LECTURE 1: REVIEW OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

1.1 Introduction
Welcome to the first lecture on Network Systems Design and Management. This lecture reviews
computer networks and the basic concepts and principles of the same. It is intended that we remind
ourselves of what components make up a computer network before advancing to designing and
implementing them. The lecture covers an Introduction to computer networks where definition of
terms is provided. The history of networking is briefly presented to give us an idea of where it all
started. The goals and benefits of networking are then presented. There are different ways in which
computer networks can be categorised. This is covered, though briefly, in the Types of Network
section. Devices or components in a computer network are connected via some transmission media
such as coaxial, twisted or fiber cable or even using wireless connections provided by radio frequency,
microwave or infrared. These media are discussed. The three flow of data transmission is also briefly
discussed here. The lesson ends with some lecture activities and selt-test questions.

1.2 Specific Objectives

At the end of the lesson you should be able to;
 Define computer networks.
 Review the history of networking.
 Explain the goals and benefits of networking.
 Describe the different types of networks.
 Review the different transmission media
 Discuss the flow of data transmission.

1.3 Lecture Outline

1.3.1 Introduction – Definition of terms

1.3.2 History of Networking
1.3.3 Goals of Networking
1.3.4 Benefits of Networking
1.3.5 Types of Networks
1.3.6 Transmission Media
1.3.7 Flow of Data Transmission
1.4 Lecture Activities
1.5 Self-test Questions
1.6 Summary

Matende Samwel Page 1 13/01/2016

1.3.1 Introduction and Definitions
In today's business world, a computer network is much more than a collection of interconnected
devices. For many businesses, the computer network is the resource that enables them to gather,
analyze, organize, and disseminate the information that is essential to their profitability. The rise of
intranets and extranets—a recent development in computer networking—is the latest indication of the
crucial importance of computer networking to businesses. Intranets and extranets are private business
networks that are based on Internet technology. Intranets, extranets, and the Internet will be treated in
more detail in a later section. For now, it is enough to understand that businesses are currently
implementing intranets at a breakneck pace and for one reason only—an intranet enables a business to
collect, manage, and disseminate information more quickly and easily than ever before. Many
businesses are implementing intranets simply to remain competitive; businesses that delay are likely to
see their competition outdistance them.
Definitions
Principle:
A comprehensive and fundamental law, doctrine, or assumption/ the laws or facts of nature underlying
the working of an artificial device
Concept:
Any abstract notion or idea by virtue of which we apply general terms to things. An abstract or general
idea inferred or derived from specific instances
Computer Network:
A network is any collection of entities that exchange information or goods. The nervous system of an
animal is a network that facilitates the movement of information to and from the brain and the other
parts of the body. A railway system is a network, since it facilitates the movement of goods and at one
point in time, information between destinations. The phone lines are also a network. They allow
people to communicate and transfer information all over the world (Fortier, P.J. (1992). Handbook of
LAN technology 2nd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill).

A computer network is no different than any of the before-mentioned networks. A computer network
exchanges information to and from computers and has a system to direct the information to the correct
computer. The Internet as it is known today is a huge network composed of millions and millions of
smaller networks called LAN’s or Intranets.

Two or more computers connected to, or can communicate with, each other in some way. Such
computers are also called nodes or stations and run software that initiates and manages their
interaction in sharing files and other resources. (Encyclopaedia of Networking 2nd Ed. by Werner
Feibel)

A set of computers exchanging information by common conventions, called protocols, over

communication media

A network is created when two or more computers are connected to share information and resources.

A computer network is a collection of computers, which are in some way connected such that they can
exchange data between themselves and other computers on the network. It might involve physical
wire, infrared or radio frequency communication, and can be usually used to share files, devices and
connections to other computers. The Internet is an example of a computer network.
A computer network is simply computers wired together in a way that lets them share data and/or
devices such as hard drives, CD-ROMs, fax-modems, printers, etc.

A computer network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computers where interconnected

means that the computers can exchange information and autonomous means that no computer can
start, stop or control another computer connected to the network.

On the most basic level, therefore, a computer network is a collection of devices that can store and
manipulate electronic data, interconnected in such a way that network users can store, retrieve, and
share information.

Commonly connected devices include microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframe computers,

terminals, printers, fax machines, pagers, and various data storage devices. In the near future,
numerous other types of devices will be network connectable, including interactive TVs, videophones,
and navigational and environmental control systems. Eventually, devices everywhere will give you
two-way access to a vast array of resources on a global computer network.

A network is a connected system of objects or people. The telephone system, known in the industry as
the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), is an example of a network. It allows people in
virtually every corner of the world to communicate with anyone who has access to a telephone.
Similarly, a computer network allows users to communicate with other users on that network by
transmitting data along cables. A computer network is defined as having two or more devices, such as
workstations, printers, and servers, linked together for the purpose of sharing information, resources,
or both. The link can be through copper or fiber-optic cable or it can be a wireless connection that uses
radio signals, laser or infrared technology, or satellite transmission. The information and resources
shared can be data files, applications, printers, modems, or other hardware. Computer networks are
used in businesses, schools, government agencies, and even many homes.
Computer networks are not always independent of the telephone network. Telephone lines are often
used for transmitting data between computers, particularly for homes and small businesses. In the past,
this has been a fairly slow and inexpensive connection method for utilizing low speed connection
devices. New telephone company (telco) data services are bringing higher bandwidths at reasonable
costs to home and small business users. These services use the same copper wires that carry voice
calls.

1.3.2 History of Networking

Early computers were standalone devices, which operated independently from other computers. It
soon became apparent that this was not an efficient or cost-effective way for businesses to operate.
Initially, the primary reason for networking computers in the beginning was to communicate between
computers and share resources such as printers. Of course, once they were linked, people discovered
the usefulness of being able to share much more than printers. Data, applications, and peripheral
equipment like scanners, faxes, and plotters could now be shared between users, thus saving
organizations money and time.
The earliest version of the largest network, the Internet, was developed by the United States
Department of Defense. The Internet was used to communicate with subcontractors and universities
involved with its research projects. Cables were laid between the sites to enable communication. Other
Internet services, such as e-mail and newsgroups, soon followed. In the 1990s, the World Wide Web
was developed which put more demands on existing cable. The cable manufacturers continue to
develop new media that can handle all the data transmission needs of users.
1.3.3 Goals of Networking

The goal of an effective network is to improve productivity, foster communication, control costs, and
make information access faster and easier. To achieve these goals, the network needs certain attributes.
A good way to help remember these attributes is to see that the first letter of each of these network
objectives creates the acronym SMART:
 Simple - The network should be simple. It should require no special skills of its users.

 Manageable - The network should be manageable. It should be easy to monitor and to adjust
the performance of network elements, such as servers, workstations, routers, switches, and
wiring.
 Adaptable - The network should be adaptable and scalable. Change and growth should not
present barriers to network owners. The cabling on which a network is built has a great deal to
do with the ability of the network to adapt to change and adjust to growth.
 Reliable - The network should be reliable. When a user requests any connected tool or
operation, it should be available.
 Transparent - The network should be transparent. It should be just as fast and easy to access a
resource that is near as one that comes from a more distant server.
All of these attributes are affected by the quality of the cabling and the cable installation. A cable
installer must always remember the ultimate goals of the network when planning and installing cable
plants.

1.3.4 Benefits of Networking

There are numerous benefits to networking computers and other devices. Users can share documents
easily, backup data easily, share a common network connection, share hardware to accomplish tasks
like printing documents, and group computers and devices together to more easily manage them. It is
common to find home networks with as little as two computers sharing files, printers, and network
connections.
The benefits of networking computers are the following:
 Sharing Output Devices - Printers, other output devices, and fax machines can be shared

 Sharing Input Devices - High-end scanners, medical equipment, optic readers, and other input
devices are typically used on only an occasional basis and are often relatively expensive.
Therefore, it makes sense to configure them for multiple users on the network.
 Sharing Storage Devices - Networked computers can share the use of hard disks, floppy, Zip,
and CD-ROM drives. Files can be saved to or accessed from these storage devices on
computers anywhere on the network.
 Sharing Modems and Internet Connections - Networked computers can share modems,
ISDN lines, cable modems, and DSL adapters. With the proper software, an entire LAN can
connect to the Internet through one phone line, or coaxial cable, and a single ISP account.
 Security - Security can mean different things when it is associated with a network. Prying eyes
and malicious users can destroy the integrity of data. It is much easier to secure data and
resources when policies and enforcement are centralized and managed. Computers that are
networked together make securing data and resources easier. The term security can also be
 used when speaking of hardware or software problems that users can experience. When
computers are networked together, it is much easier to backup the data that is on them. This
provides the users a sense of security should any unexpected failure occur.
 Sharing Data and Applications - Shared data files result in the efficient use of disk space and
easier collaboration on multiuser projects. For example, if several managers need to revise a
spreadsheet containing the department budget, the file can be retrieved from a server, edited
locally and then saved again on a network server. Each manager will be able to access the
updated file to make additional changes. In addition, applications can be installed on a network
server. Users can access the application from the server without requiring disk space on local
hard disks for the program files.
 Reduced expenditure - The cost savings involved in linking computers, which include the
purchase of network interface cards (NICs), cabling or wireless media, hubs, and other
connectivity devices, often outweigh the costs of buying multiple printers and other shared
devices. However, this cost still outweighs the cost of buying multiple printers and other
shared devices. Networking also saves labor hours when users access and share data.

1.3.5 Types of Networks

By using local-area network (LAN) and wide-area network (WAN) technologies, many computers are
interconnected to provide services to their users. In providing services, networked computers take on
different roles or functions in relation to each other. Some types of applications require computers to
function as equal partners. Other types of applications distribute work so that one computer functions
to serve a number of others in an unequal relationship. In either case, two computers typically
communicate with each other by using request/response protocols. One computer issues a request for a
service, and a second computer receives and responds to that request. The requester takes on the role
of a client, and the responder takes on the role of a server.

Peer - to - Peer Networks

In a peer-to-peer network, the networked computers act as equal partners, or peers, to each other. As
peers, each computer can take on the client function or the server function alternately.. At one time
Workstation A, for example, may make a request for a file from Workstation B, which responds by
serving the file to Workstation A. Workstation A functions as client, while Workstation B functions as
the server. At a later time, Workstation A and B can reverse roles. Workstation B could be the client,
making a request of Workstation A, and Workstation A, as server, responds to the request of
Workstation B. Workstations A and B stand in a reciprocal, or peer, relationship to each other.
In a peer-to-peer network, individual users control their own resources. They may decide to share
certain files with other users and may require passwords before they allow others to access their
resources. Since individual users make these decisions, there is no central point of control or
administration in the network. In addition, individual users must back up their own systems to be able
to recover from data loss in case of failures. When a computer acts as a server, the user of that machine
may experience reduced performance as the machine serves the requests made by other systems.
Peer-to-peer networks are relatively easy to install and operate. No additional equipment is necessary
beyond a suitable operating system in each computer. Since users control their own resources, no
dedicated administrators are needed. A peer-to-peer network works well with a small number of
computers, perhaps 10 or fewer.
As networks grow larger, peer-to-peer relationships become increasingly difficult to coordinate. They
do not scale well, since their efficiency decreases rapidly as the number of computers on the network
increases. Since individual users control access to the resources on their computers, security may be
difficult to maintain. Client/server networks address these limitations of the peer-to-peer arrangement.

Client-Server Networks
In a client/server network arrangement, network services are located in a dedicated computer whose
only function is to respond to the requests of clients. The server contains the file, print, application,
security, and other services in a central computer that is continuously available to respond to client
requests. Most network operating systems adopt the form of client/server relationships. Typically,
desktop computers function as clients and one or more computers with additional processing power,
memory, and specialized software function as servers.
Servers are designed to handle requests from many clients simultaneously. Before a client can access
the server resources, the client must identify itself and be authorized to use the resource. This is
usually done by assigning each user an account name and password. A specialized authentication
server acts as an entry point, guarding access to the network, and verifies this account information. By
centralizing user accounts, security, and access control, server-based networks simplify the work of
network administration.
The concentration of network resources such as files, printers, and applications on servers also makes
the data they generate easier to back up and maintain. Rather than having these resources spread
around on individual machines, they can be located on specialized, dedicated servers for easier access.
Most client/server systems also include facilities for enhancing the network by adding new services
that extend the usefulness of the network.
The distribution of functions in client/server networks brings substantial advantages, but also incurs
some costs. Although the aggregation of resources on server systems brings greater security, simpler
access, and coordinated control, the server introduces a single point of failure into the network.
Without an operational server, the network cannot function at all. Additionally, servers require a
trained, expert staff to administer and maintain them, which increases the expense of running the
network. Server systems require additional hardware and specialized software that adds substantially
to the cost.

Local Area Networks

A local-area network (LAN) can connect many computers in a relatively small geographical area such
as a home, an office, or a campus. It allows users to access high bandwidth media like the Internet and
allows users to share devices such as printers.
A LAN connects each computer to each of the others by using a separate communications channel. A
direct connection from one computer to another is called a point-to-point link. If the network were
designed using point-to-point links, the number of links would grow rapidly as new computers were
added to the network. For each new computer, the network would need a new separate connection to
each of the other computers. This approach would be very costly and difficult to manage.
Starting in the late 1960s and early 1970s, network engineers designed a form of network that enabled
many computers in a small area to share a single communications channel by taking turns using it.
These LANs now connect more computers than any other type of network. By allowing the computers
to share a communications channel, LANs greatly reduce the cost of the network. For economic and
technical reasons, point-to-point links over longer distances are then used to connect computers and
networks in separate towns, cities, or even across continents.
The general shape or layout of a LAN is called its topology. Topology defines the structure of the
network. This includes the physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media, and the
logical topology, which is how the hosts access the media.
When all the computers connect to a central point, the network takes on a star topology. An alternative
topology connects the computers in a closed loop. Here, the cable is run from one computer to the next
and then from the second to its neighbor until the last one is connected back to the first. This forms a
ring topology. A third topology, called a bus, attaches each computer into a single, long cable. Each
topology has its benefits and drawbacks. Today, most LANs are designed using some form of star
topology, although ring and bus layouts are still used in some installations.
Whatever the layout, or topology, of the network, all LANs require the networked computers to share
the communications channel that connects them. The communications channel that they all share is
called the medium, and it is typically a cable that carries electrical signals through copper, or it may be
a fiber-optic cable that carries light signals through purified glass or plastic. In the case of wireless
networks, the computers may use antennas to broadcast radio signals to each other. In all cases, the
computers on a LAN share the medium by taking turns using it.
On a LAN, the rules for coordinating the use of the medium are called Media Access Control (MAC).
Since there are many computers on the network but only one of them can use the medium at a time,
there must be some rules for deciding how they will take turns in sharing the network. The data link
layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using the MAC address. If there are
conflicts when more than one computer is contending for the media, the rules ensure that there is an
agreed method for resolving the conflict. In later sections of this chapter, the major types of LANs will
be reviewed, including the rules for sharing the medium.

Wide Area Networks

For economic and technical reasons, LANs are not suitable for communications over long distances.
On a LAN, the computers must coordinate their use of the network and this coordination takes time.
Over long distances with greater delays in communication, the computers would take more time
coordinating the use of the shared medium and less time sending data messages. In addition, the costs
of providing high-speed media over long distances are much greater than in the case of LANs. For
these reasons, wide-area network (WAN) technologies differ from LANs.
A WAN, as the name implies, is designed to work over a larger area than a LAN. A WAN uses point-
to-point or point-to-multipoint, serial communications lines. Point-to-point lines connect only two
locations, one on each side of the line. Point-to-multipoint lines connect one location on one side of
the line to multiple locations on the other side. They are called serial lines because the bits of
information are transmitted one after another in a series, like cars traveling on a single lane highway.
The following are some of the more common WAN technologies:
 Modems

 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

 Digital subscriber line (DSL)

 Frame Relay

 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

 The T (US) and E (Europe) Carrier series (T1, E1, T3, E3)
  Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Typically, individuals and companies do not build their own WAN connections. Government
regulations only allow utility companies to install lines on public property. Therefore, wide area
connections make use of the communications facilities put in place by utility companies, called
common carriers, such as the telephone company.
Connections across WAN lines may be temporary or permanent. Telephone or dialup lines, for
example, might make a temporary connection to a remote network from a computer in a home or small
office. In this case, the home or office computer makes a phone call to a computer on the boundary of
the remote network. The telephone company provides the connection, or circuit, that is used for the
duration of the call. After data is transmitted, the line is disconnected, just as it is for an ordinary voice
call. If a company wants to transmit data at any time without having to connect and disconnect the line
each time, the company can rent a permanent line or circuit from the common carrier. These leased
lines are constantly available and operate at higher speeds than temporary dialup connections.
In both temporary and permanent cases, computers that connect over wide area circuits must use
special devices called modems or channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU) at each end of the
connection.
Note: Channel service unit /data service unit (CSU/DSU) is a pair of
communications devices that connect an in-house line to an external digital circuit (T1,
DDS, and so on). It is similar to a modem, but connects a digital circuit rather than an
analog one.
Modem devices are required because the electrical signals that carry digital computer data must be
transformed, or modulated, before they can be transmitted on telephone lines. On the transmitting end
of the connection, a modem (modulator-demodulator) transforms computer signals into phone signals.
On the receiving end, the transformation is done from phone to computer signals. The modem is only
one means of connecting computers or similar devices so they can communicate over long distances.
Other much faster technologies include ISDN, Frame Relay, and ATM.
In general, WANs typically connect fewer computers than LANs and normally operate at lower speeds
than LANs. WANs, however, provide the means for connecting single computers and many LANs
over large distances. Thus, they enable networks to span whole countries, and even the entire globe.
Circuit-Switched versus Packet-Switched Networks
The public telephone system, sometimes referred to as plain old telephone service (POTS), is a circuit-
switched communications network. When a telephone call is placed in this type of network, only one
physical path is used between the telephones for the duration of that call. This pathway, called a
circuit, is maintained for the exclusive use of the call, until the connection is ended and the telephone
is hung up.
If the same number is called tomorrow from the same location as the call from today, the path would
probably not be the same. The circuit is created by a series of switches that use currently available
network paths to set up the call end-to-end. This explains why callers can get a clear connection one
day, and noise and static on another. This demonstrates that a circuit-switched connection is end-to-
end or point-to-point.
Conversely, in a packet-switched network, each individual packet of data can take a different route and
no dedicated pathway or circuit is established. When transferring data, such as a word processing file,
from one computer to another using a packet-switched network, each individual packet (bundle of
data) can take a different route. Although it all arrives at the same destination, it does not all travel the
same path to get there. Internet traffic uses packet-switching technology.
The difference between circuit and packet switching can be compared to the different ways in which a
large group of people traveling from Kisumu to Mombasa (two cities in Kenya) can reach their
destination. For example, circuit switching is similar to loading the entire group on a bus, a train, or an
airplane. The route is plotted out, and the whole group travels over that same route.
Packet switching is comparable to people travelling in their own automobiles. The group is broken
down into individual components just as the data communication is broken into packets. Some
travelers can take interstate highways, and others can use back roads. Some can drive straight through,
and others can take a more roundabout path. Eventually, they all end up at the same destination. The
group is put back together, just as packets are reassembled at the endpoint of the communication.

1.3.6 Transmission Media

Bounded Transmission Media
 Two wire open lines
 Composed of two wires in which a voltage between the two wires represents signal.
 Operates at low speeds (less than 19.2 kbps) & Operates over short distances (less than
50m)
 Wires are normally enshrouded in a plastic covering.
 The wires act as antennas and can pick up electric signals from the surrounding
environment.
 Signals picked up in this way are called noise because they obscure the signal that is being
sent along the wire.
 The wires may also produce electro-magnetic radiation that interferes with other devices.

 Coaxial Cable (Thicknet/ Thinnet)

 Coaxial cable is a type of communication transmission cable in which a solid center
conductor is surrounded by an insulating spacer which in turn is surrounded by a tubular
outer conductor (usually a braid, foil or both). The entire assembly is then covered with an
insulating and protective outer layer.
 Coaxial cables have a wide bandwidth and are capable of carrying many data, voice, and
video conversations simultaneously.
 Thicknet is the 50-ohm "thick" (10mm) coaxial cable used with Ethernet 10Base5
networks. 10Base5 is the original Ethernet system that supports a 10 Mb/s transmission
rate over a 500 meter maximum supported segment length.
 Thick Ethernet coaxial cabling includes a "mark" every 2.5 meters to indicate proper
placement of the 10Base5 transceivers (or MAUs) used to connect stations to the network.
 The outer jacket of Thick Ethernet cables is typically a bright color (often yellow) with
black bands at 2.5 meter intervals to mark valid transceiver placement points.
 thick wire coaxial cable (500 Metres) & thin wire coaxial cable (185 Metres)
  Some advantages of coaxial cable are as follows:
o Highly insensitive to EMI
o Supports high bandwidths
o Heavier types of coax are sturdy and can withstand harsh environments
o Represents a mature technology that is well understood and consistently applied
among vendors
 Coax also has some disadvantages including the following:
 Although fairly insensitive to EMI, coax remains vulnerable to EMI in harsh conditions
such as factories.
 Coax can be bulky.
 Coax is among the most expensive types of wire cables.

 Twisted Pairs (UTP/ FTP/ STP/ ScTP)

 Twisted pair cables are so named because pairs of wires are twisted around one another.
 Each pair consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. The wire pairs are
twisted because it helps reduce crosstalk and noise susceptibility.
 High quality twisted pair cables have about 1 to 3 twists per inch. For best results, the twist
rate should vary significantly between pairs in a cable.
 (90 Metres)
 The transmission of data at 100 Mbps
 easy medium to handle, is very compact and is very cheap
 no such thing as a minimum bend radius to the cable
 foil or braided screen surrounding all four pairs in order to minimize EMI radiation and
susceptibility to outside noise for Screened twisted pair also called Foil Twisted Pair (FTP),
or Screened UTP (sUTP).
 Although screened twisted pair (ScTP) is technically a form of shielded twisted pair, the
term "shielded twisted pair" (STP) most often refers to the 150 ohm twisted pair cabling
defined by the IBM Cabling System specifications for use with Token-Ring networks. The
twisted pairs in 150 ohm STP are individually wrapped in a foil shield and enclosed in an
overall outer braided wire shield.

 Here are some advantages of twisted pair wiring:

o Telephone cable standards are mature and well established. Materials are plentiful,
and a wide variety of cable installers are familiar with the installation requirements.
o It may be possible to use in-place telephone wiring if it is of sufficiently high
quality.
o UTP represents the lowest cost cabling. The cost for STP is higher and is
comparable to the cost of coaxial cable.
 Some disadvantages of twisted pair are as follows:
 o STP can be expensive and difficult to work with.
o Compared to fiber optic cable, all TP cable is more sensitive to EMI. UTP
especially may be unsuitable for use in high-EMI environments.
o TP cables are regraded as being less suitable for high-speed transmissions than coax
or fiber optic. Technology advances, however, are pushing upward the data rates
possible with TP. Cable segment lengths are also more limited with TP.

 Optical Fibre (Single mode/ Multi Mode)

 Fiber optic cabling is a technology where electrical signals are converted into optical
signals, transmitted through a thin glass fiber, and re-converted into electrical signals
 Fiber optic cabling is constructed of three concentric layers: The "core" is the central
region of an optical fiber through which light is transmitted. The "cladding" is the material
in the middle layer. It has a lower index of refraction than the core which serves to confine
the light to the core. An outer "protective layer", or "buffer", serves to protect the core and
cladding from damage.
 can also transmit the signal further without regeneration and it is less sensitive to noise
 minimum bend radius though the fibre itself is very small
 protective sheathing required makes the optical fibre quite bulky for connections to end
user equipment
 Multi-mode fiber allows many "modes", or paths, of light to propagate down the fiber optic
path. The relatively large core of a multi-mode fiber allows good coupling from
inexpensive LEDs light sources, and the use of inexpensive couplers and connectors.
Multi-mode fiber typically has a core diameter of 50 to 100 microns.
 Multi-mode fiber can support segment lengths as long as 2000 meters for 10 and 100 Mbps
Ethernet, and 550 meters for 1 Gbps Ethernet.
 Single-mode fiber has a core diameter that is so small (on the order of 10 microns) that
only a single mode of light is propagated. This eliminates the main limitation to bandwidth,
modal dispersion.
 Segment lengths of 5000 meters and beyond are supported at all Ethernet data rates
through 1 Gbps. However, single-mode fiber has the disadvantage of being significantly
more expensive to deploy than multi-mode fiber.

 Here are some advantages of fiber optic cable:

o Very high bandwidth.
o Immunity to EMI; fiber optic cables can be used in environments that make wire
cables unusable.
o No radio frequency emissions; signals on fiber optic cables cannot interfere with
nearby electronic devices and cannot be detected by conventional electronic
eavesdropping techniques.

Unbounded Transmission Media

 Radio
 radio will be increasingly used to remove or reduce the need for cabling.
  In recent years radio equipment has been developed to exploit the higher frequency
Gigahertz part of the radio spectrum.
 At these higher frequencies and with low power transmitters the distances over which the
signal travel is quite limited. This is an advantage as the principal problem with radio is
that it is a broadcast medium. The shorter the range of transmissions the greater is the
number of transmitters, which may share a given frequency without contending with one
another.
 Omni-directional and Low bandwidth.
 Lack of security. Enables mobile communication & computing!
 Broadcast mechanisms: cellular radio, radio nets, & low-orbit satellites.
 Susceptible to interference (primarily multi-path interference).
 Reallocation of limited frequencies may be required for wireless communication growth.
 Microwave
 Transmitter is a parabolic dish, mounted as high as possible
 Up-front investment in towers & repeaters.
 Uses the radio frequency spectrum, commonly from 2 to 40 Ghz
 High bandwidth (~45 Mbps)
 Curvature of the earth requires stations (called repeaters) to be ~30 miles apart
 No cabling between sites.
 Requires unobstructed line of sight between source and receiver (Clear line-of-sight
required).
 Susceptible to radio interference.
 Attenuation increases with rainfall
 Lack of security.
 Low power used to minimize effects on people
 Used by common carriers as well as by private networks
 Long-haul telecommunications service for both voice and television transmission
 Short point-to-point links between buildings for closed-circuit TV or a data link between
LANs
 Satellite Networks
 The use of geostationary orbiting satellites to relay transmissions from one sending earth
station to another, perhaps multiple other, earth stations
 Relay station in sky that creates point-to-point and point-to-multipoint (broadcast) with
Uplink and Down Link
 High bandwidth (50 Mbps).
 Long propagation delays in case of GEO No line-of-sight requirement & no cabling.
 Susceptible to interference and interception.
 Transmission costs are independent of distance
 Initial uplink & downlink station (earth stations) costs and Satellite channel lease costs.
 It has been possible to transmit data via satellite since the 1960's using radio for the uplinks
and downlinks with the satellite.
 Much of the capacity of current communications satellites is concerned with the
transmission of point to point TV pictures or multiplexed telephone links. Since the early
1980s it has been possible to transmit broadcast TV signals direct to consumer premises
with small (0.6m?) dish aerials.
 This is a result of higher power transmitters at the satellite and more sensitive receivers at
the user. Increasingly it is becoming possible to transmit direct transmit and receive direct
from mobile handsets. This requires low orbit satellites at between 100 and 200 miles
 above the Earth's surface rather than the geostationary satellites currently in widespread use
for communication, which are around 25,000 miles above the surface.
 Systems are under discussion, which involve from 20 to 800 low earth orbit satellites. This
would permit transmission of high quality data and voice directly to and from the mobile
user.

Satellite
transponder

Dish
Dish
22,300 miles

Uplink station Downlink station

 Infra Red Communication

 Fairly low bandwidth (4 Mbps).
 Uses wavelengths between microwave and visible light.
 Line-of-sight required (does not penetrate walls).
 No frequency allocation issue since not regulated.
 Uses include local building connections, wireless LANs, and new wireless peripherals.

1.3.7 Flow of Data Transmission

 Simplex Connection: A pathway that admits a

one-way data transmission (a pre assigned
direction only).
 Data in a simplex channel is always one way.
Simplex channels are not often used because it
 is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end. Its like a one way
street. An example of simplex is Television.

 Half-duplex Connection: A pathway that permits data transmission in either direction, one
direction at a time.
 A half duplex channel can send and receive, but not at the same time. Its like a one-lane
bridge where two way traffic must give way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a
time, the other end receives. An example is CB radio.
  Full-duplex Connection: A pathway that has
a capability of transmission in both
directions at one time.
 Data can travel in both directions
simultaneously in full-duplex data
communication. There is no need to switch
from transmit to receive mode like in half
duplex. Its like a two lane bridge on a two-
lane highway. An example is a telephone or
your local area network

1.4 Lecture Activities

 Identify the type of network that is implemented in your organization.
 Examine to see whether your organization has implemented any of the transmission
media reviewed in this lecture.
 Discuss any possible areas of improvement on your network.

1.5 Self –Test Questions

 What do you understand by “Computer Network”?
 Outline and briefly discuss the difference between Voice and Data Networks.
 Explain the goals and benefits of networking.
 List and briefly explain any four advantages of using fibre optics as a transmission
media in your network implementation.

1.6 Summary
In this lesson we have learnt:
 What computer networks are.
 Some history of networking.
 About the goals and benefits of networking.
 About different types of networks.
 About the different transmission media.
 The different flows of data transmission.
1.7 Suggestion for Further Reading
The learner can read further on the basics of computer networks. The various building blocks
of the network should be reviewed..