PYTHON

ASSIGNMENT - CA-3

012301000005004014
AYUSHHMAAN SINGH THAKUR
1. Token in Python

Tokens are the smallest individual units in a Python program.​

Types of tokens:

●​ Keywords: reserved words (e.g., if, else)​

●​ Identifiers: names of variables, functions, etc.​

●​ Literals: constant values like 10, "Hello"​

●​ Operators: symbols like +, -, *, /​

●​ Punctuators: symbols like (), {}, [], ,, :​

Example:

python

x = 5 # Tokens: x (identifier), = (operator), 5 (literal)

2. Rules of Identifier

Identifiers are names used to identify variables, functions, etc.

Rules:

●​ Must begin with a letter (A–Z, a–z) or underscore (_)​

●​ Followed by letters, digits (0–9), or underscores​

●​ Cannot use keywords (for, while, etc.)​

●​ Case-sensitive (Var ≠ var)​

Example:

python

name = "John"
_age = 25

3. Escape Sequences in Python

Escape sequences allow the insertion of special characters in strings.

Common escape sequences:

●​ \n → newline​

●​ \t → tab​

●​ \\ → backslash​

●​ \" → double quote​

●​ \' → single quote​

Example:

python

print("Hello\nWorld") # Output in two lines

print("She said: \"Hi\"")

4. Mutable and Immutable Objects

 ●​ Mutable: Can be changed after creation (e.g., lists, dictionaries).​

●​ Immutable: Cannot be changed (e.g., strings, tuples, integers).​

Example:

python

# Mutable
my_list = [1, 2, 3]
my_list[0] = 9 # Allowed

# Immutable
my_str = "hello"
# my_str[0] = 'H' # Error!

5. Type Casting in Python

Type casting is converting one data type to another.

Functions used:

●​ int(), float(), str(), list(), tuple()​

Example:

python

a = "123"
b = int(a) # b becomes 123 (integer)
print(type(b)) # <class 'int'>
6. Rules and Convention for Writing Python Program Comments

Rules:

●​ Comments start with # (single line)​

●​ Use triple quotes for multi-line comments​

●​ Help others understand your code​

Example:

python

# This is a single-line comment

"""
This is a
multi-line comment
"""

7. Debugging in Python / Types of Errors

Types of Errors:

●​ SyntaxError: invalid Python code​

●​ IndentationError: wrong indentation​

●​ NameError: undefined variable​

●​ TypeError: wrong type operation​

Example:
python

# SyntaxError
# if x = 5 # incorrect

# NameError
# print(y) # y is not defined

8. Features of Python

●​ Simple and easy syntax​

●​ Interpreted and dynamically typed​

●​ High-level language​

●​ Cross-platform​

●​ Extensive libraries​

●​ Supports OOP and functional programming​

9. Advantages and Disadvantages of Python

Advantages:

●​ Easy to learn​

●​ Rich libraries​

●​ Huge community​
 ●​ Versatile (web, AI, scripting, etc.)​

Disadvantages:

●​ Slower than compiled languages (like C++)​

●​ Not ideal for mobile development​

●​ High memory usage​

10. Syntax of Print Function

The print() function outputs data to the console.

Syntax:

python

print(object, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout)

Examples:

python

print("Hello", "World", sep=", ") # Hello, World

print("Hello", end="!") # Hello!
11. Data Types in Python

Python has several built-in data types.

Main categories:

●​ Numeric: int, float, complex​

●​ Sequence: str, list, tuple​

●​ Set: set, frozenset​

●​ Mapping: dict​

●​ Boolean: bool (True, False)​

●​ None Type: None​

Example:

python

a = 10 # int
b = 3.14 # float
c = "Hello" # str
d = [1, 2, 3] # list
e = {"x": 5} # dict

12. Identify Type, Value, and Location of a Variable

●​ Use type() for data type​

●​ Directly access the value​

 ●​ Use id() for memory location​

Example:

python

x = 100
print(type(x)) # <class 'int'>
print(x) # 100
print(id(x)) # Memory address (varies)

13. Variable Declaration and Multiple Assignments

●​ No keyword needed; just assign a value​

Assign multiple values to multiple variables:

python

a, b, c = 1, 2, 3

Assign same value to multiple variables:

python

x = y = z = 100

Accessing variables:

python

print(a, b, c) # 1 2 3
print(x, y) # 100 100
14. Operators in Python

●​ Arithmetic: +, -, *, /, //, %, **​

●​ Comparison: ==, !=, >, <, >=, <=​

●​ Logical: and, or, not​

●​ Bitwise: &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>​

●​ Assignment: =, +=, -=, etc.​

●​ Membership: in, not in​

●​ Identity: is, is not​

Example:

python

a = 10
b = 3
print(a + b) # 13
print(a // b) # 3 (floor division)
print(a > b) # True

15. Input and Eval Function

input(): Takes user input as a string​

eval(): Evaluates a string as a Python expression
Example:

python

name = input("Enter name: ")

print("Hello", name)

x = eval("5 + 3") # Evaluates to 8

print(x)

16. User-defined Function

Function created by the user using def keyword.

Syntax:

python

def function_name(parameters):
# code block
return value

Example:

python

def greet(name):
return "Hello " + name

print(greet("Ayush"))

17. Decision Statement (Conditional Statements)

Used for decision-making: if, if-else, if-elif-else

Example:

python

x = 10
if x > 0:
print("Positive")
elif x == 0:
print("Zero")
else:
print("Negative")

18. Looping Statements (Iteration)

●​ for loop: Iterates over a sequence​

●​ while loop: Repeats as long as condition is true​

Example:

python

# for loop
for i in range(5):
print(i)

# while loop
x = 0
while x < 5:
print(x)
x += 1
19. Nested Loops

Loop inside another loop.

Example:

python

for i in range(3):
for j in range(2):
print(f"i={i}, j={j}")

20. Nested If

if statement inside another if

Example:

python

x = 10
if x > 0:
if x % 2 == 0:
print("Positive even")
else:
print("Positive odd")
21. range() Function in Python

The range() function generates a sequence of numbers.

Syntax:

python

range(start, stop, step)

●​ start: starting number (default is 0)​

●​ stop: end (exclusive)​

●​ step: increment (default is 1)​

Example:

python

for i in range(1, 6):

print(i) # 1 2 3 4 5

22. Jump Statements in Python

Used to control the flow inside loops:

●​ break: exit the loop​

●​ continue: skip the current iteration​

●​ pass: placeholder (does nothing)​

Example:
python

for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break
print(i) # 0 1 2

python

for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue
print(i) # 0 1 3 4

23. String: Creation, Declaration, Accessing, Traversing

●​ Strings are created using quotes (', ", or ''').​

●​ Strings are indexed (0-based).​

●​ Traversal is done using loops.​

Example:

python

s = "Python"
print(s[0]) # P

for ch in s:
print(ch)
24. String Operations

●​ Concatenation: +​

●​ Slicing: s[start:end]​

●​ Repetition: *​

●​ Membership: in, not in​

●​ Reverse: s[::-1]​

Example:

python

s = "Hello"
print(s + " World") # Hello World
print(s[1:4]) # ell
print(s * 2) # HelloHello
print('e' in s) # True
print(s[::-1]) # olleH

25. Built-in String Functions

Some useful string methods:

●​ lower(), upper()​

●​ strip(), replace()​

●​ find(), index()​
 ●​ split(), join()​

●​ startswith(), endswith()​

Example:

python

s = " Hello Python "

print(s.strip()) # "Hello Python"
print(s.lower()) # " hello python "
print(s.find("Python")) # 7

26. List: Creation, Declaration, Accessing, Traversing

Lists are ordered, mutable collections.

Example:

python

lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]
print(lst[0]) # 1

for item in lst:

print(item)

27. List Operations

●​ Concatenation: +​

●​ Repetition: *​
 ●​ Slicing: list[start:end]​

●​ Membership: in, not in​

●​ Append, insert, extend​

Example:

python

lst = [1, 2]
lst.append(3) # [1, 2, 3]
lst.insert(1, 5) # [1, 5, 2, 3]

28. Built-in List Functions

●​ len(), max(), min(), sum()​

●​ sort(), reverse()​

●​ count(), index()​

Example:

python

nums = [4, 1, 3]
print(len(nums)) # 3
nums.sort()
print(nums) # [1, 3, 4]
29. Delete Elements from List

●​ del: deletes by index​

●​ remove(): deletes by value​

Example:

python

lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]
del lst[1] # [1, 3, 4]
lst.remove(3) # [1, 4]

30. Dictionary: Creation, Declaration, Accessing, Traversing

Dictionaries store key-value pairs.

Example:

python

student = {"name": "John", "age": 21}

print(student["name"]) # John

for key in student:

print(key, student[key])
31. Common Dictionary Functions

Useful functions and methods for dictionaries:

●​ len() – number of items​

●​ keys() – returns all keys​

●​ values() – returns all values​

●​ items() – returns key-value pairs​

●​ get() – gets value by key (returns None if key doesn’t exist)​

●​ update() – adds/updates items​

●​ pop() – removes item by key​

Example:

python

d = {"a": 1, "b": 2}
print(d.keys()) # dict_keys(['a', 'b'])
print(d.get("a")) # 1
d.update({"c": 3}) # {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}
d.pop("b") # {'a': 1, 'c': 3}

32. Nested Dictionary

A dictionary inside another dictionary.

Example:

python
students = {
"John": {"age": 20, "grade": "A"},
"Alice": {"age": 22, "grade": "B"}
}
print(students["John"]["grade"]) # A

33. Update, Insert, Remove from Dictionary

●​ Update/Insert: Use dict[key] = value​

●​ Remove: Use pop() or del​

Example:

python

d = {"x": 1}
d["y"] = 2 # Insert
d["x"] = 100 # Update
del d["y"] # Remove using del
d.pop("x") # Remove using pop

34. Set with Various Operations

Sets are unordered, mutable collections of unique elements.

Operations:

●​ add(), remove(), discard()​

●​ union(), intersection(), difference(), symmetric_difference()​

Example:

python

s1 = {1, 2, 3}
s2 = {3, 4}
print(s1.union(s2)) # {1, 2, 3, 4}
print(s1 & s2) # {3}
s1.add(5) # {1, 2, 3, 5}

35. Tuple with Indexing and Various Operators

Tuples are immutable sequences.

Example:

python

t = (10, 20, 30)

print(t[0]) # 10
print(t + (40,)) # (10, 20, 30, 40)
print(20 in t) # True

36. Functions & Methods of Tuples

Built-in functions:

●​ len(), max(), min(), sum()​

●​ count(), index()​

Example:

python
t = (1, 2, 3, 2)
print(t.count(2)) # 2
print(t.index(3)) # 2

37. Difference Between List and Tuple

Feature List Tuple

Mutabilit Mutable Immutabl

y e

Syntax [1, 2] (1, 2)

Methods Many Fewer

Use case Frequent Fixed

updates data

38. Dynamic Typing in Python

Python allows variables to change types during runtime.

Example:

python

x = 10 # x is int
x = "hello" # x becomes str (valid in Python)
print(type(x)) # <class 'str'>

39. Recursion in Python

A function that calls itself.

Example: Factorial using recursion

python

def factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
return n * factorial(n - 1)

print(factorial(5)) # 120

40. Similarity Between String and List

Feature String List

Indexing Yes Yes

Slicing Yes Yes

Iteration Yes Yes

Concatenatio With + With +

n

Immutability Immutabl Mutabl

e e

Example:

python

s = "abc"
l = ['a', 'b', 'c']
print(s[1], l[1]) # b b
print(s[:2], l[:2]) # ab ['a', 'b']
41. What is a Module in Python? Ways to Import

A module is a file containing Python code (functions, classes, variables).

Ways to import a module:

1.​ import module_name​

2.​ from module_name import function_name​

3.​ import module_name as alias​

Example:

python

import math
print(math.sqrt(16)) # 4.0

from math import pi

print(pi) # 3.14159...

import math as m
print(m.factorial(5)) # 120

42. Features of OOP in Python

Python supports Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) with these features:

●​ Class & Object​

●​ Encapsulation​

●​ Inheritance​
 ●​ Polymorphism​

●​ Abstraction (indirectly)​

43. Class and Object with Example

●​ A class is a blueprint.​

●​ An object is an instance of a class.​

Example:

python

class Student:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def greet(self):
print("Hello", self.name)

s1 = Student("Ayush")
s1.greet() # Hello Ayush

44. Default Constructor in Python

A constructor is a special method __init__() called when the object is created.

A default constructor has no arguments except self.

Example:

python
class Demo:
def __init__(self):
print("Default constructor called")

obj = Demo() # Default constructor called

45. Parameterized Constructor in Python

Constructor that accepts arguments.

Example:

python

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

p = Person("Riya", 22)
print(p.name, p.age) # Riya 22

46. Encapsulation in Python

Encapsulation = wrapping data + methods into one unit (class).​

Python uses _ (protected) and __ (private) to control access.

Example:

python

class Car:
def __init__(self):
 self.__engine = "Petrol"

def show(self):
print("Engine:", self.__engine)

c = Car()
c.show()
# print(c.__engine) # Error (private)

47. What is Inheritance in Python

Inheritance allows one class (child) to inherit properties/methods from another (parent).

Types: Single, Multiple, Multilevel, Hierarchical, Hybrid.

48. Single Inheritance

Purpose: Reuse code from one parent class.

Syntax & Example:

python

class Parent:
def show(self):
print("Parent class")

class Child(Parent):
def display(self):
print("Child class")

c = Child()
c.show() # Parent class
c.display() # Child class
49. Multiple Inheritance

Purpose: Inherit from more than one parent class.

Example:

python

class A:
def m1(self):
print("Class A")

class B:
def m2(self):
print("Class B")

class C(A, B):

pass

obj = C()
obj.m1() # Class A
obj.m2() # Class B

50. Multilevel Inheritance

Purpose: Inherit from a class which itself inherits another class.

Example:

python

class A:
def a(self):
 print("A")

class B(A):
def b(self):
print("B")

class C(B):
def c(self):
print("C")

obj = C()
obj.a() # A
obj.b() # B
obj.c() # C
51. Operator Overloading in Python

Operator Overloading allows you to define how operators like +, -, * behave for
user-defined objects (classes).

Example: Overloading + operator

python

class Point:
def __init__(self, x):
self.x = x

def __add__(self, other):

return Point(self.x + other.x)

def __str__(self):
return str(self.x)

p1 = Point(10)
p2 = Point(20)
p3 = p1 + p2 # Calls p1.__add__(p2)
print(p3) # 30

Common Magic Methods:

●​ __add__ → +​

●​ __sub__ → -​

●​ __mul__ → *​

●​ __eq__ → ==​

●​ __lt__ → <​
52. Operator Overriding in Python

Operator Overriding is not an official Python term like overloading. However, it usually
refers to method overriding in inheritance (especially when operator-related methods are
redefined).

In context of inheritance:

Example: Method Overriding (Runtime Polymorphism)

python

class Animal:
def sound(self):
print("Animal makes sound")

class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self): # Overrides Animal's method
print("Dog barks")

a = Dog()
a.sound() # Dog barks (overridden method called)

Key Point: Operator overriding is essentially method overriding when those methods define
operator behavior (like redefining __add__ or __eq__ in a subclass).