BASIC CONCEPTS

OF STATISTICS

Ivy Marie T. Zarraga , MAPSY

Psychology Department
Chapter 1 Learning Outcomes
What is Statistics?
• Statistics is the science of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting quantitative or numerical
data.
• It is the theory and method of
collecting, organizing, presenting,
analyzing, and interpreting data.

3
General Purposes
• Statistics are used to organise and
summarise the information so that the
researcher can see what happened in
the research study and can
communicate the results to others.

• Statistics help the researcher to answer

the questions that initiated the research
by determining exactly what general
conclusions are justified based on the
specific results that were obtained
4
Example
» To determine whether violence on TV has any
effect on children’s behaviour?

Psy 427 - Cal State Northridge

Note
» Statistics help the researcher in ensuring that the
information or observations are presented and
interpreted in an accurate and informative way

6
Descriptives
» Disorganized Data

Psy 427 - Cal State Northridge

Descriptives
» Reducing and Describing Data

Psy 427 - Cal State Northridge

Why Do We Need Statistics in Psychology?

» Statistics help the researcher to answer the general

questions that initiated the research by determining
exactly what conclusions are justified based on the
results that were obtained.
Why Do We Need Statistics in Psychology?
» Statistics are used to organize and summarize the
information so that the researcher can see what
happened in the research study and can
communicate the results to others.
Why Do We Need Statistics in Psychology?

» Statistics can be used in test development

12
Why Do We Need Statistics in Psychology?

» C - ollection
» O - rganization
» P - resentation
» A - nalysis
» I - nterpretation
» G - eneralization of data
Whoa!
Conducting Basic and Advanced Statistical Data Analysis using SPSS and JAMOVI
19
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Populations and Samples
» A researcher may want to know what
factors are associated with academic
dishonesty among college students?

» The effect of watching kdrama to students’

grades.

» A researcher may want to examine the

amount of time spent in the bathroom for
men compared to women.
Population vs. Sample
❍ A Population is the entire set of
the individuals of interest for a
particular research question

❍ A Sample is a set of individuals

selected from a population,
usually intended to represent the
population in a research study.

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Parameters and Statistics
• Parameter • Statistic
– A value, usually a – A value, usually a
numerical value, that numerical value, that
describes a population describes a sample
– Derived from – Derived from
measurements of measurements of
the individuals in the individuals in
the population the sample
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Estimating Sample Size
» Raosoft
» Survey System
» Power Analysis using G Power
» Inverse Squareroot method
» Gamma Exponential Method
Variables and Data
• ex. Bakhshi, Kanuparthy, and Gilbert (2014)
wanted to determine if the weather is related to
online ratings of restaurants. As the weather
changes, do people’s moods also change?

• A variable is a characteristic or condition that

can change or take on different values.
• A variable that is different from one individual
to another (height, gender, personality)
• A variable that affects environmental
conditions (size of the room, temperature,
time of day) 28
 Variables and Data
• Example:
• The researcher asks the question if a
new learning tool can improve grades

• A variable that is different

from one individual to
another

• A variable that affects

environmental conditions

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Variables and Data
• A datum (singular) is a single
measurement or observation and is
commonly called a score or raw score

• A data/data set is a collection of

measurements or observations; the
complete set of scores

30
Discrete and Continuous Variables

• Discrete variable
– Has separate, indivisible categories
– No values can exist between two neighboring
categories
• Continuous variable
– There are an infinite number of possible
values between any two observed values.
– Is divisible into an infinite number of parts
Types of Data

32
Descriptive & Inferential Statistics
• Descriptive statistics • Inferential statistics
– Summarize data – Study samples to make
– Organize data generalizations about
– Simplify data the population
– Interpret experimental
• Familiar examples
data
– Tables
• Common terminology
– Graphs
– “Margin of error”
– Averages
– “Statistically significant”
 Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
• For example, tables or graphs are used
to organize data, and descriptive values
such as the average score are used to
summarize data.
• A descriptive value for a population is
called a parameter and a descriptive
value for a sample is called a statistic.

34
 Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics are methods for using
sample data to make general conclusions
(inferences) about populations.
• Because a sample is typically only a part of
the whole population, sample data provide
only limited information about the
population. As a result, sample statistics
are generally imperfect representatives of
the corresponding population parameters.

35
Figure 1.3
Role of statistics in experimental research.
 Sampling Error
• The discrepancy between a sample
statistic and its population parameter is
called sampling error.
• Defining and measuring sampling error is
a large part of inferential statistics.

37
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 Seat work 001
1. A researcher is interested in the effect of
amount of sleep on high school students’ exam
scores. A group of 75 high school boys agree
to participate in the study. The boys are…
Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False. (2 and 3)
Seat work 002

4. A researcher is interested in the texting

habits of high school students in the US.
If the researcher measures the number
of text messages that each individual
sends each day and calculates the
average number for the entire group of
high school students, the average
number would be an example of a
______
Seat work 002
• A researcher is interested in how watching a
reality television show featuring fashion model
influences the eating behaviour of 13-year-old
girls.
5. A group of 30 13-year-old girls is selected to
participate in a research study. The group of 30
13-year-old girls is an example of _____
6. In the same study, the amount of food eaten in
one day is measured for each girl and the
researcher computes the average score for the
30 13-year-old girls. The average score is an
example of a _________
Research Methods

• Science - is the study of phenomena, such as

behaviour, through strict observation,
evaluation, interpretation, and theoretical
explanation.

• Research method - or scientific method is a

set of systematic techniques used to acquire,
modify, and integrate knowledge concerning
observable and measurable phenomena
1.3 Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Statistics
• Relationships between variables
– Each variable considered separately
– Relationships among variables

• Is there a relationship between the amount of violence that children

see on television and the amount of aggressive behavior they
display?

• Is there a relationship between the quality of breakfast and level of

academic performance for elementary school children

• Is there a relationship between the number of hour of sleep and

grade point average of college students?
1.3 Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Statistics
• Correlational method
– Two variables for each subject in one group
– Purpose is to determine whether there is a relationship between
the variables

– example (next slide)

– Research has demonstrated a relationship between sleep
habits, especially wake-up time, and academic performance for
college students. The researchers used a survey to measure
wake-up time and school records to measure academic
performance of each student.
– As wake-up time changes from one student to another, is there
also a tendency for academic performance to change?
Figure 1.4
Data structures for studies evaluating the relationship
between variables
1.3 Data Structures, Research
Methods, and Statistics
• Limitations of Correlational method
– the results from a correlational study can
demonstrate the existence for the relationship
between two variables, but they do not provide
an explanation for the relationship.
51
Comparing Groups of Scores:

• The second method for examining the relationship

between two variables involves the comparison of two or
more groups of scores.

• The relationship between variables is examined by using

one of the variables to define the groups, and then
measuring the second variable to obtain scores for each
group

• Experimental and Non-experimental studies

use this structure
Comparing Groups of Scores:

• example : One group of elementary school

children is shown a 30-minute action/adventure
television program involving numerous
instances of violence, and a second group is
shown a 30-minute comedy that includes no
violence. Both groups are then observed on
the playground and a researcher records the
number of aggressive acts committed by each
child.
Figure 1.5
Data structure for studies comparing groups
Experimental Method
• Goal of Experimental Method
– To demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between two
variables
• Manipulation
– the researcher manipulates one variable by changing its
value from one level to another. A second variable is
observed (measured) to determine whether the manipulation
changes to occur
• Control the researcher must exercise control over the
research situation to ensure that other, extraneous
variables do not influence the relationship being examined.
– Participant variables
– Environmental variables (extraneous variables)
Figure 1.6
The structure of an experiment
Experimental Method

• Participant Variables
– these are characteristics such as age, gender,
and intelligence that vary from one individual
to another

• Environmental Variables
– these are characteristics of the environment
such as lighting, time of day, and weather
conditions.
Experimental Method
• In the experiment, a group of college students was
told that they were participating in a manual dexterity
study. The researchers then created two treatment
conditions by manipulating the material that each
participant would be handling. Half of the students
were given a stack of money to count and the other
half got stack of blank pieces of paper. After the
counting task, the participants were asked to dip
their hands into bowls of painfully hot water (122 F)
and rate how uncomfortable it was. Participants who
had counted money rated the pain significantly lower
than those who had counted paper.
Experimental Method
• Participant Variables
– In the money-counting experiment, for
example, suppose that the participants in the
money condition were primarily females and
those in the paper condition are primarily
males.
• Environmental Variables
– Using the money-counting experiment, suppose
that the individuals in the money condition are all
tested in the morning and the individuals in the
paper condition were all tested in the evening.
Control in the Experimental Method
• Methods of control
– Random assignment of subjects
– each participant has an equal chance of being assigned
to each of the treatment condition
– goal: to distribute the participant characteristics evenly
between the two groups so that either group is noticeably
smarter than the other.
– Matching of subjects
– to ensure equivalent groups or equivalent environments.
ex. ensuring that every group has the same participants;
both groups have 60% females and 40% males
– Holding level of some potentially influential variables
constant
– ex. if an experiment uses only 10-year-old children as
participants, then the researcher can be certain that one
group is not noticeably older than another.
Independent and Dependent Variables

• Independent Variable is the variable

manipulated by the researcher
– Independent because no other variable in the
study influences its value
• Dependent Variable is the one observed to
assess the effect of treatment
– Dependent because its value is thought to
depend on the value of the independent
variable
Independent and Dependent Variables
• A scientist studies the impact of a drug on cancer. The
independent variables are the administration of the drug - the
dosage and the timing. The dependent variable is the impact
the drug has on cancer.

• A scientist studies the impact of withholding affection on rats.

The independent variable is the amount of affection. The
dependent variable is the reaction of the rats.

• A scientist studies how many days people can eat soup until
they get sick. The independent variable is the number of days
of consuming soup. The dependent variable is the onset of
illness.
Example
• In the experiment, a group of college students was
told that they were participating in a manual dexterity
study. The researchers then created two treatment
conditions by manipulating the material that each
participant would be handling. Half of the students
were given a stack of money to count and the other
half got stack of blank pieces of paper. After the
counting task, the participants were asked to dip
their hands into bowls of painfully hot water (122 F)
and rate how uncomfortable it was. Participants who
had counted money rated the pain significantly lower
than those who had counted paper.
Example

• Will students to do better in school if you

“pay for grades”? To test this question, an
instructor gives students a math test.
Before taking the test, half the students
were told that they would receive $0.25 for
every correct answer. The other half was
not given a monetary incentive. The
number of correct answers was recorded
for each student.
Control in the Experimental Method

• Control condition
– Individuals do not receive the experimental
treatment.
– They either receive no treatment or they receive
a neutral, placebo treatment.
– Purpose: to provide a baseline for comparison
with the experimental condition
• Experimental condition
– Individuals do receive the experimental
treatment
Nonexperimental Methods
• Nonequivalent Groups
– Researcher compares groups
– Researcher cannot control who goes into which
group
• Pre-test / Post-test
– Individuals measured at two points in time
– Researcher cannot control influence of the
passage of time
• Independent variable is quasi-independent it
is not manipulated but used in creating groups.
Figure 1.7
Two examples of nonexperimental studies
Scales of Measurement
• Measurement assigns individuals or events to
categories
– The categories can simply be names such as
male/female or employed/unemployed
– They can be numerical values such as 68 inches
or 175 pounds
• The complete set of categories makes up a scale
of measurement
• Relationships between the categories determine
different types of scales
Levels/Scales of Measurement
⦿ Measurement – application of rules for
assigning numbers to objects. The rules are
the specific procedures to transform qualities
of attributes into numbers.

⦿ Types of scales/levels:
● Nominal
● Ordinal
● Interval
● Ratio
Levels/Scales of Measurement
A. Nominal Scale
● It simply represents the qualitative or categorical
differences of the variables measured. It is just for
labelling purposes, nothing more.
● Examples:

Nominal Scale Categories

Gender Male or Female
Responses Yes or No / Agree or Disagree
Race Asian, American, African, etc.
Course Art or Science
Colleges College of Sciences, College of
Engineering, etc.
Nominal data
•. Data that is Gender : 0 – Male
classified into 1- Female
categories and
cannot be arranged Religion: 1 – Catholic
in any particular 2 – Islam
order 3- Protestant
4 – Baptist
5 - Others

71
Levels/Scales of Measurement
B. Ordinal Scale
● The categories have different names and are
organized sequentially. As the name implies, it
give order or rank to subjects or items.

● In this scale, we can determine the difference

between categories and the direction of the
difference but not the magnitude of the difference.

● Examples:
○ Socioeconomic status – upper, middle and lower
○ Contest winners – 1st place, 2nd place, etc.
○ T-shirt sizes – small, medium, large, extra large
Ordinal data
data arranged in
some order, but the
differences between Position within an
data values cannot academic organization
1 for President
be determined or 2 for Vice President
are meaningless. 3 for Dean
4 for Department Chair
5 for Faculty member

73
Levels/Scales of Measurement
C. Interval Scale
● The categories have different names, are organized
sequentially and show the degree of difference.

● It has no absolute zero value, meaning it only uses

zero as a reference point but it does not indicate the
absence of the variable being measured.

● Examples:
○ IQ (There is no such thing as zero IQ.)
○ Test scores (A zero score does not mean zero
knowledge or the student did not learn anything.)
○ ºC and ºF scales (They have zero value but it does not
mean that there is no temperature at all.)
Interval Data
– Distances between
consecutive integers
are equal Examples:
– Relative magnitude of ❍Temperature on the
numbers is
meaningful Fahrenheit scale.
– Differences between ❍Intelligence Quotient
numbers are
comparable
– Location of origin,
zero, is arbitrary

75
Levels/Scales of Measurement
D. Ratio Scale
● The categories have different names, are organized
sequentially, show the degree of difference and can
hold an absolute zero value.

● The existence of an absolute zero point means that we

can measure the absolute amount of the variable.

● Examples:
○ Weight
○ Height
○ Income
○ Age
Ratio Scale
– Highest level of
measurement Examples:
– Relative magnitude •Height, Weight,
of numbers is and Volume
meaningful •Monetary
– Differences between Variables, such as
numbers are Profit and Loss,
comparable Revenues, and
– Location of origin, Expenses
zero, is absolute
(natural) •Financial ratios

77
Scales of Measurement
79
1.5 Statistical Notation

• Statistics uses operations and notation you have already

learned
• Statistics also uses some specific notation
– Scores are referred to as X (and Y)
– N is the number of scores in a population
– n is the number of scores in a sample
Summation Notation
• Many statistical procedures sum (add up) a
set of scores
• The summation sign Σ (Greek letter sigma)
stands for summation
– The Σ is followed by a symbol or equation that
defines what is to be summed
– ΣX = to add all the scores for variable X

– 10 6 7 4
– ΣX = 27 and N = 4
Order of Mathematical Operations
• Any calculation contained within parentheses is
done first.
• Squaring (raising to other exponents) is done
second.
• Multiplying and/or dividing is done third. A
series of multiplication and/or division
operations should be done in order from left to
right.
• Summation using the Σ is done next.
• Finally, any other addition and/or subtraction is
done
Summation Notation

• ΣX2 (squared scores)

• ΣX2 = 75

• (ΣX)2
• ΣX = 15
• (ΣX)2 (15)2 = 225
Summation Notation

• Σ (X - 1) the first task is to calculate all of

the Σ(X - 1)2 values and then add the
results
Summation Notation

• For this example, each individual has two

scores. The first score is identified as X,
and the second score is Y. With the help of
the following computational table, compute
ΣX, ΣY, and ΣXY.
Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions
1.5 Statistical Notation

• Statistics uses operations and notation you have already

learned
• Statistics also uses some specific notation
– Scores are referred to as X (and Y)
– N is the number of scores in a population
– n is the number of scores in a sample
Summation Notation
• Many statistical procedures sum (add up) a
set of scores
• The summation sign Σ (Greek letter sigma)
stands for summation
– The Σ is followed by a symbol or equation that
defines what is to be summed
– ΣX = to add all the scores for variable X

– 10 6 7 4
– ΣX = 27 and N = 4
Order of Mathematical Operations
• Any calculation contained within parentheses is
done first.
• Squaring (raising to other exponents) is done
second.
• Multiplying and/or dividing is done third. A
series of multiplication and/or division
operations should be done in order from left to
right.
• Summation using the Σ is done next.
• Finally, any other addition and/or subtraction is
done
Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes
2.1 Introduction to Frequency
Distributions
• A frequency distribution is
– An organized tabulation
– Showing the number of individuals located in
each category on the scale of measurement
• Can be either a table or a graph
• Always shows
– The categories that make up the scale
– The frequency, or number of individuals, in
each category
2.1 Introduction to Frequency
Distributions
• Uses of Frequency Distribution
– Allows the researcher to see “at a glance” the
entire set of scores
– It shows whether the scores are generally high
or low; whether they are concentrated in one
area or spread out across the entire scale
– Allows you to see the location of any individual
score relative to all of the other scores in the
set.
2.2 Frequency Distribution Tables

• Structure of Frequency Distribution

Table
–Categories in a column (usually
highest to lowest) X value
–beside each X value indicate the
frequency, or the number of times
that particular measurement occurred
in the data (f value)
2.2 Frequency Distribution Tables

• Types of Frequency Distribution

–Regular Frequency Distribution (sex,

educational attainment, year level)

–Grouped Frequency Distribution (age

group, monthly income, year of
service)
Proportions and Percentages
Proportions Percentages
• Measures the fraction of the • Expresses relative
total group that is associated frequency out of 100
with each score
•
•
• Can be included as a
• Called relative frequencies separate column in a
because they describe the frequency distribution table
frequency ( f ) in relation to
the total number (N)
 Descriptive
02
Statistics
Frequency Distribution
Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
Conducting Basic and Advanced Statistical Data Analysis using SPSS and JAMOVI
 Measurements
Descriptive Statistics

Frequency Central
Variability
Distribution Tendency
Regular and Mean, Median, Range, Standard
Grouped Mode Deviation
 Research Questions

Research Question 1

1. What is the demographic characteristic of the

respondents in terms of:
1.1 sex;
1.2 educational attainment;
1.3 year of service; and
1.4 age group?
 Jamovi - Command

• Click Analyses
• Exploration
• Descriptives
What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1 Sex

Table 1.1 shows the

demographic characteristic
of the respondents in terms
of sex. Based on the
tabulated data, 80 or 69%
were male respondents
while 36 or 31% were
female. This suggests that
majority of the respondents
are male.
What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.2 Educational Attainment

Table 1.2 shows the demographic

characteristic of the respondents in
terms of educational attainment, in
which 97 (84%) of the respondents
were college graduates, 18 (16%)
finished college, and only 1 (1%)
completed graduate school. Thus,
it is evident that the majority of the
respondents hold a bachelor’s
degree.
What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.3 Age Group

Table 1.3 shows the demographic

characteristic of the respondents
in terms of age group. The tabulated
data shows that 63 out of 116 (54%)
respondents were between the ages
of 21 to 30, 33 or 28%, were
between the ages of 31 to 40, 17 or
15%, were between the ages of 41
to 50, and only 3 or 1%, were over
50 years old. It indicates that the
majority of the respondents are
between 21-30 years old.
What is the demographic profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.4 Year of Service

Table 1.4 shows the demographic

characteristic of the respondents in terms
of year of service. Based on the
tabulated data, 76 or 66% are working in
the company between 1–10 years; 33 or
28% between 11–20 years; 6 or 5%
between 21–30; and only 1 or 1% is
tenured for more than 30 years in the
company. The data suggests that the
majority of the respondents are staying in
the company for about 1–10 years.
The age distribution of the
selected 203 respondents is
shown in Table 1.1, in which
138 or 68% of them were
between the ages of 18 and
25, 27 or 13% were between
26 and 30, 11 or 5% were
between 31 and 35, while only
6 or 3% were between 35 and
40, and 21 or 10% were 40
years old or older. An analysis
of the data revealed that the
vast majority of the
respondents are between the
ages of 18 and 25.
Table 1.2 presents
descriptive information on the
gender frequencies and
percentages of selected
customers in different
restaurants in Metro Manila.
Female respondents made
up 62 percent of the total
sample, while male
respondents made up 38
percent, indicating that the
great majority of respondents
were female.
Table 1.3 depicts the
demographic information of
203 respondents in terms of
their occupation. According
to the data, 77 of them, or
38%, were employed, while
22 or 11% were self-
employed, and 104, or 51%,
were students or
unemployed. This means
that the vast majority of
respondents were
unemployed.
 Table 1.4 depicts the
demographic profile of 203
respondents in terms of their
monthly income. Based on the
tabulated data, 110, or 54%,
earned between 0 and 20,000; 43,
or 21%, earned between 25,000
and 50,000; 20 or 10% earned
between 50,000 and 75,000; 17 or
8% earned between 75,000 and
100,000; and 13 or 6% earned
100,000 and above. This implies
that the vast majority of
respondents earned between 0
and 20,000 pesos per month.
 2.3 Frequency Distribution Graphs

• Pictures of data available in tables

– All have two axes
– X-axis, the horizontal line (abscissa) has categories of
measurement scale increasing left to right
– Y-axis, the vertical line (ordinate) has frequencies increasing
bottom to top
• General principles
– Both axes should have value 0 where they meet
Creating a Histogram (Interval and Ratio
Data)
• List all numeric scores on the X-axis
– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw bars above each class interval
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Width of bar corresponds to real limits
Creating a Histogram
• Grouped Frequency Histogram
– Uses grouped intervals
– construct a frequency distribution histogram by
drawing a bar above each interval so that the width
of the bar extends to the real limits of the interval
(the lower real limit of the lowest score and the
upper real limit of the highest score in the interval
Frequency Distribution Polygons
(Interval and Ratio Data)

• List all numeric scores on the X-axis

– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw a dot above the center of each interval
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Connect the dots with a continuous line
– Close the polygon with lines to the Y = 0 point
Frequency Distribution Polygons
• Can also be used with grouped frequency distribution data
• position each dot directly above the midpoint of the class
interval
• the midpoint can be found by averaging the highest and
the lowest scores in the interval
• 12 + 13 = 12.5
2
Graphs for Nominal or Ordinal Data
• For non-numerical values (scores),
a bar graph is used
– Similar to a histogram
– Spaces between adjacent bars indicates
discrete categories without order (nominal)
or of unmeasurable width (ordinal)
2.4 The Shape of a
Frequency Distribution
• Three (3) characteristics that completely describe
any distribution
• Central tendency - measures where the
centre of the distribution is located.
• Variability - tells whether the scores are
spread over a wide range or are clustered
together.
• Shape - is defined by an equation that
prescribes the exact relationship between X
and Y value on the graph.
2.4 The Shape of a
Frequency Distribution
• Researchers describe a distribution’s shape in words rather
than drawing it
• Symmetrical distribution: each side is a mirror image of the
other
• Skewed distribution: scores pile up on one side and taper off
in a tail on the other
– Tail on the right = positive skew
– Tail on the left = negative skew
2.4 The Shape of a
Frequency Distribution
• For a very difficult exam, most scores tend to be low,
with only a few individuals earning high scores =
positively skewed

• A very easy exam will earn most students high scores

and only a few with low values = negatively skewed
Chapter 3
Central Tendency
Concepts to review

• Summation notation

• Frequency distributions
Learning Outcomes
3.1 Overview of central tendency

• Central tendency
– A statistical measure
– A single score to define the center of a distribution
• Purpose: find the single score that is most typical or
best represents the entire group

• Central tendency - is a statistical measure that

attempts to determine the single value, usually
located in the centre of a distribution, that is most
typical or most representative of the entire set of
scores.
Figure 3.1
What is the “center” of each distribution?
3.2 The Mean

• The mean (arithmetic average) is the sum of

all the scores divided by the number of scores
in the data.
Mean (M )
⦿ Example:

45, 51, 43, 57, 49, 50, 46, 46, 55

ƩX 45 + 51 + 43 + 57 + 49 + 50 + 46 + 46 + 55
M = =
n 9

M = 49.11
Example 2: Mean: Dividing the total
equally
• Mean as the amount of each individual
receives when the total (ΣX) is divided equally
among all of the individuals.

• A group of n = 6 boys buys a box of baseball

cards at a garage sale and discovers that the
box contains a total of 180 cards. If the boys
divide the cards equally among themselves,
how many cards will each boy get?
 3.2 The mean as a balanced point

• Consider a population consisting

of N = 5 scores (1, 2, 6, 6, 10).
For this population, ΣX = 25 and
μ = 25/5 = 5
Score Distance from the Mean
X=1 4 points below the mean
X=2 3 points below the mean
X=6 1 point above the mean
X=6 1 point above the mean
X = 10 5 points above the mean
3.2 The mean as a balanced point

• Because the mean serves as a balance point,

the value of the mean is always locate
somewhere between the highest and lowest
score
3.3 The Median

• The median is the midpoint of the scores in a

distribution when they are listed in order from
smallest to largest.
• The median divides the scores into two
groups of equal size.
Median (Md)
⦿ This refers to the point in a distribution that
divides the group into 2 parts so that 50% fall
below and another 50% fall above that point.

⦿ Steps and Formula for Ungrouped data:

1. Arrange the data in increasing/ascending order.
2. Let n denote the number of pieces of data and
locate the median using the formula:
(n + 1) / 2
3. The value obtained from the formula points to the
ordinal position of the median.
Median (Md)
⦿ Example:
● If the pieces of data is odd, then the median is the
value exactly in the middle of the ordered list.

Data: 26, 9, 31, 35, 17

Ascending Order: 9, 17, 26, 31, 35

(n + 1) / 2 (5+1) / 2 = 3 or 3rd value on the list

Md = 26
Median (Md)
⦿ Example:
● If the pieces of data is even, then the median is the mean
of the two middle data values in the ordered list.

Data: 26, 9, 31, 5, 35, 17

Ascending Order: 5, 9, 17, 26, 31, 35

(n + 1) / 2 (6+1) / 2 = 3.5 (denotes value between 3rd and 4th position)

Md = (17 + 26) / 2
Md = 21. 5
3.4 The Mode

• The mode is the score or category that has

the greatest frequency of any in the
frequency distribution
– Can be used with any scale of measurement
– Corresponds to an actual score in the data
• It is possible to have more than one mode
Mode
⦿ This refers to the value or item in a distribution
with the most number of cases or highest
frequency.

⦿ This can be:

● Unimodal (e.g. 20,18, 18, 18, 17, 16, 11)
● Bimodal (e.g. 4, 4, 7, 11, 6, 5, 8, 5, 2)
● Inexistent (e.g. 9, 2, 15, 4, 6, 1, 5, 13)
Computing the Mode from a
Frequency Distribution Table

This is an adaptation of Table 3.1

3.5 Selecting a Measure of
Central Tendency
When to use the Median

1. Extreme Scores of
skewed distributions
when a distribution has a
few extreme scores, scores
that are very different in
value from most of the
others, then the mean may
not be a good
representative of the
majority of the distribution.
3.5 Selecting a Measure of
Central Tendency
When to use the Median
2. Undetermined values
the scores are unknown due to some errors.

Child Time (Min)

1 8
2 11
3 12
4 13
5 17
6 Never finished
3.5 Selecting a Measure of
Central Tendency
When to use the Median
3. Open-ended distributions
when there is no upper limit or lower limit for one of the categories

No. of Pizzas f
5 or more 3
4 2
3 2
2 3
1 6
0 4
3.5 Selecting a Measure of
Central Tendency
When to use the Mode

1. Nominal scales
categories that make up a nominal scale are
differentiated only by name. Since nominal
scales do not measure quantity (distance or
direction), it is impossible to compute the mean
or a median.
3.5 Selecting a Measure of
Central Tendency
When to use the Mode

2. Discrete variables
since it is composed of whole, indivisible
categories, we can easily identify the most
typical case.
3.5 Selecting a Measure of
Central Tendency