role models and from society.
This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming
to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of
morality:
• Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often
referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of
the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on
living up to social expectations and roles.7 There is an emphasis
on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices
influence relationships.
• Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on
ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by
following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of
abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:
• Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a
social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage
to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs
of other people.7 Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
• Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral
reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract

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reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized

principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

37. Describe the development during adult years in terms of stage vs

contextual theories.
ANS]

38. Write a note on coping with loss of normalcy during adolescence.

ANS] Grief is the reaction we have in response to a death or loss. Grief
can affect our body, mind, emotions, and spirit.
People might notice or show grief in several ways:
• Physical reactions: These might be things like changes in appetite
or sleep, an upset stomach, tight chest, crying, tense muscles,
trouble relaxing, low energy, restlessness, or trouble
concentrating.
• Frequent thoughts: These may be happy memories of the person
who died, worries or regrets, or thoughts of what life will be like
without the person.
• Strong emotions: For example, sadness, anger, guilt, despair,
relief, love, or hope.
• Spiritual reactions: This might mean finding strength in faith,
questioning religious beliefs, or discovering spiritual meaning and
connections.
When people have these reactions and emotions, we say they're
grieving.
Grief is a reaction to loss, but it's also the name we give to
the process of coping with the loss of someone who has died. Grief is a

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healthy process of feeling comforted, coming to terms with a loss, and

finding ways to adapt.
Getting over grief doesn't mean forgetting about a person who has
died. Healthy grief is about finding ways to remember loved ones and
adjust to life without them present.
People often experience grief reactions in "waves" that come and go.
Often, grief is most intense soon after someone has died. But some
people don't feel their grief right away. They may feel numbness,
shock, or disbelief. It can take time for the reality to sink in that the
person is gone.
Rituals, like memorial services and funerals, allow friends and family to
get together to support and comfort the people most affected by the
loss. These activities can help people get through the first days after a
death and honor the person who died.
People might spend time together talking and sharing memories about
their loved one. This may continue for days or weeks following the loss
as friends and family bring food, send cards, or stop by to visit.
Many times, people show their emotions during this time, like crying.
But sometimes people can be so shocked or overwhelmed by the death
that they don't show any emotion right away — even though the loss is
very hard. People might smile and talk with others at a funeral as if
nothing happened, but they're still sad. Being among other mourners
can be a comfort, reminding us that some things will stay the same.
When the rituals end, some people might think they should be over
their grief. But often the grief process is just beginning. People may go
back to their normal activities but find it hard to put their heart into
everyday things. Although they may not talk about their loss as much,
the grieving process continues.

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Feeling better usually happens gradually. At times, it might feel like

you'll never recover. The grieving process takes time, and grief can be
more intense at some times than others.
As time goes on, reminders of the person who has died can intensify
feelings of grief. At other times, it might feel as if grief is in the
background of your normal activities, and not on your mind all the
time.
As you do things you enjoy and spend time with people you feel good
around, you can help yourself feel better. Grief has its own pace. Every
situation is different. How much grief you feel or how long it lasts isn't a
measure of how important the person was to you.
Helping Yourself
If you're grieving, it can help to express your feelings and get support,
take care of yourself, and find meaning in the experience.
Express Feelings and Find Support
Take a moment to notice how you've been feeling and reacting. Try to
put it into words. Write about what you're feeling and the ways you're
reacting to grief. Notice how it feels to think about and write about
your experience.
Think of someone you can share your feelings with, someone who will
listen and understand. Find time to talk to that person about what
you're going through and how the loss is affecting you. Notice how you
feel after sharing and talking.
We can learn a lot from the people in our lives. Even when you don't
feel like talking, it can help just to be with others who also loved the
person who died. When family and friends get together, it helps people
feel less isolated in the first days and weeks of their grief. Being with

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others helps you, and your presence — and words — can support them,
too.

39. Compare Piaget's and Kohlberg's theories of moral development.

ANS] Piaget pioneered the field of moral development from a cognitive
study of precedent, Piaget, Kohlberg is following after development
oriented research using cognitive moral development of the most
outstanding representatives. This article from the perspective of moral
psychology, comparing their moral development theory, revealing their
theoretical differences and similarities. Compare their theory has
important theoretical and practical significance, not only conducive to
enrich and develop the theory of moral development research, but also
for our country to contribute to moral education. Piaget and Kohlberg's
theory of thinking is profound, though related, but self-contained, first
with their research methods closely linked. This article from the outset
the philosophy of moral psychology research methodology and specific
methods for two-level theoretical study of two methods Pico do a
comparative study. Pointed out that the methodology in philosophy,
both are structuralism, specifically in the unity of structure and
function, structure, and constructivism unity; in the specific methods,
the story Piaget used the indirect method, Kohlberg method uses a
dilemma story, which is still the basis to establish a set of detailed
criteria to measure moral judgment approach. Then, from the
perspective of moral psychology, respectively, from the essence of
moral development and mechanisms of the factors that affect the
moral development, moral development stage, the main line of moral
development and research topics were four levels of the comparison.
By comparison found between the theory of Piaget and Kohlberg have
taken the biggest similarity is that psychological development

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perspective to explain the formation of human morality, mainly

reflected in: First, the two are basically the moral concept of
development is a longitudinal dimension in the relationship between
thinking and behavior, both adhere to the \. Difference between the
two is mainly reflected in: First, Kohlberg's research focuses on the
development of moral thinking in different stages of development
characterized by descriptions, rather than thinking of the formation
process itself, Piaget's research focuses on the formation of thinking
process itself, a description of the characteristics of the process theory
only in its second place; Second, on the impact of social cognitive
factors of moral development, Kohlberg has given high priority, but
they ignore Piaget, which undermines a petri doctrine and integrity of
the scientific; Third, Piaget's research is a pure research, and not just
pay attention to theoretical quest Kohlberg, more emphasis on applied
research. Piaget Kohlberg on the inheritance and development mainly
reflected in: in Piaget's research, based on Kohlberg proposed a more
detailed and systematic to three levels of six stages of moral
development as the core of the theory. This paper concludes that both
Picco implication in the theory of moral development and moral
education reform ideas can be our traditional moral enlightenment,
and from the change in moral outlook moral education and innovation
both to do a specific explanation.

40. Explain the concept of Human Development. 4+6 Discuss the various
obstacles in studying Life Span Development.
ANS] Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan. What
types of development are involved in each of these three domains, or
areas, of life? Physical development involves growth and changes in the
body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.
Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language,

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thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves

emotions, personality, and social relationships.
Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
development of humans throughout the lifespan. What types of
development are involved in each of these three domains, or areas, of
life? Physical development involves growth and changes in the body
and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive
development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking,
reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions,
personality, and social relationships.
OBSTACLES –ANS 10

41. Write short notes on the following: (a) Stages of prenatal

development (b) Common behavioural disorders during early school
years.
ANS] [ A ] – ANS 1
[ B ] – ANS 33

42. Describe the physical and cognitive development during early

childhood.
ANS] Physical development –
Height
➢ The average annual increase in height is three inches. By the ages
of six, the average child measures 46.6 inches.
Weight
➢ The average annual increase in weight is 3 to 5 pounds.

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➢ At age six, children should weigh approximately seven times as

much as they did at birth.
➢ The average girl weighs 48.5 pounds, and the average boy weighs
49 pounds.
Body Proportions
➢ Body proportions change markedly, and the “baby look”
disappears.
➢ Facial features remain small but the chin becomes more
pronounced and the neck elongates.
➢ Gradual decrease in the stockiness of the trunk, and the body
tends to become cone-shaped , with a flattened abdomen, a
broader and flatter chest, and shoulders that are broader and
more square.
➢ The arms and legs lengthen and may become spindly, and the
hands and feet grow bigger.
Body Build
➢ Endomorphic or flabby, fat body build,
➢ A mesomorphic or sturdy, muscular body build,
➢ An ectomorphic or relatively thin body build.
Bones and Muscles
➢ The muscles become larger, stronger, and heavier, with the result
that children look thinner as early childhood progresses, even
though they weigh more.
Teeth
The primary teeth in the upper jaw are:

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➢ Central incisors, which erupt between ages 7 and 12 months and

fall out around 6 to 8 years of age.
➢ Lateral incisors, erupting between 9 and 13 months of age and
falling out by the time a child reaches 7 or 8 years of age.
➢ Canines or cuspids, which appear around 16 to 22 months of age
and fall out at 10 to 12 years old.
➢ First molars, emerging between 18 and 19 months and falling out
at 9 to 11 years of age.
➢ Second molars, which come in at 25 to 33 months old and fall out
at 10 to 12 years of age.
Fat
➢ Endomorphy have more adipose than muscular tissue.
➢ Mesomorphy have more muscular than adipose tissue.
➢ Ectomorphic build have both small muscles and little adipose
tissue.
COGNITIVE CHANGES
Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain balance
in how we understand the world. With rapid increases in motor skill
and language development, young children are constantly
encountering new experiences, objects, and words. In the module
covering main developmental theories, you learned that when faced
with something new, a child may either assimilate it into an existing
schema by matching it with something they already know or expand
their knowledge structure to accommodate the new situation.
During the preoperational stage, many of the child’s existing
schemas will be challenged, expanded, and rearranged. Their whole
view of the world may shift.

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Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development is called

the preoperational stage and coincides with ages 2-7 (following the
sensorimotor stage). The word operation refers to the use of logical
rules, so sometimes this stage is misinterpreted as implying that
children are illogical. While it is true that children at the beginning of
the preoperational stage tend to answer questions intuitively as
opposed to logically, children in this stage are learning to use
language and how to think about the world symbolically. These skills
help children develop the foundations they will need to consistently
use operations in the next stage. Let’s examine some of Piaget’s
assertions about children’s cognitive abilities at this age.

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