THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- BCP 121

INTRODUCTION

The place of personality in the history of psychology

Introduction
Personality psychologists have the mandate to explain the “whole” person. They study human behavior in order to
improve existing human conditions. The best sold books in the world are psychology books on topic such as
motivation, stress, relationships, parenting and love.
What is personality?
The study of personality is old as human civilization. It began with people trying to answer questions as “who am I’?
Personality was derived from a Latin word “persona” meaning mask. That which an actor wears to fit the character
one is playing to the audience.
Layman definition of personality
A person’s ability to stand before people, the impression we make of a person e.g. aggressive, submissive or fearful.
Scholars’ definition of personality
George Kelly (1905-1967) defines personality as a hidden construct that shows in observable behavior.
Raymond cattell (1905-1998)
Defines personality as a combination of behavior and situation
According to him, personality is that which permit prediction of what a persona will do in a given situation.
Golden Allport (1897-1967) define personality as those unique, relatively enduring internal and external aspect of a
person’s character that influences behavior in different situation.
Skinners (1997) posit it was useless to define personality because it changes in response to situations.
(Stimulus=response)
Funder (1998) defines s personality as individual pattern of thoughts, emotional and behavior.
Baron (1998) – defines it as relatively stable patterns of thought, behavior and feelings.
Carl Rogers: organization consistent pattern of behavior of individual, found in the heart of ones perception of
“self “or “me”.
Santrock (2005) defines personality as those enduring, distinctive thoughts’ emotions and behavior that characterize
the way an individual’s adapt to the world.

Note;

When you use the word “I” you are in effect summing up everything about yourself.

How others use you, personality comes from Latin word

Persona- refers to a mask used by actors in a play toward appearance, public face we display personality does not
only refer to visible people… but it include many attribute of an individual, a totality or collections of various
characteristics that goes beyond supervision physical qualities. It encompasses subjective and emotional qualities as
well as that we may not be able to see directly that a person may to try to hide from us.

It may be used to refer to enduring characteristics. Personality may be assumed to be relatively & predictable.
Although for example we recognize that a friend may be calm much of the time but can vary personality.

Personality can also be said to be the unique, relatively enduring external& internal aspects of persons character that
influence behavior in different situations.

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Temperament

This refers to those biologically based emotional and behavioral tendencies that can be clearly seen even in early
childhood. Contribution of in-born traits passed on the genes and influences of the environment.

Trait

Funder (2001) defined trait as a relatively stable and long-lasting attributes of personality. Any characteristics which
a person exhibit in a relatively and consistent manner for example emotional tendencies, ways of thinking and others
can be referred to as a trait.

Character

It refers to the consistency with which a person follows certain rules of life especially moral 7 disciplinary rules.
Character can therefore be good or bad depending on whether one is morally upright or not. Cartwright (1979)
indicated that character distinguishes the individual nature of a person and it can be formed through, training,
education, modeling, disciplining & promotion of values.

Character trait

These are unique qualities of a person that make him or her behaves or works different. They are observable external
and are mostly, acquired behaviors and outlooks of a person.

They are shown through deeds, mannerism or speech.

Why study personality development?

The study of personality is important to counselors for:-

● To understand themselves so that they can exploit their strengths 7 potential and try to improve on their
weaknesses.
● So as to understand others and be able to predict their behavior. This helps one to know to approach and
interact with people.
● To be able to influence people’s behavior and learning.
● To be able to assign duties and responsibilities appropriately.

Fundamental components of personality

1) Individuality: The uniqueness of personality. Even, in the study of identical twins, birth order etc there are
some certain unique characteristics attribute to individuals. This is because, life choices can affect
individuals.
2) Changeability: the aspect of personality that allows for change e.g one can adapt to foreign culture
changing the initial personality.

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 3) Consistency : Behavior patterns can be consistent in difference situation e.g. personality can be predicted
with some degree of accuracy (that is if someone is not suffering multi-personality disorder)
4) Integration personality is whole and indivisible it has aspect of physical mental, emotional, social, moral
and cultural factors that cannot be isolated. E.g. it is not easy for someone to act for long; yet if they are to
change, all aspect of life changes.

History Development if the study of Psychology

i. Armchair Approach:
Philosophers used to speculate about issues to deal with personality as early as 2000 years ago when Theophrastus
described the stingy man, the liar and the flatter and time of Hippocrates (460-377 BC) who develop the four humor
theory on the 4 temperament that make up different personality type based on the body fluids. The melancholy
(unhappy), phlegmatic (cool) both introvert, choleric (happy leader) sanguine (happy and free) both extrovert.
Questions like “are people born with certain types of personality or do people learn? Have dominated people’s mind
for so long. Other psychologists have wondered whether personality can change after childhood experiences.
ii. FORMAL STUDY OF PERSONALITY
Study of conscious
1. Structuralism: this is a school of thought in physiology that tried to study personality as a conscious
experience. In 1870 Wilhelm Wundt established a psychology’s first laboratory at the University of
Leipzig in Germany. They tried to study personality using methods of natural sciences like chemistry and
physics but failed. Personality proved to be so complex.
2. The study of the unconscious to be understand personality
In 1890s the study of personality based on the unconscious began through the effort of Sigmund Freud. This school
of thought posited that, the study of personality should emphasis on factors in the unconscious part of mind. This
approach stimulated a lot of work in the study of personality.
3. The study of behavior to understand personality
In early 1920s an America psychologist J.B Watson began a school of study of personality known as behaviorisms.
It emphasized observable (over behavior) only. B.F. skinner and other emphasized that change in environment had
a predictable change in behavior. This approach also influenced developmental and social learning theories.
4. The scientific study of personality
In early 1930, the study of personality was formalized and systematic in American psychology through
the work of Gordon Allport at Harvard University. Personality books appeared, journals were offered
And research began to be undertaken in the area of personality.

APPROACHES APPLIED IN THE STUDY OF PERSONALITY

1. Psychoanalysis- psychology using this approach studies the unconscious mind to explain behavior and
personality.
2. Behaviorism- This group of psychologists study over actions to explain personality.
3. The Trait Approaches- these psychologist study inherited factors influences personality.
4. The life span approach –these psychologists argues that personality changes throughout life.
5. The Humanistic Approach – this approach contends that much of personality is based on human
strength, virtue aspiration and the fulfillment of potential.
6. Cognitive Approach- this approach argues that personality as influenced by mental activities. That is to
say that when mental (attitude, thoughts) structures changes, personality changes too.

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 7. There are other narrower approaches that explain personality as a source achievement driven, locus of
control, sensation seeking, learned helplessness optimism/pessimism.
Today, psychologists are concentrating on description of what is called “happy personality”.

Summary on views of personality theories and root causes of personality disorder

1. Psychoanalytic view: The main proponent of this theory is Sigmund Freud. This method collects data for
the study of personality from clinical interviews from case studies. They argue that the key to motivation
for personality development and change is sex and aggression instincts and need to reduce tension resulting
from internal conflicts th model of personality structure is based on psych-energy operating at 3 levels (id,
ego and superego). The view of personality development is based on fixation or progress through psycho-
sexual stage. Its view of personality disorder is the unconscious fixations and unresolved conflicts from
childhood usually centered on sex and aggression. Eg women and men, who may find it difficult to trust
people, may find answer in their early childhood experiences and relationships.
2. A Behavioral view; main proponent was B.F. Skinner. It’s source of data is based on laboratory
experiments, especially with animals and then generalizing to humans. The key, motivation of personality
is pursuits of primary unlearned and learnt (secondary) reinforces. What is not reinforced becomes extinct
and what is reinforced is mentioned to shape personality.
The model of personality structure is based on stimulus and responses. This approach views personality
development as going on through life span. Not based on stages of development but incidences in life e.g.
Extroversion based on jokes, can be reinforced by appreciated laughter.

The roots of disorder in personality are found in faulty learning from the environment. The problem is the
symptom and not a sign of underlying disease e.g. e.g. a child who is a pathological liar is made by the
environment he/she finds him/herself. Answers lie in changing the environment (stimulus) and expect
responses.
3. A genetic view:- Main proponent Eysenck. Data is drived from studies of twin’s families and adapted
children to establish claims of influence of inheritability of personality. The key motivations are none since
people are born to be what they become e.g. introversion or extroversion aspects are found in genes. The
model of personality structure is biased on genetics of families. This approach views personality
development as found in genetics – blue print with maturation. The root causes of disorder are explained by
inherited aspects activated by environment e.g behaviors that are phobic or pathological can be traced in
families. Even gifted traits lie leadership etc.
4. A Humanistic View:- The proponent include Carl Rodgers, Abraham Maslow’s among others. The source
of data is based on clinical interviews. The source of motivation is the capacity for self-growth to reach
self-actualization consistent with self-concept.
The model of personality structure is based on self-concept which may not match well with actual
experiences. The view of personality development is based on unconditioned love for children. The persons
who are unconditionally love have no need for defensive tendencies. The root disorder is based on in
congruence between the experience and self-concept. Some people become pathological when their
expectations are not met in their environment. A wife can get depressed if she imagines that the husband
does not love her enough as per her expectations.

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 Cross-cultural model – The society makes people what they are.

Methods used to study Personality

Personality can be studied among individuals, where the psychologists study individuals using individual’s
personality scales. His method of study is known as idiographic. It is method used in qualitative research
“collect own reports” it addresses individuals differences. Personality can also be studied in groups. His
approach is known as nomothetic approach. It is used in psychology, it saves time.

Reasons in the study of personality

i. Clinical – physiologists would need to evaluate personality between the normal and abnormal behaviors
and feeling to determine type of therapy to be used.
ii. Educational psychologists – would need to evaluate the personalities of students referred to them for
treatment. They have to get treatment. They have to get the cause of maladjustments or cause of learning
problems.
iii. Industrial psychologists – would assess personality to select candidates suitable for particular job.
iv. Counseling psychologists – would assess personality to find best counseling approaches and techniques to
use to resolve issues.
v. Research psychologists study personality of their respondents to draw academic conclusions, forensics,
sports and engineering.

Requirements for personality assessments tests

1. Standardization - consistency or uniformity of conditions and procedures of a psychological test. E.g. same
test can test different groups under same conditions.
2. Test reliability - the consistency of responses to a psychological assessment test.
How to establish reliability
i. Test retest method (Same test, same group twice)
ii. Equivalent form method (two almost similar tests)
iii. Split-halve method (administered once but two types of questions).
Tests to test personality must be reliable to tests various constructs of personality.
3. Validity – the extent to which an assessments device measures what is intended to measure e.g.
● Predictive validity – ability to test predictive future behavior with degree of accuracy.
● Content validity – to test the content intended e.g. alcoholism or style of parenting.
● Constructs validity – to measure a component not visible e.g. motive or traits.
Methods of assessments of personality
1. Self-report inventories
In this method people report about themselves by answering questions about their behavior and feelings in
various situation e.g
- MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
- CPI (California Psychological Inventory)
They have items on biographical data health, political, social, neurotic psychotic family occupational marital and
other behavior tendencies.
2. Projective tests – this test assess persons with distributed personality’s e.g.

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 ● The Rorschard inkblot test
● The thematic perception test
● Completing sentences e.g. what worries me is ……………
In each people write freely about vague pictures or stimulus in which counselor gather data about clients fears,
interests, attitudes and personality as a whole.
3. Clinical interviews – It includes talking or questioning the interviewee regarding his personality thoughts
feelings behavior as well as observing facial expression gestures etc.
4. Behavioral assessment – in this approach an observer evaluates a person’s behavior in a given situation
e.g. facial expressions, nervous gestures, general appearances.
5. Thoughts sampling – a person thoughts are recorded over a period of time e.g. positive and negative
thoughts about situations are recorded over a period of time to establish the role of the environment or
experience that triggers the thoughts or mood being recorded.

Research methods
● Clinical methods of research – asking questions
● Experimental methods
● Correlation methods
Factors that influence personality development
1. Genetic factors – inherited traits e.g. extraversion, mental capabilities, health all influence personality.
2. Environmental factors – Cultural background, social economic class peers and family, job description etc
can influence personality.
3. Learning factors – as in Banduras’ theory of social learning one can learn new behavior.
4. The parental factor – There is positive relationships between parenting styles and children personality.
5. The development factor – Personality can be modified with development e.g. adolescent, midwife crisis
etc.
6. Interaction between hereditary and environmental factors.

Factors influencing personality development include

⮚ Heredity

⮚ Environment

⮚ Individual differences.

1. Heredity

Heredity is also referred to as genetic makeup, biological factors or nature. These refer to what we inherit from our
parents our genetic make-up.

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Temperaments are inherited through genes. This means that if one inherits hot tempered genes, then he or she is
likely to have a hot temper. There are other heredity factors that influence personality and they include;

i. Physical abilities or appearance

ii. Mental capabilities

iii. Health

i. Physical abilities or health

Like motor skills or physical appearance can affect how others judge a person so well as how a person behaves e.g. a
girl may inherit a very beautiful face from her mother & this makes her always feel & at self-confidently. On the
contrary another girl may inherit a physical characteristics that may make her feel unattractive, this will make her
feel less beautiful etc.

ii. Mental capabilities

This may include learning disabilities or high levels of intelligence could either hinder or enhance activities
requiring mental skills and affect how individuals view themselves as well as how other people view them.

Example

People with high level of intelligence may have a higher self-concept of themselves than those with learning
disabilities.

Those with higher levels of intelligence may also be more popular than those with learning disabilities.

iii. Health

Being weak, strong, normal or abnormal leads to thinking or acting in a certain socially acceptable or deviant ways
and this also influences personality.

Example

A child born with heart defect or he/she will not be able to take part in certain physical activities. This makes the
child prefer activities which do not require physical activity.

2. Environment

Environment factors are also referred to as nature. The environment refers to the background, the surrounding
location or setting in which an individual is brought up. Environmental factors that influence personality include;

i. Cultural background

ii. Social class

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 iii. Peers

iv. Family

i. Our cultural background

This can be seen when we examine our cultural practice for example, African societies expect relatives to assist each
other in times of need. This means that when a man gets a job he/she is expected to pay fees for younger
brothers/sisters.

In European countries relatives are not expected to help their kin. When a European man gets a job they may not pay
fees for brother/sisters not even help parent. This contrast makes an African man to be seen as generous by some
people and the European man as mean.

In some cultures boys may be treated better than girls by being given better food etc. this means that girls in such
societies may have lower self-esteem than the boys and will influence their personality development.

ii. Social class

Rich people are usually referred to as high class or upper class while poor people are seen as lower class. This
motion will influence how people regard themselves and how they respond to various situations.

iii. Peer groups

These socialize individuals into accepting new rules of behavior and provide experiences that influence personality
development

Example

A child who has a friend or peers who engage into anti-social behavior such as fighting, taking drugs may also
develop anti-social behavior.

iv. The family

The family influence personality development through the provision of basic needs such as food, shelter, medical
care, education etc. this makes a child in the family to develop trust and a sense of belonging. Secondly, the manner
in which a family communicate as an impact on an individual’s or child’s personality development.

Example

If the family guide & counsel the children under their care children learn acceptable behavior and social norms.

Family affects personality development by modeling behavior. The child learns many things through observing and
imitating what other family members are doing.

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Family also rewards or punish children for certain behaviors.

Parenting style used by parents affect the child a great deal.

The authoritative or democratic

● Parents are loving and respect their children

● Inclined to be of reason instead of force.
● Set high standards for their children but do their best to make children accepted and loved.
● When they must administer punishment they are consistent.
● Children in this style have a good self-esteem and are well adjusted, are too mature for their age.

Authoritarian style

⮚ Parents are strict and are in denial to use force.

⮚ Parents are warm and supporting “do as I say”

⮚ Children raised by these parents are in denial to be aggressive and withdrawn and are poor performers in

school.

Permissive style

⮚ Parents set few guidelines and do not communicate clear standards of behavior.

⮚ Tend to be warm and supportive.

⮚ Are inconsistent and their children hardly understand why they are being punished or for warm hugs and

apologies may follow he punishment.

⮚ Children are least likely to be socially and emotionally mature, impulsive, aggressive and moody.

Note;

⮚ Heredity and environment do interact. This is because heredity and environment alone cannot influence
personality development.
⮚ An individual personality development is also influenced by both his genetic make-up or heredity and the
environment in which he or she is brought up.
⮚ Genes and the environment interact in several other ways for example stammerer can be laughed at by
his/her peers. This mocking could have a lifelong effect on their personality.

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Environmental experiences can also change biological constitution of an individual e.g. a boy may inherit a very
strong athletic body from parents but he gets involved in an accident and becomes crippled hence environmental
experience can change the person physical appearance.

3. Individual characteristics

Individual factors such as a person’s sex will influence personality development. This means that one’s pre-
disposition, whether one is a man or a woman will influence his/her personality development.

Due to biological difference men and women usually have different tasks e.g women get pregnant, breastfeed etc.
since they face different problems and tasks it has resulted in differences in the way men and women and influences
between men and women and influences their personality development.

Determinants of personality

Family and social

Biological factors Situational
Cultural factors
factors factors
Socialization
process(behavior from Independence -
Heredity Positive
family and social groups) Australia
behavior
Brain
Identification Aggression-
N.Korea Negative
Physical process(selecting ideal behavior
features person) Competition-India
Home Co-operation-Japan
environment(brought up)

Social group

THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
He was born in 1856 at Moravia (Czech Republic). When he was 4 years his family over to Vienna, Austria. His
father was 40 years and his mother was 20 years. They were Jews his father was strict and authoritarian. His mother
was slender, attractive, loving and supportive. Freud truly admired his mother (concept of Oedipus complex there
were grown up half-brothers from first marriage). He also had younger sisters whom he disliked for completing for
mothers attention. He was bright in school. He spoke fluent German. Hebrew, Latin, Greek, French, English, Italian
and Spanish.

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His mother favored him and believed he will be great because he was born with a shock of hair. As a child Freud
belied he would be minister of state but being a few in Vienna his choices were limited. He joined medical studies.
In 1881 he opened a neurology clinic. He treated people with unreasonable fears and worries (mental disorders). He
was using electrotherapy to treat hysteria before he started using hypnosis. Alter he started using talking cure when
he found was more productive, He called it catharsis or free associations that would reveal conflicts and fears
causing.

Symptoms of hysteria
From his case studies of his patients he concluded that sex was central components of human life. It was also a
source of many problems that people encounter in life. He smoked heavily. He contracted cancer of the mouth. From
1923 he underwent 33 operations. He died in 1939 through euthanasia.
Sigmund is one of the greatest minds that lived. He reported that humans behaviour is primarily instinctive not
rational. He said that humans are motivated by unconscious mechanisms of sexual and aggressive urges. To Freud
every human act had hidden quality.

THE CONCEPT OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

1. The view of human nature
Deterministic view: Human behaviour is determined by irrational forces, unconscious motives, biological
and instinctual drive and also by certain psycho-sexual events during the first six years of life.
To Freud, instincts serve the purpose or survival of individuals and human race. To him, the goal of life
was gaining pleasure and avoiding pain. He said human have death instincts which accounted for the
aggressive drives. That sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act the way
they do (strikes, rapists, thieves, hatred, jealous). To Freud all these unrests and human anxiety of people is
related to their knowledge that human race could be exterminated.

2. The structure of personality

To Freud personality consists of three systems: ID, the ego and super ego. Freud believed that individuals
possess libido energy, which he called psycho-energy that is distributed at three levels of Id, ego and super
ego. It is only available at one level at the expense of other two levels. The behaviour is therefore
determined at which level the psycho-energy is concentrated.
o The Id (animal man) – This is the original system of of personality when people did exactly how
they felt. A person is all Id at birth, the primary source of psycho-energy. It is a seat of instincts. It
lacks organizational. It is blind and demanding immediately. It is governed by the pleasure
principle which is aimed at reducing tension and avoiding pain and gaining pleasure. The Id is
illogical, immoral ad driven by one consideration “to satisfy instinctual needs in accordance with
the pleasure principle”. It is never matures. It does not think but only wishes or acts. It is largely
unconscious or out of awareness.
o The Ego (the police man): This is the part of mind that has contact with the external world or
reality. It is the executive that governs, controls and regulates personality. Its principle job is to
mediate between the instincts and the surrounding environment. It is realistic and logical thinking
ad plans of actions for satisfying needs. Ego is the seat of intelligence and rationality that checks
and controls the blind impulse of Id.
o The Super Ego (grandmother): This is the judicial branch of personality. It is the person’s moral
code. It weighs whether an action is good or bad, right or wrong. It represents the ideal rather than
the real. It strives for perfection. It represents the values and ideals rather than the real. It strives

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 for perfection. It represents the values and ideals of the society. It functions to inhibit the Id
impulses to persuade the Ego to substitute moralistic goals and realistic ones. It gives
psychological rewards and punishments.
Note:
- The three components (Id, Ego and super Ego) do not work in isolation, they work together as a team
under administrative leader’s ego.
- Id can be thoughts of biological components of personality, the ego as psychological and super ego as
social.
- Id –desire (pleasure principle)
Ego – reason (reality principle)
- Super – Ego (Conscience principle) ideal (self-directing).
It is good for the psychological counselor to establish the level at which the clients operates at most of
the time so as to be assisted appropriately.

3. The role of consciousness and unconsciousness

Freud argued that what is in the people mind (unconsciousness) controls the present action so in
counselling the counselor tries to bring out what is unconscious to conscious so as to deal with it. People
try to repress the unpleasant realities into the unconscious mid. It cannot be studied directly but can be
inferred from behaviour dreams and slips of the tongue or free association. The unconscious wishes,
conflicts and fears are stored out of consciousness but controls people behaviour and the root causes of
neurotic behaviour like obsessiveness, phobia and addiction. Once the buried material is brought to
conscious then it can be dealt with in counseling’s. E.g. a woman who cannot trust the people may have
been abused sexually while young.
4. The role of anxiety
Anxiety is a state of tension that motivates people to do something. It warns people of impending danger. If
Ego cannot use rational way of getting around a reality, he uses defense mechanisms (irrational ways of
dealing with it).
There are three types of anxiety
✔ Reality anxiety i.e. running way from speeding car.
✔ Neurotic anxiety i.e. unconscious fear of punishment
✔ Moral anxiety i.e. shame and guilt, conflicts Id and Super Ego.
Defense mechanism are used to prevent anxiety. They are unconscious means of preventing unacceptable thoughts
from reaching or dwelling in the ego (consciousness).
Characteristics of defense mechanism
i. They are unconscious
ii. Falsify of distort reality
iii. They are used to protect self-esteem.
iv. They involve self-deception.
v. Everyone uses them; they get bad when used pathologically
The defense mechanism in Freud’s Theory of tension reduction model
They include:-

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 i. Repression – involuntary removal of something painful or threatening from awareness e.g. pushing
thoughts and feelings about rape incidents into the unconscious mind or suffering from poverty into
unconsciousness.
ii. Denial – it involves closing oneself from painful realistic eve if one can clearly see e.g. refusing to accept a
child death.
iii. Reactions formation – to conceal reality with a façade of opposite e.g. showing acts of love but inside full
of hate.
iv. Projections – self-deception that attributes to other what they fear to acknowledge e.g. a father attracted to
his daughter may accuse her of seducing him.
v. Displacement - Directing energy to safer objects e.g. a husband unhappy in office may quarrel his wife at
home.
vi. Rationalization – explaining away failures or losses (good reason for true one) I didn’t need the job
anyway.
vii. Sublimation - diverting sexual energy into creative art or socially acceptable and admirable e.g. aggressive
people in wrestling.
viii. Regression - a wish to return to a stage in life when there was security e.g. sucking thumb, excessive
dependency.
ix. Introjections – stalling in values of others through identifications with model if good or bad etc.
x. Identification – identifying with successful other persons. This lifts a person from inferior situations.
xi. Compensation - compensating for weakness e.g. ugly but reads books to pass exams, poor dresses smartly
insecure acts tough.
xii. Ritual and undoing - eating chocolate then to gym – also performing acts as if to clean your guilt e.g.
showering wife with gifts when being unfaithful.
xiii. Fantasy - day dreaming about things we would desire to achieve in life.
xiv. Emotional insulation or withdrawal – refusing to get emotionally involved.
xv. Arbitrary rightness - tendency to choose a position to end arguments e.g. I have no way of proving my
innocence all I know is I’ve said the truth.
xvi. Elusiveness – making no decision e.g. I didn’t say yes or no.
xvii. Blind spots - ignoring parts we don’t like about ourselves.
xviii. Intellectualization - doing things mentally to avoid getting emotionally involved.
xix. Atonement – tendency to do good after unpleasant dealing e.g. beat wife and buys a gift.
In counseling’s, such mechanisms represent personality problems like:
- Inability to trust oneself and others e.g. low esteem, fear of loving anyone.
- Inability to recognize and express feelings of hostility, anger, rage and hate. One fails even to
recognize ones abilities.
- Inability to accept ones sexuality.

5. Psychosexual development stages

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Freud believed that stages of development influenced personality throughout life.
Oral stage (0-1 years)
The principle source of pleasure is the mouth region ad it is the first place where energy is focused. Pleasure is from
sucking, biting and chewing. If needs are fulfilled the child develops to be independent and healthy. If not met, the
child gets fixated that stage and develops personality (behaviours) like pessimism, envy, suspicious and sarcastic
gossipers.
They become greedy, quarrelsome, rejects affections, low self-esteem, isolations and withdrawal. They can’t form
long lasting relationships.
Anal stage (1-3 years)
During this stage child derive from retaining and expelling waste products are busy toilet training so child learns to
control urges. If parents are so demanding on the child to hold his bowels longer than necessary he develops
personality characteristics like obsessiveness, compulsiveness, stingy, orderly, rigid and obedient to authority. He is
always in control of situations.
On the other hand, if the child is left to do whatever they want with their bowels, they become disorganized, disobey
authority and never keep time. They cannot handle that when they grow will learn how to tap their potentials to be
healthy persons.

Phallic stage (4-5 years)

Children get pleasure from genital area. Girls realize boys have penis that they don’t have and boys notice it’s
observe in girls and they fear castration.
Oedipus complex appears and children develop sexual feelings for opposite sex parents. They become hostile to
same sex parent. However due to castration anxiety they decide to identify with the same sex parents and adopts
their values. It is called Electra complex fixation in this stage leads to failure to understand their sexual roles sexual
feelings. They develop sexual disorders like masturbations, gender role reversal, trans-genders issues and sex
addictions.

Latency stage
During this stage sexual interests are replaced by social interests like learning how to do things from others children.
There is interest in learning how to read, do calculations and other things done at school and at home.
If done well children develops negative self-content, confidence, face, face challenges and become independent.
If not okay, children develop negative self-concept, feelings of inadequacy, lacks initiative and become very
independent.

Genital stage (13-adulthood)

It takes place around puberty. Sexual urges resurface but are directed to opposite sex not parents. Characteristics
such as sexual attractions, vocational planning, preparations for marriage and raising children begin to manifest
themselves.
Fixations results in problems with relationships, career and life in general.

Counselling implications of psychoanalysis theory

1. Therapeutic goal
- To modify individuals character structure by making the unconscious material conscious e.g. why one
is greedy, gossiper, obsessive, addictions prone etc.
- To strength ego so as to control instinctual cravings e.g. overreacting addictions etc.
- Childhood experiences are discussed, interpreted and analyzed to allow for personality reconstructions.
2. The counselor remains neutral – gives title self-disclosure but allows clients talk freely. The client’s
currents behaviour is a symptom of a deeper or hidden problem. Through free associations the counsellor
discovers blind spots and works through them with the client.
3. The basic techniques of psychoanalysis approach
4. Free associations – clients are encouraged to talk freely of all things that come into their minds (wishes,
fantasies, conflicts, worries and motivations). The counselor identifies unconscious material that she

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 interprets and helps clients to connect with current behaviour e.g. a man who couldn’t allow wife to lock
bathroom door.
5. Dream analysis - clients tell about their dreams. Freud believed that in sleep the defense is usually low, so
people dream of repressed painful, sexual and aggressive materials. Counselor relates dreams to reality and
assists clients to cope.
- Interpretations – the counselor role of identifying, clarifying and her translating client’s materials e.g.
interpreting why a woman cannot trust her husband is faithful to her even if it is because she is
insecure from childhood experiences.
- Analysis and interpreting of resistance – some clients refuse to reveal repressed materials or to relate it
to current situations. Counselors should be able to go beyond this resistance even if by confrontation.
- Analysis of transference – clients transfer unfinished businesses to the counselor e.g. trying to fondle
the counselor. The counselor should be neutral in order to handle the situation.

Contributions of psychoanalysis theory in explaining personality and behaviour

1) Provides conceptual framework for looking at personality e.g. substance abusers, obsessiveness etc.
2) It explains origins of dysfunction and symptoms of behaviour like extreme meanness, perfectionism etc.
3) Sheds light to understanding of defense mechanisms as a reaction to anxiety e.g. repression projections.
4) Helps counselors to understand client’s resistances and transferences during counseling’s e.g. shying from
counselling or expecting too much from society.
5) Helps client to push through unfinished businesses e.g. businesses e.g. bitterness to toxic parents.
6) Overuse of defenses results in pathological behaviour like neurosis e.g. pathological liars.
7) Provided a model of explaining personality (Id, Ego and super ego).
8) A fixation in stages of development that explains character defects e.g. how people superimpose other life’s
into current situations.
Limitations of psychoanalysis
- It is expensive free associations analysis of transferences and resistance are not easy to do. N terms of
time and if clients has mental disturbances not easy to educate the ego so as to reconstruct personality.
- Therapy requires time like 5 years.
- Cultural limitation because it cares for the wealthy people with emotional issues and not the poor
with physical needs.
- It concentrates on biological issues and forgets social contributions to personality.

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY

Carl Jung 1875-1961
He had an unhappy childhood. He was born in Switzerland into a family of clergy man. His father and uncles was
priest. His father was moody and irritable. His mother was emotionally unstable. She would be cheerful one moment
and another to a mumbling of incoherent persons gazing vacantly into space. His mother was fat and unattractive he
disagreed with Freud’s view of Oedipus complex. How could a small boy desire anything unattractive like a
mother? The maternal side of his mother’s family was tainted with insanity.
Jung becomes wavy of women. He had one sister born nine years after him. He didn’t like school but he pushed on
to study medicine at university of basel. He specialized in psychiatry. He studied dreams supernatural and occults.
His personality theory was based on his dreams the unconscious mind that he believed controlled behaviour. In 1906

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 he met Freud. 1909 they travelled to America to give lectures at Clark University, in 1911 he becomes president of
international psychiatric associations. Though married, he had external affairs. He parted company with Freud in
1913. He explored cultures in Africa, India and America. He wrote books and a lot of research. He died in 1961 at
home in Boligen, Switzerland. His theory explains male counselling groups and midwife crisis etc.
PERSONALITY PRINCIPLE
1. Libido, equivalence, entropy and opposites
i. The libido or the psych energy – This is the force of personality that individuals use for psychological,
physical, socio-economic and emotional life. His libido is more generalized the Freud’s in facts to Jung it
almost meant personality. He argued that his energy concentrates more on what individuals value most e.g.
childhood period energy is applied to eating, walking, talking etc. at adolescent in relationships and studies
adults power or money.
ii. The principal of equivalence – it states that when energy is concentrated on the conscious mind the
unconscious suffers. He says this energy/libido flows from one aspects of personality to another. It creates
conflicts that motivate behaviour e.g. when thinking about good things the energy is low on bad things.
iii. Principle of entropy - It states that there is a constant tendency towards the equalization of this psycho-
energy seeks balance e.g. no one can be happy for so long or cry too long there has to be a balance. A love
so strong cools down after some time and picks up again after some time he concluded that personality
develops the same way as the psychic-energy tries to balance or maintain equilibrium.
iv. Principle of Opposite - It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite of irrational, feminine
versus masculine, the animal versus the spiritual, progression versus regression, introversion versus
extraversion. The goal of life is to balance these polar opposite but mostly not possible. None can prevail
against the other for long time. Eg no situation is forever. The opposite soon or later happens. No one is so
joyful that they fail to experience pain.

2. THE SYSTEM (COMPONENT) OF PERSONALITY

The Ego: The Ego is the conscious part of personality. It directs everyday life activities. It is concerned
with thinking, feeling and remembering. It is the aspects that give people identity (extraversion or
introversion) and continuity (psychological functions). Jung proposed eight psychological; types of people
based on 2 attributes of extraversion and introversions.

The extraverted thinking type: Who are logical, objective and dogmatic? They live in accordance to rules of
society. They repress feelings and emotions so as to be objective. They are rigid and cold. They become
scientists.

The Extraverted feeling type: They are emotional, sensitive, sociable and more typical of women than men.
They express their thinking and are highly emotional. They make friends easily.
The extraverted sensing type: They are outgoing, pleasure seeking and adaptable persons. Have high
capacity of enjoying life.
The extraverted intuiting type: They succeed in business and politics. They are creative able to motivate
others and to seize opportunities. They are leading by hunches rather than reflections. There decisions are
usually right.

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 The introverted thinking type: They are more interested in ideas than people they have poor practical
judgments. Focus on self-understanding than understanding others. Seen as stubborn, aloof arrogant and
inconsiderate.
The introverted feeling type: They are reversed, undemonstrative but capable of deep emotions. They do
not consider other people feeling and thoughts. They appear withdrawn cold and self-assured.

Introverted sensing type: They appears passive, calm and detached from every day world. They express
themselves in art or music and they repress their intuition. Outwardly detached unless in music.
Inverted intuiting type: They are more concerned with unconscious than everybody reality. They are day
dreamers and visionary, unconcerned with the practical matters and rarely understood. They have difficult
planning the future and even coping with everybody.

The personal unconscious

This is the part of mind that consist of an individual experiences that were defensively repressed into the
unconscious out of awareness because they threatened the conscious mind.
However they are manifested in complexes in behavior e.g perfectionism, inferiority control prestige and
achievement drives. Some are good for personality development but others aren’t e.g compulsive to
achieve can lead to success in a career.

The Collective Unconscious

It is the unconscious part of mind that contains inherited from experiences of human and pre human species. Jung
linked every one personality with the past childhood experiences and history of species e.g the potential to fear
snakes. We have the predisposition of behaving the way people behaved and felt. E.g a baby is born predisposed to
perceive the mother in a certain way (nurturing and supportive).

Aspects of Collective Unconscious

The Archetype (primordial). These are images of universal experiences contained in the collective unconscious.

The persona Archetype – Jung used it to represent the public face that persons present to others. He called it the
mask or public personality. People use it to defend themselves against unacceptable thoughts and feelings e.g a child
can withdraw from parents if he cannot wear the mask any longer. Persona many inhibits the development of
individual’s personality if it doesn’t meet societal congruence.

The Archetype of anima and animus: It represents bisexuality of human beings e.g man posse’s feminine archetype
called anima and women possess masculine archetype called animus. These are the basis of sexual attractions
because they make us understand the opposite sex. In counselling when men deny their anima they become macho
and sex stereotype. If women deny their animus they become dependent and prissy. Healthy persons must mention
balance between the archetypes and accept they have it.

The Archetype shadow: The dark side of personality. It contains the primitive animal instincts. Behavior that society
considers evil or immoral resides in the shadow. When these instincts are suppressed they lie dormant but wait for
opportunity to prove themselves e.g tribal clashes, extra marital affairs and theft etc.

The Archetype of self: Jung contended that this represent the unity, integrations and harmony of total personality.
The striving towards that wholeness is the ultimate goal of life. It is the motivating factor of personality. This is
possible when people get self-knowledge.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY

The childhood to young adulthood
Childhood: Ego development begins when the child distinguishes between self and others. Parents exert their
personalities on the child. Parents may undo their deficiencies in children and the focus is unconscious e.g go to
school, don’t be like me.

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Puberty to young adulthood: Adolescents must adapt to the growing demands of reality. The focus is external on
education, career and family. The unconscious is dominant.

Middle age: A period of transitions when focus of personality shifts from external to internal in an attempt to
balance the unconscious with the conscious. The personalities change from extraversion to introversions from
material to spiritual. It is time for realizing and actualizing self. A state he called individuation.
- Individuation: a psychological condition that is healthy, resulting from integration of all the conscious and
unconscious facts of personality in counselling.
Goals
- Dethroning of the persona so as to play social roles with moderation
- To become aware of destructive forces of the shadow and acknowledge the dark side of nature with
primitive impulses like selfishness.
- To come to terms with the psychological bisexuality e.g man to show tenderness and woman to be
assertive. This improves self-image.
3. Techniques
● Word associations
● Symptoms analysis
● Dream analysis
Word Associations: a projective technique in which a person responds to a stimulus word with whatever word that
comes to clients mind. Help to uncover complexes, slips of tongue, stammering, slow or quick responses or failure
to respond e.g one is shown words:
Response Responses
Normal Neurotic
Blue pretty color
Tree green nature
Bread good to eat
To swim healthy water
Symptoms Analysis: From free associations counselor interprets analysis and assists clients.
Dream analysis: A technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts e.g.
Prospective – what clients is waiting gor
Compensatory – psyche structure series of dreams are better
Contributions of Jung Theory
Development of Myers – Briggs Type indicator (MBTI) test.
This personality assessment test was based on Jung’s psychological and attributes of introversion and extraversion.
In 1975 the Isabel Briggs Myers and Mary McCauley Centre was established for psychological type testing (MBTI)
training and research.
Can explain developmental of patterns to understand present neuroses in clients on clients. People tend to be
spiritual towards the end.
Used in career guidance and development based on Jungian attitudes and psychological types.
Shed light on mid-life crisis in men and women (individuation, emotional resilience etc.
Jungian theory is used in psychiatry, cultural, history, sociology, economics politics and religion.
Bases lie section techniques
Guided research of Alfred Alder. Maslow’s. Eric Erickson and Murray and Raymond Cattell.
Limitations
- A very subjective theory: dreams and fantasies not experimental based.
- Not easy to understand Jungian concepts. He didn’t write for general public.
- Theory has internal contradictions and lacks consistency and systematization.

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 - He embraced occult and supernatural evidences in mythology and religion failed to express the reasons and
science of the day.

HUMAN NATURE
● He found a balance between the conscious, personal unconscious and the collective unconscious
necessitated a strong inclination in belief that human nature is biological rather than social.
● Focus on collective unconscious also demand that all people be viewed according to their similarities
rather than what each of them unique.
● Humans are complex and that’s the nature of what defines a person can often further down into the depths
of the mind than what can easily be explored.

ALFRED ADLER
Individual psychology
He called his approach individual psychology because it focused on the uniqueness of each person and
defined the universality of biological motives and goal ascribed to us by Freud.
⮚ According to him the conscious not the unconscious was at the core of personality
The life of Adler (1870-1937)
⮚ His early childhood was marked by illness, an aware of death and jealousy of his older brother
⮚ He suffered from rickets
Inferiority feelings
He believed that inferiority feelings are always present as a motivating force in behavior. He proposed that
inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving and that individual growth results from
compensation from an attempt to overcome our real or imagined inferiorities.
Inferiority complex
It is a condition that develops when a person is unable to compensate for normal inferiority feelings.
⮚ People with an inferiority complex have a poor opinion of themselves and feel hopeless and unable to cope
with the demands of life.
⮚ Inferiority complex can arise from three sources:-
i. Organic inferiority- defective parts or organs shapes personal
ii. Spoiling- or pampering a child because they are the center of attention
iii. Neglect; unwanted and rejected children can develop inferiority complex.

Superiority complex

It is condition that develops when a person overcompensates for normal inferiority feeling.

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It involves exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities and accomplishments, such a person may feel inwardly satisfied
and superior. On the other hand, a person may feel such a need and work to become extremely successful.

A person with superiority complex is given to boasting variety and self-confidence and a tendency to denigrate
others.

Striving for superiority or perfection

Adler suggested that we strive for superiority in an effort to perfect ourselves, to make ourselves complex or whole.
He saw human motivation in terms of expectations for the future and the ultimate goal of superiority or perfection
could explain personality and behavior.

Fictional finalism

It is the idea that there is an imagined or potential goal that guides our behavior.

Adler believed that our goals are fictional or imagined ideas that cannot be tested against reality. Beliefs influence
the way we perceive and interact with other people.

Example

If we believe that behaving in a certain way will bring us rewards in a heaven or after life, we will try to act
according to that belief.

Adler’s human beings perpetually strive for the fictional ideal goal e.g. perfection. How in our daily lives do we try
to attain this goal? He answered this question with the concept of the style of life.

The style of life

It is a unique character structure or pattern of personal behaviors and characteristics by which each of us strives for
perfection. Basic styles of life include dominant, getting, avoiding and socially useful types. According to Adler,
each individual’s goal is superiority or perfection which we try to attain that goal through many different behavior
patterns.

Example

Infants afflicted with inferiority feelings motivates them to compensates for helplessness and dependency hence may
acquire a set of behavior e.g. sickly child may strive to increase physical progress by running, or lifting weights.

Creative power of the self

It is the ability to create an appropriate style of life. Adler urged that for the existence of individual free will that
allows each of us to create an appropriate style of life from the abilities and experiences given us by both our genetic
endowment and our social environment.

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Adler described several universal problems and grouped them in three categories;

1. Problems involving our behavior towards others.

2. Problems of occupation
3. Problems of love

He proposed four basic styles for dealing with the problems;

1. The dominant type

2. The getting type
3. The avoiding type
4. The sociality useful type

The dominant type

● Display a ruling attitude with little social awareness.

● Behave without regard for others.
● The more extreme of this type attack others and become sadists, delinquents or sociopaths (manipulative,
conning, never recognize the rights of others.)
● The less virulent become alcoholics, drug addicts or suicides believe they hurt others by affecting
themselves.

The getting type

● Most common human type

● Expect to get satisfaction from other people and so become dependant on them.

The avoiding type

● Make no attempt to face life’s problems by avoiding difficulties

● Avoids any possibilities of failure

The socially useful

● Co-operate with others and act in accordance with their needs.

● Cope with problems within a well-developed framework of social interest.

Birth order

Adler saw birth order as a major influence in childhood one from which we create our style of life.

1. The first born child

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 ● Parents devote considerable time and attention to the new baby.
● Receive their parent instant and individual attention and as a result first-borns have a happy, secure
existence until the second born child appears when the first born are in a sense dethroned. The affection
first-borns received during their reign must now be shared.
● They suffer drastic displacement which makes them put a fight to try and recapture their former position of
power and privilege.
● For some time, they may become stubborn, ill-behaved and destructive and may refuse to eat or go to bed.
This makes the parent to use punishment.
● First-borns may interpret this punishment as additional evidence of their fall and may come to hate the 2 nd
child.
● As the children age, the first born often plays the role of teacher, tutor, leader and disciplinarian as expected
by parents to help care for younger siblings. This helps them to mature.
● Adler believed that first burns also take an unusual interest in maintaining order and authority, good
organizers, conscientious and scrupulous about details, authoritarian and conservative attitude.

The second born child

The one that cause such upheaval in the life of first-borns and also in a unique position

Never experience the powerful position once occupied by the first born even if another child is brought.

By this time, parents may be less concerned and anxious about their own behavior and may take a more relaxed
approach to the second child.

The second born child always has the example of the older child’s behavior as a model, a threat or a source of
competition.

Adler was a second born who had a life of long life competitive relationship with his brother.

Competition with the first born may serve to motivate the 2 nd born who may strive to catch up to and surpass the
older siblings a goal that sparks language and motor development in the second born.

If the elder child excels in sports or scholarship, the second born may feel that he or she can never surpass the first
born and may give up trying.

The youngest child

The last born never face the shock of dethronement by another child and often become the pet of the family.

Driven by the need to surpass older siblings, the youngest child often develops at a very first rate.

They are often high achievers in whatever work they undertake as adults.

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The opposite may occur if the youngest children are excessively pampered and come to believe they needn’t learn
to do anything for themselves.

The only child

Never lose the position of primary and power they hold in the family. They remain the focus and center of attention.

Spend more time in the company of adult then a child with sibling’s hence mature early and manifest adult behavior.

Are likely to experience difficulty outside home since they are not the center of attention

From all these, Adler suggested that the likelihood that certain styles will develop as a function of order of birth
combined with ones’ early social interaction.

Questions about human nature

Adler’s image is optimistic , simply that people are not driven by unconsciousness forces we possess the free will
to shape the social forces that others and to use them creatively to construct a unique style of life.

KAREN HORNEY PERSONALITY PERSPECTIVE

Neurotic needs and trends

She was born in Germany as a second born child and from an early age she envied her older brother Berndt.

A strong influence was her father who was a ship captain of Norwegian background.

Her mother made no secret of her wish to see her husband dead and told young Karen that she had married not for
love.

Horney’s personality theory can be traced back to these childhood experiences.

The early years of marriage were time of personal distress. She gave birth to 3 daughters but felt overwhelmed by
unhappiness and oppression.

Psychoanalysis and compensation

The therapist she consulted attributed her problems to her attraction to forceful man which he explained as a residual
of her childhood oedipal longings for her powerful father.

The child hood needs and safety

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She agreed with Freud in principle, about the importance of the early years of childhood in shaping the adulthood
personality but different on specific on how personality is formed.

Horney believed that social forces in childhood not biological forces influential personality development. Social
relationship between child and his/her parents is the key factor.

She thought childhood was dominated by the safety needs by which she meant the need for security and freedom
from fear. (Horney 1937).

Parents can act in various ways to undermine their child’s security and thereby induce hostility.

Basic anxiety; the foundation of neurosis

Horney defined basic anxiety as an insidiously increasing all- pervading feeling of being lonely and helpless in a
hostile world. This she stated that is the foundation on which later neurosis develop and an inseparably tied to
feeling of hostility, helplessness and fear.

In childhood, we try to protect ourselves by;

● Security affection and love.

● Being submissive ( complying with the wishes)
● Attaining power ( to compensate for helplessness)
● Withdrawing (achieving independence with regards to internal or psychological needs by becoming aloof)

The four self-protective mechanisms Horney proposed have a single goal; to defend against basic anxiety hence
security reassurance rather than happiness and pleasure.

Often the neurotic will pursue the search for safety and security by using more than one of these mechanisms and
the incompatible among the four mechanisms can lay the ground work for additional problems. E.g. a person may be
driven by the drive to attain power and gain affection etc.

Neurotic needs and trends

Neurotic needs according to Horney are 10 irrational defenses against anxiety that become a permanent part of
personality and that affect behavior.

● Affection and approval

● A dormant partner
● Power

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 ● Exploitation
● Prestige
● Admiration
● Achievement or ambition
● Self sufficiency
● Perfection
● Narrow limits to life

The neurotic needs encompass four ways of protecting against anxiety;

● Gaining affection is expressed in the neurotic need for affection and approval.
● Being submissive includes the neurotic need for power exploitation, prestige, admiration and achievement
or ambition.
● Withdrawing includes the needs for self-sufficiency perfection a narrow limit to life.

In the process of working with patients, she concluded that the needs could be presented in 3 groups each indicating
a person’s attitude towards self and others which she called neurotic trends.

1. Movement towards other people (the compliant personality)

2. Movement against other people (the aggressive personality
3. Movement away from other people (the detached personality)

1. The compliant personality

Behavior and attitude associated with the neurotic trend of moving towards people such as a need for affection and
approval.

Manipulate other people particularly their partners to achieve their goals.

Behave in a way that is attractive to others e.g. unusually considerate, appreciative, responsive etc.

The sources of this hostility, they have a desire to control, exploit and manipulate others the opposite of what their
behaviors and attitude express.

2. The aggressive personality

Behaviors and attitude associated with the neurotic trend of moving against people, such as domineering and
controlling manner.

Never display fear of rejection. They act tough and domineering and have no regards for others.

By excelling and receiving recognition, they find satisfaction in having their superiority affirmed by others.

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Judge everyone in terms of the benefit they will receive from the relationship.

Are driven by insecurity, anxiety and hostility

3. Detached personality

Behavior and attitude associated with the neurotic trend of moving away from people such as an intense need for
privacy

● Must not love, hate or co-operate with others in any way and strive to achieve this by becoming self-
sufficient.
● Have an almost desperate desire for privacy.
● Need to spend as much time as possible alone and it disturbs them to share even such experiences as
listening to music
● Need to feel superior but not in the same way aggressive personalities do.
● Suppress or deny all felling towards other people, particularly feelings of love and hate. Intimacy would
lead to conflict hence should be avoided.
● Conflict; - According to Horney, it’s the basic incompatibility of the neurotic trend.

The idealized image

Horney argued that all people, normal, neurotic etc. construct a picture of self that may or may not be based on
reality.

In normal person – self-image is built on realistic appraisal of our abilities.

In neurotic person –experience conflict between incompatible roles of behavior have personalities characterized by
disunity and disharmony. They construct an idealized self-image.

Idealized self-image – for normal people, the self-image is an idealized picture of oneself built on flexible realistic
assessment of one’s abilities.

For neurotic people the self-image is based on an inflexible, unrealistic self-appraisal.

Feminine psychology

Horney countered Freud’s idea (women envy on men for possessing a penis) by arguing that men envy women
because of their capacity for motherhood. Her position on this issue she uncovered from her patients what she
called womb envy.

Womb envy – the envy a male feels towards a female because she can bear children and he cannot. Womb envy was
Horney’s response to Freud’s concept of penis envy in females.

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Horney did not deny that women believe themselves to be inferior to men but questioned Freud’s claim of biological
basis for these feelings.

Flight from womanhood

As a result of these feelings of inferiority, women may choose to deny their feminist and to wish unconsciously that
they were men which she referred to as flight from womanhood a condition that can lead to sex inhibition.

Oedipus complex

Disagreed with Freud on the nature of Oedipus complex and she reinterpreted the situation as conflict between
dependence and one’s parents and hostility toward them to motherhood or career.

Cultural influence on feminine psychology

Horney recognizes the impact of social and cultural forces on the development of personality. E.g. an African
woman can be different from an American woman etc.

Question about human nature

Horney’s image of human nature is considerably more optimistic than Freud’s. This is because of her belief that
biological forces do not condemn us to conflict, anxiety, neurosis, or universality in personality.

● Each person is unique

● Neurotic behavior when it occurs, result from social forces in childhood
● Relationship with either satisfies or frustrates the child’s needs for safety.

COGNITIVE THEORIES

GEORGE KELLY

Personal construct theory

Kelly described personality in terms of cognitive process. He noted that humans are capable of interpreting
behaviors and to predict the behavior and events and of using this understanding to guide our behavior and to predict
the behavior of other people.

The personality theory Kelly offered derived from his experience as a clinician. He concluded that people function
in the same way scientists do. Scientist constructs theories and hypotheses and test against reality by performing
experiments in the laboratory.

The life of Kelly (1905-1967)

He was born in Kansas as an only child who received a great deal of attention and affection from his parents.

Earned a degree in physics and mathematics from Park College, worked briefly as an engineer later he earned a
bachelor’s of education and developed an interest in psychology. An intellectual approach to counseling

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Personal construct theory

Kelly suggested that people perceive and organize their world of experiences the same way scientists do. In other
words, we observe the events of our life’s the fact or data of our experience and interpret them in our own way.

Personal interpreting, explaining construing of experiences is our unique view of events. This can be compared to
sunglasses that add particular tint or coloring to everything we see.

Several people can look at the same scene and perceive it differently, depending on the tint of the lenses that frame
their point of view which he called construct system.

Construct

It is an intellectual hypothesis that we devise and use to interpret or explain life events. Constructs are bipolar, or
dichotomous such as tall versus short or honest versus dishonest.

Example

A student who is in danger of failing an introductory psychology course and is trying to persuade the professor to
give him a passing grade

After observing the professor for something he concludes that the professor behaves in a superior and authoritarian
manner in class. From this the students form a hypothesis or construct that citing to reinforce the professor’s
exaggerated cold image will bring favorable results.

Test against reality the student read an article written by the professor, if the professor feels flattered and gives good
a grade , then the student’s construct is confirmed.

Over the course of life, we develop many constructs on for almost every type of person or situation we encounter.
This means that an individual must have an alternative construct to apply to a situation which he called constructive
alternativism

Constructive alternativism

The idea that we are free to revise or replace our constructs with alternatives as needed.

Ways of anticipating life events

He presented a scientific format organized in a fundamental; postulate and 11 corollaries

Fundamental postulate; - It states that our psychological process are directed by the ways in which we anticipate
events.

Process – he believed that personality was a flowing moving process.

Anticipate – constructs to predict the future so that we have some idea of the consequences of our actions, or what
is likely to occur if we behave in certain way.

The 11- corollaries

1. Similarity among repeated events

2. Individuality corollary- individual differences in interpreting events.
3. Organization corollary - relationships among constructs.

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 4. The dichotomy corollary – two mutually exclusive alternatives
5. The choice corollary – freedom of choice
6. The range corollary – the range of convenience
7. The experience corollary –exposure to new experiences
8. The modulation corollary – Adapting to new experiences
9. The fragmentation corollary – competition among constructs
10. The commodity corollary- similarities among people in interpreting events.
11. The sociality corollary- interpersonal relationships.

Question about human nature

Kelly’s personality theory presents an optimistic even flattering image of human nature. He treated people as
rational beings capable of forming a framework of constructs through which to view the world.

He believed that we are the authors not victims of our destiny. He did not accept historical determinism. He did not
consider past events to the determinants of behavior.

HENRY MURRAY. PERSONOLOGY

Henry Murray designed an approach to personality that includes conscious and unconscious forces, the past, present
and future and the impact of physiological and sociological factors.

Two distinctive features of Murray’s system are a sophisticated approach to human needs and the data source on
which he based his theory.

Henry Murray’s childhood contained maternal rejection elements of Adlerian compensation for a physical defect
and a supernormal sensitivity to the sufferings of others.

He was born into a wealthy family and lived in New York City.

Murray interpreted the memory as indicating the death of his emotional ties to his mother because she had abruptly
weaned him when he was 2 months old and insisted that his mother’s action led to his lifelong depression a
condition that made the core of his personality.

In 1930s Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) a projective measure of personality.

Principles of Personology

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The first principle in Murray’s Person ology is that personality is rooted in the brain. The individual’s cerebral
Physiology guides and governs every aspect of personality e.g. certain drugs can alter the functioning of the brain
and so the personality.

A second principle involves the idea tension reduction. He agreed with Freud and other theorists that people act to
reduce physiological and psychological tension, which is the process of acting to reduce tension that is satisfying.
Murray believed that the ideal state of human nature involves always having a certain level of tension to reduce.

A third principle is that an individual’s personality continues to develop over time and is constructed of all the
events that occur during the course of that person’s life. (Study of the past is important)

Murray’s 4TH principle involves the idea that personality changes and progress. It is not fixed. Fifth is that he
emphasized the uniqueness of each person while recognizing similarities among all people.

The division of personality

The id

He suggested that the Id is the repository of all innate impulse tendencies as such it provides energy and direction to
behavior and is concerned with motivation.

● Contains the primitive, moral and lustful impulses.

● It also encompasses innate impulse that society considers acceptable and desirable.
● It contains tendencies to empathy, imitation and identification; forms of love other than lustful ones and the
tendency to master ones environment.

The superego

He defined it as the internalization of the cultures, values and norms by which rules we come to evaluate and judge
our behavior and that of others.

The substance of the superego is imposed on children at an early age by parent.

Other factors may shape the superego including ones peer group and the culture’s literature and mythology. He
deviated from Freud’s ideas by allowing for influences beyond the parent-child interaction.

The superego is not in constant conflict with the id because the id contains goal forces as well as bad ones. Good
forces do not have to be suppressed.

The superego must try to thwart the socially unacceptable impulse but it also functions to determine when, where
and how an acceptable need can be expressed and satisfied.

The ego

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It is the rational governor of the personality.

It tries to modify or delay the id s unacceptable impulse. He noted that the ego is the central organizer of behavior.

It is consciously reason decides and wills the direction of behavior. It not only functions to suppress id pleasure but
also to foster pleasure by organizing the directing the expression of acceptable id impulses.

Opportunity exists in Murray’s system for conflict to arise between the id and the superego. A strong ego can reduce
effectively between the two but a weak ego leaves the personality a battle ground.

The motivators of behavior

He says that motivation is the crux of the business and motivation always refers to something within the organism.

A need involves a physiochemical force in the brain that organizes and directs intellectual and perceptual abilities.

Needs energizes and directs behavior. They activate behavior in the appropriate direction to satisfy the needs.

He formulated 20 needs;

● Abasement ● Dependence
● Achievement ● Dominance
● Affiliation ● Exhibition
● Aggression ● Harm avoidance
● Autonomy ● In avoidance
● Counteraction ● Nurturance
● Order ● Rejection
● Play ● Sex
● Sentience ● Understanding
● Succurance

Types of needs

1. Primary needs and secondary needs

Primary needs ( viscerogenic needs) arise from internal bodily state and include those needs required for survival
(e.g. food, water, air ) as well as need sex secondary needs.(Psychological need ) arise indirectly from primary needs
and are concerned with emotional satisfaction and include most of needs in Murray’s original list.

Reactive and proactive needs

Reactive needs that involves a response to a specific object e.g. harm avoidance need appears only when a threat is
present.

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Proactive need; - needs that arise spontaneously e.g. hungry people look for food to satisfy their need. They don’t
wait for stimulus such as TV and for a hamburger.

Characteristic of needs

Needs differ in terms of urgency with which they impel behavior e.g. if need for water and air are not satisfied they
come to dominate behavior.

Some needs are complementary and can be satisfied by one behavior e.g. working to acquire fame and wealth.

Personality development in childhood

Complexes

To Murray a normal pattern of childhood development that influences the adult personality. A childhood
development stages include the ;

● Claustral
● Oral
● Anal
● Urethral
● Genital complexes

Stages of development

The claustral stage

The foetus in the womb is secure, serene and dependent condition we may occasionally wish to reinstate e.g one
might long to remain under the blankets instead of getting out of bed in the morning.

People with this complex tend to be dependent on others, passive unrented towards safe, familiar behavior that
worked in the past.

2. The oral stage- the oral succorance complex

A combination of mouth activities, passive tendencies and he need to be supported and protected. Behavior
manifestations include sucking, kissing, eating, drinking and hunger for affection, sympathy, protection and love.

The oral aggression complex-combines an oral aggressive behavior including biting, spitting, shouting and verbal
aggression

1. The anal stage

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There is a preoccupation with defecation and humor and feces like maternal such as dirt, plaster and clay.
Aggression is often part of this complex is shown in dropping and showing things etc a person with this complex
may be dirty and disorganized.

2. Urethral stage

It is associated with excessive ambition, a distorted sense of self-esteem, exhibitionism, bedwetting, sexual cravings
and self-love sometimes called the Icarus complex.

3. The genital or castration stage

He interpreted castration complex in narrower and more literal fashion as a boy’s fantasy that his penis might be cut
off which he believed grew out of childhood masturbation and the parental punishment that may have accompanied
it.

Question about human nature

According to Murray our goal is not a tension free state but rather the satisfaction derived from acting to reduce the
tension.

He argued that Personality is determined by our needs and by the environment. Each person is unique but there are
also similarities I the personalities.

We are shaped by our unlimited attributes and by the environment, each is roughly equally influence

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

1. ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER

Definition
Antisocial personality disorder is a psychiatric condition in which a person manipulates, exploits or violates the
rights of others. This behavior is often criminal.
Alternative Names
Psychopathic personality; Sociopathic personality. Personality disorder – antisocial
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
Personality disorders are long-term (chronic) patterns of behaviors and relationships that interfere with a person's
life over many years.
The cause of antisocial personality disorder is unknown. Genetic factors and child abuse are believed to contribute
to the development of this condition. People with an antisocial or alcoholic parent are at increased risk Far more
men than women are affected. The condition is common in prison populations
Fire-setting and cruelty to animals during childhood are linked to the development of antisocial personality

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Symptoms
A person with antisocial personality disorder:
• Breaks the law repeatedly
• Lies, steals, and fights often
• Disregards the safety of self and others
• Does not show any guilt
Signs and tests
To receive a diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder, a person must have shown behaviors of conduct disorder
during childhood.
People with antisocial personality disorder may have the following signs:
• Anger and arrogance
• Capable of acting witty and charming
• Good at flattery and manipulating other people's emotions
• Substance abuse and legal problems
Treatment
Antisocial personality disorder is one of the most difficult personality disorders to treat. People with this cond1t1on
rarely seek treatment on their own. They may only start therapy when required to by a court.
The effectiveness of treatment for antisocial personality disorder 1s not known.
Expectations (prognosis)
Symptoms tend to peak during the late teenage years and early 20's. They may improve on their own by a person's
40's.
Complications
Complications can include imprisonment and drug abuse.
Calling your health care provider
Call for an appointment with a mental health professional if:
• You have symptoms of antisocial personality disorder.
• Your child shows behaviors of this disorder.
References
Moore Dp, Jefferson JW. Antisocial personality disorder. In: Moore DP,Jefferson JW, eds. Handbook of Medical
Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2004: chap 137.
2. Avoidant Personality Disorder
Definition
Avoidant personality disorder is a psychiatric condition in which a person has a lifelong pattern of feeling extremely
shy. Inadequate, and sensitive to rejection.
Alternative Names
Personality disorder - avoidant
Causes, incidence, and risk factors

34
Personality disorders are lifelong patterns of behavior that cause problems with work and relationships.
About 1% of the population has avoidant personality disorder. It is equally divided between males and females the
cause is unknown.
Symptoms
People with avoidant personality disorder are preoccupied with their own shortcomings. They form relationships
with others only if they believe they will not be rejected Loss and rejection are so painful that these people will
choose to be lonely rather than risk trying to connect with others.
Signs and tests
A person with avoidant personality disorder may•
• Be easily hurt by criticism or disapproval
• Hold back too much in intimate relationships
• Be reluctant to become involved with people
• Avoid activities or occupations that involve contact with others
• Be shy in social situations out of fear of doing something wrong
• Exaggerate potential difficulties
• Hold the view they are socially inept, inferior or unappealing to other people
Treatment
Antidepressant medications can often reduce sensitivity to rejection Psychotherapy. Particularly cognitive
behavioral approaches May be helpful. A combination of medication and talk therapy may be more effective than
either treatment alone.
Expectations (prognosis)
People with this disorder may develop some ability to relate to others, and this can be improved with treatment
Complications
Without treatment, a person with avoidant personality disorder may become resigned to a life of near or total
isolation. They may go on to develop a second psychiatric disorder such as substance abuse or a mood disorder such
as depression.
Calling your health care provider
See your health care provider or a psychiatrist if shyness or fear of rejection overwhelms your ability to function in
life and relationships.
References
Moore DP. Jefferson JW. Avoidant personality disorder. In: Moore DP, Jefferson JW, eds. Handbook of Medical
Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2004: chap 141.
3. Borderline Personality Disorder
Definition
Borderline personality disorder is a condition in which a person makes impulsive actions, and has an unstable mood
and chaotic relationships.
Alternative Names

35
Personality disorder - borderline
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
Personality disorders are long-term (chronic) patterns of behavior that negatively affect relationships and work. The
cause of borderline personality disorder (BPD) is unknown People with BPD are impulsive in areas that have a
potential for self-harm, such as drug use, drinking, and other risk-taking behaviors.
Risk factors for BPD include
• Abandonment in childhood or adolescence
• Disrupted family life
• Poor communication in the family
• Sexual abuse
This personality disorder tends to occur more often in women and among hospitalized psychiatric patients.
Symptoms
Relationships with others are intense and unstable. They swing wildly from love to hate and back again. People with
BPD will frantically try to avoid real or imagined abandonment.
BPD patients may also be uncertain about their identity or self-image. They tend to see things in terms of extremes
either all good or all bad. They also typically view themselves as victims of circumstance and take little
responsibility for themselves or their problems.
Other symptoms include:
• Feelings of emptiness and boredom
• Frequent displays of inappropriate anger
• Impulsiveness with money, substance abuse, sexual relations hips, binge eating, or shoplifting
• Intolerance of being alone
• Recurrent acts of crisis such as wrist cutting, overdosing, or self-injury (such as cutting)
Signs and tests
Personality disorders are diagnosed based on psychological evaluation and the history and severity of the symptoms.
Treatment
Group therapy can help change self-destructive behaviors. Having peers reinforce appropriate behaviors may be
more successful than one-on-one counseling, because people with this condition often have difficulty with authority
figures, which can prevent them from learning.
Medications can help level mood swings and treat depression or other disorders that may occur with this condition.
Expectations (prognosis)
Borderline personality disorder has a poor outlook because people often do not comply with treatment.
Complications
• Drug abuse
• Suicide attempts
• Eating disorders
• Depression

36
Calling your health care provider
Call your health care provider if you or your child is has symptoms of borderline personality disorder.
4. Dependent Personality Disorder
Definition
Dependent personality disorder 1s a long-term (chronic) condition in which people depend too much on others to
meet their emotional and physical needs.
Alternative Names
Personality disorder - dependent
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
Dependent personality disorder usually begins in childhood. However, the cause of this disorder is unknown. It is
one of the most common personality disorders, and is equally common in men and women.
Symptoms
People with this disorder do not trust their own ability to make decisions. They may be devastated by separation and
loss. They may go to great lengths, even suffering abuse, to stay in a relationship
Signs and tests
A person with dependent personality disorder may.
• Have difficulty making decisions without reassurance from others
• Have problems expressing disagreements with others
• Avoid personal responsibility
• Avoid being alone
• Feel devastated or helpless when relationships end
• Be unable to meet ordinary demands of life
• Become preoccupied with fears of being abandoned
• Be easily hurt by criticism or disapproval
• Be extremely passive in relations with other people
Treatment
There is no specific treatment for this disorder. Psychotherapy may be useful in gradually helping the person make
more independent choices in life. Medication may also be helpful in treating any other underlying cond1t1ons
Expectations (prognosis)
Improvements are usually seen only with long-term therapy
Complications
• Depression
• Alcohol or drug abuse
• May be susceptible to physical, emotional, or sexual abuse
Calling your health care provider
Call for an appointment with your health care provider or a mental health professional if you or your adolescent has
symptoms of dependent personality disorder.
References
Young JQ. Dependent personality disorder. In: Ferri FF. ed. Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2008: Instant Diagnosis and
Treatment. 1st ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2008.

37
 5. Histrionic Personality Disorder
Definition
Histrionic personality disorder is a condition in which a person acts very emotional and dramatic in order to get
attention.
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
The cause of this disorder is unknown, but childhood events and genes may both be involved. It occurs more often
in women than in men, although it may be more often diagnosed in women because attention-seeking and sexual
forwardness are less socially acceptable for women.
Histrionic personality disorder usually begins in early adulthood.
Symptoms
People with this disorder are usually able to function at a high level and can be successful socially and at work
Symptoms include:
• Acting or looking overly seductive
• Being easily influenced by other people
• Being overly concerned with their looks
• Being overly dramatic and emotional
• Being overly sensitive to criticism or disapproval
• Believing that relationships are more intimate than they actually are
• Blaming failure or disappointment on others
• Constantly seeking reassurance or approval
• Having a low tolerance for frustration or delayed gratification
• Needing to be the center of attention (self-centeredness)
• Quickly changing emotions, which may seem shallow to others
Signs and tests
The health care provider can diagnose histrionic personality disorder by looking at your:
• Behavior
• History
• Overall appearance
• Psychological evaluation
There is no formal test to confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment
People with this condition often seek treatment when they experience depress ion from failed romantic relationships
Medication may be helpful with symptoms such as depression. Professional counseling (psychotherapy) may also
help
Expectations (prognosis)
Histrionic personality disorder does not usually affect your ability to function at work or in social settings. However,
Problems often arise in more intimate relationships, where there are deeper involvements.
Complications

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Histrionic personality disorder may affect your social or romantic relationships, or your ability to cope with losses or
failures. You may go through many job changes as you become easily bored and have trouble dealing with
frustration

Because you tend to crave new things and excitement, you may put yourself in risky situations. All of these factors
may lead to a greater risk of depression
Calling your health care provider
Call your health care provider if you think you may have symptoms of histrionic personality disorder. It is important
to call if this condition is affecting your sense of well-being, relationships, or ability to keep a job.
Prevention
Mental health treatment may help you learn better ways of understanding and dealing with your needs.
References
Histrionic Personality Disorder (DSM-IV-TR#301.50). In: Moore DP, Jefferson JW. Moore & Jefferson: Handbook
of Medical Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa:Mosby Elsevier;2004:chap 139.
6. Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Definition
Narcissistic personality disorder is a condition in which there is an inflated sense of self-importance and an extreme
preoccupation with one's self.
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
The cause of this disorder is unknown. Narcissistic personality disorder usually begins by early adulthood
Symptoms
A person with narcissistic personality disorder:
• Reacts to criticism with rage, shame or humiliation
• Takes advantage of other people to achieve his or her own goals
• Has feelings of self-importance
• Exaggerates achievements and talents
• Is preoccupied with fantasies of success, power, beauty, intelligence, or ideal love
• Has unreasonable expectations of favorable treatment
• Requires constant attention and admiration
• Disregards the feelings of others, lacks empathy
• Has obsessive self-interest
• Pursues mainly selfish goals

Signs and tests

Personality disorders are diagnosed based on a psychological evaluation and the history and severity of the
symptoms.
Treatment

39
Psychotherapy may help the affected person relate to others in a more positive and compassionate manner.
Expectations (prognosis)
The outcome varies with the severity of the disorder.
Complications
• Relationship and family problems
• Alcohol or other drug dependence
References
Moore DP, Jefferson JW. Narcissistic personality disorder. In: Moore DP, Jefferson JW, eds. Handbook of Medical
Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2004: chap 140.
7. Paranoid Personality Disorder
Definition
Paranoid personality disorder 1s a psychiatric condition in which a person is very distrustful and susp1c1ous of
others
Alternative Names
Personality disorder - paranoid
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
Personality disorders are long-term (chronic) patterns of behavior that cause lasting problems with work and
relationships.
The cause of paranoid personality disorder is unknown. It appears to be more common in families with psychotic
disorders such as schizophrenia and delusional disorder, which suggests genes may be involved
Symptoms
People with paranoid personality disorder are highly susp1c1ous of other people. They are usually unable to
acknowledge their own negative feelings towards other people.
Other common symptoms include:
• Concern that other people have hidden motives
• Expectation that they will be exploited by others
• Inability to work together with others
• Poor self-image
• Social isolation
• Detachment
• Hostility
Signs and tests
Personality disorders are diagnosed based on psychological evaluation and the history and severity of the symptoms.
Treatment
Treatment is difficult because people with this condition are often extremely suspicious of doctors. If accepted
medications and talk therapy can both be effective
Expectations (prognosis)

40
Therapy can limit the impact of the paranoia on the person's daily functioning.

Complications
• Extreme social isolation
• Potential for violence
Calling your health care provider
If suspicions are interfering with your relationships or work, contact a health care provider or mental health
professional.
References
Moore DP, Jefferson JW. Paranoid personality disorder. In: Moore DP, Jefferson JW. eds. Handbook of Medical
Psychiatry . 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier: 2004: chap 134.
Satterfield JM, Feldman MD. Paranoid personality disorder. In• Ferri FF, ed. Ferri's Clinical Advis or 2008 •
Instant Diagnosis and Treatment. 1st ed. Philadelphia, Pa Mosby Elsevier. 2008.
8. Schizoid Personality Disorder
Definition
Schizoid personality disorder is a psychiatric condition in which a person has a lifelong pattern of indifference to
others and social isolation.
Alternative Names
Personality disorder - schizoid

Causes, incidence, and risk factors

Personality disorders are patterns of behaviors and relationships that interfere with a person's life over many years.
The cause of schizoid personality disorder is unknown. Estimates of its incidence vary.

This disorder may be associated with schizophrenia and shares many of the same risk factors. However, schizoid
personality disorder is not as disabling as schizophrenia, because 1t does not cause hallucinations, delusions, or the
complete d1sconnect1on from reality that occurs in untreated (or treatment-resistant) schizophrenia.
Symptoms
A person with schizoid personality disorder:
• Appears aloof and detached
• Avoids social activities that involve significant contact with other people
• Does not want or enjoy close relationships, even with family members
Signs and tests
People with schizoid personality disorder are loners and show little interest in developing close relationships.
Treatment
People with this disorder rarely seek treatment, and little is known about which treatments work. Talk therapy may
not be effective, because people with schizoid personality disorder have difficulty relating well to others.

41
Expectations (prognosis)
Schizoid personality disorder is a chronic illness with a poor outlook the social isolation of the disorder often
prevents the person from seeking the help or support that could potentially improve the outcome.

References
Moore DP, Jefferson JW. Schizoid personality disorder. In: Moore DP, Jefferson JW, eds. Handbook of Medical
Psychiatry. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2004: chap 135.
9. Schizotypal Personality Disorder
Definition
Schizotvpal personality disorder is a psychiatric condition in which a person has difficulty with interpersonal
relationships and disturbances in thought patterns, appearance, and behavior.
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
The cause is unknown. Genes are thought to be involved, because there is an increased incidence of this condition in
relatives of schizophrenics.
However, schizotypal personality disorder should not be confused with schizophrenia. People with schizotypal
personality disorder tend to have odd beliefs and behaviors, but they are not disconnected from reality and usually
do not hallucinate. Hallucinations, delusions, and complete unawareness of reality are hallmarks of untreated or
unsuccessfully treated schizophrenia

Between 30% and 50% of people with schizotypal personality disorder also have a major depressive disorder a
second personality disorder, such as paranoid personality disorder. 1s also common with this condition.
Symptoms
People with schizotypal personality disorder may be severely disturbed. Their odd behavior may resemble that of
people with schizophrenia. For example, they may also have unusual preoccupations and fears such as fears of being
monitored by government agencies.

More commonly, however, people with schizotypal personality disorder behave oddly and have unusual beliefs
(aliens, witchcraft, etc.). They cling to these beliefs so strongly that it isolates them from normal relat1onsh1ps

Full-blown hallucinations are unusual. However, people with schizotypal personality disorder are upset by their
difficulty in forming and maintaining close relationships
Signs and tests
Some of the common signs of schizotypal personality disorder include the following.
• Discomfort in social situations
• Odd beliefs, fantasies, or preoccupations
• Odd behavior or appearance
• Odd speech
• No close friends

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 • Inappropriate displays of feelings

Treatment
Some people may be helped by anti-psychotic medications, but in many cases talk therapy is preferred.

Expectations (prognosis)
Schizotypal personality disorder is usually a long-term (chronic) illness. The outcome of treatment vanes based on
the seventy of the disorder.

Complications
• Poor social skills
• Lack of interpersonal relationships

Calling your health care provider

Talk to your health care provider or mental health professional if
• You have trouble forming and keeping relationships due to unusual beliefs
• You suspect that your child may have this problem

Prevention
There is no known prevention Awareness of risk, such as a family history of schizophrenia, may allow early
d1agnos1s

References
Moore DP, Jefferson JW Schizotypal. Personality disorder. In: Moore DP, Jefferson JW, eds. Handbook of Medical
Psychiatry 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2004 chap 136.
i.

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