AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (AFIT)

LECTURE NOTES TEMPLATE

COURSE DETAILS

Name of Faculty: Science

Name of Department: Physics
Course Code: PHY 102
Course Title: General Physics II
Credit Units: 2 Units
Course Status: Core
Lecture Venue:
Lecture Time: 2 Hours
Lecture Duration: 30 LH
Lecturer(s): Dr Alao JO
Technologist(s):

1
 COURSE GUIDE

Introduction:
PHY 102: General Physics II (Electricity & Magnetism) delves into the principles governing electric and magnetic
phenomena. It explores fundamental concepts such as electric fields, magnetic fields, Gauss's law, Faraday's law,
and electromagnetic waves, highlighting their interconnections and real-world applications. This course
emphasizes the understanding of Maxwell's equations and their role in unifying electricity and magnetism.
Through theoretical discussions and practical problem-solving, students develop a deeper comprehension of how
these forces shape modern technologies, including electric power systems, communication devices, and more,
preparing them for advanced studies in physics and engineering.

Course Description:
PHY 102: General Physics II (Electricity & Magnetism) explores the principles underlying electric and magnetic
phenomena and their interactions. It covers topics like electric fields, magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves, and
Maxwell's equations, emphasizing their significance in unifying electricity and magnetism. Through theoretical
concepts and practical problem-solving, this course demonstrates the impact of electromagnetic forces in
technologies such as power generation and communications, equipping students with analytical skills for further
studies in physics and engineering.

Course Objectives:
1. Understand the fundamental principles of electric fields and magnetic fields.
2. Apply Gauss's law and Faraday's law to solve physics problems effectively.
3. Analyze the relationship between electricity and magnetism through Maxwell's equations
4. Investigate real-world applications of electromagnetic phenomena, such as in power generation and
communication.
5. Develop problem-solving skills in electricity and magnetism for advanced physics and engineering
contexts.

Learning Outcome:
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Describe the electric field and potential, and related concepts, for stationary charges;
2. Calculate electrostatic properties of simple charge distributions using Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s law, and
electric potential;
3. Describe and determine the magnetic field for steady and moving charges;
4. Determine the magnetic properties of simple current distributions using Biot-Savart and Ampere’s law;
5. Describe electromagnetic induction and related concepts and make calculations using Faraday and Lenz’s
laws;
6. Explain the basic physical of Maxwell’s equations in integral form;
7. Evaluate DC circuits to determine the electrical parameters; and
8. Determine the characteristics of AC voltages and currents in resistors, capacitors, and Inductors.

Assessment Structure:
End of Semester Examination [70 marks], All Continuous Assessments (CA) [30 marks], Tests
[15marks], Assignments [5marks], Project/Class Work [5marks], and Attendance [5marks]
2
 COURSE NOTES
Week 1: Forces in nature. Electrostatics (electric charge and its properties, methods of charging).
Week 2: Coulomb’s law and superposition. Electric field and potential. Capacitance.
Week 3: Electric dipoles, Energy in electric fields.
Week 4: Conductors and insulators. Resistor combinations.
Week 5: DC circuits (current, voltage and resistance. Ohm’s law. Analysis of DC circuits.

Week 6: Magnetic fields. Lorentz force. Biot-Savart and Ampère’s laws.

Week 7: Magnetic dipoles. Dielectrics. Energy in magnetic fields. Electromotive force.
Week 8: Electromagnetic induction. Self and mutual inductances. Faraday and Lenz’s laws.

Week 9: Step up and step down transformers.

Week 10: Maxwell's equations. Electromagnetic oscillations and waves.
Week 11: AC voltages and currents applied to inductors, capacitors, and resistance.

3
 INTRODUCTION TO FORCE FIELD
4.1 Introduction

In physics, field is an invisible region where a force is felt or experienced with physical contact. A force is
something that causes an object to move. This force can be a contact force or field force. A field is a
mathematical entity like a space where every point has a value. .
Types of Field: There are only two types of field namely:
a. the vector field (which include electric field, gravitational field, magnetic field, radiation field (around a
blackbody, involving exchange of momentum), quantum field (as in the Casimir effect), strong nuclear
field and weak nuclear force).
b. the scaler field (which include temperature field and pressure field)
The Field line and the strength of a field: the strength of a field is a measured by the closeness of field lines
to one another. Thus, forces in a particular region, can be represented by field lines (Fig 4.1). That is, the
closer the lines, the stronger the forces in that part of the field.

Fig 4.1: Lines of field

4.2 Gravitational Field

Gravitational Field is a region or an area where the gravitational force is felt.
Gravity is the force with which earth attracts a body towards its centre.
Acceleration Due to Gravity: when an object is falling through the atmosphere, it is subjected to two external
forces. The first force is the gravitational force, expressed as the weight of the object, and the second force
is the aerodynamic drag of the object. The weight equation defines the weight W to be equal to the mass m
of the object times the gravitational acceleration g. 𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈
The value of acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is affected by:
 Altitude above the earth’s surface
 Depth below the earth’s surface
 The shape of the earth
 Rotational motion of the earth

General Misconceptions: that objects with a greater mass will fall faster. For example, a feathers should fall
slower than heavier objects. Both objects fall at the same speed. Mass does not affect the speed of falling
objects, assuming there is only gravity acting on it but under air resistance makes a feather and other light
masses fall slower. The feather has a small mass and a wider surface area with a small weight compared to
the resistance of the air, thus, the air resistance slows down it motion. However, the stone has a small surface
area with a greater weight greater than air resistance such that the effect of air is neglected. This is why stone
reaches the ground faster than the feather. But if the same masses is allowed to fall in a vacuum, they will all
reach the ground the same time.

4
 Fig 4.2: Falling Objects
4.3 Magnetic Field
A region around a magnet where the influence of the magnet force can be felt or detected or experienced is
called Magnetic Field. Magnetic Field lines and Patterns: A magnetic field can be produced by either a
current flow. Magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet can be determined by using compass as follow:
 Place a bar magnet on a white plane sheet
 Place a magnetic compass at the end of bar magnet and mark the position of N-pole and S-pole of the
compass with a sharp pencil. The N-pole of the compass turns to the S-pole of the bar magnet which
indicates the S-pole of the bar magnet. Similarly, the S-pole of the compass turns to the N-pole of the
bar magnet which indicates the N-pole of the bar magnet
Neutral Point ( P) is a point at which the resultant magnetic flux density is zero (Fig 4.3d).
Magnetic Pole of a bar magnet is a point on bar magnetic where the magnetic force appears most strong.
Magnetic flux (Φ) is the total number of magnetic field lines moving out from the N-pole of a magnet or
𝜱
entering the S-pole of the same magnet. That is, 𝑩 = 𝑨 . A is area covered by the magnetic field

Fig 4.3: Characteristics and Pattern of Magnetic Field Lines

Fig 4.4: Characteristics and Pattern of Magnetic Field Lines

5
Magnetic flux density is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field at a given point. That is, the more
the magnetic field lines, the stronger the field.
The strength of a magnetic field is a measured by the closeness of field lines to one another (Fig 4.5).

Fig 4.5: Magnetic Field Strength

Characteristic of Magnetic Field lines
The following are the properties magnetic field lines
 They are imaginary lines
 Its lines never intersect each other
 It starts at N-pole and end at S-pole. That is, it runs from N-pole to S-pole in a loop.
 Its magnetic field is strong when the lines are close together
 Its field is weak when the field lines move apart from each other and strong whey they are close
 They are normally concentrated at the pole

Types of magnet
Magnets are object that generate a magnetic field. It is a force field; it either pulls or repels certain material
such as nickel, iron. Substances that have magnet properties (i.e. they can be attracted or attract) by even weak
magnet are called Magnetic Substance. Magnet can be classified into the following:
 Temporary magnets are magnets that lose their magnetism easily when not in the presence of magnetic
field. They are made of soft core.
 Electromagnets are wound coils of wire that function as magnets when an electrical current is passed
through it.

 Permanent magnets are magnets that retain their magnetism once it magnetized. They are made up of
steel. Permanent magnet is a piece of ferromagnetic material (such as iron, nickel or cobalt) which has
properties of attracting other pieces of these materials.
Demagnetization is a process of making a magneto loses its magnetism. It can be achieved by:
i. Electrical method
ii. Mechanical (hammering) method
iii. Heating method
Magnetic Properties of Iron and Steel
Soft iron is a pure iron while steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel is much harder and stronger than iron.
Iron magnetized easily than steel and also loses its magnetism quickly than steel. On the other hand, steel
takes time to magnetize easily than iron and also retain its magnetism for long time than iron.

4.4 Electrical Field

The region around the electric charge in which an electric force act or felt is called an electric field or
electrostatic field. If the magnitude of charge is large, then it may create a huge stress around the region. There
are two types of electric field, they are:

6
 i. Uniform-field: When the electric field is constant at every point, then the field is called the uniform
electric field. The constant field is obtained by placing the two conductor parallel to each other, and the
potential difference between them remains same at every point.
ii. Non-Uniform Electric Field: The field which is irregular at every point is called the non-uniform
electric field. The non-uniform field has a different magnitude and directions.

Properties of an Electric Field

The following are the properties of an electric field.
i. Its lines never intersect each other
ii. They are perpendicular to the surface charge.
iii. Its field is strong when the lines are close together
iv. Its field is weak when the field lines move apart from each other
v. The number of field lines is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge
vi. The electric field line starts from the positive charge and ends from negative charge
vii. Single charge starts and end at infinity

4.5 Line of Force and Electric Field Pattern

Electric Lines of forces are imaginary lines that start from positive charge and end at negative. Though, the
electric field they represented is real. Two lines of force never cross each other, because if they do so then at
the point of intersection, intensity will have two directions which is absurd.

Fig 4.7: Field Lines due to some charge configurations

4.6 Electromagnetic Field
When the electric and magnetic field combines, they form an electromagnetic field. That is, the mutual
interaction between an electric and magnetic fields produces an electromagnetic field, which is considered
as having its own existence in space apart from the charges or currents. Electromagnetic field is a property of
space caused by the motion of an electric charge. For instance, a stationary charge will produce only an electric
field in the surrounding space. If the charge is allowed to move in a magnetic field, then, an electromagnetic
field is produced. Under certain circumstances, this electromagnetic field can be described as a wave
transporting electromagnetic energy.

4.7 Electric Charge

Static electricity or Electrostatic is the study of charge at rest. A charge is an atom that has lost or gained
electron. An electric field is a force field felt or experienced around electric region.
Electric Charge: Electric charge is characteristic developed in particle of material due to which it exert force
on other such particles. Since these charges are not flowing, it is also called static electricity. There are two
types of charges. The +ve and –ve. Similar charges repel each other, opposite charges attract each other, this
is called fundamental law of static electricity.

7
4.8 Conductor and Insulator
A conductor: is a substance that allow electron to flow through them. Examples are copper, silver, iron, fresh
skin, wet air and some other solutions of conductor such as water, blood, oils e.t.c.. There are two types of
conductors. They are good and poor conductor. Examples of good conductors include: wet air, human skin,
liquids, blood, oils, etc. Examples of poor conductors include: metallic materials like copper, silver, iron etc.
Insulator: A substance that does not allow electron to flow them is called insulator, e.g. plastic, try wood,
glass, rubber e.t.c.. Insulator possesses high electric resistance while conductors have low electric resistance.
A certain material has electric resistance that is in between the conductor and insulator, such is called
semiconductor.

4.9 Electrostatic Induction

Aside contact and friction, induction is another way of charging conductor. Phenomenon of polarization of
charges in a body, when a charged body is present near it, is called electrostatic induction. In this process
bodies are charged without touching them. The positive charges that remain on the near side of the sphere are
attracted to the rod. If the sphere is grounded so that the electrons can escape altogether, the charge on the
sphere will remain if the rod is removed. Then, the material is positively charge. This charging of an object
when a charged body is brought close to it is called electrostatic induction.

Fig 4.8: Charging by Induction

4.10 Electrophorus
Electrophorus is an electric device that produces electric charges from the friction between a disk and a metal
plate (Fig 4.9b). It can be used to store and transfer energy. An electroscope is a device used in detecting and
testing small electric charge. It consists of a metal cap or brass disk, insulating plug, brass rod with gold leaf
extension as shown in Fig 4.9a.

Fig 4.9: Action of charge on candle flame

8
4.10.1 Charging of Electroscope
An electroscope can be used to determine the type of charge on a body once the charge on the electroscope is
known. Fig 4.11a-c shows the actions of electroscope gold leaf when an uncharged body, negative body and
positive body respectively are brought near its cap. Table 4.1 summarizes the effects of electroscope gold leaf
when different types of charged body brought near its cap.

Fig 4.11: Determination of Charge Type

Table 4.1
Figures 4.11 a b c D e f
Charge on electroscope Positive Positive Positive Negative Negative Negative
Charge brought near cap Uncharged Negative Negative Uncharged Positive Positive
body body body body body body
Effect on the gold leaf Leaf close Leaf close Leaf open Leaf close Leaf close Leaf open

Note: the converging (closing) and diverging (opening) of the electroscope gold leaf indicates the effects of
the charge brought to electroscope cap. When the electroscope gold leaf diverge or open, it means the charge
on electroscope and the body brought to be tested are the same but if the electroscope converge or close, it
means the charge on electroscope and the body brought to be tested are different.
4.11 Supplementary Questions with Answers
1. Explain what is meant by acceleration of free fall due to gravity
2. Define gravity and state two reasons why acceleration due to gravity, g varies on the earth’s surface
3. Draw a labeled diagram of golden-leaves of an electroscope and explain its principle of operation
4. Define: (i) electroscope (ii) electrophorus; and explain (one of them) how to charge it
5. Explain how a lighting conductor protects a building from lighting
6. With examples, distinguish between insulator and conductor
7. Define electrostatic induction and highlight the steps of charging a body by electrostatic induction
8. Identify and explain three ways of producing charges and explain one of them

STATIC ELECTRICITY

12.1 Introduction
We have earlier discussed electrostatic field in chapter four of book I, where we defined Static electricity or
Electrostatic is the study of charge at rest. In this chapter, we shall look into coulomb’s law of electrostatic
and electrostatic field in detail. Electric Charge has been defined as characteristic developed in particle of
material due to which it exert force on other such particles. Similar charges repel each other, opposite charges
attract each other, this is called fundamental law of static electricity.

9
 12.2 Coulomb’s Law
Charles Coulomb observed that the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is heavily depend on
the quantity of the charges involve ad their separating distance.
Coulomb is the standard unit of an electric charge in the international system of unit
Coulomb’s Law is all about electric force between two point charges. The French physicist Charles Coulomb
investigated the nature and magnitudes of force and discovered that the force between two bodies is inversely
proportional to the square of their distance (r) between them.
𝟏
⇒ 𝑭𝜶 𝒓 (12.1)
Equation (1) is called Inverse square law. Coulomb further investigation, shows that the force is also
direction proportional to the products of the charges⇒ 𝐹𝛼 𝑞1 𝑞2 . The combination of these expressions give
birth to Coulomb’s Law which states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges 𝑞1, 𝑞2
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(r) between them
𝑲𝒒𝟏, 𝒒𝟐
𝑭= (12.2)
𝒓𝟐
Where F is the magnitude of the force (N), q is the magnitude of charge (C)
1
K is the proportionality constant 𝐾 = (𝑁𝑚𝐶 −2 ) = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚𝐶 −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝐹 −1
4𝜋𝜀0

12.3 Electric Field Intensity

Electric Field Intensity is the strength of electric at any point. It can be defined as the force per unit positive
charge (q) at that point. i.e; 𝐸 = 𝐹/𝑞, measured in NC-1. Where, F is electric force intensity, E is electric field
intensity, Q is electric charge. Since E is a vector field, E at any point due to several charges is the vector sum
of the individual charge. We can also say;
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 (12.3)
𝐾𝑄𝑞
Also, recall that 𝐹 = ,
𝑟2
𝐹
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝑞 , ∴ 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 (12.4)
𝑲𝑸 𝑸
Thus; 𝑬 = = 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒓𝟐 (12.5)
𝒓𝟐
12.4 Electric Potential
Electric Potential is characteristic of a location in the electric field. If a unit charge is placed at that location
it has potential energy (due to work done on its placement at that location). Electric Potential is potential
energy or work done in bringing a unit charge from infinity to that point against electric field force. Work
done = Potential – Difference
Potential – Difference (i) is the work done on unit charge for carrying it from one location to other location
(from A to B).

10
 Fig 12.1

Potential at A --------------------------VA
Energy with q at A is QVA and Energy with Q at B is QVB.
The work done (Potential Difference) on unit the charge in moving it A to B is given by
(VB – VA) = -W/Q; ∴ W = -Q(VB – VA) (12.6)
The work done (Potential Difference) on unit the charge in moving it A to B is given by
(VA – VB) = -W/Q; ∴ W = Q(VA – VB) (12.7)
If VB = 0 {At ∞ Potential V = 0 , Inside Earth VE = 0}
Then; VA = W / q (12.8)
This equation gives definition of potential U at point A as under:- “Potential of a point in electric field is
the work done in bringing a unit charge from infinity (Zero potential) to that point, without any
acceleration.”
In general, work done; 𝑾 = 𝑭𝒓 = 𝑸𝑬𝒓 (12.9)
A test charge ‘q’ is moved for a small displacement dr towards Q.
𝑄
Electric field due to Q at P, E =
4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟²
To move it against this electrical force we have to apply force in opposite direction
𝑄𝑞
Hence applied force; F = - 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟²
𝑄𝑞
Work done in moving distance dr is dw = - 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟² 𝑑𝑟 (12.10)
Total work done in bringing the charge from distance ∞ to distance r is
𝑟 𝑄𝑞 𝑄𝑞 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑄𝑞 𝑟−¹
𝑟 𝑄𝑞
𝑊 = − ∫∞ 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = − 4𝜋𝜖₀ ∫∞ = − 4𝜋𝜖₀ [ −1 ] ∞ =
𝑟² 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟
𝑸 𝑸𝟐 𝑸
𝑾/𝒒 = ∴ 𝑾= 𝑶𝑹 𝑽 = (12.11)
𝟒𝝅𝝐₀𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝝐₀𝒓

Where Q is source charge, r is distance & Vr is potential at that point.

Basically Vr is also a “potential difference” between potential of this point P and Potential at ∞ (i.e., 0).
12.5 Electric flux and Gauss’s theory
Electric flux is a measurement of electric field through a given surface. To understand electric flux better,
think of air blowing in through a window. How much air comes through the window depends upon the speed
of the air, the direction of the air, and the area of the window. We might call this air that comes through the
window the "air flux" (Fig 3.6). Electric flux; (for an electric field that is perpendicular to an area as)
𝝓 = 𝑬𝑨 (3.12)

11
 Fig 12.2: Electric Flux

If the electric field E is not perpendicular to the area, we will have to modify this to account for that. Think
about the "air flux" of air flowing through a window at an angle . The "effective area" is 𝐴 cos 𝜃 or the
component of the velocity perpendicular to the window is 𝐴 cos 𝜃. With this, we can say;

𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 (12.13)

Gauss’s Law: Total electric flux though a closed surface is 1/ε₀ times the charge enclosed in the surface.
𝜱𝑬 = 𝒒/𝜺₀ (12.14)
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
But we know that Electrical flux through a closed surface is ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴ ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = q / ε₀ (This is Gauss’s theorem) (12.15)
PROOF: Let’s consider an hypothetical spherical surface (Fig 12.3) having charge q placed at its center.
At every point of sphere the electrical field is radial, hence making angle 0 degree with area vector.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ == ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠. 𝐶𝑜𝑠0°
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠
At the small area flux dΦ = ∮ 𝐸.
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
dΦ = ∮ 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟² ds (E=4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟², Cos0=1)= 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟² ∮ 𝑑𝑠

For a sphere ∮ 𝑑𝑠 is 4πr2.

𝒒
∴ 𝚽 = 𝟒𝝅𝝐₀𝒓² 𝒙 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 = q / ε₀ (12.16) Fig 12.3: spherical surface

This is Guass Theorem. (Hence proved)

12.6 The Capacitor

Capacitor are very important components in the electronics and telecommunication. A capacitor is an
electrical device that is used to store electrical energy. Next to the resistor, the capacitor is the most commonly
encountered component in electrical circuits. It is a widely used electrical component and it has several
features that make it useful and important. For example, capacitors are used to smooth rectified a.c. outputs,
A capacitor has a voltage that is proportional to the charge that is stored in the capacitor (V∝ 𝑄), so a capacitor
can be used to perform interesting computations in op-amp circuits.
𝑸 𝑸
Thus; 𝑽 = or 𝑪 = (12.17)
𝑪 𝑽
Where C is proportional constant called capacitance.

12
 12.6.1 Dielectrics and Permittivity

Permittivity (𝜺) is a measure of the property of the medium surrounding electric charge which determine the
forces between the charges. Its value is known as Absolute permittivity (𝜀0 ) of that medium (𝜀). More
permittivity of medium means less coulombs force. For example, water, permittivity is 80 times than that of
vacuum, hence force between two charges in water will be 1/80 time force in vacuum (or air).
Relative Permittivity, (𝜀𝑟 ): It is a dimension-less characteristic constant, which express absolute permittivity
of a medium w.r.t. permittivity of vacuum or air. It is also called Dielectric constant (K) which is defined by:
𝜺𝟎 𝑭 (𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎)
𝑲=𝜺= = 𝑭′ (𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎) (12.18)
𝜺𝒓

12.6.2 The parallel plate capacitor

For a parallel plate capacitor (Fig 12.4) an experiments show that capacitance C is proportional to the area A
of a plate, inversely proportional to the plate spacing d (i.e. the dielectric thickness) and depends on the nature
of the dielectric. That is;
 Two parallel metal plates, of area A, separated by a distance d
 The electric field between large plates is uniform and of magnitude
 Then, we can show that electric field between large plates is uniform and of magnitude.
𝑸
𝑬 = 𝜺𝑨 (12.22)
But 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2, where 𝜀0 is a property of the vacuum of empty space that tell us how
strong electric fields should be. But since the uniform the potential difference must be;
𝑸𝒅
𝑽 = 𝑬𝒅 = (12.23)
𝑨
𝑸 𝜺𝑨 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑨
Hence, 𝑪= = = (12.24)
𝑽 𝒅 𝒅

Note: Another way of increasing the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Fig12.2(c).
Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates. If
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑨(𝒏−𝟏)
such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C ∝ (𝑛 − 1). Thus: 𝑪 = (12.25)
𝒅
Note: Another way of increasing the capacitance is to interleave several plates as shown in Fig12.2(c).
Ten plates are shown, forming nine capacitors with a capacitance nine times that of one pair of plates. If
𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑨(𝒏−𝟏)
such an arrangement has n plates then capacitance C ∝ (𝑛 − 1). Thus: 𝑪 = (12.25)
𝒅

Fig 12.2
Dielectric is a non-conducting materials with polarized bound charge under the influence of an applied
field. When a dielectric is placed in a parallel capacitor, the voltage reduced and the capacitance increased.
13
 Also, the dielectric constant K of a liquid decreases normally as temperature increases and the dielectric
constant K of an insulator can never be infinity.

Fig 12.3: Dielectrics

Factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor Applications of capacitors
⇒area of the plate ⇒ radio turning circuit
⇒nature of the insulator ⇒ignition system of vehicle
⇒distance between the plates ⇒elimination of spark

12.6.3 Capacitors in Parallel and Series

Capacitors in Series
When capacitors are connected in series the charge on each is the same but the voltage drops across each
capacitor (𝐶1 , 𝐶2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶3 ) (Fig 12.4).
But recall; 𝑉 = 𝑄/𝐶 (12.25)
𝑉1 = 𝑄/𝐶1 ; 𝑉2 = 𝑄/𝐶2 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉3 = 𝑄/𝐶3 (12.26)
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
The total 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 (12.27)
1 2 3

1 1 1 1
𝑉 = 𝑄 [𝐶 ] = 𝑄 [𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 ]. Where 𝐶𝑇 is the total/equivalent circuit capacitance.
𝑇 1 2 3

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑪 +𝑪 +𝑪 (12.28)
𝑪𝑻 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

Fig 12.5: Capacitors in Series

Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the charge on each is different but the voltage across each
capacitor is the same (Fig 12.4). That is; the total charge, 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
But recall; 𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉; 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉; 𝑄3 = 𝐶3 𝑉

14
 The total 𝑄𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 ∴ 𝐶𝑇 [𝑉] = 𝑉[𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 ]
Where 𝐶𝑇 is the total/equivalent circuit capacitance; 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 (12.29)

Fig 12.5: Capacitors in Parallel

12.6.4 Energy Stored in Capacitor

Getting the charges in place on the plates requires work - this work ends up as energy ‘stored’ in the electric
fields. Consider charging up a capacitor from zero charge to a charge Q (Fig 12.6). If at some time the charge
𝑄
is q, the potential is: 𝑉= (12.30)
𝐶
To add another small amount of charge Δq , will need to do work of 𝛥𝑊 = 𝑉 𝛥𝑄 (12.31)

The total work done is equal to the shaded are

1 𝑄
under the graph. That is: 𝑊 = 2 × 𝑄𝑉. But 𝑉 = 𝐶
1 𝑄2 1 1
Thus: 𝑊 = 2 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 𝑄𝑉 (12.32)
𝐶
Fig 12.6: Work done in Capacitor
12.7 Work Examples
EX 12.1: Find the force of attraction between an
electron and proton separated by a distance 5.0 ×
10−11 𝑚 -if the charge on both particle is
1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 [Take: 𝐾 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚𝐶 −2 ]
Solution
𝑲𝒒𝟏, 𝒒𝟐 Solution
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑭 = by Coulomb. Recall that; 𝐾𝑞1,𝑞2
𝒓𝟐 By Coulomb’s Law: 𝐹 = 𝑟2
(𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) = (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒) =
9×109 ×15×24
1.6 × 10 −19
𝐶, 𝐾 = 9 × 10 𝑁𝑚𝐶 9 −2 𝐹1 = =2.25 × 1014 𝑁
(0.12)2
2
9×109 ×(1.6×10−19 ) 9×109 ×15×18
𝐹= 𝐹2 = = 3 × 1014 𝑁
(5.0×10−11 )2 (0.09)2

9×(1.6)2 For the net force and direction

𝐹= (5.0)2
× 10(−38+22+9)
𝐹1
𝐹 = 9.2 × 10 𝑁 −8 𝜃
Thus: the net force:
EX 12.2: Consider the three charges +15, -24
and +18 s shown in the figure below. Find the 𝐹 = √(𝐹12 +𝐹12 ) 𝐹2 𝐹
resultant force acting on +15. 𝐹 = √(2.25 × 1013 )2 + (3 × 1014 )2
𝐹 = 3.75 × 1014 𝑁

15
 𝐹𝑦 𝐹 2.25×1013
For direction; 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜃 = 𝐹 = 𝐹1 =
𝑥 2 3×1014

𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0.75) = 36.90

Hence, the net force is 3.75 × 1014 in direction 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1
of 36.90 to the line joining the +15 and -18 𝐸= [ 2
− 2
] = 𝐾 [ 2 − 2]
4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1

EX 12.3: When a positively charged conductor is 9)

2 × 10−6 3 × 10−6
𝐸 = (9 × 10 [ − ]
placed near a candle flame, the flame spreads out (0.02)2 (0.09)2
as shown in the diagram below. Explain this 𝐸 = (9 × 109 )[0.005 − 0.00037]
observation
𝐸 = (9 × 109 )[0.00463]
𝐸 = 4.167 × 107 𝑁𝐶 −1

Solution EX 10.25: Calculate from Fig I below the

The candle flame ionizes the air around it. The effective capacitance, total charge flowing in the
positively charged conductor attracts the negative circuit and work done in the circuit.
charges in the air and repels the positive charges

EX 12.11: Two charges of magnitude 2.0 ×

10−6 𝐶 and 3.0 × 10−6 𝐶 are 7cm apart.
Determine the resultant electric field at a point: (a) Solution
P, between the charge and 3.0cm from the bigger (a) By reduction method, the total capacitance:
charge (b) R, outside the charge and 2.0cm from 𝐶𝑇 = 29 𝜇𝐹
the smaller charge. [Take electrostatic constant,
𝐾 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2]
Solution:
Alternatively, by normal method of reduction,
The total capacitance: 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝑇1 + 𝐶𝑇2 + 𝐶𝑇3
𝑄
By definition, Electric potential, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟 2 40 × 40 1600
𝐶𝑇1 = ( )= = 20 𝜇𝐹
The resultant E is given as: 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 40 + 40 80
𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 1 1 1 1 1+2+2 5
𝐸= [ − ] = 𝐾 [ − ] =( + + )= =
4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟2 2 4𝜋𝜖₀𝑟1 2 𝑟2 2 𝑟1 2 𝐶𝑇2 20 10 10 20 20
20
9)
3 × 10−6 2 × 10−6 ∴ 𝐶𝑇2 = = 4.0 𝜇𝐹 and 𝐶𝑇3 = 5.0𝜇𝐹
𝐸 = (9 × 10 [ − ] 5
(0.03)2 (0.04)2
Thus: 𝐶𝑇 = 20 + 4 + 5 = 29 𝜇𝐹
9 )[0.00333
𝐸 = (9 × 10 − 0.00125]
(b) The total charge flowing in the circuit is
9 )[0.00175]
𝐸 = (9 × 10 given by: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 29 × 24 = 696 𝜇𝐶
𝐸 = 1.575 × 107 𝑁𝐶 −1

16
 2
1 𝑄2 1 (6.96×10−4 )
(c) Work done: 𝑊 = 2 =2× =
𝐶 2.9×10−5
−3
8.35 × 10 J
1 1
Or 𝑊 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 = 2 × 2.9 × 10−5 × (24)2 =
1 1 1 1
8.35 × 10−3 J (a) The total capacitance is 𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶
𝑇 1 2 3

1 1 1 1 4+3+1 8
EX 10.26: Calculate from Fig II above, the = + + = =
effective capacitance and the total charge flowing 𝐶𝑇 6 8 24 24 24
in the circuit. 24
∴ 𝐶𝑇 = = 3𝜇𝐹
8
(b) Total 𝑄𝑇 = 𝐶𝑉 = 3 × 240 = 720𝜇𝐶
Since the capacitors are connected in series
720𝜇𝐶 is the charge on each of them.
Solution
(a) By reduction method, the total capacitance: (c) Potential different across each capacitor is
𝐶𝑇 = 1.0 𝜇𝐹 𝑄𝑇 720𝜇𝐶
given by: 𝑉1 = = = 120 𝑉
𝐶1 6𝜇𝐹
𝑄𝑇 720𝜇𝐶
𝑉2 = = = 90 𝑉
𝐶2 8𝜇𝐹
𝑄𝑇 720𝜇𝐶
Alternatively, by normal method of reduction 𝑉3 = = = 60 𝑉
𝐶3 24𝜇𝐹
The total capacitance of 2𝜇𝐹 and 4𝜇𝐹 in parallel
12.8 Supplementary Questions with
is: 𝐶𝑇1 = 4 + 2 = 6 𝜇𝐹
answers
The combined total capacitance (𝐶𝑇 ) is:
1 1 1 1 1+3+2 6 1. Explain what it means by (i) electric field
=( + + )= =
𝐶𝑇 6 2 3 6 6 intensity (ii) electric field
6 2. Define capacitor and state three application of
∴ 𝐶𝑇 = = 1.0 𝜇𝐹 capacitor
6
3. Define capacitance and state three factors that
(b) The total charge flowing in the circuit is
can affect the capacitance of a capacitor
given by: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 1.0 × 12 = 12 𝜇𝐶
2 4. Explain with the aid of expression, how is
1 𝑄2 1 (1.2×10−5 )
(c) Work done: 𝑊 = 2 =2× electric potential related to electric field
𝐶 1.0×10−6
𝑊 = 0.6 × 10 −10+6
= 7.2 × 10 𝐽 −5 intensity
EX 12.32: Capacitances of 6μF, 8μF and 24μF are 5. How much work is required to carry a charge
connected in series across a 240V supply. Draw of 3 × 10−6 𝐶 from a point 90 cm from a
the circuit diagram and calculate the: (a) charge 2.5 × 10−5 𝐶 to a point 30 cm from it?
equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) charge on each [1.485J]
capacitor and (c) e p.d. across each capacitor. 6. A charge of 20 µC is moved in the uniform
Solution electric field of strength 20 V/m by 50 cm.
Calculate: (a) voltage between the plates
when the distance between them is 120 cm
17
 (b) work done when the charge is moved in the
direction of the field lines (c) work done
when the charge is moved against the direction
of the field lines. [(a) 24 V (b) 0.2 mJ (c) -
0.2 mJ]
7. An isolated electrically-charge sphere of
radius d, and charge Q, is supported on an
insulator in air of permittivity𝜀0 . Write down:
(i) an expression for the electric field intensity
on the surface of the sphere
(ii) an expression for the electric potential at
the surface of the sphere (iii) a relationship
between the electric field intensity and electric
potential at the surface of the sphere.
𝑸 𝑸 𝑽
[(𝐢) 𝟐 (𝐢𝐢)
(𝐢𝐢𝐢) ]
𝟒𝝅𝝐₀𝒅 𝟒𝝅𝝐₀𝒅 𝒅
8. Two point charges P and Q is separated by
3 × 10−11 𝑚. If the charge of P is 10 times
that of Q. calculate the farce of attraction if the
charge on Q is 1.2 × 10−19 C. [𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟐 ×
𝟏𝟎−𝟔 N]
9. Capacitances of 3μF, 6μF and 12μF are
connected in series and parallel to each
other. Calculate the equivalent circuit
capacitance in both connections. [1.7 μF,
21 μF].
10. Calculate from Fig I and Fig II effective
capacitance and the total charge flowing in
the circuit. 𝑰. (𝟏𝟓𝛍𝐅 &𝟎. 𝟎𝟑. 𝟔𝛍𝑪);
𝑰𝑰. (𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 𝛍𝐅 & 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝛍𝑪);

18
 ELECTRIC CURRENT
5.1 Fundamental Concepts of Electricity

In electricity, the basic concepts are;

Concept charge; it is conserved property and a characteristic developed in particle of material due to force
exerts on it. It accompanies the particle wherever it goes. Though, charge cannot exist without material
carrying it. Material carrying a charges is said to be electrified. Electrification due to friction is called frictional
electricity. Since these charges are not flowing, it is called static electricity or electrostatics.
Concept of electromotive force (emf); this is the force that drives electric charges in a circuit. When electric
pressure or voltage (emf) is applied across any material, electrons tend to move in a particular direction. This
movement of free electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric current flow.

Concept of conductors; are materials whose electrons are loosely connected to the nucleus and can easily
move through the material from one atom to another.\
Concept of insulators; these are materials whose electrons are held firmly to their nucleus. It is very useful
tools in electric circuit. It is used as protective device in electricity.
Concept of capacitance; capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy and very
important components in electronics and telecommunication. Capacitor is the most commonly encountered
component in electrical circuits and it can be used to perform interesting computations in electric circuits.
Concept of resistance; next to capacitor is resistor. It is an opposition, it creates a lot of frictions in an electric
circuit. The flow of electric current is subject to friction. This friction, or opposition, is called resistance, R,
and is the property of a conductor that limits current. The unit of resistance is the ohm

5.3 Effects of Electricity

Electric field has been defined as a region where an electric force is felt. It is a vector and force field. When
an electric current passes through solid, liquid and gasses, it generates different kind of effects. There are
many effects of electric current but classified into three main which include;
i. Chemical effect: when an electric current passes through a chemical solution, decomposition of
chemical substance occurs, and this current effect is known as electrolysis
ii. Heat effect: heat effect of electric current is normally seen in solid (such as copper wires) and is
utilizing in heating devices (such as electric heater, electric iron cookers, water heaters, electric fires,
furnaces, kettles and soldering irons).
iii. Magnetic effect: magnetic effect is seen when electric current flow through the circuit connected to a
soft-iron core wound with coil, it becomes magnetized. And mostly used bells, relays, motors,
generators, transformers, telephones, car-ignition and lifting magnets

5.8 Electric Current

The branch of electricity that deals with the continuous flow of electrons generated by a chemical cell or
generator is called Current Electricity. Electric Current (i) is the rate of quantity of charge (Q) flow through a
∆𝑄
conductor. That is: 𝑖= ∆𝑡
(5.1)

19
1 ampere (A) 1 coulomb/second. The charge transferred between time 𝑡0 and t is obtained by integrating both
𝑡
sides of Eq. (5.1). We obtain; 𝑄 = ∫𝑡 𝑖∆𝑡 (5.2)
0
∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
The instantaneous current; 𝑖 = lim = (5.3)
𝑛→∞ ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑸
If flow is uniform then, 𝒊 = (5.4)
𝒕
Current is measured in Ampere (A), connected in series along the direction of current flow; the smaller units
of current are measured in milliampere (mA) = 10-3A or microampere (µA) = 10-6A.
Other instruments are:
i. microammeter (can measure a very small current as low as 10-3A (1mA)
ii. milliammeter (can measure a very small current as low as 10-6A (1µA)
iii. Galvanometer (it is used to detect the passage of current, it can measure a thousand time less
than a microammeter
The direction of current: The conventional direction of current is taken to be the direction of flow of positive
charge, i.e. field and is opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge as shown below. Charge on a
current carrying conductor. In conductor the current is caused by electron (free electron). The no. of electron
(negative charge) and proton (positive charge) in a conductor is same. Hence the net charge in a current
carrying conductor is zero.

i i

 
Production of Electric Current: electric current has been defined as continuous flow of charge. It can be
generated from different kind of sources which include: Heat source, Mechanical source: Chemical
source, Solar source, Hydro source: etc

EX 5.1: If a current of 5A flows for 2minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
Solution
𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 = 5 × 2 × 60 = 600 𝐶

EX 5.2: The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 = 5𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 C. Find the current at 𝑡 = 0.5 𝑠.
Solution
𝑑𝑞 𝑑(5𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 )
𝑖= = = (5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡 𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠 4𝜋𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t = 0.5s; 𝑖 = 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 4𝜋𝑡 = 5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 + 10𝜋 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 = 31.42 𝑚𝐴

EX 5.3: What current must flow if 0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15ms?

Solution
𝑄 0.45
By Definition: Current, 𝐼 = 𝑡 = (15×10−3 ) = 30 𝐴

5.8 Electric Conductor ~ Ohm’s Law

Ohm's Law (V=IR) deals with the relationship between voltage and current in an ideal conductor. This
relationship states that the potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to the current
through it.

20
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to
the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the
usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship;
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑂𝑅 𝐼 = 𝑅 𝑂𝑅 𝑅 = (5.5)
𝐼
EX 5.6: The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20V is applied. Determine the value of
the resistance.
Solution
𝑉 20
By Ohm’s law: Resistance, 𝑅 = 𝐼 = 0.8 = 25 Ω

EX 5.7: What is the resistance of a coil which draws a current of (a) 50mA and (b) 200μA from a 120V
supply?
Solution
𝑉
By Ohm’s law: Resistance, 𝑅 = 𝐼
𝑉 120
(a) When coil draws a current of 50mA: Resistance, 𝑅 = = (50×10−3 ) = 2400 Ω = 2.4𝑘Ω
𝐼
𝑉 120
(b) When coil draws a current of 200μA: Resistance, 𝑅 = = (200×10−6 ) = 600000 Ω = 600𝑘Ω
𝐼
EX 5.8: Determine the potential different across a coil of resistance 20kΩ when a current of 5mA flow through
it and what will be the new value of the current flowing if the resistance is reduced to half of it original value?
Solution
(a) By Ohm’s law: 𝑃𝑑 = 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (5 × 10−3 ) × 20000 = 100𝑉
𝑉 100 100×2 200
(b) if R is reduced to 1/2: 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 1 = (20000)×1 = 20000 = 0.01 A
(20000)×
2

5.8 Circuit Elements

An element is the basic building block of a circuit. There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements. An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive
element is not. Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements
include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers. The aim of this section is to ensure students gain
familiarity with some important active and passive elements. The most important active elements are voltage
or current sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds of sources:
independent and dependent sources.
The world of circuit elements can be summarized with a short list of items. Here are more details on these
essential parts of modern electronics. The following circuit elements are among the most common found in
electric circuit. These circuit elements include: fuse/circuit breaker, energy source/batteries, resistor,
capacitor, inductor, and switch

5.9 The fuse/circuit breaker/continuity tester

A fuse: is a safety shut-off in electric circuit. It is also called safety device or circuit breaker. It is a device
that can automatically stop the flow of electricity in a circuit if there is too much current to operate safely. It
is device of short length of wire of low melting point connected to the live wire (current carrying wire) of an

21
electrical circuit. It cult of current flow whenever excess current which might destroy or damage the wires or
appliances connected to it.
Continuity tester: is used to detect fault in electric circuit. When the end A and B are connected, the circuit
is complete and the lamp light up. But where there is a fault, the lamp wouldn’t light up indicating that there
is a break in the circuit.

EX 5.10: If 5A, 10A, 13A, 25A and 30 A fuses are available, state which is most appropriate for the
following appliances, which are both connected to a 240V supply (a) electric toaster having a power rating
of 1kw (b) electric fire having a power rating of 3kw.
Solution
𝑃
Power 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼, from which current 𝐼 = 𝑉
𝑃 1000
(a) For the toaster; 𝐼 = 𝑉 = = 4.17 𝐴. Hence a 5A fuse is most appropriate
240
𝑃 3000
(b) For the fire; 𝐼 = = = 12.5 𝐴. Hence a 13A fuse is most appropriate
𝑉 240

EX 5.11: A television set is rated 120 W and electric Iron rated 1.1 KW are both connected to a 240V
supply. If 3A, 5A and 10A fuses are available, state which is the most appropriate for each appliance.
Solution
𝑃
Power consumed: 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼, from which current flow through the appliance is given by: 𝐼 = 𝑉
𝑃 120
For the Television: 𝐼 = 𝑉 = 240 = 0.5 𝐴. Hence no fuse is suitable for the appliance.
𝑃 1100
For the Electric Iron: 𝐼 = 𝑉 = = 4.58 𝐴. Hence a 5A fuse is the most appropriate.
240

5.10 The energy source/batteries

Batteries store electricity in a chemical form, inside a closed-energy system. They can be re-charged and re-
used as a power source in small appliances. Batteries can store d.c. electrical energy produced by renewable
sources such as solar, wind and hydro power in chemical form. Batteries can be divided into two categories
Primary: they are not designed to be electrically re-charged, i.e. are disposable, and
Secondary: they are designed to be re-charged, such as those used in mobile phones
Arrangement of Cells

Series Connection: when a positive terminal of cell is connected to the negative terminal of the next cell
(Fig 5.2a), it is said to be in series connection. The total emf of the cells arrange in series is equal to the sum
of the individual emf of each cell:
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 +𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬𝟑 + ⋯ 𝑬𝒏 (5.6)
The internal resistance (r) of the series arrangement is the sum of the internal resistance of each cell:
𝒓 = 𝒓+𝒓𝟐 + 𝒓𝟑 + ⋯ 𝒓𝒏 (5.7)
The type of connection increased the current flowing in the circuit since the cell assist each other.

Parallel connection: here, all the positive terminals are joined to the same point “A” and that of negative
terminals to a point “B”. This will large amount of current, stead current for long time and generate high
efficiency. The net emf of the parallel arrangement is the same as each cell (Fig 5.2b).
22
 Fig 5.2: Series and Parallel Connection
The total emf (𝑬) of the cells arrange in parallel is equal to the sum of the individual emf of each cell:
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑬𝟑 = 𝑬𝒏 (5.8)
The internal resistance (r) of the series arrangement is the sum of the internal resistance of each cell:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝒓 + 𝒓 + 𝒓 +. … 𝒓 (5.9)
𝒓 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏

EX 5.12: Five cells, each with an internal resistance of 2Ω and an e.m.f. of 5V are connected in series.
Determine the: (a) total e.m.f. and (b) internal resistance of the batteries so formed.
Solution
(a) The total emf, 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4 + 𝐸5 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 25 𝑉
(b) The total resistance; 𝑟𝑇 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 𝑟4 + 𝑟5 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10 Ω

EX 5.13: Five cells, each with an internal resistance of 2Ω and an e.m.f. of 5V are connected in parallel.
Determine the: (a) total e.m.f. and (b) internal resistance of the batteries so formed.
Solution
(a) The total emf, 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = 𝐸4 = 𝐸5 = 5 𝑉
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(b) The total resistance; 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 = 𝑟 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
𝑇 1 2 3 4 5 𝑇

1 5 2
= ∴ 𝑟𝑇 = = 0.4 Ω
𝑟𝑇 2 5
EX 5.14: Determine the: (a) total e.m.f. and (b) internal resistance of the batteries in the figures below.

Solution
For Fig a
(a) The total emf, 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5 = 4.5 𝑉
(b) The total resistance; 𝑟𝑇 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 = 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.5 Ω
For Fig b
(a) The total emf: 𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 = 𝐸3 = 1.5 𝑉
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(b) The total resistance: 𝑟 = 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 = 0.5 + 0.5 + 0.5
𝑇 1 2 3 4

1 0.5+0.5+0.5 1.5 0.5

= = 0.5 ∴ 𝑟𝑇 = 1.5 = 0.33 Ω
𝑟𝑇 0.5
5.11 The resistor

23
When an electron flow through the wires and loads of an electric circuit encounters resistance. This resistance
is a hindrance to the flow of charge. The flow of charge through wires is often compared to the flow of water
through pipes.

5.10.1 Types of Resistor

a. Standard Resistors: are resistors which have fixed resistance value. It is also called fixed resistor.
𝑒. 𝑔 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 5Ω e. t. c.. They are made by cutting up measured length of resistance material.
b. Variable Resistor: is a resistor that can be varied, It is called Rheostats. The slide is moving to vary
the resistance. It can be used as potential divider to produce a varying potential difference.

5.10.2 Arrangement of Resistors

Resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of charge s or current. Resistors can be arranged or connected in
two ways, they are;
Series Connection: Fig 5.4 shows three resistors, 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 , connected end to end with a battery source
of V volts. This called series connection. The total pd (V), the equivalent or effective resistor(R) is related by
Ohm’s law. That is:
By Ohm’s law: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑉1 +𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅1 +𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 + ⋯
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼(𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ) + ⋯
𝑅 = 𝑅1 +𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯
Fig 5.4: Resistors in Series 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 +𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯ 𝑹𝒏 (5.10)

Note: Generally, in series connection;

i. The same current passes through each resistor 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅3 (Fig 5.3b)
ii. The pd across each resistor 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅3 depends on the value of its resistance (Fig 5.3b)
iii. The pd across the whole series connection is equal to the sum of individual pd 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Parallel Connection: the p.d across the resistor is the same but the current through each resistor is
different (Fig 5.5).
Since the total current is equal to the sum of
individual current flowing through each
resistor. That is: 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + ⋯
𝑉
By Ohm’s law: 𝐼 =
𝑅
pd is equal across parallel connection
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯𝑅
𝑅 1 2 3 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
𝑉 (𝑅) = 𝑉 (𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ 𝑅 )
1 2 3 𝑛
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑹 + 𝑹 + 𝑹 + ⋯𝑹 (5.11)
Fig 5.5: Resistors in Parallel 𝑹 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒏
Generally, in parallel;
i. The p.d across each resistance is the same equal to the p.d across the whole circuit (Fig 5.3a).
24
 That is; 𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 (5.12)
ii. The total current is equal to the sum of current flowing through each resistors (Fig 5.3a).
That is; 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 (5.13)

EX 5.15: Use a simple diagram to connect the following resistors 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω into series and parallel. And
also calculate the total resistance in both connections
Solution

In series; 𝑅𝑇 = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 Ω. Circuit diagram;

1 1 1 1 6+4+3 13 12
In parallel; 𝑅 = 2 + 3 + 4 = = 12 ∴ 𝑅𝑇 = 13 = 0.92 Ω.
𝑇 12

EX 5.16: Calculate the total resistance between X and Y for the following combinations of resistors
(𝑅𝑋𝑌 ) in Fig a-d.

Solution
(20+30)×10 50×10 500
a. 𝑅𝑋𝑌 = ((20+30)+10) = (50+10) = = 8.3 Ω
60
(2+4)×(6+1) 6×7 42
b. 𝑅𝑋𝑌 = ((2+4)+(6+1)) = (6+7) = 13 = 3.2 Ω
3 7 21
( )×( ) ( ) 21 4 84
4 4 16
c. 𝑅𝑋𝑌 = ( 3 7 )= 10 = 16 × 10 = 160 = 0.53 Ω
( )+( ) ( )
4 4 4

d. 𝑅𝑋𝑌 = 5 + 7 + 3 = 15 Ω

EX 5.19: Determine the current (I) flowing through circuit in the Fig a, and Fig b below.

Solution
Fig a: total resistance (𝑅𝐴𝐵 ) across AB is Fig b: total resistance (𝑅𝐴𝐵 ) across AB is
1 1 1 40×40
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 30 + 12 + (3 + 6 + 2) 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 45 + 35 + (40+40)

2+1+3 1600
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 42 + ( ) = 43Ω 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 80 + ( ) = 100Ω
6 80
𝑉 12 𝑉 24
Thus: Current, 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 43 = 0.279 𝐴 Thus: Current, 𝐼 = 𝑅 = 100 = 0.24 𝐴
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵

5.10.3 Resistance and Resistivity

25
The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on four factors, they are;
a. The length (l) of the conductor; R, is directly proportional to length, l, of a conductor. That is, R∝l
b. The cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor; R, is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area, A, of
a conductor. That is; R∝1/A. Hence, if the cross-sectional area of a piece of wire is doubled then the
resistance is halved.
c. The temperature of the material; ; R, is directly proportional to temperature, (𝜃). That is, 𝑅 ∝ 𝜃
d. The nature or the type of material used called resistivity (𝜌). R, is directly proportional to its resistivity
(𝜌). That is, 𝑅 ∝ 𝜌. Since 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 1/𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙/𝐴. By inserting a constant of proportionality
into this relationship the type of material used may be taken into account. The constant of proportionality
is known as the resistivity of the material and is given the symbol ρ.
𝑹𝑨
Thus; 𝝆= (5.14)
𝑳
Resistivity (ρ) is the resistance of unit length of material of unit cross-section area, OR is the ability of a
material to resist or oppose the current flowing through it. It is measured in Ωm.
Note: before choosing a material to design a resistor, factors such as power rating, tolerance (resistivity),
voltage rating, noise, stability need to be considered.

5.10.4 Electrical Conductivity (σ)

Electrical Conductivity (σ) is the ability of a material to conduct electricity easily through it when a pd is
applied at a specified temperature, OR it is the extent to which a material allow current to flow through them.
𝟏
It is given by; 𝛔 = 𝛒 (5.15)

EX 5.20: A resistor of resistance 0.3Ω is made from a wire of length 2.0 m and resistivity 2.0 × 10−5Ωm.
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire and its conductivity
Solution

𝑅𝐴 𝜌𝐿 2.0 × 10−5 ×2.0

For the cross-sectional area (A): From; 𝜌 = ∴ 𝐴= = = 1.33 × 10−4 m2
𝐿 𝑅 0.3
1 1
For the conductivity (σ): From; σ = ρ = 2.0 × 10−5 = 5.0 × 104 (Ωm)−1

EX 5.22: The length of a hollow tube is 5m, its outer diameter is 10 cm and thickness of its wall is 5 mm. If
resistivity of the material of the tube is, 1.7 × 10−8 Ω𝑚 then resistance of tube will be;
Solution
From: Area, 𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟2 2 − 𝑟1 2 ). But Outer radius 𝑟2 = 5𝑐𝑚 and the Inner radius 𝑟1 = 5 − 0.5 = 4.5𝑐𝑚
Thus: 𝐴 = 𝜋((0.05)2 − (0.045)2 ) = 𝜋(0.0025 − 0.002025) = 3.142(0.000475) = 0.00149245 𝑚2
𝑅𝐴 𝜌𝐿 (1.7×10−8 )×5
From; 𝜌 = ∴ 𝑅= = = 5.7 × 10−5 Ω
𝐿 𝐴 1.49×10−3

5.11 Electrical work done and power

𝑽𝟐 𝒕
Electrical Work done: is defined by: 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑽 = 𝑽𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 = (4.6)
𝑹
This electrical energy can be converted into other forms of energy as follow;
26
 i. Heat energy such as electric iron, kettle, heater. The amount of heat generated is given by 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
ii. Mechanical energy such as electrical fan
iii. Light energy such as electrical bulb
iv. Sound energy such as electronic sound, amplifier
𝑸𝑽 𝑽𝟐
Electrical Power (P) is given by: 𝑷= = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = (5.16)
𝒕 𝑹
It is measured in watts. A watt = joule per second
One watt is the power consumes in an electric circuit when one Joule of work done in on second. Large unit
of power is expressed in kilowatt (103 𝑊) and Megawatt (106 𝑊)

EX 5.24: Calculate the heat generated and the power dissipated when a current of 4mA flows through a
resistance of 5 kΩ for 3 minutes
Solution
4 2
The heat generated; 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = ( ) × 5 × 103 × 3 × 60 = 14.4 𝐽
1000
4 2
The power dissipated; P= 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (100) × 5 × 103 = 0.8𝑊 = 80𝑚𝑊

EX 5.26: An electric heater consumes 1.8 MJ when connected to a 250V supply for 30 minutes. Find the: (a)
power rating of the heater and (b) current taken from the supply.
Solution
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1.8×106 1800000
(a) By Definition, Power (P): 𝑃 = = (30×60) = = 1000 W
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1800
𝑃 1000
(b) From 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼, Current (I): 𝐼 = 𝑉 = = 4.0 A
250

5.12 Electric Circuit

Electric circuit: is a path where electric current flows through. It can also be defined as is an interconnection
of electrical elements. Electric circuit divided into three. They are;
a. Close circuit: is a circuit element with load such resistors, bulbs, capacitors, etc (Fig 4.1 a). It is one
that has a complete path for current flow.
b. Open circuit: is one that does not have a complete path for current flow, either with loads or not (Fig
4.1 b & c). This result into no power being consumed by any of the loads.
c. Short circuit: is a closed circuit without loads. i.e, zero resistance or approaching zero (Fig 4.1 d).
This result in a sudden and very large increase in circuit current.

Fig 4.1: Types of circuit

5.13 The switch: A switch is a button, or plug, or lever controlling electrical circuit. It is a mechanical or
electronic device that opens, closes, or changes the connections in an electrical circuit, e.g. one used
to turn a light or machine on or off. It is normally denoted by K (Fig 5.12)
27
 Fig. 5.12: Different kinds of switch

5.14 Supplementary Questions with Solutions

1. Use a simple diagrams to illustrate the following electric components Name the instruments use in
measuring the following quantities: (a) current, (b) voltage, (c) resistance, (d) capacitor, (e) key
2. Define electric field, electric current and name the three main effect of current
3. Write down the symbols and the units of the following quantities (a) voltage/Electromotive force, (b)
electric Current, (c) electric Charge, (d) Inductor, (e) magnetic flux (f) magnetic field
4. Eight cells, each with an internal resistance of 2Ω and and e.m.f. of 5V are connected in both series and
parallel. Determine the total e.m.f. and the internal resistance of the batteries so formed. [In series; 16Ω,
40V and In parallel; 0.25Ω, 5V]
5. In what time would a current of 2A transfer a charge of 30 C? [25 𝑠]
6. A current of 3A flows for 5 minutes. What charge is transferred? [900 𝑠]
7. An electrician wishes to connect 5Ω to a speaker to regulate the incoming current and he was provided
with the following resistors; 2 Ω, 2 Ω, 2 Ω, 4 Ω, 4 Ω, 4 Ω, 6 Ω and 7Ω. Proffer solution to this problem.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
[Connect 4Ω, 4Ω, 4Ω in parallel to 2Ω in series. That is; 𝟒 + 𝟒 + 𝟒 + 𝟐 = 𝟓Ω or 𝟐 + 𝟐 + 𝟒 = 𝟓Ω ]
8. Calculate the effective emf (E), internal resistance (r), and total external resistance (R) from
the figures below [6V, 4.5Ω and 5V, 0.67Ω] [3/2R and 3R]

9. Capacitances of 3μF, 6μF and 12μF are connected in series across a 350V supply. Calculate (a) the
equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on each capacitor and (c) the p.d. across each capacitor.
[1.7 μF; 600 μC; 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝑽; 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑽; 𝟓𝟎𝑽]

28