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Introduction To Statistics

The document provides an introduction to statistics, covering key concepts such as variables, populations, samples, and types of measurement scales. It distinguishes between correlational studies and experiments, explaining their goals and methodologies, and introduces descriptive and inferential statistics. Additionally, it discusses sampling error and notation used in statistical calculations.

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16 views30 pages

Introduction To Statistics

The document provides an introduction to statistics, covering key concepts such as variables, populations, samples, and types of measurement scales. It distinguishes between correlational studies and experiments, explaining their goals and methodologies, and introduces descriptive and inferential statistics. Additionally, it discusses sampling error and notation used in statistical calculations.

Uploaded by

pklarenzanne
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction to Statistics

What is Statistics?
Variables
• A variable is a characteristic or condition that
can change or take on different values.

• Most research begins with a general question


about the relationship between two variables for
a specific group of individuals.
Population
• The entire group of individuals is called the
population.
• For example, a researcher may be
interested in the relation between class
size (variable 1) and academic
performance (variable 2) for the population
of third-grade children.
Sample
• Usually populations are so large that a
researcher cannot examine the entire group.
• Therefore, a sample is selected to represent
the population in a research study.
• The goal is to use the results obtained from the
sample to help answer questions about the
population.
Types of Variables
• Variables can be classified as discrete or
continuous.
• Discrete variables (such as class size) consist
of indivisible categories
• Continuous variables (such as time or weight)
are infinitely divisible into whatever units a
researcher may choose. For example, time can
be measured to the nearest minute, second,
half-second, etc.
Measuring Variables
• To establish relationships between variables,
researchers must observe the variables and
record their observations. This requires that the
variables be measured.

• The process of measuring a variable requires a


set of categories called a scale of
measurement and a process that classifies
each individual into one category.
4 Types of Measurement Scales

1. A nominal scale is an unordered set of


categories identified only by name. Nominal
measurements only permit you to determine
whether two individuals are the same or
different.

2. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of


categories. Ordinal measurements tell you the
direction of difference between two individuals.
4 Types of Measurement Scales

3. An interval scale is an ordered series of equal-sized


categories. Interval measurements identify the
direction and magnitude of a difference. The zero point
is located arbitrarily on an interval scale.

4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of zero


indicates none of the variable. Ratio measurements
identify the direction and magnitude of differences and
allow ratio comparisons of measurements.
Correlational Studies

• The goal of a correlational study is to


determine whether there is a relationship
between two variables and to describe the
relationship.

• A correlational study simply observes the


two variables as they exist naturally.
Experiments
• The goal of an experiment is to demonstrate a cause-
and-effect relationship between two variables; that is, to
show that changing the value of one variable causes
changes to occur in a second variable

• In an experiment, one variable is manipulated to create


treatment conditions

• A second variable is observed and measured to obtain


scores for a group of individuals in each of the treatment
conditions.
Experiments (cont.)
• The measurements are then compared to see if there
are differences between treatment conditions.

• All other variables are controlled to prevent them from


influencing the results

• In an experiment, the manipulated variable is called the


independent variable and the observed variable is the
dependent variable.
Other Types of Studies
• Other types of research studies, know as non-
experimental or quasi-experimental, are similar to
experiments because they also compare groups of
scores.

• These studies do not use a manipulated variable to


differentiate the groups. Instead, the variable that
differentiates the groups is usually a pre-existing
participant variable (such as male/female) or a time
variable (such as before/after).
Other Types of Studies (cont.)

• Because these studies do not use the


manipulation and control of true
experiments, they cannot demonstrate
cause and effect relationships.
• As a result, they are similar to correlational
research because they simply
demonstrate and describe relationships.
Data
• The measurements obtained in a research
study are called the data.
• The goal of statistics is to help researchers
organize and interpret the data.
Descriptive Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are methods for
organizing and summarizing data.
• For example, tables or graphs are used to
organize data, and descriptive values such as
the average score are used to summarize data.
• A descriptive value for a population is called a
parameter and a descriptive value for a sample
is called a statistic.
Inferential Statistics
• Inferential statistics are methods for using
sample data to make general conclusions
(inferences) about populations.
• Because a sample is typically only a part of the
whole population, sample data provide only
limited information about the population.
• As a result, sample statistics are generally
imperfect representatives of the corresponding
population parameters.
Descriptive Statistics vs Inferential Statistics
Sampling Error
• The discrepancy between a sample
statistic and its population parameter is
called sampling error.
• Defining and measuring sampling error is
a large part of inferential statistics.
Notation
• The individual measurements or scores obtained for a
research participant will be identified by the letter X (or X
and Y if there are multiple scores for each individual).
• The number of scores in a data set will be identified by N
for a population or n for a sample.
• Summing a set of values is a common operation in
statistics and has its own notation. The Greek letter
sigma, Σ, will be used to stand for "the sum of." For
example, ΣX identifies the sum of the scores.
Order of Operations
1. All calculations within parentheses are done
first.
2. Squaring or raising to other exponents is done
second.
3. Multiplying, and dividing are done third, and
should be completed in order from left to right.
4. Summation with the Σ notation is done next.
5. Any additional adding and subtracting is done
last and should be completed in order from left
to right.
Thank you

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