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PMF IAS® Ancient and Medieval India First Edition

Pathfinder Merit Fleet LLP / PMF IAS® Ancient and Medieval India First Edition
© PMF IAS® / © Pathfinder Merit Fleet LLP / © Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar
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PMF IAS® Ancient and Medieval India

Author and Editor: Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar
Designer and Publisher: PMF IAS® /
Pathfinder Merit Fleet LLP
© PMF IAS® / © Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar
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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar is a dedicated educator, author, and

history enthusiast. He completed his MBBS from JJ Hospital,
Mumbai. With five years of experience teaching Physics to
NEET aspirants, Dr Vishwjeet has developed a keen ability to
simplify complex subjects and make learning engaging. He is
the author of the ‘PMF IAS Modern Indian History’ book,
known for its concise, exam-oriented approach. His work is a
reflection of meticulous research, structured presentation,
and an engaging storytelling style, making history accessible
and insightful for students and enthusiasts alike.

CONTRIBUTIONS

Author and Editor: Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar

Content Assistance: Sakshi Deshmukh
Maps: Pratik Jadhav | Artwork: Pratik
Jadhav, Gaurav Sharma, Esha Attreya,
Satyam Tomar and Khushi Kirtipa
Typesetting: Manjunath Thamminidi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

From reading history to writing a history book with a renowned publisher — this is truly a
dream come true for me. This journey would not have been possible without the
unwavering support of so many people.

First and foremost, my heartfelt gratitude to the man who turned this dream into reality,
Manjunath Thamminidi Sir. Your belief in me has been invaluable.

A sincere thanks to all my students and readers who have stood by me throughout this
journey. You are my North Star, guiding and inspiring me every step of the way. I would
also like to thank Anand Parmar, Anju Dahiya, and Yash Kandoi for your contributions —
be it through content, work, or words of encouragement. Special appreciation to my
friends Vishnukant Kunjatwad, Yogesh Chavan, and Praful Marode for always pushing me
beyond my limits and helping me grow.

And lastly, to my family — your unconditional support in every decision I make means the
world to me.
- Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar
 PREFACE

History is not just a collection of past events; it is a window into the evolution of
civilizations, ideas, and institutions. Understanding Ancient and Medieval Indian
History is essential — not only for the Civil Services Examination but also for
developing a deeper appreciation of India’s rich heritage. In recent years, questions
from this section — both in Prelims and Mains — have become increasingly analytical
rather than straightforward, requiring aspirants to develop a deeper and more
structured understanding of the subject. Through this book, I have made every
effort to cultivate this approach and help you grasp history in a meaningful way.

One of the greatest mistakes in studying history is interpreting it through the lens of
the present. What seems ideal today may become irrelevant tomorrow, and judging
the past by today’s standards is unfair to history itself. Throughout this book, I have
strived to present historical events in a way that immerses you in that era, allowing
you to experience the past rather than merely read about it.

At the same time, I recognise that most of our readers are preparing for competitive
exams. Keeping this in mind, I have ensured that this book is not only comprehensive
but also exam-focused. Previous Year Questions (PYQs) and Practice Questions have
been included to highlight the relevance of each topic and to help aspirants gauge
the required depth of study. To further aid retention and recall, the book features
infographics, images, and chapter summaries for better conceptual clarity.

I sincerely hope this book becomes a valuable asset in your preparation and helps
you navigate the vast landscape of Indian history with confidence and curiosity.

Happy learning, and best wishes for your exam preparation!

- Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar

DEDICATIONS
I Dedicate This Book to My Beloved Grandparents, Kamalabai and Bhimrao Biradar

- Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar

 PMF IAS Ancient and Medieval India by Dr. Vishwjeet Kawar
1. Introduction to Ancient Indian History ............................................................................................... 1
1.1. The Importance of Studying History: Lessons from the Past for a Better Future ........................................ 1
1.2. India, That Is Bharat................................................................................................................................ 1
Names of the land .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. The Geographical Background of Indian History ...................................................................................... 3
Impact of River Systems ................................................................................................................................. 3
Impact of Natural Resources .......................................................................................................................... 3
Impact of Coastal Ports .................................................................................................................................. 4
Natural Boundaries and Connectivity ............................................................................................................ 4
Monsoons ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Culture .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Naming of the Culture .................................................................................................................................... 4
Chronological Division of Cultures.................................................................................................................. 4
1.5. How is Time Measured in History? .......................................................................................................... 5
Timeline .......................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.6. Division of History ................................................................................................................................... 6
Prehistory (Before 3000 BCE) ......................................................................................................................... 6
Proto-history (3000-600 BCE) ......................................................................................................................... 6
Historical Period (After 600 BCE) .................................................................................................................... 6
1.7. Key Fields for Studying the Past ............................................................................................................... 7
1.8. Absolute Methods of Dating.................................................................................................................... 7
Carbon Dating (carbon-14 dating) or Radiocarbon Dating ............................................................................ 7

2. Reconstructing Ancient Indian History ................................................................................................ 9

2.1. Archaeological Sources ........................................................................................................................... 9
Inscriptions ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
Coins ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
Material Remains ......................................................................................................................................... 12

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2.2. Literary Sources .................................................................................................................................... 14
Indian Literature ........................................................................................................................................... 14

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Non-religious literature ................................................................................................................................ 16
Foreign Accounts .......................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3. Constructing History .............................................................................................................................. 19
Dominance of Texts ...................................................................................................................................... 19
Need for Correlation with Archaeology........................................................................................................ 19
More Importance to Archaeological Evidence ............................................................................................. 20
Re-evaluating Inscriptions and Coins ........................................................................................................... 20
The Important Role of Archaeological Findings in Ancient Indian History ................................................... 20
2.4. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) ...................................................................................................... 20
A Turning Point in History: Deciphering Scripts and Reconstructing India’s Political History .......................21
2.5. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 21
3. The Stone Age .................................................................................................................................. 23
3.1. The Origins and Early Migration of Humans .......................................................................................... 23
Early Human Migration: From Africa to India .............................................................................................. 23
The Early Man in India.................................................................................................................................. 24
3.2. The Stone Age ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Palaeolithic Age: Hunters and Food Gatherers (2 million years 10,000 BCE) .............................................. 25
The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders (10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE) ......................................................... 28
The Neolithic Age: Food Producers............................................................................................................... 29
Limitations of Stone Age People ................................................................................................................... 35
3.3. Prehistoric Art ....................................................................................................................................... 35
Rock Engravings ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Rock Paintings .............................................................................................................................................. 36
3.4. Co-existence of different historical ages................................................................................................. 38
3.5. Timeline ................................................................................................................................................ 38
3.6. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 39

4. Chalcolithic Cultures ......................................................................................................................... 40

4.1. Chalcolithic cultures (4000 BCE to 700 BCE) ........................................................................................... 40
Chalcolithic Phase Settlements ..................................................................................................................... 40
Common Features of Chalcolithic cultures ................................................................................................... 43
Important Chalcolithic Cultures .................................................................................................................... 46
Chronological Classification of Chalcolithic Settlements .............................................................................. 49
End of Chalcolithic cultures .......................................................................................................................... 49
Importance and Limitations of the Chalcolithic Phase ................................................................................. 50
4.2. The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Phase (OCP Culture) ......................................................................... 51
Influence of Harappa Culture ....................................................................................................................... 51
4.3. Ganeshwar: Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic Culture ..................................................................................... 51
Ganeshwar and Harappa ............................................................................................................................. 51
4.4. Timeline ................................................................................................................................................ 52
4.5. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 52

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5. The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilisation ................................................................................ 54
5.1. Indus Valley Civilisation (Harappan Civilisation) .................................................................................... 56
Mehrgarh: The Neolithic Roots of the Harappan Civilization ....................................................................... 56 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Early Harappan Cultures .............................................................................................................................. 57
Harappan Settlements and Geographical Extent ......................................................................................... 58
5.2. Salient Features of the Harappan Culture .............................................................................................. 62
Town Planning .............................................................................................................................................. 62
Uniform Size of Bricks ................................................................................................................................... 64
Planned Underground Drainage System ...................................................................................................... 64
Agriculture .................................................................................................................................................... 64
Domestication of Animal .............................................................................................................................. 66
Crafts and Industries .................................................................................................................................... 66
 An enigmatic script....................................................................................................................................... 69
Weights ........................................................................................................................................................ 73
Burials........................................................................................................................................................... 73
Arts ............................................................................................................................................................... 73
Pottery .......................................................................................................................................................... 76
Tracking Social Differences ........................................................................................................................... 77
Religious Practices ........................................................................................................................................ 78
Ancient Authority (Political organisation) .................................................................................................... 78
Science and Technology ................................................................................................................................ 79
5.3. Important Harappan Sites ..................................................................................................................... 80
Dholavira ...................................................................................................................................................... 80
Lothal............................................................................................................................................................ 80
Kalibangan ................................................................................................................................................... 82
Shortughai .................................................................................................................................................... 82
5.4. End of the Civilisation ............................................................................................................................ 82
Causes of the Decline ................................................................................................................................... 83
5.5. Post-Urban Phase of the Harappan Culture (Late Harappan Culture) ..................................................... 85
5.6. Indianness of the Harappan Culture ...................................................................................................... 85
5.7. Learning from the Harappan Civilisation ............................................................................................... 86
5.8. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation ................................................................................................... 86
Cunningham’s Confusion .............................................................................................................................. 86
Formal Announcement of Discovery ............................................................................................................ 88
Significance of the Discovery ........................................................................................................................ 88
5.9. Timelines .............................................................................................................................................. 89
Timeline 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 89
Timeline 2: Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology ....................................................................... 89
5.10. Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 92

6. The Vedic Period .............................................................................................................................. 95

6.1. Who were Aryans? ................................................................................................................................ 96
Debate on the Original Homeland of the Aryans ......................................................................................... 96

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Were the Aryans and Harappans the same people? .................................................................................... 97
6.2. Indo-European Language Family ......................................................................................................... 100

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Languages in the Indian subcontinent ....................................................................................................... 102
6.3. Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE) ..................................................................... 102
Tribal Conflicts ............................................................................................................................................ 104
Material Life ............................................................................................................................................... 105
Tribe and Family ......................................................................................................................................... 106
Political organisation (Government) .......................................................................................................... 107
Social Life .................................................................................................................................................... 108
Religion and Rig Vedic gods........................................................................................................................ 110
6.4. Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE) ...................................................................................................... 111
Iron ............................................................................................................................................................. 111
 Material life ................................................................................................................................................ 111
Political Organization ................................................................................................................................. 113
Social Organisation .................................................................................................................................... 114
Gods, Rituals and Philosophy ..................................................................................................................... 117
6.5. Difference Between Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period ............................................................. 119
6.6. Some traits of Aryan culture................................................................................................................ 122
Domestication of Horses ............................................................................................................................ 122
Cremation ................................................................................................................................................... 122
Use of Spoked Wheels ................................................................................................................................ 122
Cult of Fire and Soma ................................................................................................................................. 122
Animal Sacrifice .......................................................................................................................................... 122
6.7. Vedic Literature ................................................................................................................................... 122
Vedas .......................................................................................................................................................... 122
Vedic Samhitas ........................................................................................................................................... 124
Brahmanas ................................................................................................................................................. 127
Aranyakas ................................................................................................................................................... 128
Upanishads ................................................................................................................................................. 128
Different Divisions of Vedas ........................................................................................................................ 130
Impact of Ancient Indian Heritage ............................................................................................................. 131
6.8. Shruti and Smriti texts ......................................................................................................................... 131
Shruti literature .......................................................................................................................................... 132
Smriti literature .......................................................................................................................................... 132
6.9. Development in Philosophy ................................................................................................................. 133
Astika or Orthodox Schools (Vedic Philosophy) .......................................................................................... 135
Six Systems of Indian Philosophy ................................................................................................................ 135
6.10. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture ....................................................................................................... 138
Geographical Distribution .......................................................................................................................... 138
Important Sites ........................................................................................................................................... 138
PGW Culture and Iron ................................................................................................................................ 138
Recent Excavations ..................................................................................................................................... 139
6.11. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 140

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6.12. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 140

7. India in the Sixth Century BCE ........................................................................................................ 143

7.1. Changes in Economic and Political Life ................................................................................................ 143 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Mahajanapadas ......................................................................................................................................... 143
Emergence of New Cities ............................................................................................................................ 145
Changes in Agriculture ............................................................................................................................... 146
Crafts and Crafts persons ........................................................................................................................... 147
Trade .......................................................................................................................................................... 148
Large Professional Army............................................................................................................................. 149
Administrative System ................................................................................................................................ 150
Taxation ...................................................................................................................................................... 150
Popular Assemblies .................................................................................................................................... 150
 Rural Society ............................................................................................................................................... 151
Establishment of a State............................................................................................................................. 153
7.2. Changes in social life ........................................................................................................................... 153
Varna Divided Society ................................................................................................................................. 153
Jatis ............................................................................................................................................................ 153
Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras .......................................................................................................... 154
7.3. Emergence of New Religious Ideas ...................................................................................................... 157
Debates and Discussions in Kutagarashala ................................................................................................ 158
7.4. Taxila: A Historic University ................................................................................................................. 158
Panini .......................................................................................................................................................... 159
7.5. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 159

8. Buddhism and Jainism.................................................................................................................... 161

8.1. Emergence of New Religious Ideas ...................................................................................................... 161
Causes of Origin of New Religions .............................................................................................................. 161
8.2. Buddhism ............................................................................................................................................ 163
Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE) ............................................................................................................... 163
Teachings of Buddha .................................................................................................................................. 166
Sangha........................................................................................................................................................ 169
Vihara ......................................................................................................................................................... 170
Important Buddhist Sites ............................................................................................................................ 171
Symbols of Worship .................................................................................................................................... 171
Buddhist Texts............................................................................................................................................. 171
Buddhist Councils ....................................................................................................................................... 174
Different Schools of Buddhism ................................................................................................................... 175
Spread of Buddhism ................................................................................................................................... 181
Mudras of Buddha ...................................................................................................................................... 183
Decline of Buddhism ................................................................................................................................... 184
Important Buddhist Scholars ...................................................................................................................... 185
Important Buddhist Architecture................................................................................................................ 187
8.3. Jainism................................................................................................................................................ 188

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Teachings of Jainism ................................................................................................................................... 189
Spread of Jainism ....................................................................................................................................... 191

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Different Schools of Jainism ....................................................................................................................... 192
Ashtamangala (Eight Auspicious Symbols of Jainism) ............................................................................... 195
Jaina Literature .......................................................................................................................................... 195
Jaina Councils ............................................................................................................................................. 198
Important Jaina Scholars ............................................................................................................................ 198
List of 24 Jaina Tirthankaras....................................................................................................................... 200
Important Jain Heritage Sites and Jain Architecture .................................................................................. 201
Contribution of Jainism .............................................................................................................................. 202
8.4. Buddhism and Jainism......................................................................................................................... 203
8.5. Other Heterodox Ideas ........................................................................................................................ 203
Purana Kassapa .......................................................................................................................................... 203
 Makkhali Goshala ...................................................................................................................................... 204
Ajita Kesakambala ...................................................................................................................................... 204
Pakudha Kachchayana ............................................................................................................................... 204
Sanjaya Belatthiputta ................................................................................................................................. 204
Nigantha Nataputta ................................................................................................................................... 205
8.6. Classical Indian languages .................................................................................................................. 205
Change in the Criteria for conferring Classical Language .......................................................................... 205
Prakrit: The language of the people ........................................................................................................... 207
Pali .............................................................................................................................................................. 207
8.7. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 208
8.8. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 209

9. Persian and Macedonian Invasions ................................................................................................ 213

9.1. Achaemenids (Achaemenian Dynasty) ................................................................................................ 213
9.2. Persian (Iranian) Invasion.................................................................................................................... 214
Effects of the Persian Invasion .................................................................................................................... 214
9.3. Macedonian Invasions: Alexander's Invasion (327-325 BCE) ................................................................ 215
Alexander the Great ................................................................................................................................... 215
Reasons for Alexander's Invasion ............................................................................................................... 215
Alexander's Invasion of India ...................................................................................................................... 215
Effects of Alexander's Invasion ................................................................................................................... 217
9.4. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 217
9.5. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 218

10. The Rise of Magadh ....................................................................................................................... 220

10.1. Sixteen Mahajanapadas...................................................................................................................... 221
Kamboja ..................................................................................................................................................... 221
Gandhara ................................................................................................................................................... 222
Matsya (Eastern Rajasthan) ....................................................................................................................... 222
Shurasena (Western Uttar Pradesh) ........................................................................................................... 222
Kuru (Western Uttar Pradesh) .................................................................................................................... 222

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Panchala (Western Uttar Pradesh) ............................................................................................................. 222
Kosala (Eastern Uttar Pradesh) .................................................................................................................. 223

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Malla (Eastern Uttar Pradesh).................................................................................................................... 223
Kashi (Eastern Uttar Pradesh) .................................................................................................................... 223
Vajji (Northern Bihar) ................................................................................................................................. 224
Anga (eastern Bihar) .................................................................................................................................. 225
Vatsa (South-eastern Uttar Pradesh) ......................................................................................................... 225
Chedi (Northern Madhya Pradesh) ............................................................................................................ 225
Avanti (Madhya Pradesh) ........................................................................................................................... 225
Assaka or Asmaka (Maharashtra and Telangana) ..................................................................................... 226
Magadha (Bihar) ........................................................................................................................................ 226
10.2. The Rise of Magadh ............................................................................................................................ 227
Important Rulers of the Magadha ............................................................................................................. 227
 Causes of Magadha's Success .................................................................................................................... 230
10.3. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 232
10.4. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 232

11. The Mauryan Period: Emergence of An Early Empire ...................................................................... 234

11.1. Sources ............................................................................................................................................... 234
11.2. Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BCE) ................................................................................................. 237
11.3. Administering the Empire .................................................................................................................... 238
Central Administration ............................................................................................................................... 238
Provincial Administration ........................................................................................................................... 239
Local Administration .................................................................................................................................. 239
Army ........................................................................................................................................................... 240
Revenue Administration ............................................................................................................................. 240
Judicial Administration ............................................................................................................................... 241
11.4. Bindusara (297-272 BCE) ..................................................................................................................... 241
11.5. Ashoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) ............................................................................................................... 241
Kalinga War ................................................................................................................................................ 242
Ashoka and Buddhism ................................................................................................................................ 243
Ashoka’s Dhamma ...................................................................................................................................... 243
Ashokan Inscriptions (Edicts of Ashoka) ..................................................................................................... 245
Ashoka's Place in History ............................................................................................................................ 255
11.6. End of the Mauryan Empire................................................................................................................. 256
Brahmanical Reaction ................................................................................................................................ 256
Financial Crisis ............................................................................................................................................ 257
Oppressive Rule in the provinces ................................................................................................................ 257
New Knowledge in the Outlying Areas ....................................................................................................... 257
Neglect of the North-West Frontier and the Great Wall of China .............................................................. 257
11.7. Mauryan Art and Architecture ............................................................................................................ 257
Pillars .......................................................................................................................................................... 258
Stupa .......................................................................................................................................................... 259
Rock-cut caves ............................................................................................................................................ 262

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Images of Yaksha and Yakshinis ................................................................................................................. 264
11.8. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 265

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

11.9. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 265

12. Central Asian Contacts ................................................................................................................... 268

12.1. Post-Mauryan India ............................................................................................................................ 268
Emergence of New Kingdoms..................................................................................................................... 268
12.2. Background of Foreign Invasions ......................................................................................................... 269
Key Players of the Invasions ....................................................................................................................... 269
The Scythian Movements and Their Impact on China and India ................................................................ 270
12.3. Foreign Invasions of Northwest India .................................................................................................. 270
The Indo-Greeks (Bactrians) (c. second - first centuries BCE) ..................................................................... 270
 The Shakas (c. First century BCE - Fourth century CE) ................................................................................ 271
The Parthians ............................................................................................................................................. 275
The Kushanas (c. First - Third century CE) .................................................................................................. 275
12.4. Impact of Central Asian Contacts......................................................................................................... 280
12.5. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 285
12.6. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 285

13. The Rise of Regional Powers .......................................................................................................... 288

13.1. Emergence of New Kingdoms .............................................................................................................. 288
Emergence of Shungas in Gangetic Valley in the Second Century BCE ...................................................... 288
Emergence of Kharavela in Kalinga ............................................................................................................ 290
Emergence of Tribal Republics in Punjab and Haryana .............................................................................. 291
Emergence of Satavahanas in Central and Western India ......................................................................... 291
Vakataka dynasty ....................................................................................................................................... 300
Ikshvakus or Andhra Ikshvakus ................................................................................................................... 300
The Kadambas ............................................................................................................................................ 301
13.2. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 301
13.3. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 302

14. Early History of South India ............................................................................................................ 305

14.1. The Megalithic Period (1000 BCE to Second Century BCE) .................................................................... 305
14.2. The Sangam Age ................................................................................................................................. 308
State Formation and Rise of Civilization ..................................................................................................... 308
Spread of Culture........................................................................................................................................ 309
Three Early Kingdoms: The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ........................................................................... 309
Polity, Economy and Social Life in the Three Early Kingdoms ..................................................................... 312
Sangam Literature ...................................................................................................................................... 317
End of the Sangam Age .............................................................................................................................. 321
14.3. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 321
14.4. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 322

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15. The Rise of Crafts, Trade, & Towns in the Post-Maurya Period ........................................................ 324
15.1. Crafts .................................................................................................................................................. 324

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

15.2. Foreign Trade ...................................................................................................................................... 326
Positive Balance of Trade ........................................................................................................................... 327
15.3. Money Economy.................................................................................................................................. 327
15.4. Urban Settlements .............................................................................................................................. 328
Decline of Towns in the Kushana and Satavahana Empires ....................................................................... 328
15.5. Silk Road ............................................................................................................................................. 328
The Craze for Silk ........................................................................................................................................ 329
Chinese Monopoly ...................................................................................................................................... 329
Prosperity of Kushanas ............................................................................................................................... 329
15.6. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 329
16. The Gupta Empire .......................................................................................................................... 331
16.1. Sources ............................................................................................................................................... 332
Literary sources .......................................................................................................................................... 332
Epigraphical sources ................................................................................................................................... 332
Numismatic sources ................................................................................................................................... 333
Monuments ................................................................................................................................................ 333
16.2. Chandragupta I (319/320-334 CE) ....................................................................................................... 334
16.3. Samudragupta (335-380 CE) ................................................................................................................ 334
Allahabad Pillar Inscription ........................................................................................................................ 334
Extent of Samudragupta’s Empire .............................................................................................................. 336
16.4. Chandragupta II (380-412 CE) .............................................................................................................. 337
Marriage alliance ....................................................................................................................................... 337
Conquest of Western India ......................................................................................................................... 337
Navaratna .................................................................................................................................................. 338
Fa Xian's Visit ............................................................................................................................................. 338
16.5. Successors of Chandragupta II ............................................................................................................. 338
16.6. Gupta Administration.......................................................................................................................... 339
16.7. Trade and Economy ............................................................................................................................. 342
Decline In Trade .......................................................................................................................................... 342
Gupta Coinage ............................................................................................................................................ 343
Emergence of Priestly Landlords ................................................................................................................ 343
16.8. Social Life ............................................................................................................................................ 343
Caste System .............................................................................................................................................. 344
Improvement in the Status of Shudras ....................................................................................................... 344
Untouchables in the Gupta Period ............................................................................................................. 344
Women in Gupta Society ............................................................................................................................ 344
16.9. Religion............................................................................................................................................... 346
Resurgence of Hinduism ............................................................................................................................. 346
Other Religions ........................................................................................................................................... 347
16.10. Art and Architecture............................................................................................................................ 349
Buddhist Art in Gupta Period ...................................................................................................................... 349

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Hindu temple architecture ......................................................................................................................... 350
16.11. Literature ............................................................................................................................................ 351
Secular Literature ....................................................................................................................................... 351 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Religious Literature .................................................................................................................................... 352
Scientific Literature..................................................................................................................................... 352
16.12. The Decline of the Gupta Empire ......................................................................................................... 353
Hunas invasion ........................................................................................................................................... 353
Rise of the Feudatories ............................................................................................................................... 354
Land Grants ................................................................................................................................................ 354
16.13. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 354
16.14. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 355
17. The Reign of Harsha ....................................................................................................................... 358
17.1. The Emergence of New Dynasties in Post-Gupta India ......................................................................... 358
17.2. Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar (500 – 647 CE) .......................................................................................... 359
Decline of Pataliputra and the Rise of Kanauj ............................................................................................ 360
Harsha's Military Conquests....................................................................................................................... 360
Sources for the Study of Harsha ................................................................................................................. 362
Administration Under Harsha .................................................................................................................... 363
Society and Economy under Harsha ........................................................................................................... 363
Religion ....................................................................................................................................................... 365
Cultural Progress ........................................................................................................................................ 366
17.3. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 366
17.4. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 366

18. South Indian Kingdoms .................................................................................................................. 368

Divine Origins and Legitimacy of Southern Dynasties ................................................................................ 370
18.1. Chalukyas (Sixth to Twelfth century CE) ............................................................................................... 370
18.2. Chalukyas of Badami (Sixth to Eighth Century CE: 543 – 757 CE) .......................................................... 370
Pulakesin II (c. 610 – 642 CE) ...................................................................................................................... 370
Successors of Pulkesin II ............................................................................................................................. 371
Social Life under Chalukyas ........................................................................................................................ 372
18.3. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Seventh to Twelfth Century CE: 616 – 1189 CE) ........................................ 372
Rise of the Andhra Identity ......................................................................................................................... 372
18.4. Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (Tenth to Twelfth Century CE: 973 – 1189 CE) ........................................ 373
Literature .................................................................................................................................................... 373
18.5. The Rashtrakutas (Eighth to Tenth Century CE: 757 – 973 CE)............................................................... 373
Literature .................................................................................................................................................... 376
Society ........................................................................................................................................................ 377
18.6. The Pallavas (Third to Ninth Century CE) ............................................................................................. 377
Conflict with the Chalukyas ........................................................................................................................ 378
Relations with the Kadambas and the Gangas of Talakkad ....................................................................... 378

x
Decline of the Pallavas ............................................................................................................................... 379
Literature .................................................................................................................................................... 379
18.7. Imperial Cholas ................................................................................................................................... 379 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
The Rise of Chola Empire (Ninth to thirteenth century CE: 850 – 1279 CE)................................................ 379
18.8. South Indian Kingdoms After the Twelfth Century ............................................................................... 384
The Pandyas (Third century BCE to fourteenth century CE) ....................................................................... 384
The Yadavas (c. 1187 - 1317)...................................................................................................................... 385
The Kakatiyas (c. 1110 - 1326 CE) .............................................................................................................. 386
The Hoysalas (12th to 14th Century CE) ....................................................................................................... 387
18.9. South Indian Kingdoms: Politics, Society, and Culture .......................................................................... 388
Administration in Southern Kingdoms ....................................................................................................... 388
Maritime Trade and Economic Prosperity .................................................................................................. 389
 Land Grants and Rural Expansion .............................................................................................................. 389
Irrigation..................................................................................................................................................... 389
Social Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 390
Science and Technology .............................................................................................................................. 391
18.10. Religion............................................................................................................................................... 391
Bhakti movement ....................................................................................................................................... 391
Philosophy and Bhakti ................................................................................................................................ 393
Temple Architecture ................................................................................................................................... 395
The Virashaiva Tradition: A Response to the Bhakti Movement and Temple Worship ..............................401
18.11. Important Dynasties and Their Founders ............................................................................................. 401
18.12. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 402
Chalukyas of Badami (Sixth to Eighth Century CE: 543 – 757 CE) .............................................................. 402
The Rashtrakutas (Eighth to Tenth Century CE: 757 – 973 CE) ................................................................... 402
The Pallavas (Third to Ninth Century CE) ................................................................................................... 403
Imperial Cholas (Ninth to Thirteenth Century CE: 850 – 1279 CE) ............................................................. 403

19. Medieval Northern India ................................................................................................................ 405

19.1. Tripartite Struggle ............................................................................................................................... 405
The Palas (Eighth to Twelfth Century CE: 750 - 1150 CE) ........................................................................... 406
The Pratiharas (730 - 1036 CE) ................................................................................................................... 410
The Rashtrakutas........................................................................................................................................ 413
19.2. The Rajput States ................................................................................................................................ 414
Chahamanas of Shakambhari (7th to 12th Century CE) ............................................................................... 416
Tomara kingdom (8th to 12th Century CE) ................................................................................................... 417
Gahadavalas of Kanauj (11th to 13th Century CE) ....................................................................................... 417
Chandellas of Bundelkahnd ........................................................................................................................ 419
The Kalachuris of Chedi (845 - 1211 CE) ..................................................................................................... 420
Paramaras of Malwa .................................................................................................................................. 420
Chalukyas of Gujarat .................................................................................................................................. 421
19.3. Kashmir and the North-West ............................................................................................................... 423
Kashmir....................................................................................................................................................... 423

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Hindu Shahi Dynasty in the North-west ..................................................................................................... 425
19.4. North Indian Kingdoms: Politics, Society, and Culture .......................................................................... 425

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Administration............................................................................................................................................ 425
Social Structure .......................................................................................................................................... 426
Trade and Economy .................................................................................................................................... 426
Religion ....................................................................................................................................................... 427
Literature .................................................................................................................................................... 427
19.5. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 429

20. The Age of Conflict ......................................................................................................................... 431

20.1. Rise of Islam........................................................................................................................................ 431
20.2. Early Muslim Invasions ........................................................................................................................ 431
Muhammad bin Qasim's Conquest of Sindh (712 CE): First Muslim Invasion ............................................ 431
 Rise of Independent Turkish States............................................................................................................. 433
Mahmud of Ghazni’s Invasion: First Turkic Invasions of India .................................................................... 433
Changing Power Dynamics ......................................................................................................................... 435
20.3. Rise of the Ghurids and the Establishment of Turkish Rule in India ...................................................... 436
Conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan ................................................................................................................ 437
Expansion into the Ganga Valley ................................................................................................................ 438
Reasons for the Defeat of North Indian States ........................................................................................... 438
20.4. Notable Scholars ................................................................................................................................. 439
20.5. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 441
20.6. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 441

21. The Delhi Sultanate ........................................................................................................................ 443

21.1. Sources for the Study of the Delhi Sultanate ........................................................................................ 444
Tarikh .......................................................................................................................................................... 444
21.2. Slave Dynasty (1206 -1290 CE)............................................................................................................. 446
Iltutmish (1211 – 1236 CE) ......................................................................................................................... 446
Raziya Sultan (1236 – 1240 CE) .................................................................................................................. 448
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266 – 1287 CE) ....................................................................................................... 449
21.3. Khalji Dynasty (1290 – 1320 CE) .......................................................................................................... 450
Jalaluddin Khalji (1290 -1296 CE) ............................................................................................................... 451
Alauddin Khalji (1296 – 1316 CE) ............................................................................................................... 451
Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE) ................................................................................................................... 456
21.4. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414 CE) ....................................................................................................... 457
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 1325 CE)...................................................................................................... 457
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325 - 1351) ..................................................................................................... 458
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351 - 1388) ............................................................................................................... 461
Timur's Invasion ......................................................................................................................................... 463
21.5. Sayyid Dynasty (1414 – 1451 CE) ......................................................................................................... 464
21.6. Lodi Dynasty (1451 – 1526 CE) ............................................................................................................. 465
21.7. Architecture under Delhi Sultanate...................................................................................................... 465

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New capitals established by Delhi Sultans ................................................................................................. 469
Seven Cities of Delhi ................................................................................................................................... 469
21.8. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 470
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
22. The Delhi Sultanate: Administration, Society, and Economy ........................................................... 472
22.1. The Sultan ........................................................................................................................................... 472
Succession to the Throne ............................................................................................................................ 473
22.2. Central Administration ........................................................................................................................ 473
22.3. Provincial Administration .................................................................................................................... 475
Administrative Division............................................................................................................................... 476
22.4. Economy ............................................................................................................................................. 476
Revenue Officials ........................................................................................................................................ 477
22.5. Social Life ............................................................................................................................................ 477
 Social Hierarchy and Exclusivity in Muslim Society .................................................................................... 477
Opportunities in Sultanate Society ............................................................................................................. 478
Jizyah: The Tax on Non-Muslims ................................................................................................................ 478

23. Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms ........................................................................................... 479

23.1. Vijayanagara Empire .......................................................................................................................... 480
Foreign Travellers ....................................................................................................................................... 480
Harihara and Bukkaraya ............................................................................................................................ 481
Harihara II (1377 - 1404 CE) ....................................................................................................................... 482
Deva Raya I (1404 - 1422 CE) ..................................................................................................................... 482
Deva Raya II (1425 - 1446 CE) .................................................................................................................... 483
End of the Sangama Dynasty ..................................................................................................................... 484
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 29) ................................................................................................................... 484
End of an Empire ........................................................................................................................................ 486
Administration............................................................................................................................................ 487
23.2. Bahmani Sultanate ............................................................................................................................. 490
Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397 to 1422 CE) ...................................................................................................... 490
Ahmad Shah I ............................................................................................................................................. 491
Mahmud Gawan ........................................................................................................................................ 491
23.3. Timeline .............................................................................................................................................. 492
23.4. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 492

24. The Mughal Empire ........................................................................................................................ 494

24.1. Babur (1526 – 1530 CE) ....................................................................................................................... 494
Central Asia and Babur............................................................................................................................... 494
Conquest of India ....................................................................................................................................... 496
Architecture and Literature ........................................................................................................................ 498
Significance of Babur’s Advent into India ................................................................................................... 498
24.2. Humayun (1530 – 1540 CE, 1555 – 1556) ............................................................................................. 499
Battle of Chausa (1539) .............................................................................................................................. 500
Battle of Kanauj (1540) .............................................................................................................................. 500

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Architecture and Literature ........................................................................................................................ 500
24.3. Sher Shah (1540 – 1555 CE) ................................................................................................................. 501

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Administration............................................................................................................................................ 502
Trade and Commerce ................................................................................................................................. 503
Humayun’s Return from Exile ..................................................................................................................... 504
24.4. Akbar (1556 – 1605 CE) ....................................................................................................................... 505
Akbar and Bairam Khan ............................................................................................................................. 505
Expansion of the Mughal Empire ............................................................................................................... 506
Akbar’s Religious Policy .............................................................................................................................. 508
Rajput Policy ............................................................................................................................................... 509
Art and Architecture ................................................................................................................................... 510
Administration Under the Akbar ................................................................................................................ 514
24.5. Jahangir (1605 – 1627 CE) ................................................................................................................... 520
 Art and Architecture ................................................................................................................................... 522
24.6. Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658 CE) ............................................................................................................... 524
Art and Architecture ................................................................................................................................... 525
24.7. Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707 CE) ................................................................................................................ 526
North India ................................................................................................................................................. 527
Deccan Policy .............................................................................................................................................. 528
Religious Policy ........................................................................................................................................... 528
24.8. Later Mughal Emperors ....................................................................................................................... 529
Bahadur Shah (Shah Alam I) (1707-12) ...................................................................................................... 529
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ........................................................................................................................... 530
Farrukh Siyar (1713-19) .............................................................................................................................. 531
Muhammad Shah (1719-48) ...................................................................................................................... 532
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) .......................................................................................................................... 532
Alamgir II (1754-1759) ............................................................................................................................... 532
Shah Alam II (1759-1806) ........................................................................................................................... 533
Akbar Shah II (1806-1837).......................................................................................................................... 533
Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857) ............................................................................................................... 533
24.9. Foreign Invasions ................................................................................................................................ 534
Nadir Shah’s Invasion ................................................................................................................................. 534
Ahmed Shah Abdali’s invasions .................................................................................................................. 534
Effect of invasions ....................................................................................................................................... 535
24.10. Decline of the Mughal Empire ............................................................................................................. 535
Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire ............................................................................................. 536
24.11. Timeline 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 539
24.12. Timeline 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 539
24.13. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 540

25. The Marathas ................................................................................................................................ 541

25.1. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj ............................................................................................................... 541
Confrontation Against Bijapur.................................................................................................................... 541
Shivaji Maharaj and the Mughals .............................................................................................................. 542

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25.2. Maratha Administration ..................................................................................................................... 542
Central Government ................................................................................................................................... 542

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Revenue Administration ............................................................................................................................. 543
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi ......................................................................................................................... 543
25.3. Marathas after Shivaji ........................................................................................................................ 545
25.4. The Peshwas ....................................................................................................................................... 545
Period of Peshwa Domination .................................................................................................................... 545
End of Maratha Rule .................................................................................................................................. 552
25.5. Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 553

26. Appendix........................................................................................................................................ 554

26.1. Important Literary Works .................................................................................................................... 554
26.2. Foreign Travellers................................................................................................................................ 557
26.3. The Ancient Ports of India ................................................................................................................... 559
26.4. India Coinage ...................................................................................................................................... 560
26.5. India's Rich Cultural Heritage and Indian Constitution ......................................................................... 563
26.6. World Heritage Sites in India ............................................................................................................... 564
Cultural World Heritage Sites ..................................................................................................................... 565
26.7. Important World Heritage Sites ........................................................................................................... 566
Ajanta Caves ............................................................................................................................................... 566
Ellora Caves (Verul Leni) ............................................................................................................................. 568
Elephanta Caves ......................................................................................................................................... 568
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram .................................................................................................. 569
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal .......................................................................................................... 569
Great Living Chola Temples ........................................................................................................................ 570
Ramappa Temple........................................................................................................................................ 571
Moidams .................................................................................................................................................... 571
26.8. Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage .................................................................................................... 572
26.9. Key Terms............................................................................................................................................ 573

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 1. Introduction to Ancient Indian History

1.1. The Importance of Studying History: Lessons from the Past for a Better
Future

• History is not just about dates, names, and battles; it's a collection of interesting stories about people
and the places they lived. It’s a journey through time and space, offering a glimpse into how humanity
has evolved.
• History is not just about the past — it’s about the present, too. The society we live in today has been
shaped by those who came before us. By studying history, we learn how our societies have evolved and
how our pasts have shaped the present. This includes understanding key aspects such as the introduc-
tion of agriculture, the beginning of metal use, the development of spinning, weaving, and metal-
working, the formation of political and administrative systems, the evolution of urban life, and advance-
ments in science, literature, and architecture.
• Many people are reluctant to study history, believing it doesn't contribute economically or solve pressing
issues like poverty and unemployment. There is also a perception that it only creates problems and
increases animosity among the people. But this is a very superficial view.
The study of history makes us learn lessons from the past for the present and future. The study of

1
•
history allows us to learn valuable lessons from the past, helping us avoid repeating mistakes that led

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

to man-made calamities and disasters, such as wars. History also tells us how to ignore the bad things
that created problems in society and follow the things which promote harmony, peace and prosperity.
For example, King Ashoka, in his Rock Edicts, emphasised respecting elders, treating slaves and servants
kindly, and practising religious tolerance. By adopting such principles, a modern nation can foster social
harmony, peace, and prosperity.

1.2. India, That Is Bharat

• The six countries of the Indian subcontinent — India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangla-
desh — were collectively known in ancient times as Bharatavarsha, Hindustan, or India.
  The name "Bharatavarsha" came from the word "Bharata", the name of the Rig Vedic tribe.
 The name Hindustan or India is derived from the river Sindhu (Indus).
• Throughout history, the Indian subcontinent has seen periods of unity and fragmentation under various
dynasties. The current boundaries of the Republic of India, the largest of the six countries in the Indian
subcontinent, were established when India gained independence from British rule on 15 August 1947.
 Article 1 of the Indian Constitution uses the two names, India and Bharat, interchangeably. According
to it, India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
 Similarly, the Hindi version of the Constitution mentions the same as ‘Bhārat arthāth India’.

Names of the land

Bharat
• The roots of “Bharat”, “Bharata”, or “Bharatvarsha” are traced back to Puranic literature. The Puranas
describe Bharata as the land between the “sea in the south and the abode of snow in the north”.
• ‘Bharata’ is a name that first appears in the Ṛig Veda, where it refers to one of the main Vedic groups
of people. In later literature, several kings named ‘Bharata’ are mentioned.
• The Mahabharata uses the terms ‘Bhāratavarṣha’ and ‘Jambudvīpa’ for the Indian subcontinent.
 ‘Bharatavarṣha’ means ‘the country of the Bharatas, one of the main Rig Vedic tribes.
 ‘Jambudvipa’ means ‘the island of the fruit of the jamun tree.
• King Ashoka, in one of his inscriptions, used the name ‘Jambudvipa’ for Indian subcontinent.

Hindustan
• The name Hindustan is believed to come from 'Hindu,' which is the Persian version of the Sanskrit word
'Sindhu' (meaning 'Indus').
• The term 'Hindu' was first used when the Achaemenid Persians conquered the Indus Valley around the
sixth century BCE. In ancient Persian, 'Hindu' was a purely geographical term for India (the Indian sub-
continent); it does not refer to the Hindu religion.
From around the first century of the Christian era, the suffix “stan” came to be used with the name to

2
•
create “Hindustan”.

India PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Greeks, who had acquired knowledge of ‘Hindu' (Sindhu) from the Achaemenids, transliterated the
name as ‘Indos’ (Indus). They dropped the initial letter ‘h’ of ‘Hindu’ because this letter did not exist in
their Greek language.
• The Greeks (Alexander invaded India in the third century BCE), who came to India about 2500 years ago,
named land to the east of the river Indos as India.
Different names of the Sindhu (Indus) river Different names of India derived from the
Sindhu (Indus) river
 Hindu - Persian India - Greek and Roman
Indos - Greek Hind - Persians and Arabs
Hoddu - Hebrew Yintu or Yindu - Chinese
Indus - Latin Shendu (Chuantu or Tianzhu) - Chinese
Tien-chu - Chinese

1.3. The Geographical Background of Indian History

• India’s diverse geography significantly influenced its history, culture, trade, and political developments.
The interplay of natural resources, river systems, and monsoon patterns shaped the rise of civilisations
and economic prosperity in ancient times.

Impact of River Systems

Political Centres
• Rivers served as natural routes for commerce, communication, and transport. They made nearby areas
fertile through inundation and canal irrigation, fostering agricultural growth.
• Major towns like Hastinapur, Prayag, Varanasi, and Pataliputra were established on riverbanks, serving
as political and cultural centres.

Settlement Patterns
• Major river systems, such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra and their tributaries, provided fertile
plains, enabling the growth of agricultural settlements.
• In the Indo-Gangetic plain (north India), the annual rainfall gradually increases from west to east. Hence,
forests are thicker on the eastern side than on the western side, influencing settlement patterns.
1. Regions with lower rainfall (e.g., the Indus and western Gangetic plains) could be cleared with stone
and copper implements and hence settled earlier.
2. Regions with higher rainfall (e.g., middle and lower Gangetic plains) required iron tools for forest
clearance and were settled later.

3
• Therefore, large-scale human settlements generally spread from west to east.
 Harappan Culture: Flourished in the Indus Valley.
 Vedic Culture: Developed in Punjab and the western Gangetic basin. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Post-Vedic Culture: Thrived in the middle Gangetic basin using iron tools.
 Gupta Period: Lower Gangetic Valley gained importance during this period.

Impact of Natural Resources

• Iron: The abundance of Iron in south Bihar and Karnataka enabled the clearance of jungles and the
development of empires like Magadha, Avanti and Satavahanas.
• Scarcity of Tin in India and its Impact on the Bronze Age: Tin deposits were scarce in ancient India.
Due to the scarcity of tin:
  The use of bronze tools and implements was limited compared to Western Asia, Egypt, and Crete.
 The major portion of India had no proper Bronze Age.
 Harappan bronze tools often contained a lower percentage of tin, resulting in fewer and less diverse
bronze artefacts.
• Precious stones: In ancient times, India produced a variety of precious stones. These precious stones
formed an important item of trade with the Romans in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Impact of Coastal Ports

• Coastal regions developed thriving ports and became hubs for trade. This fostered the economic
growth and the development of political centres in port cities.
• Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas had two centres of power: one inland and one on the coast.

Natural Boundaries and Connectivity

• India is bounded by the Himalayas on the north and seas on the other three sides.
1. Himalayas: Protected India from invasions from the north while providing limited access through
passes, enabling trade and cultural exchanges with Central and West Asia.
2. Seas: Surrounded by seas on three sides, India developed strong maritime trade. Coastal ports like
Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram flourished.

Monsoons
• Around the first century CE, traders discovered the patterns of the monsoon winds, allowing them to sail
with the southwest monsoon to India and return with the northeast monsoon. This discovery enhanced
trade with the Roman Empire, fostering prosperity under the Kushanas, Shakas, and Satavahanas.

1.4. Culture

• Archaeologists use the term "culture" to refer to a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually
found together within a specific geographical area and period of time. In the case of the Harappan

4
culture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stone blades and even baked bricks.

Naming of the Culture

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Cultures can be named based on the use of materials or tools, types of pottery, the geographical
region, or the first site to be identified. Example, based on:
 Use of material: Iron Age culture
 Use of pottery: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
 Geographical region: Indus Culture
 First identified site: Jorwe Culture

Chronological Division of Cultures

Based on the use of tools or materials
1. Stone Age
2. Chalcolithic Age
3. Bronze Age
4. Iron Age

Based on the use of pottery

1. Black and Red Ware (BRW) Culture
2. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture
3. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture

Sites

• Sites are locations or places where remnants of tools, pottery, buildings, and other artefacts created,
used, and left behind by people have been discovered.
• These remains may be found on the earth's surface, buried underground, or even submerged under-
water.

1.5. How is Time Measured in History?

• The Gregorian calendar is currently commonly used worldwide. In the West, the conventional year of
Jesus Christ’s birth has generally been considered the starting point for this calendar.
1. Years counted forward from this point are called the Common Era (CE).
2. Years counted backwards from this point are called the Before Common Era (BCE).

Timeline
• A timeline is a convenient tool for marking important events. It helps us understand the order in which
historical events occur.
• Century: It is a period of 100 years.

5
 1st century CE: 1 CE to 100 CE.
 21st century CE: 2001 CE to 2100 CE.
 1st century BCE: 100 BCE to 1 BCE. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 3rd century BCE: 300 BCE to 201 BCE.
• Millennium: It is a period of 1,000 years.
 1st millennium CE: 1 CE to 1000 CE.
 3rd millennium CE: 2001 CE to 3000 CE.
 1st millennium BCE: 1000 BCE to 1 BCE.
 8th millennium BCE: 8000 BCE to 7001 BCE.
 X BCE + 2000 = Y years ago or before present, Example:
  10,000 BCE means 12,000 years ago. That is 10,000 BCE + 2000 = 12,000 years ago
 The Mesolithic period started around 10,000 BCE means 12,000 years ago.
• Abbreviations related to dates in this book:
 MYA or mya stands for Million Years Ago
 BP stands for Before Present
 BCE stands for Before Common Era
 CE stands for the Common Era.
 c. stands for the Latin word circa and means "approximate."

1.6. Division of History

• Human past or history can be divided into the following three periods:
1. Prehistory (Before 3000 BCE)
2. Proto-history (3000-600 BCE)
3. Historical Period (After 600 BCE)

Prehistory (Before 3000 BCE)

• Prehistory refers to the time before the written records are available.
• The history of this period is reconstructed using oral traditions and archaeological remains such as
stone tools, pottery, artefacts, and metal implements.
• In India, it covers the origins and growth of human societies before the third millennium BCE (3000
BCE).

Proto-history (3000-600 BCE)

• Proto-history refers to the period when written records exist but remain undeciphered.
• It is an intermediary phase between prehistory and the historical period.
• In India, it spans from the Harappan civilisation (around 3000 BCE) to the beginning of the historical
period (sixth century BCE). Examples:

6
 Harappan civilisation: The writings have been found on Harappan seal but not yet deciphered.
 Vedic Age: No written records exist, but knowledge was preserved through orally transmitted texts
like the Vedas. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Historical Period (After 600 BCE)

• The historical period refers to the time when written records became available. In India, the historical
period begins from the sixth century BCE.
• Some historians divided the period of human history into two groups:
1. Prehistory (Before 600 BCE): The period before the advent of writing.
2. History (After 600 BCE): The period after the advent of writing.
1.7. Key Fields for Studying the Past

1. Geology: The study of the Earth's physical features, such as soil, stones, mountains, rivers, and oceans.
2. Palaeontology: The study of remains of plants, animals and humans from millions of years ago in the
form of fossils.
 Fossils: Impressions of footprints or parts of plants or animals that are found preserved within layers
of soil or rocks.
3. Archaeology: The study of the past through remains left by people, plants, and animals, including tools,
pottery, bones, and buildings.
 Archaeologists study the remains made and used in the past. They explore and excavate (digging
under the earth's surface) to find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins. Some of these
objects may be made of stone, others of bone, baked clay or metal. Objects made of hard, imperish-
able substances usually survive for a long time.
4. Anthropology: The study of human societies and cultures, from the earliest times to the present.

1.8. Absolute Methods of Dating

• The dating of the pre-historic period is done scientifically. Different scientific techniques of determining
the absolute time of archaeological sites or artefacts are:
1. Carbon-14 dating: It is commonly used for dating of the pre-historic period. It measures the loss
of carbon (C-14) in organic materials over a period of time.
2. Dendrochronology (Tree-ring dating): It measures the number of tree rings in wood to determine
the age of trees and wooden objects. It is based on the fact that many tree species produce growth
rings during annual growing seasons. Each ring represents one year of growth.
3. Thermoluminescence
4. Palaeomagnetism
5. Varve Analysis
6. Amino Acid Recimization

7
7. Oxygen Isotope

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

8. Potassium-Argon dating
9. Argon- Argon dating
10. Uranium-Thorium dating
11. Fluorine-Uranium-Nitrogen dating.

Carbon Dating (carbon-14 dating) or Radiocarbon Dating

• Carbon dating is a scientific technique that estimates the age of organic materials based on the carbon-
14 remains after death.
• Living organisms absorb carbon-14 into their tissue. Once they die, the absorption stops, and the
carbon-14 slowly begins to decay into other atoms at a predictable rate. By measuring the amount of
carbon-14 that remains, scientists can estimate how long a particular organic object has been dead. The
older a sample is, the less Carbon-14 it has.
• The half-life of Carbon-14 is 5,730 years. Hence, in 5,730 years, half of the Carbon-14 atoms in a sample
will decay into other atoms.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

8
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 2. Reconstructing Ancient Indian History

• Historians use the word “source” to refer to the evidence or materials they use to reconstruct and
understand history. These sources include inscriptions, coins, archaeological remains, oral traditions,
manuscripts, and written records.
• Once sources are found, learning about the past becomes an adventure as we reconstruct it bit by bit.
Historians and archaeologists are like detectives who use all these sources as clues to discover our pasts.
• The sources for ancient India's history can be classified under two main categories:
1. Archaeological sources
2. Literary sources

2.1. Archaeological Sources

Inscriptions
• Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal, or pottery.
• The earliest inscriptions were recorded on stone, but later, copper plates were used for this purpose.
• Inscriptions contain both scripts and languages, which have changed over time.
 The earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit, a name for languages used by ordinary people.

9
 Rudradaman, a Shaka ruler, issued the first long inscription in chaste (pure) Sanskrit.
• Languages and scripts of Ashokan Inscription: Most Ashokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit lan-
guage and the Brahmi script in the greater part of the sub-continent. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 They were mostly in Aramaic and Greek languages and Kharosthi script in the northwest of the
subcontinent.
 They were mostly in both Aramaic and Greek languages and scripts in Afghanistan.
• Inscriptions usually record the achievements, activities or ideas of those who commissioned them and
include the donations made by women and men to religious institutions.
 Ideas: King Ashoka used the inscriptions to proclaim dhamma.
 Achievement: The Junagadh inscription in Sanskrit, written in the second century CE by Shaka
ruler Rudradaman, mentions that the lake (Sudarshana Lake) was built by a local governor,
 Pushyagupta, during the Mauryas' rule. Rudradaman repaired the lake using his resources without
imposing any tax on his subjects.
 Votive inscriptions: These inscriptions record gifts made to religious institutions. These mention
the name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/ her occupation as well. They tell us about people
who lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, offi-
cials, religious teachers, merchants and kings.
 Prashasti inscription: In such inscriptions, the poet praised the king in glowing terms.
 Inscriptions recording land grants made mainly by chiefs and princes were mostly engraved on cop-
per plates.
• Inscriptions are virtually permanent records, some of which carry dates. Others are dated based on
palaeography or styles of writing, with a fair amount of precision.
• Scholars decode the inscriptions through a process called decipherment.
 The study of inscriptions is called ‘epigraphy’.
 The study of ancient scripts and writing systems is called palaeography.

Prashasti

• A prashasti (Sanskrit for "praise") is a special type of inscription written in poetic form to glorify rulers
and their achievements. Poets composed these to praise kings and patrons, often receiving gifts or re-
wards in return.
• Prashastis are key sources for understanding rulers, such as:
1. Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni of the Satavahanas
2. Gupta king Samudragupta: Prayaga Prashasti by Harishena.
3. Pulakeshin II of Chalukya: Prashasti by Ravikirti.

Limitations of Prashastis
 Exaggeration of Achievements: Prashastis often glorify rulers, presenting exaggerated accounts of
their conquests and virtues.

10
 Lack of Objectivity: Because rulers commissioned them, they reflect the perspective of the royal court
and may omit unfavourable events.
 Poetic Focus: Prashastis were written as poetry, focusing more on artistic expression than factual ac- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
curacy. Historians may draw factual information from such compositions, but they were mainly valued as
poetic praise, not as accurate historical records.
 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum is a collection of ancient Indian inscriptions discovered, deci-
phered, compiled and published by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
 The ASI published these inscriptions in a series of volumes. The first volume (V1), written by Alexander
Cunningham and published in 1877, contains Ashoka's inscriptions.

The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

 11
 Technical Limitations: Letters may be faintly engraved, making reconstructions uncertain.
 Inscriptions can be damaged or have missing parts.
 Interpretation Challenges: Words may be specific to a time or place, making their exact meaning un- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
clear.
 Incomplete Record: Many inscriptions remain undeciphered, unpublished, or untranslated.
 Numerous inscriptions may have been lost over time, leaving only a fraction available today.
 The earliest inscriptions found on the seals of Harappa have not been deciphered so far.
 The oldest inscriptions deciphered so far were issued by Ashoka in the third century BCE.
 Selective Focus: Inscriptions rarely mention routine events like agricultural practices or daily life. They
tend to highlight grand, significant events, overlooking other aspects of society.
 Biased Perspective: Inscriptions reflect the viewpoint of those who commissioned them, requiring com-
parison with other sources for a balanced understanding.

Coins
• Coins are mostly found in hoards, most of which have been found while digging fields or excavating
foundations for constructing a building, making roads, etc.
• Our earliest coins contain a few symbols, but the later coins mention the names of kings, gods, or
dates. The areas where they are found indicate the region where they were circulated. This helps recon-
struct the history of several ruling dynasties, especially the Indo-Greeks.
• Punch-marked coins: Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE Onwards)
were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. They bear only symbols on them.
• Indo-Greek coins: Indo-Greek coins were made of silver, copper, and rarely gold. These coins were the
first in India to bear the names and images of kings.
• Coins of Kushanas: The Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a large scale in c.
first century CE. These gold coins had a higher degree of metallic purity than the Gupta gold coins.
 Kanishka’s Dinar gold coins often featured a depiction of King Kanishka on one side and an image
of a deity on the reverse side. These deities included Greek as well as Indian gods.
 Indian influence on Kushans can be seen from the very beginning. Many Indian gods and goddesses
are depicted on Kushana coins, besides many Persian and Greek deities. The coins of Vima Kadphises
bear the figure of Shiva standing beside a bull.
• Guptas coins: The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins.
• The following points indicate that trade and commerce flourished in post-Maurya and a good part of
Gupta times:
 The largest number of coins were found in post-Maurya times
 The guilds of merchants and goldsmiths issued some coins with the permission of the rulers.
• From the sixth century CE onwards, the discovery of gold coins significantly declined, raising ques-

12
tions about a possible economic crisis. Historians are divided on this matter.
1. Some believe that the decline in long-distance trade following the collapse of the Western Roman

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Empire impacted the prosperity of states and regions dependent on such trade.
2. Others argue that new towns and trade networks started emerging around this time. They also
point out that though coin finds from that period are few, coins continue to be mentioned in inscrip-
tions and texts.
 Numismatics is the study of coins and currency.

Material Remains
• In addition to epigraphic and numismatic sources, many material remains speak much about our past.
These include:
  Temples and sculptures that are found all over the country since the Gupta period.
 Chaityas and Viharas excavated mostly in the hills of Western India.
 A large number of figurines in stone, metal and terracotta that are found in excavations.
• Material remains include:
 Archaeological Monuments: Temples, stupas, viharas, forts, palaces, etc
 Artefacts: Tools, toys, pottery, ornaments, etc.
 Chaitya: A sacred Buddhist prayer hall and assembly place for monks and devotees.
 Vihara: A Buddhist monastery
 Artefact: Any object that has been fashioned or altered by human hands.
• Earlier, historians relied on written words (texts and inscriptions) for their investigations, often over-
looking the potential of material remains. The use of archaeological sources found after excavation to
reconstruct India's past is a relatively recent development, beginning just two centuries ago.
• Until the 1920s, it was widely believed that Indian civilisation originated around the sixth century BCE.
However, excavations at Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, and Harappa revolutionised this understanding,
pushing back the antiquity of Indian culture by two thousand years.
• Archaeological discoveries, such as prehistoric artefacts, have offered a much deeper and more compre-
hensive understanding of the subcontinent's ancient history.
• Most archaeological remains are buried in the mounds scattered all over the country. Archaeologists
excavate these mounds to uncover artefacts, structures, and other evidence that help reconstruct the
history and culture of the past. For example:
 Studying burials helps archaeologists find out whether there were social or economic differences
among people living within a particular culture. The practice of burying the dead with pots and other
objects was widespread, and the nature of these grave goods — from utilitarian items to luxury arte-
facts — is a crucial indicator of an individual's status or wealth. By analysing these burial patterns and
the types of artefacts present, archaeologists can effectively uncover evidence of social hierarchies
and economic disparities within a community.

13
 Archaeologists have been able to reconstruct the dietary practices of Harappans from finds of
charred grains and seeds.
 Mound: It is an elevated portion of land covering remains of old habitations. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Excavations have revealed the cities established around 2600 BCE in northwestern India, which pushed
back the antiquity of Indian culture and civilisation by two thousand years. Subsequent discoveries of
sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc., show the extent of this civilisation to Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Since the 1950s, archaeological discoveries of Black-and-Red Ware, Painted Grey Ware, Malwa, and Jorwe
cultures have filled not only the chronological gaps but also the geographical extent.

Vertical and Horizontal Excavations

• A mound can be excavated vertically or horizontally.
1. Vertical excavation: Lengthwise digging to uncover the period-wise sequence of cultures.
 It is generally confined to a part of the site. Most sites have been dug vertically.
 It provides a good chronological sequence of material culture. Generally, the lowest layers are
the oldest, and the highest are the most recent. Artefacts found in layers can be assigned to
specific cultural periods and can thus provide the cultural sequence for a site.
2. Horizontal excavation: Digging the mound as a whole or a major part of it.
 Horizontal diggings, being very expensive, are very few in number.

2.2. Literary Sources

• Although the ancient Indians knew writing as early as 2500 BCE, our most ancient manuscripts are not
older than the fourth century BCE and have been found in Central Asia. These manuscripts were usually
written on palm leaves or birch bark.

Indian Literature
Religious Literature
Hindu religious literature

• Hindu religious literature includes Vedic literature, Puranas, epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), and
so on. They throw considerable light on the social and cultural conditions of ancient times, but it is
difficult to use them in the context of time and place.

Vedic Literature

• Vedic Literature can be divided into two groups:

1. Early Vedic Literature: It includes Rigveda Samhita. It was composed around 1500 BCE in the Sap-
tasindhu region.
2. Later Vedic Literature: It includes Yajurveda Samhita, Samaveda Samhita, Atharvaveda Samhita,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. These texts were composed in the Gangetic basin during the

14
later Vedic period (1000 BCE to 600 BCE).

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Vedangas

• The Vedangas (explanatory limbs to the Vedas) are the six knowledge streams required for under-
standing the Vedas. They were likely composed around or after the middle of the first millennium BCE.
They are Shiksha (phonetics or pronunciation), Kalpa (ritual), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology),
Chhanda (meter) and Jyotisha (astronomy).
• Each Vedanga has developed credible literature around it in the sutra form, i.e. precepts. This is a very
precise and exact form of expression in prose that the ancient Indians developed. The most famous ex-
ample of this writing is the grammar of Panini.

The Epics
• The epics — the Mahabharata and Ramayana — began as oral traditions. They were informally mem-
orised, frequently expanded upon, and eventually compiled around 400 CE.
• These texts claim to reflect the past, offering genealogies of kings and occasionally highlighting their
achievements. However, they do not provide specific dates for events or rulers, making it challenging
to arrange the genealogies of kings in chronological order.
• The Mahabharata is generally considered to have been composed earlier than the Ramayana.

The Mahabharata

• The Mahabharata, attributed to sage Vyasa, reflects events from the tenth century BCE to the fourth
century CE. Initially, it had 8,800 verses and was called Jaya (the collection dealing with victory).
This grew to 24,000 verses and became known as Bharata because it contains the stories of the de-

15
•
scendants of the Bharata tribe.
The final compilation expanded to 100,000 verses, now known as the Mahabharata or Satasahasri Sam-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
hita, containing narrative, descriptive, and didactic material.
• The Kaurava-Pandava conflict relates to later Vedic times, while the descriptive and didactic portions be-
long to post-Vedic and post-Maurya/Gupta times.

The Ramayana

• The Ramayana, attributed to sage Valmiki, originally had 6,000 verses, later expanded to 12,000 and
finally to 24,000.
• Although more unified than the Mahabharata, it also has later added didactic sections. Its composition
began in the fifth century BCE, evolving through five stages, the last as late as the 12th century CE.
Ritual Literature

• During the post-Vedic period around 600–300 BCE, a significant body of ritual literature was composed,
including:
1. Shrauta-sutras: Big public sacrifices meant for princes and men of three higher varnas are laid down
in the Srautasutras.
2. Grihya-sutras: These describe domestic rituals related to birth, naming, sacred thread ceremonies,
marriage, funerals, and more.
3. Shulba-sutras: These provide instructions for measurements used in constructing sacrificial altars.

Buddhist Literature

• Buddhist texts include:

1. Tipitaka: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
2. The Dipavamsa (the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle)
3. Jataka Tales: The Jataka is a collection of Buddhist stories that describe the previous lives of Gau-
tama Buddha. These stories shed invaluable light on social and economic conditions from the fifth to
the second century BCE. They also make incidental references to political events during the age of
the Buddha.

Jaina Literature

• The Jaina texts were written in Prakrit and finally compiled in the sixth century CE in Valabhi in Gujarat.
They contain many passages that help us reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Jaina texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.

Non-religious literature
Ashtadhyayi
• The grammar of Panini, the Ashtadhyayi, was composed around 450 BCE (fifth century BCE).
• Panini arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order and then used these to create formulae

16
like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae.
• While illustrating the rules of grammar, Panini sheds invaluable light on the society, economy, and cul-
ture of his time. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Law books
• Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras: The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras were Sanskrit law books
compiled around 500 BCE. They laid down the duties of different varnas, kings, and their officials.
 They provide the rules for marriage and the laws according to which property is to be held, sold and
inherited. They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft, assault, murder, adultery, etc.
• Arthashastra: Kautilya's Arthashastra is also an important law book. It consists of 15 books and 180
chapters, divided into three parts.
  While traditionally attributed to Kautilya (also known as Chanakya), it is the work of multiple au-
thors. It was finalised in its current form at the beginning of the Christian era.
 Its earliest portions reflect the state of society and economy during the age of the Mauryas. Thus,
they provide rich material for studying ancient Indian polity and economy.

Biographies, Poetry, and Drama

• Early India is renowned for its rich tradition of biographies, poetry, and drama. These literary works
serve as significant sources for reconstructing the social, cultural, and political fabric of the time they
represent.
Writer/Poet Work
Ashvagosha  Buddhacharita
 Mahalankara
 Sariputraprakarna
 Saundarananda.
Bhasa  Svapnavasavadattam
 Madhyamavyayoga
 Dutavakyam
 Pancharatra
 Balacharita
 Charudatta
 Urubhanga
 Karnabhara
Kalidasa Dramas: Abhijnana-Shakuntalam
 Malavikagnimitram
 Vikramorvashiyam
Poetic works: Raghuvamsha

17
 Kumarasambhavam
 Meghadutam

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Vishakadatta Mudrarakshasa
Devichandraguptam
Banabhatta Kadambari
Harshacharita
Bilhana Vikramankadevacarita
(about the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya VI)

Foreign Accounts
• Foreign visitors, including Greeks, Romans, and Chinese, left valuable records of India. These accounts
provide additional insights that supplement indigenous literature.

Greek Account
• Megasthenes' Indica, written during Chandragupta's reign, offers details about the Maurya administra-
tion, society, and economy, though it includes exaggerations.
• The original works of Megasthenes has been lost, but we have some idea about it from the quotations
in the works of the later writers.
• It is important to be cautious when using Greek sources because:
 Reliance on Secondary Sources: Most Greek writings about India are based on secondary infor-
mation, leading to numerous errors and contradictions.
 Lack of Cultural Understanding: Greek writers were unfamiliar with Indian languages and customs,
resulting in accounts filled with unbelievable details and fanciful claims.

Roman Accounts
• Greek and Roman texts from the first and second centuries CE mention Indian ports and trade with the
Roman Empire.
 Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (c. 80–115 CE), written by an anonymous author, describes trade in
the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean.
 Ptolemy's Geographia (Geography) (c. 150 CE) provides data on geography and commerce.
 Pliny's Naturalis Historia (Natural History ) (1st century CE) details trade between India and Italy.

Natural History

• Pliny the Elder wrote the book Natural History in 77 CE. It is divided into 37 books, organised into 10
volumes.
• It is a compilation of information gleaned from other ancient authors. It is encyclopedic in scope and
covers topics including astronomy, mathematics, geography, ethnography, anthropology, human

18
physiology, zoology, botany, mining, art, and precious stones.
• Although Pliny did not distinguish between fact, opinion, and speculation, Natural History served as the

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Western world’s primary source of scientific information and theory for centuries.

Geographia

• Ptolemy (c. 100–170 CE) was an astronomer, mathematician, and geographer of Greek descent who lived
and worked in Alexandria, Egypt.
• In his book, Geographia, Ptolemy gathered all the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. He
used a system of grid lines to plot the latitude and longitude of some 8,000 places on a map.

Anabasis of Alexander
• In the second century CE, Arrian, a Greek historian and philosopher of the Roman period, wrote the book
Anabasis of Alexander, which refers to a military advance into the interior of a country. It is considered
the best source on the campaigns of Alexander the Great.
• Arrian’s writing is probably based on the notes and book written by Ptolemy.

Chinese Accounts
• When Buddhism spread to East Asia, many pilgrims visited India from time to time. Three of these pil-
grims, Fa Xian, visited India in the fifth century CE, while Xuan Zang and I-Qing came in the seventh
century in search of Buddhist texts. They also visited places associated with the Buddha's life and famous
monasteries. They took back the Buddhist books to their own country, where they were translated by
scholars.
• Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on
their travels, the monasteries they visited and the books they carried back with them.
1. Fa Xian (400 - 410 CE - 5th century CE) documented social, religious, and economic life during the
Gupta period.
2. Xuan Zang (630 - 643 CE - 7th century CE) described similar aspects of India during Harsha's reign,
focusing on Buddhism and its shrines. He studied at Nalanda, a renowned Buddhist monastery in
Bihar, and provided detailed descriptions of it.

2.3. Constructing History

• The construction of history involves piecing together evidence from a variety of sources to form a com-
prehensive understanding of the past. For ancient Indian history, this process is particularly complex due
to the diversity and richness of available evidence, including archaeological finds, inscriptions, coins,
literary texts, and mythological traditions.

Dominance of Texts
• Ancient Indian history has traditionally relied heavily on literary sources, both Indigenous (e.g., Vedas,

19
Puranas, and epics) and foreign accounts (e.g., those of Greek and Chinese travellers). While coins and
inscriptions are also used, they have often been given less importance.
• Although numerous archaeological sites have been excavated across India, their findings are yet to be PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
fully incorporated into mainstream historical narratives. Without the incorporation of archaeological
evidence, our understanding of ancient urbanisation, social structures, and cultural developments re-
mains incomplete.

Need for Correlation with Archaeology

• There is now a growing recognition that literary sources must be correlated with archaeological evi-
dence. For instance:
 1. Vedic Age and Painted Grey Ware (PGW): Scholars should connect the cultural and social aspects
of the Vedic period with material evidence, such as PGW pottery.
2. Pali Texts and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): Early Buddhist texts must be studied
alongside NBPW archaeology to understand the early historic period better.
3. Sangam Texts and Megalithic Archaeology: In South India, the Sangam literature needs to be
aligned with evidence from megalithic burial sites and inscriptions to reconstruct the region’s early
history.

More Importance to Archaeological Evidence

• Archaeological evidence must be given greater importance than long family trees given in the Pura-
nas. For instance:
 The Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas have traditionally been used to construct historical time-
lines. The Puranas, for example, date Rama to around 2000 BCE. However, archaeological excava-
tions at Ayodhya do not support this timeline, as no settlements from that period have been found.
 Similarly, while Krishna is central to the Mahabharata, the earliest evidence from Mathura (200 BCE–
300 CE) does not confirm his historical presence.
• Thus, archaeological findings provide a more objective foundation for reconstructing ancient time-
lines than mythological genealogies.

Re-evaluating Inscriptions and Coins

Inscriptions
• Many inscriptions have historically been overlooked on the grounds that they lack historical significance.
However, archaeological evidence, particularly inscriptions and coins, is more reliable than Puranic tra-
ditions for reconstructing history.
• For instance, the origins of the Satavahana dynasty have been more accurately dated to the first cen-
tury BCE through inscriptions than by relying on inconsistent literary traditions.

20
Coins
• Coins are not only markers of dynasties like the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Satavahanas, and Kushans, but
they also shed light on ancient trade networks, urbanisation, and economic systems. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

The Important Role of Archaeological Findings in Ancient Indian History

• The study of ancient Indian history has evolved to incorporate diverse sources of evidence. By giving
greater weight to archaeological findings, inscriptions, and coins, historians can move beyond tradi-
tional reliance on literary and mythological texts. This comprehensive approach enables a more nuanced
understanding of ancient India’s political, social, economic, and cultural developments.

2.4. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

• Archaeological and historical pursuits in India started with the efforts of Sir William Jones, who
founded the Asiatic Society in 1784 in Calcutta. The Asiatic Society aimed to inquire into the history and
antiquities of Asia, as well as the arts, sciences, and literature.
• The Asiatic Society promoted the study of ancient texts and started an annual journal titled Asiatic
Researches in 1788. The journal brought to light the research and surveys carried out by the society to
make the public aware of the antiquarian wealth of India. However, Jones and his contemporaries work-
ing for the Asiatic Society were not archaeologists. Hence, till about the mid-19th century, there were
very few reports on discoveries of ancient monuments and sites.
• From the 1830s, the number of archaeological writings increased, with specific interest in individual
sites. This was largely due to the efforts of James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Com-
pany, who was appointed Secretary of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta between 1832 and 1838.
• By 1851, the British government in India saw the need for a systematic archaeological survey of the coun-
try. Consequently, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established in 1861. Alexander Cun-
ningham, often called the father of Indian archaeology, was appointed as the first director-general
of ASI.
• Cunningham largely followed the footsteps of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) and explored
a part of North India. However, the endeavours came to a sudden halt due to the abolition of the Archae-
ological Survey in 1866 by Lord Lawrence.
• In 1871, the Archaeological Survey was revived as a distinct government department, and Cunningham
was again appointed as Director General.
 Alexander Cunningham was the Director-General of the ASI in 1861-65 and 1871-85.
 John Marshall was the Director-General of the ASI from 1902 to 1928.

A Turning Point in History: Deciphering Scripts and Reconstructing India’s Political

History
• Scholars who studied early inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent sometimes assumed that these were

21
in Sanskrit, although the earliest inscriptions were, in fact, in Prakrit.
• In 1838, James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

and coins. By identifying the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit, Prinsep enabled the trans-
lation and understanding of longer and more complex inscriptions.
• This pivotal discovery gave a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history. Euro-
pean and Indian scholars began using inscriptions and texts composed in a variety of languages to re-
construct the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled the subcontinent. As a result, by the early
decades of the twentieth century, the broad contours of India’s political history were established, laying
a foundation for further historical and archaeological research.

2.5. Summary
• Historians use the word “source” to refer to the evidence or materials they use to reconstruct and
understand history.
• These sources can be classified under two main categories: Archaeological sources and Literary sources.

Archaeological sources
• Archaeological sources include inscriptions, coins and material remains.
• Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal, or pottery. The earliest in-
scriptions were recorded on stone, but later, copper plates were used for this purpose. A prashasti
(Sanskrit for "praise") is a special type of inscription written in poetic form to glorify rulers and their
achievements. Poets composed these to praise kings and patrons, often receiving gifts or rewards in
return.
• Coins are mostly found in hoards, most of which have been found while digging fields or excavating
foundations for constructing a building, making roads, etc. Our earliest coins contain a few symbols,
but the later coins mention the names of kings, gods, or dates. The areas where they are found indicate
the region where they were circulated. This helps reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties,
especially the Indo-Greeks.
• Material remains include:
 Archaeological Monuments: Temples, stupas, viharas, forts, palaces, etc
 Artefacts: Tools, toys, pottery, ornaments, etc.

Literary sources
• Literary sources include Indian literature (religious and non-religious literature) and foreign accounts
• Religious literature includes Vedic literature, puranas, epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), tripitaka, etc
• Non-religious literature includes Biographies, poetry, drama, law books, etc
• Foreign accounts include the accounts of foreign visitors, including Greeks, Romans, and Chinese.

22
---------- End of Chapter ----------
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 3. The Stone Age

3.1. The Origins and Early Migration of Humans

• According to the Big Bang theory, the universe began 13.7 billion years ago with a tiny ball of very high
density and high temperature. The "tiny ball" exploded violently, leading to a huge expansion, which
continues to the present day.
• The planets, including Earth, formed around 4.6 billion years ago. In the beginning, Earth was a barren,
rocky, and hot planet with a thin hydrogen and helium atmosphere. Over time, the development of Earth's
crust, atmosphere, and water led to the emergence of life around 3.8 billion years ago.
Eon Era Period Epoch
Hadean Eon
Archean Eon

23
Proterozoic Eon
Palaeozoic Era
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Phanerozoic Eon Mesozoic Era
(550 mya to present) Tertiary
Cenozoic Era Pleistocene (Ice Age) (2.6 mya to 12000 ya)
(65 mya to present) Quater- Holocene (12000 ya to present)
nary
(ya: years ago; mya: million years ago)

Early Human Migration: From Africa to India

• Homo habilis, one of the earliest members of the genus Homo (human), lived in Africa around 2-3
million years ago (early Pleistocene). Homo habilis people broke the stone into pieces and sharpened
the latter to use as tools. Homo habilis did not migrate out of Africa. So, its fossils have not been found
outside of Africa.
 Homo habilis is also known as "Handyman" because it used tools.
 Generally, the term “Modern Man” is used for both Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens.
• Later, various Homo species, such as Homo erectus (erect or upright man), Neanderthals, and Homo
sapiens (wise man) kept migrating around Africa, Asia and Europe. They used new types of stone tools.
• Homo sapiens migrated from eastern Africa and settled in various parts of the world. As they adapted to
their new environments, their lifestyles changed to suit where they lived. Because of different climates
and surroundings, their bodies and skin colour also varied, leading to the development of different races.
• Over time, Homo sapiens sapiens prevailed, and all other Homo species died out.
 Homo habilis emerged in Africa around 2-3 million years ago (early Pleistocene).
 Homo erectus emerged around 1.8 million years ago and lived on Earth until about 200,000 years
ago.
 Homo sapiens emerged in Southern Africa around 2,00,000 to 3,00,000 years ago.
 Archaic Homo Sapiens were early Homo sapiens with a mix of modern and primitive features. They
were the transitional group that showed similarities with the Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.

The Early Man in India

• In Africa, Human remains associated with stone tools are about 3 million years old. In India, it is not
earlier than 6,00,000 BCE (Middle Pleistocene), as suggested by stone tools found in Bori, Maharashtra,
the earliest Lower Palaeolithic site in India.
• Except for the fossil skull from Hathnora village in the Narmada Valley, no early human fossils associated
with Stone Age tools have been found in India. It seems India was settled later than Africa but around
the same time as other parts of Asia.

24
 The scientific date for early artefacts from Bori in the Pune district, Maharashtra, is 1.38 million years
old, but the matter needs further research.
• Modern humans are believed to have reached India from Africa at least 74,000 years ago, as Homo PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
sapiens tools have been found in an ash layer in the Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh.

Narmada Fossil Skull

• A fossil skull belonging to the Homo erectus was discovered in Hathnora village in the Narmada
Valley by Arun Sonakia in 1982. Sonakia puts the age of the fossil at 5,00,000 to 6,00,000 years.
• Some scholars feel that it may belong to the last phase of homo erectus or an 'archaic' homo sapien
belonging to the Homo erectus.
 [Practice Question] The first Human Fossil was found from which River Valley of India?
a) Ganga Valley
b) Yamuna Valley
c) Narmada Valley
d) Krishna Valley
Answer: (c) Narmada Valley

3.2. The Stone Age

• The Stone Age marks a period of prehistory (the time before people invented writing) in which humans
used primitive stone tools. It began about 2 million years ago when Homo habilis made and used the
first stone tools and lasted until humans began using metals.
• The Stone Age began and ended at different times in various parts of the world.
• The Stone Age is divided into three distinct periods based on the types of stone tools people used and
the method or technology (degree of sophistication) they applied to create them.
1. Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age): It extends from 2 million years ago to about 10,000 BCE. In
India, it extends from 6,00,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Hand-sized and large stone tools were used
during this period. This long period covers 99% of human history.
2. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age): It extends from 10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE. During this period,
there was a major change in the climate of the world. Stone tools found during this period are gen-
erally tiny and are called microliths.
3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): In India, this period lasted from 7,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE. During
this time, polished stone tools were used.

The Stone Age in India

Period Time Frame in India Stone Tools

Palaeolithic 6,00,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE Hand-sized and large stone tools

25
Mesolithic 10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE Microliths (Tiny stone tools)
Neolithic 7,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE Polished stone tools
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Palaeolithic Age: Hunters and Food Gatherers (2 million years 10,000 BCE)
• In Africa, the Palaeolithic culture may have begun around 2 million years ago. However, in India, it
developed around 6,00,000 BCE (Middle Pleistocene), as the first human occupations, suggested by
stone tools, were not earlier than this period.
 Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Age): It is divided into:
1. Early Pleistocene (2.6 million years ago to 8,00,000 years ago)
2. Middle Pleistocene (8,00,000 years ago to 1,25,000 years ago)
 3. Late Pleistocene (1,25,000 years ago to 12,000 years ago)
• Tools: The Palaeolithic people used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. They also used tools of wood and bone. Large pebbles are often found in river terraces.
• Occupation: The Palaeolithic people were nomadic hunter-gatherers. They obtained food by hunting
animals and gathering edible plants and tubers. They moved from place to place according to the
seasonal availability of plants, animals and water. The people also lived on fishing.
• Shelter: They lived in rock shelters, caves and temporary dwellings of wood, grass and bones.
• Clothing: Palaeolithic people used both animal skin and tree bark for clothing.
• Use of Fire: Traces of ash have been found in Kurnool caves. This suggests that people were familiar
with the use of fire. Fire could have been used as a source of light, to roast meat, and to scare away
animals.

Three Phases of the Palaeolithic Age

• Hunting large animals with a stick or stone was difficult. Therefore, Palaeolithic people sharpened these
tools and made flake stones with sharp edges, making them useful for various tasks, including hunting
and crafting other tools.
• Based on the nature of the stone tools used by the people and the nature of change in the climate,
the Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into three phases:
1. Lower Palaeolithic (6,00,000 BCE to 1,50,000 BCE): Handaxe and cleaver industries
2. Middle Palaeolithic (1,50,000 BCE to 35,000 BCE): Tools made on flakes
3. Upper Palaeolithic (35,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE): Tools made on flakes and blades

The Lower Palaeolithic or the Early Old Stone Age (6,00,000 BCE to 1,50,000 BCE)

• The Lower Palaeolithic Age covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
• The people use hand-axes, cleavers and choppers.
• In India, it is associated with the people of the Homo sapiens group.

The Middle Palaeolithic Age (1,50,000 BCE to 35,000 BCE)

26
• The Middle Palaeolithic industries are mainly based on flakes. The principal tools are varieties of blades,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

points, borers and scrapers made of flakes.

The Upper Palaeolithic Age (35,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE)

• It coincided with the last phase of the Ice Age. During this period, the climate became less humid and
comparatively warm.
• In the world context, it marks the appearance of new flint industries and men of the modern type (Homo
sapiens sapiens).

Robert Bruce Foote: Father of Indian Prehistory

 27
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Robert Bruce Foote, a British geologist and archaeologist, was born in 1834. In 1858, he joined the
Geological Survey of India (GSI) and was posted to Madras. He is considered as the father of Indian
Prehistory. In 1863, in Pallavaram, Chennai, Foote accidentally found a peculiar stone tool. He felt that
it was chiselled by hand and sent it to London for further inspection. Later, it was found that the stone
tool or implement dated back to the Palaeolithic Age. This was the first Palaeolithic tool discovered in
India.
 Geological Survey of India (GSI)

• The Geological Survey of India (GSI) was established in 1851 primarily to find coal deposits for the
Railways. Initially, it focused on exploring coal, oil reserves, and ore deposits.
• Presently: GSI is an attached office to the Ministry of Mines.
 GSI, headquartered at Kolkata, has six Regional offices located at Lucknow, Jaipur, Nagpur, Hy-
derabad, Shillong and Kolkata and State Unit offices in almost all States of the country.

Palaeolithic Sites in India

• The palaeolithic sites have been discovered throughout the country except for the alluvial plains of the
Indus, Ganga and Yamuna rivers. As stone tools were important, many sites were located on hilly slopes
and river valleys (sources of water and large pebbles).

Important Palaeolithic Sites

Region Site
Punjab province of Pakistan Soan river valley
Rajasthan Desert area of Didwana
Uttar Pradesh Belan Valley in Mirzapur district
Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka and Adamgarh hills
Maharashtra Bori and Chirki Nevasa
Karnataka Hunsagi
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda and Kurnool
Tamil Nadu Attirampakkam near Chennai

The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders (10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE)
• The Upper Palaeolithic Age came to an end with the end of the Ice Age around 10,000 BCE, and the
climate became warm and dry.
 In the Pleistocene period, ice sheets covered much of the earth's surface, particularly in the higher

28
altitudes and peripheries. Only the tropical regions, except the mountains, were free from ice.
• In many areas, this change in climate led to the development of grasslands. This led to an increase in
the number of animals that survived on grass. i.e. deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, etc. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and breeding
seasons. This helped people to start thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves. This
led to the domestication of animals. The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog.
 Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan provide the earliest evidence for the domesti-
cation of animals in the Indian subcontinent around 5000 BCE.
• During this period, several grain-bearing grasses, including wheat, barley and rice, grew naturally in
different parts of the subcontinent. This may have led people to think about growing plants on their own,
and people started primitive cultivation. Fishing also became important.
• Tools: Mesolithic people used microliths - tiny stone artefacts, often not more than 5 cm in size. These
microliths were assembled with wood to form more sophisticated tools.
• Occupation: Mesolithic people lived on hunting, food gathering and fishing. They started primitive cul-
tivation and domestication of animals.
 There had been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
 The people started using bows and arrows.
• Shelter: The people continued to live in rock shelters, caves and temporary dwellings of wood, grass and
bones.
• Clothing: Mesolithic people used both animal skin and tree bark for clothing.

[Practice Question] Which among the following sites provides evidence of the domestica-
tion of animals in the Mesolithic period?
a) Odai
b) Bori
c) Bagor
d) Lakhnia
Answer: (c) Bagor

Mesolithic Sites in India

• So far, only a few finds of the Mesolithic Age have been dated scientifically.

Important Mesolithic Sites

State Site
Uttar Pradesh Mahadaha
Sarai Nahar Rai in the Ganga Valley
Morhana Pahar and Baghai Khor in Belan Valley
Gujarat Lenghnaj

29
Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka and Adamgarh hills
Rajasthan Bagor

The Neolithic Age: Food Producers PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• In the world context, the Neolithic (New Stone) Age began around 10,000-9000 BCE. However, in the
Indian subcontinent, it began around 7,000 BCE and continued till 1,000 BCE.
• Mehrgarh, located in Baluchistan, Pakistan, is the only neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent
attributed to 7000 ВCE.
• Tools: The Neolithic people used tools and implements made of polished stone, particularly stone axes.
These polished axes proved to be more effective for hunting and cutting trees. Besides polished tools of
stone, they used microlithic blades.
• Occupation: During this period, agriculture and the domestication of animals became important.
 The Neolithic settlers were the earliest farming communities (early farmers and herders). They broke
the ground with stone hoes. Wheat, barley, rice, and millet were cultivated in different areas at differ-
ent points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India. However, they could not produce
more than bare subsistence.
 Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where people (first farmers of Indian subcontinent) began
to grow barley and wheat around 6000 BCE (8,000 years ago).
 Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from around 5000 BCE (7000 years ago). This is the oldest

30
evidence of cotton in the world.
 Neolithic sites in Allahabad district (north of Vindhyas) are noted for rice cultivation in 6000 BCE
• Sedentary life: When people began growing plants, they had to stay in the same place for a long time, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
looking after them. The cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of
village communities based on sedentary life.
• Shelter: Gradually, people started living in mud-brick houses instead of grass huts.
• Clothing: The Neolithic people developed the arts of weaving. They used clothes made of cotton and
wool.
• Pottery: As Neolithic people started producing cereal, they needed pots to store the foodgrains and
cooking. Hence, pottery first appears in this phase. Hand-made pottery is found in the early stage. Later,
wheels were used to make pottery.
  Their pottery included black-burnished ware, grey ware, and mat-impressed ware.
 They also used mortars and pestles for grinding grain.
 The mesolithic culture of Japan, known as ‘Jomon Culture’, is unique for its early pottery-making.
Except for this example, elsewhere in the world, pottery-making began later, during the Neolithic pe-
riod.
• Progress in technology: The Neolithic period saw remarkable progress in technology in Western Asia.
The Neolithic people were on the threshold of civilisation:
 People developed the arts of weaving, pot-making, and house-building.
 There was also improvement in agriculture, and people began producing wheat and cereals.
 People no longer depended on hunting, gathering and fishing. Subsistence agriculture and animal
domestication provided them the food.
• Gradually, the Neolithic Age gave way to the use of metals.

Lahuradeva: A Home of the First Farmers?

• Excavations by the Archaeological Department of Uttar Pradesh (UP) at Lahuradeva in the Sant Kabir
Nagar district uncovered carbonised material containing grains of cultivated rice along with wild grass.
This suggests that the Middle Ganga Valley (Uttar Pradesh) might have been an early site for the start
of agriculture. However, further research is needed to determine whether Lahuradeva was home to the
first farmers.
• Note: The earliest evidence of agriculture in India has been found at Mehrgarh. However, if Lahuradeva
is mentioned as an option, it will be the correct answer.
 The first farming communities in the world lived around 10,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent, a region
in the Middle East that includes parts of modern-day Iraq, Jordan, Syria, Israel, southeastern Turkey,
and western Iran.

Evidence of Grain and Bones

In many neolithic settlements, archaeologists have found the remains of burnt grain (these may have

31
•
been burnt accidentally or on purpose).
• Below is the list of some of the sites from which grain and bones have been found.
Sites Grain and Bones PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Mehrgarh (in present day-Pakistan) Wheat, barley, sheep, goat, cattle

Koldihwa (Uttar Pradesh) Rice, fragmentary animal bones
Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh) Rice, cattle (hoof marks on clay surface)
Gufkral (Jammu and Kashmir) Wheat and lentil
Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir) Wheat and lentils, dog, cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo
Chirand (Bihar) Wheat, green gram, barley, buffalo, ox
 Hallur (Karnataka) Millet, cattle, sheep, goat, pig
Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu) Black gram, millet, cattle, sheep, pig

Three important areas of Neolithic settlements

• Based on the types of stone axes used by Neolithic settlers, there are three important areas of Neolithic
settlements: north-western, southern and north-eastern.
1. North-western: Rectangular axes with curved cutting edges.
2. Southern: Axes with oval sides and pointed butts.
3. North-eastern: Polished stone axes with a rectangular butt and sometimes shouldered hoes.
 5000 BCE: Neolithic sites to the north of the Vindhyas.
 2500 BCE: Earliest Neolithic settlements in south India.
 1000 BCE: Latest Neolithic settlements in southern and eastern India.

North-western neolithic settlements

• North-western neolithic settlements include Baluchistan and Kashmir valley settlements. Burzahom and
Mehragarh are important neolithic sites of Kashmir and Baluchistan, respectively.
• The Kashmiri neolithic culture (e.g. Burzahom) was distinguished by its dwelling pits, the range of ce-
ramics, the variety of stone and bone tools, and the complete absence of microliths.

Burzahom (the place of birch)

• Burzahom is situated 16 km north-west of Srinagar. People lived in pit houses, which were dug into the
ground, with steps leading into them. These may have provided shelter in cold weather.
• They probably had a hunting and fishing economy.
• They used numerous tools and weapons made of bone.
• Domestic dogs were buried with their masters in their graves.

Mehrgarh
• Mehrgarh, situated in Baluchistan, Pakistan, is the only neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent

32
attributed to 7000 В.С.
• Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where people began to grow barley and wheat around 6000
BCE (8,000 years ago). PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The people lived in square or rectangular mud brick houses.
• Many animal bones were found.
• Several burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead person was buried with
goats, probably meant to serve as food in the next world.

Southern neolithic settlements

• It includes neolithic sites of south of the Godavari River. They kept a large number of cattle.
North-eastern neolithic settlements

• It includes neolithic sites on the hills of Assam, the Garo hills in Meghalaya, and the northern spurs of the
Vindhyas in the Mirzapur and Allahabad districts of Uttar Pradesh.
 Considerable bone implements were also found in Chirand, Bihar.

Daojali Hading
• Daojali Hading is a Neolithic site near the Brahmaputra Valley (Assam), close to routes to China and
Myanmar. Stone tools like mortars and pestles found here suggest people were growing grain and pre-
paring food. Other findings include jadeite (a stone that may have been brought from China), tools made
of fossil wood (ancient wood that has hardened into stone), and pottery.

[Practice Question] Consider the following statements:

1. The earliest evidence of animal domestication and agriculture in India has come from Mehrgarh.
2. The cultivation of cereals first started in the Neolithic Age.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Both 1 and 2

[Practice Question] Consider the statements about the neolithic settlements in India.
1. Daojali Hading, a Neolithic site, is located in Jammu and Kashmir.
2. Considerable bone implements were found in Chirand in Maharashtra.
3. People lived in pit houses in Burzahom.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

33
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 only
Answer: (c) 3 only

Neolithic Revolution
• The Neolithic Age marked a transformative period in human history, characterised by the shift from a
nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural communities. Though the transition took a
prolonged period, laying the foundation for agriculture and permanent villages paved the way for in-
novations and, eventually, civilisation.
 34
• Recognising the revolutionary changes in human society during this era, Australian archaeologist Gordon
Childe coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’ to highlight its significance as a turning point in the jour-
ney toward modern civilisation. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 In the Belan Valley and the middle part of Narmada Valley, all three phases of the Palaeolithic, followed
by the Mesolithic and Neolithic, were found in order.

Important Neolithic Sites

State Site
Baluchistan (Pakistan) Mehragarh
Kashmir Burzahom
 Bihar Chirand
Uttar Pradesh Koldihwa and Mahagara in the Belan Valley
Assam Daojali Hading
Karnataka Hallur, Maski and Brahmagiri
Andhra Pradesh Nagarjunakonda
Andhra Pradesh Utnur
Tamil Nadu Paiyampalli

Limitations of Stone Age People

 Relying primarily on stone tools and weapons, the people of the Stone Age couldn't settle far from hilly
areas. They lived on hill slopes, in rock shelters, and in river valleys.
 Despite their efforts, they could not produce more than they needed for their bare subsistence.

3.3. Prehistoric Art

• When the basic needs of food, water, clothing and shelter were fulfilled, people felt the need to express
themselves. Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms humans practised to express themselves,
using the cave walls as their canvas.
• The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic people practised engravings (Petroglyphs) and paintings (Picto-
graphs).
• The prehistoric people may have drawn and painted to make their shelters more colourful and beautiful
or to keep a visual record of their day-to-day lives.
 The rock art in India can be divided into two groups: Paintings (Pictographs) and engravings (Petro-
glyphs).

Rock Engravings
• Geoglyphs and petroglyphs are different types of ancient rock art forms. They involve the creation of

35
images or designs on the earth's surface or rock surfaces.

Petroglyphs
• Petroglyphs are engravings on vertical surfaces or boulders and may sometimes accompany paintings. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Petroglyphs are widely available across the Indian subcontinent. In Bhimbetka, these are almost 50,000
years old.
• Two petroglyphs in the Auditorium Rock Shelter, the largest shelter at Bhimbetka, are 1,00,000 years old
and one of the oldest in the world. This is considered to be the oldest known rock art in India.

Geoglyphs
• Geoglyphs are engraved or incised on the floor or rock bed and are open-air ensembles.
• These are extremely rare to find, and in India, they only occur on the lateritic plateaus of the Konkan
belt (the western edge of the Western Ghats in peninsular India).

Rock Paintings
• In India, the earliest paintings have been reported from the Upper Palaeolithic times.

Paintings of Bhimbetka
• Bhimbetka Caves are located in the foothills of the Vindhyan Mountains in Madhya Pradesh. These caves
have paintings and engravings on their rock surface.
• The rock paintings of Bhimbetka extend from the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic period and, in some
series, even to recent times. However, the majority of the paintings belong to the Mesolithic period.
• Palaeolithic and Mesolithic paintings depict human, animal and geometric patterns in white, black and
red ochre. Humans are represented in stick figures. Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and
groups of dots can also be seen. Hand-linked dancing figures are a common scene
 In 1867-68, English archaeologist Archibald Carlleyle, an official of the Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI), discovered prehistoric rock paintings on the walls of rock shelters in Sohagighat, Mirzapur Dis-
trict, Uttar Pradesh. This marked the first recorded discovery of rock art in India.
 Archaeologist V. S. Wakankar discovered the caves of Bhimbetka in 1957-58.

Upper Palaeolithic Period

• The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase are linear representations in green and dark red. They
focused on the lives of hunters and gatherers. The green paintings are of dancers, and the red ones
are of hunters.
• A few are wash paintings, but mostly, they are filled with geometric patterns.

Mesolithic Period

• During the Mesolithic period, the themes are multiple, but the paintings are smaller in size and hunting
scenes predominate. The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups armed with barbed spears,

36
pointed sticks, arrows and bows.
• Some animal paintings, especially in the hunting scenes, show a fear of animals, but many others show a
feeling of tenderness and love for them. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The artists of Bhimbetka used many colours, including white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown,
green, and black. However, red and white paint, made from geru (red ochre or haematite) and chuna
(lime), respectively, were most commonly used.

Paintings of Lakhudiyar
• The Lakhudiyar caves (literally meaning one lakh caves) are located on the banks of the Suyal River in
the Almora district of Uttarakhand.
• The prehistoric paintings of Lakhudiyar can be divided into three categories: man, animal, and geometric 37
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
patterns in white, black, and red ochre.

Superimposition of paintings

• At many rock art sites, there is some superimposition of paintings. A new painting is often painted on
top of an older painting.
 In some places, at Bhimbetka, there are as many as 20 layers of paintings, one on top of another.
 The earliest paintings in Lakhudiyar caves are in black; over these are red ochre paintings, and the last
group comprises white paintings.
Paintings of Kupgallu, Piklihal, and Tekkalkota
• Three types of paintings have been reported from Kupgallu, Piklihal, and Tekkalkota:
1. Paintings in red ochre
2. Paintings in red ochre over a white background
3. Paintings in white
They belong to the Neolithic, early historical and late historical periods.
• The subjects depicted are bulls, elephants, sambhars, gazelles, sheep, goats, horses, stylised humans,
tridents, and, rarely, vegetal motifs.

3.4. Co-existence of different historical ages

• In the past, at a given time, sometimes, people from different historical ages co-existed simultaneously.
For example, around 2,000 BCE, people of neolithic age, chalcolithic age and bronze age lived in different
regions of the Indian subcontinent.
• People from different historical periods coexisted simultaneously because societies didn’t always
evolve from one to the next in a series and follow a uniform pattern. Changes did not happen every-
where at the same time. While some regions continued to rely on hunting and gathering, others tran-
sitioned to settled agriculture. This variation in the timing and nature of changes led to different ages
and periods beginning and ending at different times across the region.

[UPSC CDS 2020} Consider the following statements about the Stone Age in India:
1. Different periods are identified on the basis of the type and technology of stone tools.
2. There are no regional variations in the type and technology of tools in different periods.
3. Stone Age cultures of different periods evolved uniformly in a near unilinear fashion all over the
subcontinent.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only

38
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Answer: (a) 1 only

3.5. Timeline

Timeline Key Developments

4.6 billion years ago Formation of Earth
3.8 billion years ago Life began on Earth
2-3 million years ago Homo habilis emerged in Africa around (early Pleis-
tocene)
1.8 million years ago Homo erectus emerged
2,00,000 to 3,00,000 years ago Homo sapiens emerged in Southern Africa
2.6 million years ago to 10,000 BCE Pleistocene Epoch (Ice Age)
2 million years ago to 10,000 BCE Palaeolithic Period
6,00,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE Palaeolithic Period in India
10,000 BCE to 4,000 BCE Mesolithic Period
7,000 BCE to 1,000 BCE Neolithic Period in India
7,000-6,000 BCE Beginning of agriculture
6,000 BCE Agriculture villages started developing
5,000 BCE Earliest evidence of domestication of animals in In-
dia

3.6. Summary

Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age

Stone Tools Hand-sized and flaked-off Microliths Polished stone tools
large pebbles.
Occupation Hunting, food gathering  Hunting, food gathering and Agriculture and the do-
and fishing fishing mestication of animals
 Started primitive cultivation was important
and domestication of ani-
mals
Shelter Rock shelters, caves and Rock shelters, caves and tempo- Started living in mud-
temporary dwellings of rary dwellings of wood, grass brick houses

39
wood, grass and bones and bones
Clothing Animal skin and tree bark Animal skin and tree bark Started using clothes
made of cotton and wool. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Pottery No No Started making and using
pottery

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 4. Chalcolithic Cultures

• At the end of the Neolithic period, people started using copper metal (the first metal used by hu-
mans) and a culture based on stone and copper implements developed called chalcolithic culture (stone-
copper phase).
• In South India, the Neolithic phase gradually transitioned into the Chalcolithic phase based on copper
and stone implements. To obtain the copper, people began to travel for a longer distance. This led to a
network of Chalcolithic cultures. Hence, the Chalcolithic people in many parts of India, especially in west-
ern Maharashtra and Rajasthan, seem to have been colonisers. Their earliest settlements, such as
Kayatha and Eran, appeared in Malwa and central India. Later, those in western Maharashtra appeared,
and those in Bihar and West Bengal emerged much later.
 The end of the Neolithic period saw different kinds of developments in different areas:
 A full-fledged civilization (Indus Valley Civilisation) was emerging in the Indus and Saraswati val-
leys.
 Chalcolithic cultures developed in central, southern and eastern India.

40
4.1. Chalcolithic cultures (4000 BCE to 700 BCE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Chalcolithic Phase Settlements
• In India, chalcolithic sites are found in those parts where hilly land (as stone tools were important) and
rivers were available. Generally, chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys.
• Except for the alluvial plains and the thickly forested areas, traces of chalcolithic cultures have been
discovered almost all over the country. In the alluvial plains of the mid-Ganga region, several chalcolithic
sites occur, particularly near a lake or a river confluence. Example - Chirand.
• Chalcolithic settlements are found in south-eastern Rajasthan, western part of Madhya Pradesh, western
Maharashtra and in southern and eastern India.
  Most of these Chalcolithic cultures flourished in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• In Maharashtra, after the decline of the Mesolithic culture, the Chalcolithic culture emerged, lasting
from 4000 BCE to 700 BCE (flourished from 1400 BCE to 700 BCE.) For the first time, man began to use
copper. Tools and ornaments made of stone and copper came to be used.
 Neolithic remains and tools are found in Maharashtra, along with those belonging to the Chalcolithic
Period.

41
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 State Culture Site Location (on the bank of river)
Rajasthan Ahar Ahar Dry zones of the Banas River valley
(2100 BCE-1500 BCE) Gilund
Kayatha Kayatha Chambal and its tributaries
Madhya Pra- (2000 BCE-1800 BCE)
desh Nagda Chambal and its tributaries
Malwa Eran Bina River
(1700 BCE-1200 BCE) (a tributary of the Betwa River)
Malwa
Navdatoli Narmada and and its tributaries

Prakash Tapti (Tapi) river

Maharashtra Jorwe (Nandurbar district)
(1400 BCE-700 BCE) Nashik Godavari river
(Nashik district)

Ahmadnagar or
Ahilya Nagar district: Pravara river
 Jorwe (a tributary of Godavari)
 Daimabad
 Nevasa
Pune district:
 Inamgaon Bhima
 Chandoli (a tributary of Krishna)
 Songaon

Gujarat Rangpur

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Prabhas
Karnataka Brahmagiri Vedavathi river
(a tributary of tungabhadra) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Maski Maski river

(a tributary of tungabhadra)
Bihar Chirand Ganga river
West Bengal Pandu Raja Dhibi Ajay river
Mahishdal Kopai river
Uttar Pradesh Khairadih Ghaghara river
(a tributary of Ganga river)
 Narhan Ghaghara river
(a tributary of Ganga river)

Common Features of Chalcolithic cultures

Use of Stone and Copper Implements
• The chalcolithic people used microliths and other stone tools supplemented by some use of copper
tools. Occasionally, they also used low-grade bronze (Ahar and Daimabad).
• During the chalcolithic phase, the supply of copper was limited. However, in certain settlements, such
as Ahar and Gilund (located near the source of copper), copper objects are found in good numbers.
• In many places, particularly in south India, the stone-blade industry flourished and stone axes continued
to be used.

Painted ceramic
• The most distinguishing feature of these Chalcolithic cultures is their distinct painted pottery.
• The Chalcolithic people were the first to use painted pottery. They used different types of pottery.
Wheel-turned black-and-red was most prevalent.
• They also used channel-spouted pots, spouted basins and bowls, dishes-on-stand and bowls-on-stand.
• The distinctive pottery styles associated with each culture are given below.
Culture Pottery Types
Ahar Culture Black-and-red ware decorated with white painted designs.
Kaytha Culture Sturdy and durable pottery.
1. Red-slipped ware with designs painted in chocolate colour.
2. Red-painted buff ware.
3. Combed ware with incised patterns.
Malwa Culture Thick buff ware with designs painted in red or black.
Coarse pottery fabric.

43
Jorwe Culture Black-on-red ware with a matt surface.
Prabhas and Rangpur Cultures Lustrous Red Ware (Glossy surface).

Subsistence Agriculture PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Chalcolithic people practised agriculture. They cultivated far more cereal than the Neolithic commu-
nity. They produced wheat, barley, jowar, ragi and pulses such as the lentil (masur), black gram, green
gram, and grass pea. In particular, they cultivated:
 Wheat and lentils in western India
 Rice in southern and eastern India.
• In eastern India, fish hooks and rice have been found in Bihar and West Bengal. This suggests that the
chalcolithic people in the eastern regions lived on fish and rice.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 44
• However, the chalcolithic people living in central and western India did not practise intensive or extensive
cultivation and did not use plough or hoe. Hence, agriculture remained subsistence.

Domestication of Animal
• The chalcolithic people domesticated animals. They kept cows, sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes and
hunted deer. But generally, they were not acquainted with the horse.
• The chalcolithic people could not make full use of the animals. They slaughtered domesticated animals
for food but not milked for drink and dairy products.

Rural Background
• The Chalcolithic people were primarily rural communities. They founded rural settlements mostly on
river banks near the hills.
• The chalcolithic communities founded the first large villages in peninsular India.
• They used metal but never reached the level of urbanisation.

Mud Houses
• The Chalcolithic people generally did not use burnt bricks, which were rarely found, like in Gilund
around 1500 BCE.
• They built rectangular and circular houses. Their houses were usually made with a simple method called
wattle and daub, which involves weaving wooden sticks together and covering them with mud. Most of
the time, the roofs were thatched. Sometimes, chalcolithic people lived in mud brick houses.

Arts and Crafts

• Most of the chalcolithic people knew the art of copper smelting. Tools, weapons and bangles of copper
have been found. The copper was obtained from the Khetri mines of Rajasthan.
• Gold ornaments were extremely rare and have been found only in the Jorwe culture.
• They were good workers in stone. They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian,
steatite, and quartz crystal.

45
• They knew the art of spinning and weaving because spindle whorls had been discovered in Malwa. They
manufactured the cloth.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Trade and Commerce
• The Chalcolithic communities traded and exchanged materials with other contemporary communities.
• Large settlements like Ahar, Gilund, Nagada, Navdatoli, Eran, Prabhas, Rangpur, Prakash, Daimabad and
Inamgaon would have served as major centres of trade and exchange.
 Ahar people (settled close to the copper source) supplied copper tools and objects to other con-
temporary communities in Malwa and Gujarat.
 Gold and ivory may have come from Tekkalkotta (Karnataka) to Jorwe people, who in turn traded
these to their contemporaries.
Burial Practices
• In Maharashtra, people buried their dead in urns under the floor of their houses in the north-to-south
position. However, in South India, the dead body was placed in the east-west position.
• Pots and some copper objects were deposited in the graves for the use of the dead in the next world.

Settlement Pattern
• Two-tier habitations: A kind of settlement hierarchy appears in several Jorwe settlements. Some of them
are as large as twenty hectares, but others are only five hectares and even less in size.
 The difference in the size of settlements suggests that larger settlements dominated the smaller
ones.
• Different Houses: In both large and small settlements:
 The chief and his kinsmen lived in rectangular houses
 Others lived in round huts.

Social Inequalities
• The settlement pattern and burial practices suggest the beginnings of social inequalities in the chal-
colithic society.
 Settlement pattern: Larger settlements dominated the smaller ones.
 The chief and his kinsmen who lived in rectangular houses dominated others who lived in round
huts.
 Burial practices: In the graves at Chandoli and Nevasa, some children were buried with copper-
based necklaces around their necks; others had grave goods consisting only of pots.

Religious Beliefs
• Terracotta figures of women suggest that Chalcolithic people worshipped the mother goddess. A pot
with painted designs also depicted her.
• Stylised terracotta bulls indicate the bull was a religious symbol.

46
Important Chalcolithic Cultures

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Ahar culture (2100-1500 BCE)
• Ahar and Gilund lie in the dry zones of the Banas River valley in Rajasthan.
• In these settlements, copper objects are found in good numbers, as these are located close to the copper
source (Khetri mines of Rajasthan).

Ahar

• The people of Ahar practised smelting and metallurgy from the very beginning. The ancient name of Ahar
was "Tambavati," meaning a place rich in copper.
• They did not use microlithic tools, and stone axes or blades are nearly absent. Instead, objects like flat
axes, bangles, and sheets, mainly made of copper, were common, though a bronze sheet has also been
found.

47
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

[Practice Question] Consider the following statements about the Ahar Civilization.
1. The natives of Ahar knew copper smelting.
2. Rice was unknown to them
3. Metalwork was one of the means of economy of the Ahar
 4. Black-Red coloured pottery has been found here, on which generally white-coloured geometrical
designs have been carved.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
b) 1 and 2 are correct
c) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
d) 3 and 4 are correct
Answer: 1, 3 and 4 are correct

Malwa culture (1700-1200 BCE)

• The Malwa ware, which is typical of the Malwa chalcolithic culture of central and western India, is con-
sidered the richest among the chalcolithic ceramics.

Navdatoli

• Navdatoli is situated on the bank of the Narmada River.

• Almost all food grains found in other chalcolithic sites have been found at Navdatoli.
 Horizontal excavations were conducted at Navdatoli jointly by the Maharaja Sayajirao University of
Baroda and the Deccan College from 1957 to 1959. H. D. Sankalia, Z. B. Deo, and Z. D. Ansari exca-
vated Navdatoli.

Jorwe Culture (1400-700 BCE)

• The most extensive excavations have taken Maharashtra, and almost 200 sites have been discovered.
These sites covered modern Maharashtra except parts of Vidarbha and the coastal region of Konkan
and are located in semi-arid areas with brown-black soil.
• Although the Jorwe culture was rural, some settlements, such as Daimabad and Inamgaon, had almost
reached the urban stage.

48
Daimabad

• Daimabad is the largest known Jorwe site, covering about 20 hectares.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• It is famous for recovering a large number of bronze goods, some of which were influenced by the
Harappan culture.

[Practice Question] Which of the following statements is/ are correct?

1. Excavation at Navdatoli was conducted by H.D. Sankalia.
2. Navdatoli is located in Madhya Pradesh.

Options:
a) 1 Only
 b) 2 Only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Both 1 and 2

[Practice Question] Consider the following pairs:

Historical place: Well-known for
1. Burzahom: Rock-cut shrines
2. Ganeshwar: Copper artefacts
3. Daimabad: Bronze goods

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

a) 3 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 only
d) 2 and 3 only
Answer: 2 and 3 only

Chronological Classification of Chalcolithic Settlements

• Chronologically, chalcolithic settlements in India can be classified into:
1. Pre-Harappan (Before mature Harappan culture)
2. Harappan (Contemporaries of mature Harappan culture)
3. Post-Harappan (After mature Harappan culture)
• Pre-Harappan settlements in the Harappan zone are also called early Harappan to distinguish them
from the mature urban Indus civilisation. Thus, the pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Ban-
awali in Haryana and Kot Diji in Sindh is distinctly chalcolithic.
• Many Chalcolithic cultures in northern, western and central India were influenced by Harappan culture.

49
Example: Kayatha culture (C. 2000-1880 BCE) is a contemporary of the Harappa culture. It has some pre-
Harappan elements in pottery, but it also shows Harappan's influence.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Several chalcolithic cultures, though younger than the mature Harappan culture, are not connected with
the Indus civilisation and are called non-Harappan. Examples are the Malwa culture (1700-1200 BCE),
the Jorwe culture (1400-700 BCE), chalcolithic settlements of south India.
 In various parts of India, the chalcolithic cultures were post-Harappan (appeared after the end of the
mature Harappa culture). However, technologically, they were pre-Harappan. They didn't know how
to make bronze, couldn't write, and didn't live in cities.

End of Chalcolithic cultures

• Chalcolithic cultures in central and western India disappeared by 1200 BCE; only the Jorwe culture
continued until 700 BCE. It is believed that these cultures declined due to a decline in rainfall, which
made it hard for the agricultural communities to sustain.
• In eastern India and mid-Ganga plains, the chalcolithic phase was immediately followed by the iron
phase, which gradually transformed the people into full-fledged agriculturalists.
• At several sites in southern India, chalcolithic culture was transformed into megalithic culture using
iron.

Importance and Limitations of the Chalcolithic Phase

Importance of the Chalcolithic Phase
 The Chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths and also good workers in stone.
 The Chalcolithic people founded the first large villages in peninsular India. They primarily founded rural
settlements on river banks.
 They were the first to use painted pottery.
 They cultivated far more cereals than Neolithic communities.

Limitations of Chalcolithic Cultures

 Rural Settlements: The chalcolithic cultures had an essentially rural background. They used metal but
never reached the level of urbanisation.
 No intensive or extensive cultivation: The chalcolithic people living in the black cotton soil area of
central and western India did not practise cultivation on any intensive or extensive scale. They did not
use plough or hoe.
 No full use of animals: Domesticated animals were slaughtered for food and not milked for drink and
dairy products. That is, they could not make full use of the animals.
 Lacking Bronze: People did not know the art of mixing tin with copper to create bronze, a stronger
and more useful metal. The use of bronze tools played a key role in the development of early civilizations
in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete and the Indus Valley.

50
 Technological Backwardness: Although most chalcolithic cultures were younger than the Indus Val-
ley Civilization, they did not derive any substantial benefit from the advanced technological knowledge
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
of the Indus people. People did not know the art of writing, nor did they live in cities as the people of
the Bronze Age did. All these elements of civilisation were noticed for the first time in the Indus region
of the Indian sub-continent (Indus Valley Civilization)
 High IMR: Despite a food-producing economy, the infant mortality rate was very high. It is evident
from the burial of a large number of children in western Maharashtra. It might be attributed to a lack of
nutrition, absence of medical knowledge or outbreak of epidemics. At any rate, the chalcolithic social and
economic pattern did not promote longevity.
4.2. The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Phase (OCP Culture)

• The Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) phase refers to a Chalcolithic culture that existed in the Ganga-
Yamuna doab region and parts of northern India from 2000 to 1500 BCE. It covered Punjab, Haryana,
northeastern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh.
• The OCP people used copper and stone implements, Ochre-Coloured Pots (red-slipped pots), and mud
structures. They were one of the earliest chalcolithic agriculturalists and artisans to settle in a significant
portion of the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
 The term Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) is misleading because it is a red-slipped ware with designs
executed in black colour, which shows many handled vases.
• The OCP settlements were not considerable in size and did not cover a large area. They also didn't
last for more than a century.
• It is unclear why and how these settlements ended. One suggestion is that inundation followed by wa-
terlogging in an extensive area may have rendered it unfit for human settlements.
• When the OCP settlements disappeared, the doab did not show much habitation until about 1000 BCE.
Around 1000 BCE, it was succeeded by the Painted Grey Ware culture and then the Northern Black
Polished Ware culture.

Influence of Harappa Culture

• The OCP people were junior contemporaries of the Harappan, and the ochre-coloured pottery area in
which they lived was not far removed from that of the Harappan people.
• The OCP culture shows some Harappan influence. There may be some give-and-take between the OCP
people and the bronze-using Harappan people.

4.3. Ganeshwar: Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic Culture

• Ganeshwar is located near the copper-rich Khetri region of Rajasthan. It shares similarities with other
cultures:

51
 Harappa Culture: Copper objects similar in shape to those at Indus Valley sites are found.
 Chalcolithic culture: Many microliths typical of Chalcolithic cultures were also discovered.
 OCP Culture: OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery), a red-slipped ware with black painting, was found here. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Ganeshwar dates back to 2800-2200 BCE, making it older than the mature Harappan culture. With its
stone tools and microliths, Ganeshwar is considered a pre-Harappan Chalcolithic culture.

Ganeshwar and Harappa

• Ganeshwar mainly supplied copper objects to Harappa but did not receive much from it.
• The Ganeshwar people partly lived on agriculture and largely on hunting.
• Although their principal craft was the manufacture of copper objects, they could not develop urban
elements of the Harappan economy, which was based on the produce from the wide flood plains.

4.4. Timeline

Timeline Key Developments

4000 BCE First use of Copper
2800 BCE-2200 BCE Ganeshwar deposits
2100 BCE-1500 BCE Ahar Culture
2000 BCE-1800 BCE Kayatha Culture
1700 BCE-1200 BCE Malwa Culture
1500 BCE Chalcolithic burnt bricks in Gilund
1400 BCE-700 BCE Jorwe Culture
1200 BCE End of Chalcolithic cultures in central and western India
700 BCE End of Jorwe culture

4.5. Summary

Chalcolithic cultures
• At the end of the Neolithic period, people started using copper metal (the first metal used by humans)
and a culture based on stone and copper implements developed called chalcolithic culture (stone-
copper phase).

Common Features of Chalcolithic cultures

• Use of stone and copper implements: The chalcolithic people used microliths and other stone tools
supplemented by some use of copper tools. Occasionally, they also used low-grade bronze (Ahar and
Daimabad).

52
• Painted Ceramic: The Chalcolithic people were the first to use painted pottery. They used different
types of pottery. Wheel-turned black-and-red was most prevalent.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Subsistence Agriculture: Chalcolithic people practised subsistence agriculture. However, they culti-
vated far more cereal than the Neolithic community.
• Domestication of Animal: The chalcolithic people domesticated animals. However, they could not
make full use of the animals and ere not acquainted with the horse.
• Rural Background: The Chalcolithic people were primarily rural communities. They founded the first
large villages in peninsular India.
• Arts and Crafts: Most of the chalcolithic people knew the art of copper smelting. The copper was
obtained from the Khetri mines of Rajasthan. Tools, weapons and bangles of copper have been found.
• Burial Practices : In Maharashtra, people buried their dead in urns under the floor of their houses in
the north-to-south position. However, in South India, the dead body was placed in the east-west po-
sition. Pots and some copper objects were deposited in the graves for the use of the dead in the next
world.
• Social Inequalities: The settlement pattern and burial practices suggest the beginnings of social ine-
qualities in the chalcolithic society.
• Religious Beliefs: Terracotta figures of women suggest that Chalcolithic people worshipped the
mother goddess.

End of Chalcolithic cultures

• Chalcolithic cultures in central and western India disappeared by 1200 BCE; only the Jorwe culture
continued until 700 BCE. It is believed that these cultures declined due to a decline in rainfall, which
made it hard for the agricultural communities to sustain.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

53
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 5. The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilisation

• The term 'civilisation' is used for an advanced stage of human societies. The 'civilisation' should have
at least the following characteristics:
 Urbanism: Town planning, the growth of cities, and their management, including water management
and drainage systems.
 Surplus agriculture: Enough to feed not just the villages but also the cities.

Urban Life Driven by Agricultural Surpluses

• When farmers produced more food than they needed for themselves, others did not need to grow
their food and could focus on different tasks (different occupations) like building, crafting, tool mak-
ing, and governing.
• Over time, people with different occupations began to gather in cities, and these cities became the
foundation of civilisations, fostering advancements in art, culture, science, and technology.
 Writing or other symbolic communication: To keep records and to communicate.
 Trade: Both internal (within a city or a region) and external (with distant regions or other parts of the
world) to exchange goods.

54
 A variety of crafts: The management of raw materials (such as stone or metal) and the production
of finished goods (such as ornaments and tools)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Some form of government and administration: To manage a more complex society and its many
activities.
 Cultural ideas about life and the world, expressed through art, architecture, literature, oral traditions
or social customs
• Civilisation began at different times in different parts of the world.
 In Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and Syria), it developed about 6,000 years ago (4000 BCE).
 In Egypt, it developed around 5100 years ago (3100 BCE).
 It was developed in the northwest region of the Indian subcontinent around 4600 years ago (2600
BCE).
 55
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Harappan civilisation was one of the four great Bronze Age civilisations, along with the Mesopo-
tamian, Egyptian and, later, Chinese. These civilisations developed along river valleys, so they are called
'Riverine Civilizations.'
 1. Mesopotamia: A Greek word meaning 'land between two rivers'. Ancient Mesopotamia was the land
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Turkey, Syria, and Iraq.
2. Egyptian Civilisation: Flourished along the banks of the Nile River.
3. Chinese Civilization: Flourished in the Huang He River (Yellow River) valley.
4. Harappan Civilization: Flourished in the Indus River Valley.
• The Harappan civilisation marked the first urbanisation in India, with cities emerging in the north-
western part of the Indian subcontinent. The second urbanisation occurred around the sixth century
BCE in the Gangetic plains.

5.1. Indus Valley Civilisation (Harappan Civilisation)

• The Indus Valley Civilisation, which existed between c. 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE in the northwestern
part of the Indian subcontinent, was characterised by town planning, extensive brickwork, the art of writ-
ing, standard weights and measures, bronze tools, and red-ware pottery painted with black designs.
• The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was later named the 'Indus Civilization' as more sites were discovered
far away from the Indus Valley. Now, the IVC has come to be called:
 Harappan Civilization: Named after Harappa, the name of the first site where this unique culture
was discovered.
 Indus-Sarasvati or Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation: As most of the sites are located between the Indus
and Saraswati river basins.
 It is a common practice in archaeology to name a civilisation after its first discovered site.
• The Harappan civilisation can be divided into:
1. Early Harappan cultures or Formative phase of Harappan cultures (6000 BCE to 2600 BCE)
2. Mature Harappan culture or Urban phase of Harappan culture (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE)
3. Late Harappan cultures or Post-urban phase or decadent phase of Harappan culture (1900 BCE to
1300 BCE)
• The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture, distinguishing it from the

56
Early and Late Harappan cultures.
• Generally, the term 'Harappan culture' is used for Mature Harappan culture.
 All three phases of Harappan cultures are found in Dholavira and Rakhigarhi. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Mature Harappan culture is found in many sites, including Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Harappa,
Kalibangan, Banawali and Lothal. All these are considered as cities.

Mehrgarh: The Neolithic Roots of the Harappan Civilization

• Mehrgarh (seventh - third millennium BCE), located in Baluchistan, Pakistan, is a Neolithic and Chalco-
lithic site. Although abandoned before the rise of the Mature Harappan culture (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE),
it played a key role in shaping the Early Harappan culture.
• By the sixth millennium BCE, the people in Mehrgarh started agriculture and the domestication of animals,
and living in mud-brick houses. By the fourth millennium BCE, stone tools were refined and potteries
were made. Later, there was greater use of pottery and copper tools were introduced. The villages were
getting larger, the houses bigger and agriculture more developed.
• Similar settlements are reported from Mundigak in Afghanistan and Cholistan desert in the Ghaggar-
Hakra valley. These settlements were not isolated but interacted through an exchange of goods with a
minimal specialization. It was from these settled agricultural communities that the early phase of the
Harappan civilization developed.

Early Harappan Cultures

• In Punjab (divided between India and Pakistan) and Sindh (now in Pakistan), there were several archae-
ological cultures before the Mature Harappan called the Early Harappan cultures. These Early Harappan
cultures were associated with a rural lifestyle, distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture and pastoral-
ism, some crafts and the absence of large buildings.
• The mature Harappan culture developed from the gradual transformation and internal development
of the civilisation during the early Harappan phase.
• Early Harappan culture is found in Mundigak (Afghanistan), Damb Sadaat (Baluchistan province), Amri,
Kot Diji, Gumla, Rehman Dheri, Harappa, Kalibangan, Banawali, and Kunal.
 The recent archaeological evidence indicates the emergence of Harappan culture from early farming
communities around 7000 BCE.
• Based on the differences in the ware (ceramic differences), archaeologists classified Early Harappan cul-
tures into four cultures:
1. Kot Diji: The sites are found in NWFP, Pakistan’s Punjab and northern Sindh. Kot Diji (Sindh) was an
important site.
2. Sothi-Siswal: The sites are found in Rajasthan and Haryana. Sothi in Rajasthan and Siswal in Haryana
(Hisar district) were important sites.

57
3. Amri-Nal: The sites are found in both Sindh and Baluchistan. Amri (Sindh, Pakistan) and Nal (Balu-
chistan, Pakistan) were important sites.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

4. Damb Sadaat: The sites are found in Central Baluchistan. Damb Sadaat (Baluchistan, Pakistan) was
an important site.

Amalananda Ghosh
• Amalananda Ghosh was the longest-serving Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
after India's independence, serving from 1953 to 1968. He was the first archaeologists to identify simi-
larities between pre-Harappan and mature-Harappan cultures.

Bhirrana: Oldest Harappan site

• According to the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) report of December 2014, Bhirrana in Haryana
dates back to 7500-6200 BCE and is considered as the oldest Harappan site.

[UPSC CDS I 2016] Who among the following archaeologists was the first to identify simi-
larities between a pre-Harappan culture and the mature Harappan culture?
a) Amalananda Ghosh
b) Rakhaldas Banerji
c) Daya Ram Sahni
d) Sir John Marshall
Answer: Amalananda Ghosh

Harappan Settlements and Geographical Extent

• The Harappan Civilization exceeded all other Bronze Age civilisations in both population and geographic
spread.
• The central zone of the mature Harappan culture was Sind and Punjab, mainly in the Indus Valley. From
here, it spread southward and eastward.
• So far, more than 2000 Harappan archaeological sites covering an area of over 1.5 million sq. km. have
been discovered in the Indian subcontinent. These sites are spread over Western India (about 1,500 sites),
Pakistan (about 500 sites), and Afghanistan (a few sites).
1. Western India: Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Maha-
rashtra states.
2. Pakistan: Baluchistan, Sind and Punjab provinces.
3. Parts of Afghanistan
• The Harappan culture extended from Shortughai (on Afghanistan's Russian border) in the north to
Daimabad (in Maharashtra) in the south and from Sutkagendor (on the Makran coast of Baluchistan) in
the west to Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) in the east.
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Ganweriwala (all now in Pakistan), Rakhigarhi, and Dholavira (both in India) are

58
the five major Harappan cities. The remaining sites fall into different categories: regional centres, agri-
cultural villages, ports, and manufacturing centres.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Settlements on River Banks
• The settlements of the Harappan Civilization are mostly located on river banks such as the Indus and the
Saraswati.
• Out of more than 2000 Harappan archaeological sites, most of the sites are located between the Indus
and Saraswati river basins, and nearly two-thirds of these settlements are in the Saraswati basin. There-
fore, some scholars refer to the Harappan civilisation as the Indus-Saraswati or Sindhu-Sarasvati civi-
lisation.
 59
• The Sarasvati basin includes two major cities — Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala — several smaller ones
(Farmana, Kalibangan), and a few towns (Bhirrana and Banawali).

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Rakhigarhi, located in the Hisar district of Haryana, is the biggest Harappan city, covering an area
of 550 Hectares.

Lost River Saraswat

• Sarasvati river originated in the Himalayas and flowed between the Indus river in the west and the Gan-
ges river in the east through Punjab, Haryana, western Rajasthan, and Gujarat. It finally drained into the
Gulf of Kachchh in the Arabian Sea. It is believed to have dried up around 1900 BCE.
• Today, the Sarasvati river (Ghaggar-Hakra river) is known as 'Ghaggar' in India and 'Hakra' in Pakistan.
It is now seasonal because it flows only during the rainy season.
Saraswati river in ancient literature
• The Sarasvati River is first mentioned in the Rig Veda. There are frequent references to the river Saraswati
in Vedic literature (80 times more than the river Ganges). No other river has received so much importance
and respect as Saraswati.
• In Rig Veda, Sarasvati is worshipped both as a goddess and as a river flowing 'from the mountain to the
sea'.
Country Modern Harappan Location (On river bank) Key Findings
State (Re- Site and Excavations
gion)
India Jammu Manda Chenab river
Punjab Ropar Satluj River
Haryana Banawali Saraswati river
Rakhigarhi Saraswati river
(550 hec- 2013: Vasant Shinde
tares) started archaeogenetic re-
search.
The biggest Harappan site.
Mitathal
Bhagwanpura
Balu
Bhirrana Oldest Harappan site
Uttar Pra- Hulas
desh Alamgirpur
Rajasthan Kalibangan Saraswati river  A granary
1960: B.B. Lal and B.K.  Fire altar
Thapar began excavations

60
at Kalibangan

Gujarat Desalpur PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Dholavira Luni river  Water reservoirs

(50 hectares) 1990: R.S. Bisht began ex-  Large inscription
cavations  Chess
 Stadium
Surkotada
kuntasi
Nageshwar
 Prabhas Patan
(Somnath)
Rangpur
Padri
Bhagatrav
Rojdi
Lothal Bhogava river  Storehouse
1954: Lothal was discov-  Dockyard
ered.  Rice husk
1955: S.R. Rao excavated  Fire altar
Lothal between 1955 and
1960.
Pakistan Punjab Prov- Harappa Ravi river  Red sandstone male
ince (150 hectares) 1921: Daya Ram Sahni be- torso
gan excavations.  Six granaries
1946: R.E.M. Wheeler ex-  Carts with solid wheels
cavated Harappa.
Ganweriwala Saraswati river
Sindh Prov- Mohenjodaro Indus river  Great Bath
ince (500 hectares) 1922: Rakhal Das Banerji  Granary
started excavations  A bronze figure of a bull
 Pashupati Seal
 Bronze statue of 'Danc-
ing Girl'
 Steatite statue of Priest-
King

61
 Decorative seashell but-
tons
 Sixteen skeletons with PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
ornaments.
 A piece of woven cotton.
Chanhudaro Indus river
kot Diji Indus river
Amri Indus river
Balochistan Balakot
Rana Ghundai
 Dabar kot
Sutkagendor
Khyber Pakh- Rehman Dheri
tunkhwa Ghumla
(Gumla)
Afghanistan Northern Af- Shortughai  Traces of canals
ghanistan

[UPSC CSE 2019] Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?
a) Chanhudaro
b) Kot Diji
c) Sohgaura
d) Desalpur
Answer: Sohgaura

5.2. Salient Features of the Harappan Culture

Town Planning
• The most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban centres.
• In most cities, the settlement is divided into two sections:
1. Citadel or Acropolis (meaning a "high city" or a city built on a high hill)
2. Lower town
• Both the citadel (upper town) and lower town were walled.

Citadel
• The citadel was smaller but higher. It was higher because the buildings were constructed on mud-brick
platforms.

62
• It was usually present on the western side.
• It was possibly occupied by the ruling class members (elite people).

Special Buildings PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• In some cities, large buildings such as Great Baths and Granaries were constructed on the citadel.
• All those buildings were made of bricks and were probably used for special public purposes. Some
scholars suggest that the Great Bath was meant for some special ritual bath.

Great Bath
• In Mohenjodaro, a Great Bath was constructed on a citadel. It was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard
surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. It measures 11.88 x 7.01 metres and is 2.43 metres deep.
• The tank was made watertight by setting bricks on the edge and using gypsum mortar. The floor was
made of burnt bricks.
• There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank. There were rooms on three
sides, in one of which was a large well. Water was probably brought in from a well and drained out after
use.
• Archaeologists have proposed several possible purposes for the Great Bath:
 A public bath for people: This possibility is ruled out because most houses had individual bathrooms.
 A bath for the royal family only
 A tank used for religious rituals.

Granaries
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Kalibangan had graneries.
 In Mohenjodaro, the largest building is a granary, which is 45.71 metres long and 15.23 metres
wide.
 The citadel of Harappa had six granaries.
 Some structures built by the Harappans were apparently designed for utilitarian purposes (public
use), indicating that they may have practised a form of democratic system (collective decision-mak-
ing).

Lower Town
• The lower town was much larger but lower.
• It was usually present on the eastern side.
• It had brick houses, which were occupied by the common people. Most houses were single-storeyed,
though some had two storeys. Doors and windows were made of wood and mats.

Residential Buildings

• The houses were built on a grid pattern, i.e. streets and roads intersect at a right angle. It seems that

63
streets with drains were laid out first, and then houses were built along them.
• Many residential buildings were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
• In almost all cities, every house had its own courtyard. In Kalibangan, many houses had their wells.

Concern for Privacy

• Harappan people gave importance to the privacy:
 In almost all cities every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks.
 There were no windows in the walls along the ground level.
 The main entrance did not give a direct view of the interior of the courtyard.

Variations
• While most Harappan settlements have a small high western part and a larger lower eastern section,
there are variations:
 Chanhudaro did not have a citadel (only Harappan city without a citadel)
 The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off but was built at a height.
 Dholavira had three distinct zones (not two as in other cities): The citadel, the middle town, and the
lower town. The middle and lower towns had residential quarters.
 In Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town
were also separated by walls.

Uniform Size of Bricks

• The bricks, whether sun-dried, baked, or burnt, used at all Harappan settlements were of a standardised
ratio of 1:2:4. The length and breadth of the bricks were four times and twice the height, respec-
tively. Bricks used for houses were smaller (7.5x15x30 cm), while those for city walls were larger
(10x20x40 cm).
• The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions is an important characteristic of
the Harappan culture. Contemporary buildings in Egypt mainly used dried bricks, while baked bricks
were used in Mesopotamia.

Planned Underground Drainage System

• The Harappan drainage system was unique. Every house was connected to the street drains, which had
a gentle slope so that water could flow through them.
• House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit where solid matter settled while waste water flowed
into the street drains.
• The drains were covered with bricks or stone walls, and manholes were provided to clean them.
• The quality of the domestic bathrooms and drains is remarkable. Perhaps no other Bronze Age civilisation
gave so much attention to health and cleanliness as the Harappans did.
 At Lothal, the houses were built of mud bricks and drains were made of burnt bricks.

64
Agriculture
• In ancient times, the Indus region was fertile. This fertility was due to two reasons: PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
1. Annual inundation in the Indus river.
2. More natural vegetation: In earlier times, the Indus region possessed more vegetation, attracting
more rainfall.
• The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient foodgrains not only to
feed themselves but also the town people. Because of this surplus food production, the Harappan cities
survived.
• Archaeological findings have shown that the Harappans grew barley, wheat, millets, pulses, sesamum,
mustard, various vegetables, and sometimes rice. A rice husk found in Lothal and Rangpur revealed the
earliest evidence of rice cultivation in South Asia.
• Food grains were stored in granaries. The huge granaries at Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan
suggest that cereals were produced in such large quantities. Cereals were probably received as taxes
from peasants and stored in granaries to pay wages and to use during emergencies.
• The Indus people were one of the earliest to grow cotton, which they used to weave into clothes. Because
cotton was first produced in this area, the Greeks called it sindon, derived from Sindh.
 Cotton was probably grown at Mehrgarh from around 5000 BCE (7000 years ago), making this the
oldest evidence of cotton in the world.

Use of Wooden Ploughs

• The Harappan people used wooden ploughs. The following findings suggest the use of plough:
1. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Banawali and Cholistan.
2. Evidence of a ploughed field has been found in Kalibangan. The ploughed field of Kalibangan had
two sets of furrows at right angles, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.
3. Representations of bulls on seals, a terracotta sculpture of a bull and a bronze figure of a bull from
Mohenjodaro indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen
were used for ploughing.

Irrigation
• Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands. Hence, irrigation was probably required for agricul-
ture.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Shortughai in Afghanistan but not in Punjab or Sind. In
Punjab and Sind, it is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago or water drawn from wells was
used for irrigation.
 Gabarbands or nalas, enclosed by dams for storing water, were found in parts of Baluchistan and

65
Afghanistan.
 Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
[UPSC NDA II 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).
2. There is evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan associated with the mature phase of the Ha-
rappan civilization.
3. The ploughed field at Kalibangan had two sets of furrows crossing at right angles to each other
suggesting two different crops were grown together in it.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
 a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) None of the above
Answer: 1 and 3 only

Domestication of Animal
• The Harappans domesticated many animals, including oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, elephants, dogs, cats
and pigs. They favoured the humped bulls.
• The use of horses is not yet firmly established. Neither the bones of the horse nor its representations
appear in early and mature Harappan culture. Evidence of the horse comes from:
 A superficial level of Mohenjodaro
 A doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal.
 The remains of the horse from Surkotada (but the identity is doubtful).
• Hence there is no conclusive evidence to confirm that the Indus Valley people were familiar with horses.

Crafts and Industries

• The people of Harappa used many tools and implements made of stone, copper, and bronze.
• The Harappan people were well acquainted with manufacturing and using bronze, and bronzesmiths
constituted an important group of artisans in Harappan society. Bronze and copper vessels are outstand-
ing examples of the Harappan metal craft.
• Normally, bronze was made by smiths by mixing tin with copper. Since neither of the two metals was
easily available to the Harappans, bronze tools were not prolific in Harappa. The Harappans continued
to use stone tools alongside limited bronze use.
The bronze tools and weapons recovered from the Harappan sites contain a smaller percentage of tin.
• Goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold, and precious stones. Silver was relatively more common than

66
gold, as indicated by the occurrence of a number of large vessels and other objects.
• The Harappans were also experts in bead-making. They made beads of semi-precious stones, shells,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

terracotta, gold, silver, and copper. Chanhudaro and Lothal were important centres of bead-making.
• The spinning of cotton and wool was very common. Spindle whorls were used for spinning.
• Brick-laying, seal-making, and terracotta manufacturing were also important crafts. The Harappans also
practised boat-making.

Centres of Craft Production

• Each region of the Harappan civilisation had its own manufacturing specialisations. Raw materials were
often brought from other areas, where skilled craftsmen turned them into finished goods. These goods
were then sent to large cities like Mohenjodaro and Harappa for trade or use.
 1. Chanhudaro was almost exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making, shell-cut-
ting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
2. Nageshwar and Balakot, near the Arabian coast, were specialised centres for making shell objects,
including bangles, ladles, and inlays.
3. Lothal was an important centre for making stone, shell and metal objects.
4. Kalibangan, famous for its black terracotta bangles, was a major hub for bangle production.
 The name Kalibangan (black bangle) comes from the blackened terracotta bangles found throughout
the site.
5. Sukkur and Rohri Hills (Pakistan) provided limestone and chert blades to various Harappan settle-
ments in Sindh.

Sukkur and Rohri Hills

• The hills near Sukkur and Rohri, made of limestone, lie between the Indus River (west) and the Nara
River (east). These hills provided raw materials like limestone and chert for the Harappans.
• Though Mohenjodaro was primarily built with bricks and mud bricks, some structures used squared
limestone blocks from these hills. For example, the cover of the narrow canal connected to the "Great
Bath" was made of these quarried blocks.

Identifying Centres of Production

• To identify centres of craft production, archaeologists usually look for the following:
 Raw materials such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore
 Tools
 Unfinished objects
 Rejects and waste material.
• Waste is one of the best indicators of craftwork. For instance, if a shell or stone is cut to make objects,
then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production.

67
[UPSC CDS I 2020] From which one of the following factory sites were limestone and chert
blades mass produced and sent to various Harappan settlements in Sindh?

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

a) Sukkur and Rohri Hills
b) Khetri in Rajasthan
c) Chagai Hills
d) Hills of Baluchistan
Answer: Sukkur and Rohri Hills

Trade
• The Harappans were a trading people. They traded internally (within the Indian subcontinent) and ex-
ternally (with West Asia).
• Harappans did not use metal money; they exchanged goods through barter. In return for finished goods
and food grains, they procured metals from neighbouring areas.

Strategies for Procuring Materials

• Harappans carried a considerable trade in stone, metal, shells, etc. However, their cities did not possess
the necessary raw materials for the commodities they produced. Hence, they procure the raw materials
from other areas via land, river, and coastal routes using bullock carts and boats.
 Harappans knew the use of wheels, and carts with solid wheels were used in Harappa. They used
some kind of a modern ekka but not the spoked wheel.
• The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways:
1. Establishing settlements near the source of materials:
 Nageshwar and Balakot: Areas where the shell was available.
 Shortughai: Near the source of lapis lazuli (a blue stone).
 Lothal: Near the sources of carnelian (from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan
and north Gujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).
2. Sending expeditions and establishing trade contacts: Occasional finds of Harappan artefacts, such
as steatite micro beads in the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold), indi-
cate such contact.
Procuring raw material Region
Copper Khetri region of Rajasthan and Oman
Carnelian (red colour stone) Bharuch (Gujarat)
Lapis Lazuli (Highly valued blue stone) Shortughai (Afghanistan)
Gold Karnataka and Afghanistan
Tin Iran and Afghanistan
Silver Afghanistan
Precious stones and Lead South India

68
Copper from Oman
• Harappans procured the copper from Oman.
• Omani copper, copper found at Mesopotamian sites, and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, sug- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
gesting a common origin. Mesopotamian texts from the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming
from a Magan (Oman).

[UPSC NDA I 2021] Which one of the following Harappan sites was a specialised centre for
making shell objects?
a) Lothal
b) Balakot
 c) Amri
d) Kot Diji
Answer: Balakot

Trade Relations with West Asia

• Harappans had trade relations with West Asia (Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia) and Central Asia (Turan).
The Harappans exported carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood to Mesopotamia.
• The following findings suggest the trade relation of Harappans with West Asia:
 Mesopotamian texts mention contact and trade with regions named Dilmun (the island of Bahrain),
Magan (Oman), and Meluhha (the Harappan region).
 A large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites.
 Harappan seals and other artefacts have been found in contemporary Mesopotamian civilisation.
 The cylinder stone seal, typical of Mesopotamia, has a humped bull motif. This motif appears to be
derived from the Indus region.
 The round "Persian Gulf" seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs.
 The local "Dilmun" weights followed the Harappan standard.
• The Harappans had trade relations with the following contemporaries sites:
 Altyn-depe (Bronze Age site in Turkmenistan)
 Shahr-i-Sokhta (Bronze Age site in eastern Iran)
 Tepe Yahya (in southeastern Iran)
 Ur and Uruk (Mesopotamian sites)

[UPSC NDA II 2017] In the Mesopotamian records, which one of the following terms was
used for the Indus Valley (Harappans)?
a) Dilmun
b) Meluha
c) Magan

69
d) Failaka
Answer: Meluha
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
[UPSC NDA II 2016] The cylindrical stone seals were used in which civilization?
a) Harappan
b) Egyptian
c) Roman
d) Mesopotamian
Answer: Mesopotamian

An enigmatic script
 70
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The Harappans invented the art of writing like the people of ancient Mesopotamia.
 The earliest specimen of Harappan script was noticed in 1853, and the complete script was discov-
ered by 1923.
• The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. It is not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a
vowel or a consonant) but mainly pictographic. It has many signs (pictographs), somewhere between
375 and 400, and each stands for a word (idea, object or sound).
• The script was written from right to left, as some seals show wider spacing on the right and cramping
on the left as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran out of space. In a few long seals,
the boustrophedon method was adopted.
  Boustrophedon: Writing in the reverse direction in alternative lines.
• Writing has been found on various objects, such as seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta
tablets, jewellery, bone rods, and even an ancient signboard.
• Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs.
• The Harappan script is not related to the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Dholavira Signboard
• At Dholavira, a large inscription of 10 signs, possibly a fallen signboard, was found close to the main
gateway.
• The large letters were carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood. The letters of the inscription are
the largest examples of writing ever discovered in any Harappan city. This is a unique find as, generally,
Harappan writing has been found on small objects.

Scholarly disagreements on the nature of the Indus script

Number of symbols

• There is no agreement among scholars on the number of symbols in the Indus script.
Scholar Number of Signs
S R Rao (Archaeologist who pioneered the deciphering effort) 62
Asko Parpola (Finnish Indologist) 425
Bryan K Wells (Archaeologist and epigrapher) 676

Language

• Some scholars, such as S R Rao, suggested that the Indus language was the ancestor of Sanskrit. However,
others, such as Asko Parpola, refuted this claim.
• Some scholars such as Asko Parpola, Suniti Kumar Chatterji, Father Heras, Iravatham Mahadevan, and
Krishnamurti also suggested that the Indus language has Dravidian roots.

71
Not a script at all

• Some scholars argue that the Indus script is not a language-based writing system. They point out that

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

the inscriptions are very short, averaging five characters, with the longest being 26. Researcher Bahata
Ansumali Mukhopadhyay proposed that the symbols of the Indus script were used for practical purposes,
like tax stamps and trade permits, not for religious or linguistic functions.

Major Challenges in Deciphering the Indus Script

• The following are significant challenges in deciphering the Indus script:
1. Absence of multilingual inscriptions
2. Unknown Language
3. Limited Knowledge of the Indus Valley Civilisation
Absence of Multilingual Inscriptions

• Multilingual inscriptions having the same content in two or more scripts are most helpful in deciphering
unknown scripts. Scholars who can read the inscriptions in one script can compare the letters and deci-
pher the other script.
• Harappans had trade relations with the contemporaneous Mesopotamian Civilisation, whose cuneiform
script was deciphered in the early 19th century — but no multilingual inscriptions have been discovered
so far.

Rosetta Stone Inscription

• It is a multilingual inscription in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic, and ancient Greek. It contains a decree
passed during the reign of Ptolemy V in 196 BCE. This inscription was instrumental in deciphering Ancient
Egyptian hieroglyphics in the 1820s by French philologist Jean-François Champollion.

Unknown Language

• Undeciphered scripts/languages fall into three categories:

1. An unknown script writing a known language
2. A known script writing an unknown language
3. An unknown script writing an unknown language
• The Indus script belongs to the third category, which is the hardest to decipher due to the lack of refer-
ence points.

Limited Knowledge of the Indus Valley Civilisation

• Deciphering the script requires more material evidence in the form of inscribed artefacts, as each artefact
and its context offer clues. However, only about 3,500 seals have been found, with an average of just five
characters each.
• Deciphering the script is difficult because not much is known about the Indus Valley Civilisation compared
to contemporaneous ancient civilisations in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Many Harappan sites remain un-

72
discovered or underexplored.

Importance of Deciphering the Script

• Archaeological evidence, such as houses, pots, ornaments, tools, and seals, tells us much about the Ha- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
rappan people. However, it is challenging to understand some aspects of the civilisation, such as beliefs,
religion, governance, etc., without deciphering its script. Hence, some aspects of civilisation are unknown,
and the decipherment of the Harappan script will shed much light on this culture.

Possible Dravidian Link to the Indus Valley Civilisation

• Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) released a book titled 'Indus Signs and Graffiti
Marks of Tamil Nadu: A Morphological Study'. It revealed that nearly 90% of the graffiti marks and 60%
 of the signs unearthed from excavation sites across Tamil Nadu have parallels with those found in the
Indus Valley Civilisation.
• Iravatham Mahadevan, in 2009, in one of his articles in The Hindu, highlighted certain linguistic evidence
favouring the Dravidian theory. These are:
 The survival of Brahui, a Dravidian language in the Indus region
 The presence of Dravidian loanwords in the Rigveda
 The substratum influence of Dravidian on the Prakrit dialects
 Computer analysis of the Indus texts revealed that the language had only suffixes (like Dravidian) and
no prefixes (as in Indo-Aryan) or infixes (as in Munda)
• However, Mahadevan suggested that these points did not automatically make Indus scrip Dravidian, and
much more work remains to be done.

[UPSC CAPF 2020] Which one of the following statements about the Harappan script is NOT
correct?
a) It has about four hundred signs
b) It was written from right to left
c) It has been found on bone rods and jewellery
d) It refers to the people of Meluhha
Answer: It refers to the people of Meluhha

Weights
• The Harappan people used weights for trade and other transactions. The exchanges were regulated by a
precise system of weights, usually made of chert stone. The weights were generally cubical with no
markings. The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc., up to 12,800), while
the higher denominations followed the decimal system. The weights used were mostly 16 or its multi-
ples, such as 16, 64, 160, 320, and 640.
 The tradition of 16 has continued in India until modern times, and until recently, 16 annas made one

73
rupee.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Burials
• Overall, the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead. However, some
graves contain pottery, ornaments, copper mirrors, jewellery, and a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone)
bead, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife.

Arts
• The artists and craftsmen of the Indus Valley were extremely skilled in a variety of crafts, including metal
casting, stone carving, pottery making and painting, and terracotta images. A large variety of objects,
such as seals, stone and metal statues, terracotta, pottery, etc., are examples of art activities.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 74
Harappan Seals and Sealings
• The Harappan seal is possibly the most distinctive artefact of the Harappan civilisation. They were
mostly made of steatite (a soft stone) and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience, and terracotta.
• The Harappan seals were generally square or rectangular. The standard Harappan seal was a square
plaque 2x2 square inches, made from steatite.
• The seals often contain signs from Harappan script and animal motifs such as unicorns, bulls, humped
bulls, buffaloes, elephants, tigers, rhinoceros, bison, and goats. Sometimes, trees, boats, ships, and human
figures are also depicted. The largest number of seals depict unicorns, but the best artwork is of a
humped bull.
• The seals depict many animals, but cow, camel, lion and horse are absent.
 Sealing: The impression of the seal.
 Unicorn: A mythological animal resembling a horse or goat with a single horn on the forehead. It
may be identified with the rhinoceros.
• Seals and sealings were used:
1. To facilitate long-distance communication: The intact sealing indicates that the goods had not
been tampered with. It also conveyed the identity of the sender.
 Seals may have been used to stamp bags or packets containing goods sent from one place to another.
After a bag was closed or tied, a layer of wet clay was applied to the knot, and the seal was pressed on
it. If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with.
2. To identify private property: Harappan seals usually have a line of writing. probably containing the
name and title of the owner. Scholars have also suggested that the motif (generally an animal) con-
veyed a meaning to those who could not read.
3. To protect from evil forces: The seals were also used as amulets to protect from evil forces.

Pashupati Seal of Mohenjodaro

• Some seals depict a human figure with three faces and two horns (three horned heads) seated cross-

75
legged in a yogic posture.
• The human figure was surrounded by an elephant and a tiger on the right side and a rhinoceros and a
buffalo on the left. In addition to these animals, two antelopes (deers) are present below the seat. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Some scholars generally identify this seal as the Pashupati Seal, while others identify it as the female deity.

Bronze Statues
• Statues, whether in stone, bronze or terracotta, found in Harappan sites, are not abundant but refined.
• The Harappan artisans made beautiful images of metal. Bronze statues were made using the 'lost wax'
technique, and both animal and human figures have been found.
• As bronze was scarce, a few bronze sculptures were found. The most famous are:
 1. Dancing girl: A woman dancer of about 4-inch height made of bronze has been found in Mohen-
jodaro. It is popularly known as 'Dancing Girl'.
2. Daimabad man

Stone Statues
• The Harappan culture is poor in artistic works made of stone. Except for the citadel of Dholavira, which
is made up of stone, we do not come across any massive work of art in stone. Two famous stone male
figures (statues) found in Harappan sites are:
1. Male Torso: Red sandstone figure (Harappa)
2. Priest-King: Steatite statue of bearded man (Mohenjodaro)

Priest-King

• Archaeologists interpreted the bearded man found at Mohenjodaro as a priest-king. This is because
archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its "priest-kings" and have found parallels
in the Indus region.
• The figure of the bearded man is draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and covering the left
shoulder. This shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns. The eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed
as in meditative concentration.

Terracotta Figurines
• Harappan people produced a large number of terracotta figurines (fire-baked earthen clay). Terracotta
figurines include animals like birds, dogs, sheep, cattle, and monkeys, as well as men and women, with
women appearing more often.
• Terracotta figurines represent unsophisticated artistic works and were used as toys or religious objects
by common people.
 The seals and metal images were manufactured with great skill and used by upper-class members.
• Compared to the stone and bronze statues, the terracotta representations of human form are crude.

76
• The most important terracotta figurines among the Indus figures are those representing the mother god-
dess.

Mother Goddess PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Terracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate head-dresses were regarded as
mother goddesses. These figures are usually crude standing female figures adorned with necklaces
hanging over prominent breasts and wearing a loin cloth and a girdle.

Pottery
• Most Indus Valley pots were wheel-made wares, with very few being hand-made. The potteries were
shining and glossy.
 1. Plain pottery: Plain pottery, typically made from red clay with or without a fine red or grey slip, was
more common than painted pottery.
2. Red and Black pottery: In some areas, red and black-painted pottery has been discovered. These
pots often featured intricate black designs on a bright red surface, depicting geometric patterns,
plants, and animals.
• Big storage jars were also produced. A large Harappan jar has been found at Omani sites.
 Unfortunately, no wall paintings have survived, if they ever existed. The only evidence of paintings we
have is on pottery.

Utilitarian and Luxury Artefacts

• Archaeologists broadly classify the artefacts as utilitarian and luxury artefacts.

Utilitarian

• These include objects of daily use made easily from ordinary materials such as stone or clay. They are
usually distributed throughout settlements.
• These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers), etc.

Luxuries

• They are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies.
• A little pots of faience were probably considered precious because they were difficult to make.

Faience

• Faience is a material artificially produced by mixing ground sand or silica with colour. A gum was
used to shape sand or powdered quartz into an object. The objects were then glazed, resulting in a
shiny, glassy surface. The colours of the glaze were usually blue or sea green.
• Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and tiny vessels.

Tracking Social Differences

77
• Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic dif-
ferences among people living within a particular culture. These include studying burials, artefacts, settle-
ment patterns, houses, etc. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
1. Burial sites: At Harappan burial sites, the dead were typically laid in pits. However, there were varia-
tions in the way these burial pits were constructed. In some cases, the pits were lined with bricks.
Archaeologists are uncertain whether these differences indicate social distinctions.
2. Settlement patterns: The settlement patterns suggest a hierarchy in urban habitation. The ruling
class lived in the citadel, while common people lived in the lower town. However, whether this hier-
archy directly reflected occupational divisions or socio-economic differences is unclear.
 3. Types of houses: Harappan cities had houses of varying sizes, with some having one room and
others up to twelve, suggesting possible social differences. However, not everyone agrees with this
assumption.
• Based on the available evidences, it seems that Harappans were relatively egalitarians.

Religious Practices
• Archaeological evidence, such as terracotta figurines and seals, tells us much about the Harappan people.
However, it is difficult to say anything about the religious beliefs of Harappans without deciphering
their script.
• Many ideas about the Harappan religion are based on comparisons with later traditions. Archaeologists
often use what is known from the present to make assumptions about the past, leading to speculations
about their religious beliefs, such as:
 Worship of Mother Goddess: The Harappan people probably regarded terracotta figurines of
women as mother goddesses and worshipped them as their chief female deity.
 Proto-Shiva Worship: A man seated in a yogic posture was regarded as Pashupati (proto-Shiva) and
probably worshipped as chief male deity.
 Phallus Worship: The conical stone objects have been classified as lingas and were possibly used
for worship.
 Nature Worship: Depiction of plant and animal motifs on seals indicates that these were wor-
shipped.
 The most important is the one-horned unicorn. Next in importance is the humped bull.
 A deity is also depicted on a seal, surrounded by branches of the pipal tree, which continues to
be worshipped even today.
 Special ritual bath: A large rectangular tank in Mohenjodaro was considered a Great Bath. Some
scholars suggest that the Great Bath was meant for some special ritual bath.
 Fire Altars: The structures found in Kalibangan and Lothal were regarded as fire altars.

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 Amulets: Certain objects were regarded as amulets, suggesting that the Harappans likely believed in
ghosts and evil forces and used amulets for protection against them.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Since no building across the vast Harappan region has been identified as a temple, historians believe
that the inhabitants of the Indus region worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals, and human
figures, with worship likely taking place outdoors, under trees.
 Shamans are men and women who claim magical and healing powers, as well as an ability to com-
municate with the other world.

Ancient Authority (Political organisation)

• The extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts (pottery, seals, weights, and bricks), the evidence for
planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near
 sources of raw material indicate that complex decisions were made and implemented in Harappan so-
ciety. However, archaeological evidence does not reveal who made and implemented these decisions.
• Some scholars suggest that priests held political power in Harappa. However, the following points in-
dicate that priests were unlikely to rule Harappa.
 No temples have been found at any Harappan site.
 No religious structures have been found except for the Great Bath, which may have been used for
ablutions.
 A stone statue was labelled as the "priest-king" because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopo-
tamian history and its priest-kings.
• Without deciphering the Harappan script, it is challenging to determine the political structure of the
Harappan civilisation. However, some archaeologists have suggested the following possibilities:
1. Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.
2. There was no single ruler but several. Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so
forth.
3. There was a single state: This seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities
could have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.
 A class of merchants ruled Harappa: As Harappans lacked weapons and were more concerned with
commerce than conquests, some archaeologists thought merchants ruled the area.

Science and Technology

• The Harappan people were advanced in technology and engineering. At its peak, Harappans were skilled
in city planning, water management, and underground drainage systems. They built canals and reservoirs
to water their fields. They even built seafaring boats, warehouses, stadiums, and strong fortification walls.
• Harappans excelled in making bronze and copper tools, beads, pottery, and terracotta items. They were
among the first in the world to develop uniform and precise weights and measures. The bricks used in all
Harappan settlements followed a standardised ratio of 1:2:4.

79
• The Harappans had many firsts in the world. Though mud bricks were used in the Middle East as early
as 7000 BCE, Harappans were the first to bake them. Kalibangan even has evidence of the world's earliest

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

known plough use.

Harappan Innovations in Games and Toys

• Harappans designed many games and toys to keep both adults and children amused, They may have
originally invented many modern games.
 Toys: Many terracotta toys have been found across Harappan sites.
 Whistle: A terracotta whistle was discovered in Karanpura, Rajasthan.
 Chess: A stone gameboard resembling a modern chess set was found in Dholavira.
  Dice: Cubical dice marked with 1 to 6 dots, found at various sites, including Mohenjodaro. They differ
from modern dice in their number arrangement. Unlike modern dice, where the numbers on opposite
sides add up to 7, these dice have 1 opposite 2, 3 opposite 4 and 5 opposite 6.
 Button: Decorative seashell buttons were discovered in Mohenjodaro, suggesting Harappans were
among the first to use buttons.
 Pitthu: Clay discs resembling Pitthu slabs have been found, hinting at early forms of the game.
 Pitthu, or 'Seven Stones,' is a popular street game for children even today. Played between two teams,
the objective is for one team to knock down a tower of seven stones with a ball and then quickly rebuild
it while the opposing team tries to tag them out.

5.3. Important Harappan Sites

Dholavira
• Dholavira is one of the five biggest Harappan sites.
• All three phases of Harappan cultures are found in Dholavira.
• Three sections: The city is divided into three major sections: the citadel, middle town, and lower town.
• Open space: Between the citadel and the middle town, there is an open field which was once surrounded
on all four sides by stepped grandstands. Public ceremonies could be held in this open field, which has
been dubbed a stadium. Archaeologist R.S. Bisht believes it may be the "earliest and largest stadium
found so far in antiquity."
• Large inscription: An inscription comprising ten large-sized signs is found.
• Water management system: The people of Dholavira constructed 16 reservoirs to harvest rainwater
and collect water from the Manhar and Mansar rivulets.
• Chess: A stone gameboard resembling a modern chess set was found.
• UNESCO’s WHS: In 2021, UNESCO included Dholavira in the list of World Heritage Sites, marking it as
the first Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) site in India to receive this recognition.

Lothal

80
• "Lothal" in Gujarati means "the mound of the dead." "Mohenjodaro" also means the same in Sindhi.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Lothal, located along the Bhogava river, a tributary of Sabarmati, in the Gulf of Khambat, was a trading
port city and trading centre of the Harappan people.
• The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off but was built at a height.
• Craft production: Lothal was located near the source of raw materials and was an important centre for
making stones, shells, beads and metal objects.
• Storehouse and trade centre: There was also a storehouse in the Lothal. Many seals and sealings were
found in this storehouse, suggesting the trade.
• Dockyard: A huge lake has been found at Lothal. This is identified as a dockyard, where boats and ships
came in from the sea and through the river channel. Goods were probably loaded and unloaded here.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 81
• A rice husk and fire altar have been found in Lothal.
• Other port towns of IVC: Khirasa (India), Kuntasi (India), Sutkagendor (Pakistan), Balakot (Pakistan).

[UPSC CSE 2021] Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate
system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing
water into connected reservoirs?
a) Dholavira
b) Kalibangan
c) Rakhigarhi
d) Ropar
Answer: Dholavira

Kalibangan
• Kalibangan is located on the bank of the Sarasvati river in Rajasthan.
• It was a major hub for bangle production.
• A granary, fire altar, and evidence of a ploughed field have been found at Kalibangan.
• In Kalibangan, many houses had their own wells.

[UPSC NDA II 2022] At which among the following Harappan sites are fire altars found?
a) Kalibangan
b) Harappa
c) Mohenjo-daro
d) Rakhi Garhi
Answer: Kalibangan

Shortughai
• Shortughai, located in Afghanistan, was near the source of lapis lazuli. It served as an outpost for pro-
curing lapis lazuli.

82
• Traces of canals have been found at the Shortughai.

5.4. End of the Civilisation PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Harappan civilisation flourished from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Throughout its existence, it appears to
have maintained remarkable uniformity in its tools, weapons, seals, terracotta works, town planning, and
houses. After about 1900 BCE, however, the uniformity of the Harappan civilisation weakened, and re-
gional variations started emerging.
• By c. 1900 BCE, most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Cho-
listan had been abandoned. Other Harappan sites faded out gradually and continued in their degenerate
form in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and western UP.
• In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE, material culture appears to have
transformed. There was the disappearance of:
 Distinctive artefacts of the civilisation: Weights, seals, and special beads.
 Writing, long-distance trade, large public structure and craft specialisation
• After the end of mature Harappan culture, artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life, which
is called the "Late Harappan" or "successor cultures."

Causes of the Decline

• In the past, it was believed that invasions or wars (Aryan invasions) destroyed Harappan cities, but there
is no evidence for this. The Harappans seem to have been a peaceful civilisation with no signs of an
army or weapons. Archaeologists have proposed several factors that may have contributed to the de-
cline of the civilisation:
1. Climatic Change: From 2200 BCE onward, reduced rainfall and a drier climate made agriculture
difficult, possibly leading to food shortages in the cities. A long spell of bad monsoon led to droughts
and drove urban Harappans to drove out of cities and towns.
2. Drying Up of the Sarasvati River: The Sarasvati River dried up in its central basin, resulting in the
sudden abandonment of cities like Kalibangan and Banawali.
3. Decreasing Soil Fertility: Increased salinity from the expanding desert led to reduced soil fertility.
4. Excessive Floods: Sudden land subsidence or uplift caused flooding.
5. Shifting of Rivers: Earthquakes changed the course of the Indus River, inundating areas around Mo-
henjodaro.
• Some of these "causes" may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the end of the entire
civilisation. Currently, climatic change and the drying up of the Sarasvati river are the two factors
widely agreed upon. These factors remind us how much we depend on climate and the environment for
our well-being.

Aryan Invasion Theory

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• In 1925, sixteen skeletons with ornaments were found in the same part of Mohenjodaro. In 1947, R.E.M.
Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried to link this archaeological evidence with the Rigveda,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

which talks about the destruction of forts.
• Wheeler suggested that while climatic, economic, or political factors may have weakened the civilisation,
its ultimate destruction was likely caused by deliberate large-scale violence by Vedic people (Aryans).
• The Aryan invasion theory, proposed by Western scholars, suggested that a group of Central Asian "Ary-
ans" invaded the Indian subcontinent, displacing the indigenous people of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• Although the Rig Vedic people (Aryans) settled in the land of the Seven Rivers, where the Harappan
culture once thrived, there is no archaeological evidence of any large-scale conflict between the late
Harappans and the Indo-Aryans. Violent deaths in a small area don’t necessarily indicate a widespread
invasion; they could point to local disturbances instead.
• However, the denial of an invasion does not rule out the possibility of migration. The new peoples may
have come from Iran and South Central Asia, but not in large enough numbers to completely take over
Harappan sites in Punjab and Sindh. Instead, successive waves of Vedic people likely entered the region
during the post-urban Harappan phase.

DNA study from Rakhigarhi: No Aryan invasion

• The recent study of DNA extracted from the skeletal remains excavated at Rakhigarhi:
1. Indicates that the Harappans are the indigenous people of this region.
2. Rules out large-scale immigration of Aryans
• The genetic roots of the Harappans go back to 10,000 BCE. The DNA of the Harappans has continued till
today, and most of the South Asian population appears to be their descendants. Due to the trade and
cultural contacts of the Harappans with distant regions, there is a mixture of genes in small quantities.
• The continuity without any break in genetic history as well as cultural history rules out large scale immi-
gration of the Aryans.
• This research also indicates that the people coming from bordering areas and distant regions were ab-
sorbed in the Indian society. At no stage, the genetic history of the Indians was either discontinued or
broken. As the Harappans started moving towards Iran and Central Asia, their genes also gradually spread
in these regions.

Aryan Migration Theory

• The Aryan Migration Theory suggests that the Indo-Aryans migrated from Central Asia to India,
bringing Indo-European languages. They arrived in several waves between 2000 and 1500 BCE,
around the time the Indus Valley civilisation came to an end.
• However, some scholars completely set aside the Aryan Migration Theory and argue that Vedic people
were Harappans.

Out of India Theory (OIT)

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• The Out of India Theory (OIT) counters the established Aryan Migration Theory, claiming that
Indo-Aryan people originated in India and spread their languages westward. However, no substantial

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

evidence, genetic or archaeological, supports this large-scale migration of prehistoric Indians towards
the West.
• Harappans visited neighbouring civilisations or cultures, such as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological
Complex (BMAC) or Shahr-i-Sokhta, with whom they had trade and cultural links. However, there was
no large-scale migration.

New Reports Confirm ‘Aryan’ Migration into India

• In 2021, a peer-reviewed paper titled "The Formation of Human Populations in South and Central Asia",
co-authored by 117 scientists, was published in the journal 'Science'.
 • The paper supported the idea of an ‘Aryan’ migration into India, i.e. a migration of Indo-European
language-speaking people who called themselves ‘Arya’. It stated that between 2000 BCE and 1500
BCE, significant migrations from the Central Asian Steppe likely brought Indo-European languages into
India. This was similar to the earlier migrations of the Central Asian Steppe into Europe around 3000
BCE, which spread Indo-European languages across that continent.

5.5. Post-Urban Phase of the Harappan Culture (Late Harappan Culture)

• After lasting about 700 years, by c. 1900 BCE, the Harappa civilisation started a long, 600-year decline.
• The cities along the Indus and Sarasvati rivers were gradually abandoned, and people moved eastward
and southward. They formed newer and smaller settlements that were rural and backward, called Late
Harappan cultures.
• Post-urban Harappan cultures were primarily Chalcolithic, in which people used the tools of stone and
copper. The people lived in villages, subsisting on agriculture, stock raising, hunting, and fishing. The
dissemination of metal technology in rural areas probably promoted agriculture and settlements.
• Several post-urban Harappan settlements were discovered in the Swat valley in Pakistan and the Indian
territories of Punjab, Haryana, UP, and Jammu.
• Important Late Harappan settlements were found in the following regions:
1. Cemetery H (named after a cemetery found in "area H" at Harappa)
2. Jhukar (Sindh)
3. Rangpur (Gujarat)
4. Late Siswal (Haryana)
5. Swat (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan)

5.6. Indianness of the Harappan Culture

• It is as difficult to explain the origin of the Harappan culture. Though connections between pre-Harappan
settlements found in lower Sindh, Baluchistan, and Kalibangan with the mature Harappan culture are

85
unclear, it is likely that the mature Harappan culture developed from these local settlements.
• While contact with Mesopotamian cities may have influenced the development of Harappan culture, there
is no clear evidence that external influences played a significant role in the rise of Harappan cities within PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
the subcontinent.
• The following elements of Harappan culture distinguish it from the contemporary cultures in Western
Asia.
 Harappan cities were planned with a grid-like system featuring streets, drainage pipes, and cesspits,
unlike the haphazard growth of Mesopotamian cities.
 Rectangular houses with brick-lined bathrooms, wells, and stairways were common in Harappan
cities, a form of town planning not seen in Western Asia.
  The Harappans had an advanced drainage system, a feature not commonly found in contemporary
cultures, except possibly in Crete at Knossos.
 Unlike the people of Western Asia, the Harappans demonstrated exceptional skill in using burnt
bricks.
 The Harappans produced their own distinct pottery and seals.
 The Harappans developed a unique script unrelated to Egyptian or Mesopotamian scripts.

5.7. Learning from the Harappan Civilisation

 Town planning: The Harappans built their cities on a grid pattern with streets intersecting at right an-
gles. This design is still used in modern urban planning for efficient traffic flow and space management.
 Sanitation: The Harappans had an advanced underground drainage system, and almost every house
had a brick-paved bathroom. This highlights the importance of hygiene and sanitation, a priority in
modern urban development.
 Importance of privacy: The Harappans valued privacy, designing homes with no ground-level windows
and entrances that did not provide direct views into the interior. Privacy remains relevant in modern
architectural design.
 Sustainable water management: The people of Dholavira constructed sixteen reservoirs to harvest
rainwater and collect water from the Manhar and Mansar rivulets. This reflects the modern emphasis on
environmental sustainability and resource conservation in city planning.
 Peaceful society: Harappans focused more on commerce than conquest. This suggests the value of
peaceful coexistence and economic growth, a principle still crucial for today's global society.

5.8. Discovering the Harappan Civilisation

Cunningham’s Confusion
• When Cunningham began archaeological excavations in the mid-nineteenth century, archaeologists:
 Thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga Valley (Sixth century BCE).

86
 Preferred to use the written word (texts and inscriptions) to guide investigations.
• Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent be-
tween the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• In 1872, Sir Alexander Cunningham discovered a Harappan seal during the excavations at Harappa. How-
ever, since Harappa was not mentioned in the Chinese pilgrims' itineraries or recognized as an Early
Historic city, Cunningham did not realise how old these were.
• Believing Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga Valley in the sixth centuey BCE, Cun-
ningham unsuccessfully tried to place the seal within the time frame with which he was familiar.
• Cunningham concluded that the seal was foreign to India because it depicted a hump-less bull and not
the humped Indian zebu.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 87
  Today, the seal discovered by Cunningham is regarded as the typical artefact of the urban phase of
the Indus Civilisation.

Formal Announcement of Discovery

• In the early 20th century, archaeologists like Daya Ram Sahni discovered seals at Harappa in layers
much older than the Early Historic period. This marked the beginning of recognizing their historical im-
portance. Around the same time, Rakhal Das Banerji unearthed similar seals at Mohenjodaro. This led
to the conclusion that Harappa and Mohenjodaro were part of a shared and unified archaeological cul-
ture, later identified as the Indus Valley Civilization.
 Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921. He discovered seals, painted pottery, and beads.
 In 1922, Rakhal Das Banerji started excavating Mohenjodaro and found seals, pottery, copper prod-
ucts, and crucibles.
• In June 1924, Sahni and Banerji met with John Marshall in Shimla. Marshall noticed striking similarities
between the findings at Harappa and Mohenjodaro despite being 640 km apart.
• On September 20, 1924, John Marshall, then-Director General of the ASI, published an article in "The
Illustrated London News" Headlined "First Light on a Long-forgotten Civilisation: New Discoveries of an
Unknown Prehistoric Past in India" and announced the discovery of Indus Valley civilisation.

John Marshall
• John Marshall served as the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) from 1902 to
1928. While he, like Cunningham, focused on significant discoveries, he was also deeply interested in
uncovering patterns of daily life.
• John Marshall was the first professional archaeologist to work in India, and brought his experience of
working in Greece and Crete to the field. However, his excavation methods had limitations. He excavated
sites in horizontal units, measuring them uniformly across the mound, without considering the stra-
tigraphy (the natural layering of the site). Consequently, artefacts from different time periods (different
layers) were grouped together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers.

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R.E.M. Wheeler
• When R.E.M. Wheeler became the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1944, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
he rectified the shortcomings in excavation methods. Unlike his predecessors, Wheeler emphasized the
importance of following the stratigraphy of a site, which involves studying the natural layers of a mound
rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.
• As an ex-army brigadier, Wheeler also brought with him a military precision to the practice of archaeol-
ogy.

Significance of the Discovery

• The discovery of the Harappan civilisation was significant for two reasons.
 1. It filled a significant gap in South Asian history: Before its discovery, most historians believed
settled life in the Indian subcontinent began around the 6th century BCE. The discovery pushed the
history of settled life in the region back by over 3,000 years.
2. It revealed that around 4600 years ago (2600 BCE), a Bronze Age civilisation similar to the Meso-
potamian and Egyptian civilisations flourished in the Indian Sub-continent.

The Plight of Harappa

• In the mid-19th century, a railway line was laid between Lahore and Multan. British engineers saw
the Harappa as a mound that was a rich source of high-quality bricks. They did not even suspect a lost
civilisation and carried thousands of bricks from the walls of old buildings to build railway lines. These
burnt bricks provided ballast for rails.
• Alexander Cunningham noted that the amount of brick taken from the Harappa was enough to lay
about 100 miles of the railway line between Lahore and Multan. Harappa was badly destroyed by brick
robbers. In contrast, Mohenjodaro was far better preserved.

5.9. Timelines

Timeline 1
Timeline Key Events
7000 BCE Emergence of Harappan culture from early farming communities
4000 BCE Mesopotamian civilisation
3100 BCE Egyptian civilisation
2600 BCE to 1900 BCE Harappan civilisation
1900 BCE Drying up of Saraswat river
1900 BCE to 1300 BCE Decadent phase of Harappan culture

Timeline 2: Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

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Timeline Key Events
1875 Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal
1921 Daya Ram Sahni began excavations at Harappa PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
1922 Rakhal Das Banerji started excavations at Mohenjodaro
1954 Lothal was discovered
1955 S.R. Rao began excavation at Lothal
1960 B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar begin excavations at Kalibangan
1974 M.R. Mughal began explorations in Bahawalpur
1990 R.S. Bisht began excavations at Dholavira
2013 Vasant Shinde started archaeogenetic research at Rakhigarhi
[UPSC CSE 2013] Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus
Civilization?
1. They possessed great palaces and temples.
2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None of the statements given above is correct
Answer: 2 only

[UPSC CSE 2011] Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements:
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dom-
inate the scene.
2. During this period, coton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Both 1 and 2

[UPSC CAPF 2018] Which of the following statements about the Harappa Civilization is/are
correct?
1. There is extraordinary uniformity in artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, bricks and weights.
2. The late Harappa sites also maintained the same construction techniques as were used in mature

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Harappa sites.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: 1 only

[UPSC CDS II 2017] Which one of the following statements about the Harappan Culture is
not correct?
 a) It witnessed the first cities in the subcontinent.
b) It marks the first use of script, written from right to left.
c) It marks the earliest known use of iron as a medium for the art of sculpting.
d) It marks the earliest known use of stone as a medium for the art of sculpting.
Answer: c

[UPSC CAPF 2020] Which of the following is/are the most distinctive artefacts of the Ha-
rappan Civilisation?
1. Steatite seal
2. Bricks of a standardised ratio
3. Gold bangles
4. Silver spittoon
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2, 3 and 4
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 1 and 2 only

[UPSC EPFO 2020] Which one among the following observations pertaining to the works of
Nineteenth-Twentieth Century archaeologists is not correct?
a) Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India, was of the
view that the history of India began with the origins of the Indus Valley Civilization.
b) John Marshall generally adopted the method of excavation along regular horizontal units and ig-
nored the stratigraphy of the site.
c) R. E. M. Wheeler first recognized the necessity to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than
dig along horizontal lines.

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d) Amalananda Ghosh was the first to identify similarities between pre- Harappan and mature-Harap-
pan cultures.
Answer: option A PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
[UPSC CDS II 2018] The Harappan site at Kot Diji is close to which one of the following
major sites of that civilization?
a) Harappa
b) Mohenjo-daro
c) Lothal
d) Kalibangan
Answer: Mohenjo-daro
5.10. Summary

The Harappan Culture: Bronze Age Civilisation

• The Harappan civilisation can be divided into:
1. Early Harappan cultures (6000 BCE to 2600 BCE)
2. Mature Harappan culture (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE)
3. Late Harappan cultures (1900 BCE to 1300 BCE)
• The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture, distinguishing it from the
Early and Late Harappan cultures.

Harappan Settlements and Geographical Extent

• The Harappan culture extended from Shortughai (on Afghanistan's Russian border) in the north to
Daimabad (in Maharashtra) in the south and from Sutkagendor (on the Makran coast of Baluchistan)
in the west to Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) in the east.

Salient Features of the Harappan Culture

• Town Planning: The most unique feature of the Harappan civilisation was the development of urban
centres. In most cities, the settlement is divided into two sections: citadel and lower town. However
there are variations
 Chanhudaro did not have a citadel (only Harappan city without a citadel)
 The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off but was built at a height.
 Dholavira had three distinct zones: The citadel, the middle town, and the lower town.
 In Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town
were also separated by walls.
• Uniform Size of Bricks: The bricks, whether sun-dried, baked, or burnt, used at all Harappan settle-
ments were of a standardised ratio of 1:2:4. Bricks used for houses were smaller (7.5x15x30 cm), while
those for city walls were larger (10x20x40 cm).

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• Planned Underground Drainage System: The Harappan drainage system was unique. Every house
was connected to the street drains, which had a gentle slope so that water could flow through them.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Agriculture. Harappans practiced the agriculture with surplus food production. The Harappan people
used wooden ploughs. The following findings suggest the use of plough:
 Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Banawali and Cholistan.
 Evidence of a ploughed field has been found in Kalibangan.
 Representations of bulls on seals, a terracotta sculpture of a bull and a bronze figure of a bull from
Mohenjodaro.
• Domestication of Animals: The Harappans domesticated many animals, including oxen, buffaloes,
goats, sheep, elephants, dogs, cats and pigs. They favoured the humped bulls. The use of horses is not
 yet firmly established. Neither the bones of the horse nor its representations appear in early and mature
Harappan culture.
• Crafts and Industries: The people of Harappa used many tools and implements made of stone, cop-
per, and bronze. The Harappan people were well acquainted with manufacturing and using bronze,
and bronzesmiths constituted an important group of artisans in Harappan society. Bronze and copper
vessels are outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.
• Trade: The Harappans were a trading people. They traded internally (within the Indian subcontinent)
and externally (with West Asia). Harappans did not use metal money; they exchanged goods through
barter. In return for finished goods and food grains, they procured metals from neighbouring areas.
• An enigmatic script: The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. It is not alphabetical but mainly
pictographic. It has many signs (pictographs), somewhere between 375 and 400, and each stands for
a word (idea, object or sound). The script was written from right to left. In a few long seals, the bou-
strophedon method was adopted. Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs.
• Weights: The Harappan people used weights for trade and other transactions. The exchanges were
regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of chert stone. The weights were generally
cubical with no markings. The Harappan people were among the first in the world to develop uniform
and precise weights and measures.
• Science and Technology: The Harappan people were advanced in technology and engineering. At its
peak, Harappans were skilled in city planning, water management, and underground drainage systems.
They built canals and reservoirs to water their fields. They even built seafaring boats, warehouses, sta-
diums, and strong fortification walls. Harappans excelled in making bronze and copper tools, beads,
pottery, and terracotta items.

End of the Civilisation

• The Harappan civilisation flourished from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. By c. 1900 BCE, most of the Mature
Harappan sites in regions such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Cholistan had been abandoned. Other

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Harappan sites faded out gradually and continued in their degenerate form in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Har-
yana, and western UP.

Causes of the Decline PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• In the past, it was believed that invasions or wars (Aryan invasions) destroyed Harappan cities, but there
is no evidence for this. Currently, climatic change and the drying up of the Sarasvati river are the two
factors widely agreed upon. These factors remind us how much we depend on climate and the envi-
ronment for our well-being.

Discovering the Harappan Civilisation

• Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921. He discovered seals, painted pottery, and beads.
• In 1922, Rakhal Das Banerji started excavating Mohenjodaro and found seals, pottery, copper products,
and crucibles.
• In June 1924, Sahni and Banerji met with John Marshall in Shimla. Marshall noticed striking similarities
between the findings at Harappa and Mohenjodaro despite being 640 km apart. On September 20,
1924, John Marshall, then-Director General of the ASI, published an article in "The Illustrated London
News" Headlined "First Light on a Long-forgotten Civilisation: New Discoveries of an Unknown Prehis-
toric Past in India" and announced the discovery of Indus Valley civilisation.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 6. The Vedic Period

• By 1500 BCE, the cities of the Harappan civilisation had declined. Around this period, speakers of the
Indo-Aryan language (Aryan) entered the northwest of India from the Indo-Iranian region through the
passes in the northwestern mountains.
• Initially, they settled in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. After 1000 BCE, they moved
into western Uttar Pradesh. By the sixth century BCE, they spread further east to eastern UP and north
Bihar, occupying the whole of North India, which was referred to as Aryavarta.
• This period between 1500 BCE and 600 BCE is called the Vedic period. It is divided into:
1. The Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BCE - 1000 BCE)
2. The Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE - 600 BCE)
• There are no cities, monuments, or inscriptions from the thousand-year-long Vedic period; we have only
tools and broken pots. Hence, the reconstruction of the history of the Vedic period is primarily based
on Vedic texts, with archaeological materials providing additional information.
 The history of the Early Vedic period is based mainly on the Rig Veda, which was composed around

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1500 BCE (later additions might be added around 1000 BCE) in the Saptasindhu region.
 The history of the Later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts composed after the age of
the Rig Veda. These include the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Later Vedic texts were composed in the upper Gangetic basin.
• During the Vedic period, Aryan people and culture spread across India, and Hinduism began to take
shape with the composition of key texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and epics.

Ancient Names of Indian Regions by Aryans

1. Brahmarshi Desh: Ganga-Yamuna Doab and nearby areas.

2. Madhya Desh: The region between the Himalayas and Vindhya mountains.
3. Aryavarta: The North Indian region occupied by Aryans in Later Vedic period.
6.1. Who were Aryans?

• Aryans were speakers of the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, which is a part of the Indo-European lan-
guage family.
• Originally, Aryans likely lived in the steppes between southern Russia and Central Asia. They were pri-
marily pastoralists, with agriculture being a secondary occupation.
• Over many centuries, Aryans gradually migrated to different parts of Asia and Europe in search of pasture
fields. On their way to India, they first appeared in Central Asia and Iran.
• Although the Aryans used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. Its
swiftness enabled them to expand into West Asia and other parts of the world.
• The Rig Veda, composed by the Aryans in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent around 1500
BCE, and the Avesta, the oldest text in the Iranian language composed around 1400 BCE in Iran, refer
to themselves as "Arya" and "Airiia," respectively.
• Indo-European and Indo-Aryan are language labels. In the nineteenth century, historians used the short-
ened terms, Indo-European and Indo-Aryan or Aryan for 'Indo-European-speaking people and Indo-Ar-
yan-speaking people. These shortened terms continue to be used today and are sometimes incorrectly
used as racial terms.
 The term ‘Arya’ occurs 36 times in the Rig Veda and generally indicates a cultural community that
speaks the Indo-Aryan language..
 The Avesta is a collection of Zoroastrian religious texts, and Avestan is the language.

Debate on the Original Homeland of the Aryans

• The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question with several views. Different scholars have
identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans. Bal Gangadhar Tilak argues that the
Aryans came from the Arctic region on astronomical calculations.
• While the Russian steppes are generally regarded as the most likely origin of the Aryans, some scholars
argue that they may have originated in India and spread elsewhere. However, the following points

96
challenge this theory:
 Cultural connections with ancient Iran and common origin: Vedic culture was similar to ancient
Iran’s. The ancient Persian ‘Avestan’ is similar to ancient Sanskrit. They both used the same words PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

with the change of ‘s’ in Sanskrit and ‘h’ in Avestan. Example: haoma, daha, hepta hindu, ahura in
Avestan, and soma, dasa, sapta sindhu, asura in Rig-Vedic Sanskrit.
 The cultural similarities indicate that they come from the same source, but probably not India,
as ancient Iranian texts describe a mythical homeland with two months of summer and ten
months of winter, which does not match India's climate.
 Vocabulary from Local Languages: Some Sanskrit words for local Indian plants and animals were
borrowed from non-Indo-Aryan languages like Dravidian and Austro-Asiatic (Munda), which have
 been spoken in India for thousands of years. For instance, while elephants are native to India, there
is no original Aryan word for them; they were referred to as "mrigahastin," meaning "animal with a
hand."
 This suggests that the Aryans encountered unfamiliar flora and fauna upon arriving in India and
adopted local names. If the Aryans had migrated from India, similar words would likely appear in
other Indo-European languages, but such terms are absent in old Iranian.
 Retroflex Sounds: Retroflex sounds are consonant sounds made by curling the tongue back toward
the hard palate. Example: pronouncing ‘Ta’, ‘Tha’.
 Retroflex sounds are common in Dravidian and Munda languages. These are also present in
Sanskrit but not in any other Indo-European languages. If the Indo-Europeans had originated
in India and migrated out, at least some of the other 450 Indo-Europeans should have had them.
 Myths in Avesta: In the Avesta, there are references to a migration from Central Asia to Sap-
tasindhu. While the original homeland remains mythical, it suggests a migration to the Indus region.
 Lack of familiarity with flora and fauna: Lack of familiarity with local flora and fauna suggests mi-
gration. For instance:
 Rice was unknown to the Rig Vedic people, though it was present at some Harappan sites. Native
Indian crops like rice, sesame, and cotton, widely cultivated in the Indus Valley, only appear in the
later Vedas, while the Rig Veda mainly mentions barley.
 The tiger and rhinoceros, typical of India’s tropical and temperate climates, are absent in the cold
conditions of Central Asia. They are not mentioned in the Rig Veda. Other tropical animals like
the lion, deer, buffalo, and elephant are mentioned only a few times. In contrast, the horse, cow,
and bull are frequently referenced in Rigveda, reflecting the Central Asian influence.
 Lions were known earlier than tigers or rhinoceroses. However, while tigers and rhinoceroses were
frequently depicted on Harappan seals, they are absent in the Rig Veda.

Were the Aryans and Harappans the same people?

97
• Some scholars argue that there was no Aryan migration and that the Aryans and the Harappans were one
people, both 'fully Indigenous'. They also claim that the Harappans spoke proto-Sanskrit. However, this

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

view overlooks the data from linguistics and does not present an analytical understanding of the archae-
ological evidence.
• Here are some key differences between the Aryans and Harappans:
 The culture described in the Vedas is different from the archaeological evidence of the Harappan
culture.
 The horses are glorified in Vedas but absent on Harappan seals.
 The urban settlement, a characteristic of Harappan culture, was absent in the Rig Vedic period.
 The Harappans were trading people who preferred business to warfare, while the Vedic Aryan liter-
ature glorifies war.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 98
  The Harappans mostly buried their dead, and the Aryans cremated them.
 The history of the Harappan civilisation is based on archaeological remains, as the Harappan script has
not yet been deciphered. In contrast, the history of the Vedic period is mainly based on Vedic texts,
with archaeological findings providing further insights.

Differences Between Indus Civilization and Vedic Culture

Aspect Indus Civilization Vedic Culture
Time Period 2600-1900 BCE 1500-600 BCE
Region Northwest region of the Indian sub- 1. EVP: Saptasindhu region covering eastern
continent covering parts of Afghani- Afghanistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pun-
stan, Pakistan and Western India jab, and the fringes of western Uttar Pra-
desh.
2. LVP: Ganga-Yamuna plains.
Settlement and  Urban settlements  Rural Culture
Residence  Planned Cities  Absence of town
 People lived in houses made of  People lived in mudbrick houses or in wat-
sun-dried, baked, or burnt bricks tle-and-daub houses
Use of Metals  They used gold, silver, copper and They used various metals like gold, silver, cop-
bronze for various purposes. per, bronze and iron for various purposes.
 They were totally unaware of the
use of iron.
Economic Life  The economic life of the people 1. EVP: Predominantly pastoral people
was prosperous and advanced due  No clear evidence of regular trade.
to industrial specialization and lo- 2. LVP: People primarily involved in agricul-
calization. ture.
 The Harappans were a trading peo-  No surplus foodgrain production.

99
ple. They traded internally and ex-  Engaged in trade (But not advanced)
ternally.
 Surplus food production PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Domestication There is no evidence of Indus people Rigvedic Aryans domesticated the horse
of Animals having been aware of horses.
Art of Writing  People had the knowledge of writ- There is no clear evidence of written script
ing and reading. during the Vedic culture. People relied on oral
 The Harappan script has not yet transmission of Vedic texts.
been deciphered.
 War Peaceful society with no signs of an  Vedic literature glorifies war.
army or weapons.  Aryans used the horse-driven chariots,
coat of mail and helmet in warfare.
Religion  Mainly a secular civilization and 1. EVP: Rig Vedic people discover their reli-
the religious element, though pre- gion in their surroundings. So, they per-
sent, did not dominate the scene. sonified natural forces into many gods
 The people were mainly idol-wor- and worshipped them. The Vedic gods in-
shipers. They worshipped Pashu- clude Indra, Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Rudra,
pati and the Mother Goddess. Soma, Vayu, Surya etc
 No idol worship during the early Vedic
period.
2. LVP: Prajapati (creator), Vishnu (protec-
tor), Rudra (destroyer) and Pushan be-
came important.
 Some objects began to be worshipped
as symbols of divinity, and signs of idola-
try appeared.

[UPSC CSE 2017] With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans
and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley
Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and
iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people
having been aware of this animal.

100
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 1 and 3 only

6.2. Indo-European Language Family

• Indo-European Languages are a family of related languages currently spoken in a changed form in Eu-
rope, Iran, and most of the Indian subcontinent. These include:
 Indian languages: Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri and Sindhi.
  Asian languages: Persian.
 European languages: English, French, German, Greek, Italian and Spanish.
• Indo-European Languages are called a family because they originally had words in common. Certain an-
imal names, such as goats, dogs, horses, etc., and names of certain plants, such as pine, maple, etc., are
similar in all Indo-European languages. These common words indicate the fauna and flora of Eurasia.
They show that the Aryans were acquainted with rivers and forests.

101
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
  Curiously, common words for mountains exist only in a few Aryan languages, although the Aryans
have crossed many hills.
• The earliest inscriptions of the Indo-European language have not been found in India. They have been
found in:
 Turkey: Hittite inscriptions from the nineteenth century BCE.
 Iraq: Kassite inscriptions from 1600 BCE.
 Syria: Mittani inscriptions from the fourteenth century BCE.
 In the 18th century, Sir William Jones found a surprising similarity between Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek.
This led to the discovery that these languages come from a single ancient language known as the Indo-
European language family.

Languages in the Indian subcontinent

• Languages used in the Indian subcontinent belong to different families. Such as:
1. Indo-European language family: Sanskrit, Urdu, Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Bengali and
Sindhi.
2. Tibeto-Burman family: Languages spoken in the north-east.
3. Austro-Asiatic family: Languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central India.
4. Dravidian family: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam.

6.3. Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE)

• The Aryans migrated to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people
(people who composed Rig Veda) around 1500 BCE.
• The earliest Aryans lived in the Saptasindhu region (the land of seven rivers), which covers eastern Af-
ghanistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Swat Valley / North-West Frontier Province), Punjab, and the fringes of
western Uttar Pradesh.

102
Saptasindhu River

• The Saptasindhu River refers to the Indus, its five tributaries, and the Saraswati River from eastern
Afghanistan. Here, the Saraswati River refers to the Avestan River, 'Haraxvati' (presently the Helmand
River in Afghanistan). PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Haraxvati and Harayu rivers mentioned in Avesta seem to have been repeated in northern India, as in
Saraswati and Sarayu. The Saraswati river (naditarna) of north India, mentioned in Rig Veda, is identi-
fied with the Ghaggar-Hakra river of Haryana and Rajasthan.

Vedic Names of Rivers

• Sindhu (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni or Asakini (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipash or Vipasa (Beas),
Shutudri (Sutlej), Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra), Drishadvati (Chautang).
• People who composed Rig Veda called themselves Aryas, and indigenous inhabitants as Dasa or Dasyus.
  Dasas: Dasas are also mentioned in ancient Iranian literature.
 They seem to have been a branch of the early Aryans.
 The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas.
 Later, the term dasa (and the feminine dasi) came to mean slave.
 Dasyus: The dasyus in the Rig Veda possibly represents the original inhabitants of the country.
 The dasyus possibly worshipped the phallus and did not keep cattle for dairy products.
 The Aryan chief was strongly hostile to the dasyus.
 The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
 The Aryan chief who overpowered dasyus was called Trasadasyu.

103
[UPSC CAPF 2022] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code
given below the Lists:

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

List-I (Vedic name of river) List-II (Modern name)
A. Drishadvati 1. Chenab
B. Askini 2. Chautang
C. Vitasta 3. Ravi
D. Purushni 4. Jhelum
Code:
ABCD
a) 2413
 b) 2143
c) 3142
d) 3412
Answer: 2143

Tribal Conflicts
• The Aryans were engaged in two types of conflicts:
1. They fought with the pre-Aryans - Dasas and Dasyus:
 Indra is called Purandara in the Rig Veda, meaning he was the destroyer of forts. However, the
pre-Aryans were not Harappans who no longer lived in fortified cities. The major fights between
the Aryans and the pre-Aryans probably took place in the Indo-Iranian borderlands.
 The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed horse-driven chariots and were
equipped with coats of mail (Varman) and better arms made of bronze.
 The Aryans introduced horse-driven chariots for the first time in West Asia and India.
2. They fought amongst themselves. Example – Battle of Ten Kings.

Battle of Ten Kings

• According to tradition, the Aryans were divided into five tribes called panchajana but there might have
been other tribes also. The Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans supported by priest
Vasishtha.
• The Bharata ruling clan faced opposition from a coalition of ten chiefs, five of whom led Aryan tribes
(Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, and Druhyu), while the other five represented non-Aryan groups (Alina, Pakhta,
Bhalanas, Sivas and Vishanin). This conflict, known as the Battle of Ten Kings, took place on the banks
of the river Parushni (now Ravi). The Bharata king, Sudas, emerged victorious, establishing the supremacy
of the Bharata clan.
 The country Bharatavarsha was named after the tribe Bharata, which appears first in the Rig Veda.

104
• Among the defeated tribes, the most notable was the Purus. After the battle, the Bharatas and the Purus
united to form a new ruling tribe, the Kurus. The Kurus later allied with the Panchalas, and together, they

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

established dominance in the upper Gangetic basin, playing a significant role in the later Vedic period.

[UPSC CDS II 2022] At the banks of which of the following rivers was the Battle of Ten Kings
fought in the Early Vedic Period?
1. Sarasvati
2. Drishadvati
3. Parushni
4. Shutudri
Answer: Parushni
Material Life
Economy and Trade
Cattle Rearing

• The Rig Vedic Aryans were predominantly pastoral people, with agriculture being a secondary occupa-
tion. Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle, and the cow was the most important form of
wealth.
• The cow was revered and considered a totem animal. However, beef was consumed on special occasions,
such as during rituals or welcoming a guest or a person of high status.
• In the early Vedic period, the word “go” was used for the cow, and many early linguistic expressions were
associated with cattle.
 Gavishthi: Gavishthi, which means "search for cows ", is the term for war in the Rig Veda. This is
because cattle raids and cattle loss frequently led to armed conflicts.
 Gomat: A wealthy man who owned many cattle was known as Gomat.
 Duhitri: A daughter was called Duhitri, i.e. a girl who milks a cow.
 Goghna: The guest was known as goghna or one who was fed on cattle.
• The horse held a special place among other animals. It was helpful for movement and war. Horses also
made it easier to herd cattle where the grazing grounds were extensive.
• In the Rig Veda, asva (horse) is mentioned 215 times — more than any other animal. In comparison, go
(cow) appears 176 times and vrsabha (bull) 170 times. This suggests the importance of cattle rearing.

Horses in the Indian subcontinent

• Horses are believed to have been brought to the Indian subcontinent by the Indo-Aryans around 1500
BCE. Here are some supporting points:
 Origin of Domestication: Horses were first domesticated in Central Asia. The earliest remains of
horses buried with humans are found in the steppes, dating from 5,000 years ago.

105
 Spread to West Asia: Horses became common in West Asia during the second millennium BCE
when Indo-Aryan speakers invaded the region.
 Arrival in the Subcontinent: The horse appeared in the Indian subcontinent after the collapse of
the Harappan Civilization, and the Vedic Aryans are closely associated with horses. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Agriculture

• The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. They used wooden ploughshare and
practised subsistence agriculture.
• They revered fire, which played an important role in clearing the forest for agriculture.

Other Professions
• The Rig Vedic people also practised other professions, such as carpentry, chariot-making, weaving, leath-
erwork, and pottery. They were skilled in copper and bronze metalworking. The term ayas was used for
copper or bronze.
 Early Vedic people introduced the spoked wheel, which first appeared in the Caucasus area in 2300
BCE.

Trade

• The early Aryans did not seem to trade much, and we have no clear evidence of regular trade. They
used a barter system to exchange goods. Gold is mentioned as nishka, but coins are not mentioned in
the Vedas.
• The Rig Vedic people were more acquainted with land routes because the word Samudra, mentioned in
the Rig Veda, mainly denotes a collection of water.
 The use of metal coins started during the sixth century BCE.

No Importance of Land
• The Rig Vedic people may have occasionally occupied land for grazing, cultivation and settlement, but
the land did not form a well-established private property.

Settlements
• The early Aryans did not live in cities; they may have lived in fortified mud settlements. The term sahasra,
used in the Rig Veda, is exaggerated.

Tribe and Family

• In the Rig Vedic period, Kinship was the basis of social structure. The society was clan-based, and a man
was identified by the clan to which he belonged, as can be seen in the names of several Rig Vedic kings.
Example - Sudas of the Bharata clan.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The family (kula) was a basic unit of society. Generally, it was a large joint unit extending over three
generations. It was headed by the kulapa.
• The several families joined together based on their kinship to form a grama. When the gramas clashed
with one another, it caused samgrama or war. The leader of grama was known as gramani. Later, the
term term 'grama' was used for the village.
• A group of gramas constituted a larger unit called vish. It was headed by vishayapati. Later, the term
'vaishya' comes from 'vish'.
• A group of clans formed the tribe (jana), the highest political unit.

Political organisation (Government)

Jana (Tribe)
• The tribe (Jana) was the highest political unit. The people were attached to the tribe (jana) since the
kingdom or the territory (janapada) was not yet established. People gave primary loyalty to the tribe.
• The term Jana occurs at about 275 places in the Rig Veda, and janapada or territory, is not used even
once.

Rajan (Tribal Chief)

• The head of the tribe was Rajan (tribal chief). He did not exercise unlimited power and was checked by
several tribal or clan-based assemblies such as the sabha, samiti, vidatha, and gana. They exercised
deliberative, military and religious functions. Women could attend the Sabha and Vidatha.
• Sabha and samiti were the two most important assemblies.
 The sabha was smaller, more elite and exclusive.
 The samiti had a member from each household of a clan.
• The members of Samiti chose the leader (Rajan), who was often a brave and skilful warrior. Initially, the
post of Rajan was not hereditary. However, later it became hereditary.
• The role of Rajan was:

107
 To protect cattle
 To lead the tribe in wars
 To offer prayers to gods on behalf of the tribe
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Administration
• There was no civil system or territorial administration because people were in an expansion stage, mi-
grating from one area to another. In the day-to-day administration, the Rajan was assisted by a few royal
officials:
1. Purohita (chief priest): Purohita was the most important official. He performed the functions of
priest, astrologer, and adviser. The priests inspired the tribal chiefs to action and lauded their exploits
in return for handsome rewards in cows and women slaves.
  The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Vishvamitra:
 Vasishtha was conservative
 Vishvamitra was liberal. He composed the Gayatri mantra (given in Rigveda) dedicated to Savitri
(a solar deity).
2. Senani: Senani, or military commander, was the next important official after Purohita.
3. Vrajapati: He enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture ground. He led heads of the families
called kulapas, or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis, to battle.
 The titles of the officials do not indicate their administration of the territory. However, some officers
like vrajapati seem to have been attached to territories. They enjoyed positions of authority in the
pasture grounds and settled villages.
• Tax collection: There was no regular tax collection, and no officer was in charge of it. This was because
the economy was mainly pastoral and not food-producing, and the scope for collecting regular tributes
from the people was very limited.
 Bali: The chiefs received voluntary offerings from the people called Bali.
• Justice: The Rig Veda does not mention any officer for administering justice. But it was not an ideal
society. There were cases of theft of cows.
• No standing army: The king did not maintain a standing army. Instead, during wartime, he mustered a
militia with various tribal groups performing military duties. These groups were called vrata, gana, grama,
and sardha.

Social Life
• The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal.
 Patriarchal: Male members have authority over the family.
 Patrilineal: Determining descent through the male line. Children would take their father's name.
 Patrilocal: After marriage, the couple would live in the husband's home.
• Monogamy was generally practised, while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.

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Social Division
The Sanskrit language uses the word 'varna' for both caste and colour. During the Rig Vedic period, the
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
term ‘Varna’ was used for colour and not to indicate racial differences.
• The Rig Veda mentions ‘arya varna’ and ‘dasa varna’ for Aryan language speakers (fair) and the indige-
nous inhabitants (dark), respectively.

Differentiation Based on Occupations

• In the Rig Vedic age, differentiation based on occupations started. However, the division was not very
sharp or rigid. In a single family, different members profess different occupations.
• The early Rig Veda mentions two groups based on their work:
1. Brahmin (priest) who performed various rituals
 2. Kshatriya (raja) who led the war
• In the early Rig Veda, references of Brahmin and Kshatriya are related to the profession and not as a
hereditary caste. The words vaishya and shudra are completely absent.
• Only in the Purusha Sukta (in the tenth mandala of Rig Veda) the earliest reference of the division of
society into four varnas was made:
1. Brahmins (priests)
2. Kshatriyas (rulers)
3. Vaishyas (agriculturalists and merchants)
4. Shudras (labourers)
 The tenth mandala is a later addition of Rigveda, which was added during the Later Vedic period.

Emergence of Social Inequalities and Class Divisions

• Unequal distribution of the spoils of war (booty) created social inequalities. The tribal chiefs and the
priests acquired a larger share of the booty. This helped the rise of princes and priests at the cost of the
common tribal people.
• Gradually, tribal society was divided into three groups: warriors (Kshatriyas), priests (Brahmins), and the
people (Vish), following the same pattern as in Iran.
• The fourth division, the Shudras, appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period because it is men-
tioned for the first time in the Purusha Sukta of the tenth Book of the Rig Veda, the latest addition.
 Generally, the terms 'jana' or 'vish' were used for the tribe or people or community as a whole.
• In the Rig Vedic period, tribal elements in society were stronger, and social divisions based on collecting
taxes or accumulating landed property were absent. The society was still tribal and largely egalitarian.

Slavery

• The Rig Veda refers to slavery in war or for debt. Slaves were women and men who were often captured
in war. They were treated as the property of their owners, who could make them do whatever work they
wanted. However, slaves were generally employed for domestic purposes and were not used directly

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in agriculture or other producing activities like the slaves in the Roman Empire.
• The gifts made to priests usually consisted of cows and women slaves and never of land.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Condition of Women
• As the society was patriarchal, women were not granted many rights. However, women were respected,
and their status varied within the confines of a patriarchal system. However, their condition was much
better than in the later period:
 Women could attend assemblies.
 Women could offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
 Women could get an education, and some composed Rig Veda. Seventeen women sages are sup-
posed to have written hymns in the Rig Veda.
  Women could choose their husbands. They could remain unmarried for their entire life.
 There was no child marriage, and the marriageable age was around 16 to 17.
 The practice of sati was absent. Women could remarry if their husbands died or left them. There are
also examples of levirate marriage - the marriage of a widow with her deceased husband's brother.
 The birth of a son was desired, and people prayed to the gods for it. However, the birth of a girl was
not unwelcome.
 There are many prayers in the Rig Veda for pashu (cattle), praja (children, especially sons), and horses.
However, no desire is expressed for daughters.
• In the later Vedic period, a clear distinction was made between the three higher varnas and the Shudras:
1. Vedic study: Only the higher varnas were allowed to study the Vedas, while the Shudras were pro-
hibited.
2. Participation in assemblies: The Shudras were denied entry into the Sabha (assembly), a right en-
joyed by the higher varnas.
3. Upanayana ceremony: Males from the first three varnas could undergo the upanayana ceremony
(sacred thread ceremony), but the Shudras were excluded.
4. Rituals and sacrifices: The Shudras were forbidden to perform rituals and sacrifices, privileges
reserved for the higher varnas.

Religion and Rig Vedic gods

• Rig Vedic people discover their religion in their surroundings. The Aryans found it difficult to explain the
advent of rain, the appearance of the sun and the moon, and the existence of rivers, mountains, etc. So,
they personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them.
• As society was patriarchal, male gods were far more important than females. The Vedic gods, mostly male,
include Indra, Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Rudra, Soma, Vayu and Surya. There were also some female gods like
Aditi, Prithvi and Usha.
• There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.

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• Prayers were the dominant form of worship offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards, mainly
praja (children), pashu (cattle), food, wealth, health, etc. Sometimes, prayers accompanied rituals (yajnas)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

in which ghee, milk, and grain were poured into a fire. In some cases, this was accompanied by animal
sacrifice.
Terms used in Rig Vedic Period Meaning
Go Cow
Gavishthi War (search for cows)
Gomat Wealthy man who owned many cattle
Goghna Guest
Duhitri Daughter who milks a cow
Ayas Copper or Bronze
 Nishka Gold
Vedi Fire altar
Soma Intoxicating drink

6.4. Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE)

• During the later Vedic period, the Aryans spread from Punjab to western Uttar Pradesh by burning and
clearing forests. They occupied the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
• Two major tribes, the Bharatas and the Purus, combined to form the Kuru people. Initially, the Kurus
lived between the Saraswati and the Drishadvati (in modern-day Haryana). Soon, they occupied Delhi and
the upper portion of the Ganga-Yamuna doab, the area called Kurukshetra, or the land of the Kurus. The
Kurukshetra mentioned here was not limited to the present-day Kurukshetra city of Haryana.
• The Panchalas occupied the middle portion of the doab, covering the modern districts of Bareilly, Ba-
daun and Farukhabad (western Uttar Pradesh). Gradually, Kurus combined with Panchalas. The authority
of the Kuru-Panchala people spread over Delhi, as well as the upper and middle parts of the doab.
 Hastinapur, presently a city in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh, was the capital of the Kuru King-
dom of the Kauravas.
 Indraprastha, currently the region of New Delhi, particularly the Old Fort (Purana Qila), was the capital
of the Kuru kingdom, which was led by the Pandavas.
 Ahichchhatra, near the modern Ramnagar village in the Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh, was the cap-
ital of the ancient kingdom of Panchala.

Iron
• Iron appeared in the Dharwar district of Karnataka around 1000 BCE. Around the same time, it was
used in eastern Punjab, western Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. Iron weapons, such as
arrowheads and spearheads, were commonly used in western Uttar Pradesh from around 800 BCE.
• The Vedic people may have defeated the few adversaries they faced in the upper portion of the doab

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with iron weapons. The iron axe was also used to clear the forests in the upper Gangetic basin.
• Towards the end of the Vedic period, knowledge of iron spread to eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kosala) and

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

north Bihar (Videha).
 In later Vedic texts, iron is called Shyama or Krishna ayas.

Material life
Economy and Trade
• The later Vedic people used iron to clear forests and bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture was
their primary source of livelihood. Agriculture was primitive but widely prevalent. Ploughing was done
with the help of the wooden ploughshare.
• For the first time, the Vedic people were acquainted with rice in the doab. Along with the barley, they
also produced rice, wheat and a variety of lentils.
• The peasants living in the plains produced enough to maintain themselves, and they could also spare a
marginal part of their produce for the support of chiefs, princes and priests.

Prevalence of agriculture

• The agricultural was so prevalent that even kings and princes did not hesitate to take to manual labour.
 Janaka, the king of Videha and father of Sita, lent his hand to the plough.
 Balarama, the brother of Krishna, is called Haladhar or the wielder of the plough.
• In later times, ploughing became prohibited for members of the upper varnas.

Rice in the Later Vedic Period

• The Rig Veda mentions mostly barley, not rice or wheat. Later Vedas, like the Yajur Veda, mention wheat,
rice and millet. The rice is called vrihi in the later Vedic texts.
• The use of rice is recommended in Vedic rituals, but that of wheat only rarely.
• The remains of rice belonging to the eighth century BCE were recovered from Hastinapur (Meerut
district) and Atranjikhera (Etah district).

Other Professions
• During the later Vedic period, people took up various professions, such as carpentry, chariot-making,
leatherwork, and pottery. Weaving was confined to women but was practised on a wide scale.
• Metalsmiths were skilled in working with copper, bronze, and iron.
• Carpenters were highly respected since they built chariots, ploughs, and huts. With more wood available
from the forests, carpentry became a profitable and prestigious profession.

Pottery

• The later Vedic people were acquainted with four types of pottery:
1. Red ware (most popular)

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2. Black-slipped ware
3. Black-and-red ware
4. Painted grey ware (most distinctive pottery of the Vedic period) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Trade
• The later Vedic texts mention seas and sea voyages, suggesting that later Vedic people engaged in for-
eign trade in addition to internal trade.

Settled Life
• Agriculture and various crafts enabled the later Vedic people to lead a settled life in the upper Gangetic
plains.
• Since later Vedic people used the wooden ploughshare for cultivation, they could not produce enough
to feed those who were engaged in other occupations and could not contribute much to the rise of
towns. People lived in mudbrick houses or in wattle-and-daub houses erected on wooden poles.
• Although the term nagara is used in later Vedic texts, we can trace only the faint beginnings of towns
towards the end of the later Vedic period. Hastinapur and Kaushambi (near Prayagraj) can be regarded
as primitive towns belonging to the end of the Vedic period. They may be called proto-urban sites.

Political Organization
Jana to Janapada
• The term janapada (territory or rashtra), the land where the Jana set foot and settled down, first appears
in the later Vedic texts.
• During the later Vedic period:
 People were attached to the territory. The territorial kingdoms started to emerge, and rajas were
recognised as rajas of janapadas rather than janas.
 Tribal authority tended to become territorial. Princes or chiefs ruled over tribes, but the dominant
tribes gave their names to territories which might be inhabited by tribes other than their own. Initially,
each area was named after the tribe which settled there first. At first, Panchala was the name of a
people, but then it became the name of a region.

Tribal chief
• During the later Vedic period, some men became recognised as rajas (chiefs or kings) by performing big
sacrifices. The post of King became hereditary, generally going to the eldest son (primogeniture). How-
ever, this succession was not always smooth.
• The raja became more powerful. The sabha could act as an advisory body to the raja, but he was the
final authority. His influence was strengthened by rituals.
 Rajasuya sacrifice (consecration ceremony): Supposed to confer supreme power on Raja, i.e. cor-

113
onation of a king.
 Ashvamedha (Horse Sacrifice): Unquestioned control over an area where the royal horse ran unin-
terrupted.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Vajapeya or the chariot race: The royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.

Ashvamedha, or Horse sacrifice

• In the Ashvamedha, a horse was set free to wander, guarded by the raja’s men. If it entered other
kingdoms and the local rajas stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant
they accepted the raja’s superiority.

Assemblies
• In later Vedic times, Rig Vedic popular assemblies lost importance, and royal power increased at their
cost. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. They came to be
dominated by chiefs and rich nobles. The vidatha completely disappeared.
• Women were no longer permitted to sit on the sabha, which was now dominated by nobles and Brah-
manas.

Administration
• The king was assisted by the priest, the commander, the chief queen, and a few other high functionaries
in discharging his duties.
• At the lower level, the administration was possibly run by village assemblies. Chiefs of dominant clans
controlled the assemblies. These assemblies also tried local cases.
• Tax collection: The collection of taxes and tributes became common. These were likely given to an officer
called sangrihitri, who served as the king's companion.
• No standing army: The king did not have a standing army. Tribal units were mustered during the war,
& according to one ritual, the king had to eat with his people (vis) from the same plate to succeed in war.

No Regular Taxes: Major Challenge to State Formation

• A state cannot be established without a regular tax system, a professional army, and a bureaucracy, which
again depends on taxes. During the later Vedic period, agriculture was not productive enough to pro-
vide sufficient taxes and tributes. Hence, despite the support of the Brahmanas, the Kshatriyas could not
establish a state system.

Social Organisation
• The later Vedic society was divided into four varnas: the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
The division was decided based on birth. For example, if one's father and mother were Brahmins, one
would automatically become a Brahmin, and so on.
1. Brahmanas: The first varna was that of the Brahmanas. They were expected to study and teach the

114
Vedas, perform rituals and sacrifices for their clients and themselves, and receive gifts. They also
prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return, the king pledged not to harm them.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

2. Kshatriyas: In the second place were the rulers, also known as Kshatriyas (Rajanyas). They were ex-
pected to fight battles and protect people.
3. Vaishyas: Third were the common people (vish or Vaishyas). They were expected to be farmers,
herders, and traders. In later Vedic times, the vaishyas appear to have been the only tribute-payers.
4. Shudras: Last were the Shudras, who had to serve the other three groups and could not perform
any rituals.
• Some people were placed outside the caste system and classified as untouchable. These included some
craftspeople, people who helped perform burials and cremations, and hunters and gatherers who lived
in the forest, like Nishadas. The contact with untouchables was considered polluting.
  The word 'vaishya' in the Vedic period comes from the word 'vish' of the Rig Vedic period.

Gotra
• The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, gotra means the place where cattle
belonging to the whole clan are kept, but over time, it signified descent from a common ancestor.
• People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to
the same gotra or having the same lineage.

Ashramas

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• From the c. sixth century onwards, when Jainism and Buddhism were becoming popular, brahmins de-
veloped the system of ashramas. The post-Vedic texts refer to four ashramas. Here, ashrama does not
mean a place where people live and meditate. It is used instead for a stage of life.
• Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya men were permitted to participate in the system of ashramas, but women
and Shudras were excluded.
• Four ashramas or stages of life were:
1. Brahmacharya (student): They expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas in their early years.
2. Grihastha (householder): They had to marry and live as householders (grihastha).
3. Vanaprastha (hermit): They had to live in the forest and meditate (vanaprastha)
4. Sannyasa (ascetic): They had to give up everything and become sannyasins.
 First three ashramas are mentioned in Chhandogya Upanishad while all four ashrams are mentioned
in Jabala Upanishad.
• The four stages of life, or ashramas, were not well established in Vedic times. Only the first three are
mentioned in later Vedic texts; the last stage was not well established in later Vedic times.

Imposition of Disabilities on the Shudras

• In the later Vedic period, a clear distinction was made between the three higher varnas and the Shudras:
1. Vedic study: Only the higher varnas were allowed to study the Vedas, while the Shudras were pro-
hibited.
2. Participation in assemblies: The Shudras were denied entry into the Sabha (assembly), a right en-
joyed by the higher varnas.
3. Upanayana ceremony: Males from the first three varnas could undergo the upanayana ceremony
(sacred thread ceremony), but the Shudras were excluded.
4. Rituals and sacrifices: The Shudras were forbidden to perform rituals and sacrifices, privileges
reserved for the higher varnas.

Upanayana Ceremony

• All three higher varnas were considered twice-born (dwija). This refers to the belief that a person from
three higher varnas is born physically at the time of birth and spiritually at a later age. This spiritual

116
rebirth is usually marked by the Upanayana ceremony.
• Certain sections of artisans, such as rathakara or chariot-makers, enjoyed a high status and were entitled
to the sacred thread ceremony. Therefore, even in later Vedic times, varna distinctions had not advanced
very far. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Condition of women
• During the later Vedic period, the father's power in the family increased; he could even disinherit his son.
In princely families, the right of primogeniture became stronger. Male ancestors came to be worshipped.
• Women were generally given a lower position and considered inferior and subordinate to men. The
Shatapatha Brahmana text describes a good woman as 'one who pleases her husband, delivers male
children and never talks back'. However, women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
• During the later Vedic period:
  Women lost their political rights to attend assemblies.
 Some women, usually queens, participated in rituals, mainly coronation rituals. Ordinarily, women
were excluded from rituals.
 Child marriages had become common.
 The birth of a girl was unwelcome. The Aitareya Brahmana describes a daughter as a source of
misery.
 Women could not choose their husbands. Higher-caste men were allowed to marry lower-caste
women, but society disapproved of women marrying men from a lower caste.
 Anuloma: A marriage between a high-caste man and a low-caste woman.
 Pratiloma: A marriage between a low-caste man and a high-caste woman.
• Often, women were grouped with the Shudras.
Higher Varna Men Women Shudras
Could they study Vedas? Yes No No
Could they perform rituals and sacrifices? Yes No No
Could they participate in popular assemblies? Yes No No
Could they participate in Upanayana ceremony? Yes No No

No Sati Practice

• It is believed that during the later Vedic period, widows performed a symbolic self-immolation after
their husband’s death, possibly as a sign of status. Later, this ritual was cited as the origin of the practice
of becoming a sati (burning of a widow on husband's funeral pyre). However, in the Vedic period, the
ritual was only symbolic, as widows were allowed to remarry, usually to the husband's brother — levi-
rate marriage.
• Today, the practice of sati is mainly associated with India. However, it existed back then in many parts of
the world, especially in Europe among the descendants of the proto-Indo-European culture, the Yam-
naya. The difference is that other regions abandoned the practice much earlier, while it persisted in India

117
for a longer period.
• The first evidence of sati in India is not from the Vedic period but much later. Even before that, the
instances of the practice were found elsewhere. The Thracian wife of Philip II, father of Alexander the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Great, was burned on her husband's funeral pyre.

Gods, Rituals and Philosophy

• In the later Vedic period, the Vedic texts were compiled in the Kuru-Panchala region. This area became
the cradle of Aryan culture under Brahmanical influence, with sacrifices and rituals playing a key role.
• The mode of worship changed considerably in the later Vedic period. Prayers declined in importance
while sacrifices increased.
 Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods.
  Sacrifices became far more important. It involved the killing of animals on a large scale and, espe-
cially, the destruction of cattle wealth.
 Sacrifices were of two kinds:
1. Public sacrifices: Involved the king and the whole of the community
2. Private sacrifices: Performed by individuals in their houses
 Sacrifices were accompanied by formulae, which had to be carefully pronounced by the sacrificer. The
sacrificer was known as the yajamana the performer of yajna, and much of his success depended on
the magical power of words uttered correctly in the sacrifices.
• In the later Vedic period:
 The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their importance.
 Prajapati (creator), Vishnu (protector) and Rudra (destroyer) became prominent. Prajapati occupied
the supreme position.
 As society became divided into social classes, some social orders developed their own deities. Pushan,
who was supposed to take care of cattle, became regarded as the god of the Shudras.
 Some objects began to be worshipped as symbols of divinity, and signs of idolatry appeared.
• As the Aryans settled in India, they incorporated aspects of local religions, giving rise to India's distinctive
Hinduism.

[UPSC CDS I 2015] Which of the following characteristic(s) describes the nature of religion
according to the Rig Veda?
1. Rig Vedic religion can be described as naturalistic polytheism.
2. There are striking similarities between the Rig Vedic religion and the ideas in the Iranian Avesta.
3. Vedic sacrifices were conducted in the house of the priest who was called yajaman.
4. Vedic sacrifices were of two kinds those conducted by the householder and those that required
ritual specialists.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

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a) 3 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
d) 1, 2 and 4 only
Answer: 1, 2 and 4 only

Philosophy
• Towards the end of the Vedic period, a strong reaction against priestly domination, cults and rituals
began, especially in the land of the Panchalas (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Videha (north Bihar ).
• During the same period, Upanishads were compiled, which criticised the rituals and stressed the value
of right belief and knowledge. They emphasised that the knowledge of the self or the individual soul
 (Atman) should be acquired, and its relation with the universal soul (Brahman) should be properly un-
derstood.
• Emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibility, and immortality of the atman or soul served as the
cause of stability needed for the rising state power headed by the Kshatriya raja. Hence, some of the
Kshatriya princes in Panchala and Videha also cultivated this thinking and created the atmosphere for
reforming the priest-dominated religion.

Brahmanas
• The rise in importance of the Brahmanas is a peculiar development not found in Aryan societies outside
India. It appears that non-Aryan elements played some role in forming the Brahmana varna.
• The growing cult of sacrifices enormously increased the power of the Brahmanas. In the beginning, the
Brahmanas were only one of the sixteen classes of priests, but they gradually overshadowed the other
priestly groups and emerged as the most important class.
• The Brahmanas claimed a monopoly on priestly knowledge and expertise. They invented, adopted, and
elaborated formulae, sacrifices, and rituals, some of which were borrowed from non-Aryans. The exact
reason for the invention and elaboration of the rituals is unclear, though financial gain may have played
a role. For example, in the Rajasuya sacrifice, priests were reportedly given as many as 2,40,000 cows as
Dakshina (gifts).
• In addition to cows, which were usually given as sacrificial gifts, gold, cloth and horses were also given.
Sometimes, the priests claimed portions of territory as Dakshina, but the grant of land as a sacrificial fee
was not well established in the later Vedic period.
• Sometimes, the Brahmanas came into conflict with the Kshatriyas for positions of supremacy. However,
when dealing with the lower classes, they both resolved their differences. By the end of the later Vedic
period, cooperation between the two was stressed to maintain control over the rest of society.

6.5. Difference Between Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period

119
Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
Time Period 1500-1000 BCE 1000-600 BCE

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Region Eastern Afghanistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Ganga-Yamuna doab
(Core Area) Punjab, and the fringes of western Uttar
Pradesh
Economic • Mainly pastoral people, with agricul- • Agriculture was their primary source of
Life ture being a secondary occupation. livelihood which was primitive but
• Wealth was estimated in terms of their widely prevalent.
cattle, and the cow was the most im- • Ploughing was done with the help of the
portant form of wealth. wooden ploughshare.
 • No clear evidence of regular trade • Engaged in foreign trade in addition to
• No well-established private property. internal trade.
• Iron was unknown • Land became important measure of
• Ayas: Copper or bronze. wealth.
• Nishka: gold • Used iron (Shyama or Krishna ayas) to
clear forests and bring more land under
cultivation.
Political or- • People gave primary loyalty to the • People were attached to the territory.
ganisation tribe Rajan (Tribal Chief):
Rajan (Tribal Chief): • Men recognised as rajas (chiefs or kings)
• People chose the leader who was often by performing big sacrifices.
a brave and skilful warrior. • The post of King became hereditary,
• Initially, the post of Rajan was not he- generally going to the eldest son (pri-
reditary. However, later it became he- mogeniture).
reditary. • The raja became more powerful.
• Did not exercise unlimited power • The sabha and samiti were dominated
• Checked by several tribal or clan-based by chiefs and rich nobles. The vidatha
assemblies such as the sabha, samiti, completely disappeared.
vidatha, and gana. Purpose of the war: Land (territory)
• The role of Rajan was: Administration:
 To protect cattle • The collection of taxes and tributes be-
 To lead the tribe in wars came common
 To offer prayers to gods on behalf • No standing army
of the tribe
Purpose of the war: To protect cattle
Administration:

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• No civil system or territorial administra-
tion
• No regular tax collection PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• No officer for administering justice
• No standing army
Social Life • Largely egalitarian • Not egalitarian
Division of society: Division of society:
• Based on occupations • Based on birth
• Not rigid (flexible) • Rigid
All people could: Shudras were:
 • Study Vedas • Prohibited from studying Vedas
• Participate in assemblies • Denied entry into the Sabha (assembly)
Condition of Women: • Excluded from Upanayana ceremony
• Women were respected, and their con- • Forbidden to perform rituals and sac-
dition was much better than in the later rifices
period. Condition of Women:
• Women could attend assemblies. • Women were considered inferior and
• Women could offer sacrifices along subordinate to men.
with their husbands. • Women lost their political rights to at-
• Women could get an education. tend assemblies.
• Women could choose their husbands. • Some women, usually queens, partici-
They could remain unmarried for their pated in rituals, mainly coronation ritu-
entire life. als. Ordinarily, women were excluded
• Women could remarry if their husbands from rituals.
died or left them. • Women could not study Vedas
• The birth of a son was desired. How- • Women could not choose their hus-
ever, the birth of a girl was not unwel- bands.
come. • The birth of a girl was unwelcome.
Religion • Rig Vedic people discover their religion • Indra and Agni, lost their importance.
in their surroundings. • Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra became
• They personified these natural forces prominent. Pushan became the god of
into many gods and worshipped them. the Shudras.
• The Vedic gods, mostly male, include • Some objects began to be worshipped
Indra, Agni, Mitra, Varuna, Rudra, Soma, as symbols of divinity, and signs of idol-
Vayu and Surya. There were also some atry appeared.
female gods like Aditi, Prithvi and Usha. • Prayers declined in importance while

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• There were no temples and no idol sacrifices increased.
worship
• Prayers were the dominant form of wor- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
ship
• Important changes during the later Vedic period includes:
1. Beginnings of territorial kingdoms: Wars were fought not only for the possession of cattle but also
for territory. The famous Mahabharata battle is attributed to this period.
2. Agricultural society: The predominantly pastoral society of early Vedic times had become agricul-
tural. The tribal pastoralists were transformed into peasants who could maintain their chiefs with fre-
quent tributes.
 3. Varna divided society: The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided society. But varna distinctions
could not be carried too far.

6.6. Some traits of Aryan culture

Domestication of Horses
• The horse is regarded as an essential trait of Aryan culture, as it played a crucial role in the lives of the
early Indo-Europeans.
• The term asva (horse) in the Rig Veda and its related forms appear in Sanskrit, Avestan, Greek, Latin, and
other Indo-European languages.

Cremation
• The Aryans practiced cremation. Its practice is supported by the Vedic and Avesta texts.
• Cremation does not appear to be a feature of mature Harappan culture; instead, the Harappans prac-
tised earth or pot burial.

Use of Spoked Wheels

• Early Vedic people introduced the spoked wheel, which first appeared in the Caucasus area in 2300 BCE.
• All toy carts found in the Harappan culture have solid wheels. Banawali in Haryana is associated with
spoked wheels, but this seems to be a post-Harappan phase.

Cult of Fire and Soma

• The cult of fire and soma was confined to only the speakers of the Indo-European languages in Iran
and the Indian subcontinent (Iranian and Vedic peoples).
• The term ‘vedi’ in Rigveda denotes fire altar.
• Some scholars believe that the fire cult was part of Harappan culture, but the 'fire altars' found at Lothal
and Kalibangan are doubtful.

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Animal Sacrifice
• Animal sacrifice, including horse sacrifice, was an important Aryan ritual. All Indo-European communities
practised it. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

6.7. Vedic Literature

• The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas - Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.

Vedas
• The word 'Veda' means 'knowledge' and is derived from the Sanskrit word 'vid', which means 'to know'.
• The Vedas are primarily manuals of rituals (yajna) and commentaries on them. They consist of thou-
sands of hymns – prayers in the form of poems and songs that were recited orally.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 123
• The Vedic hymns were memorised and passed down orally for several generations before being written
down centuries later.
• Most Vedic hymns were composed by rishis (male seers or sages), with a few by rishikas (female sages).
These hymns were composed in old or Vedic Sanskrit (an early form of Sanskrit), which is different from
classical Sanskrit (a later form of Sanskrit).
• Hindus consider the Vedas as the primary source of knowledge and the foundation of their religion and
culture. Even today, the Vedas influence Hindu worship, rituals, sacrifices, and beliefs.
• Each Veda has four types of texts:
1. Samhitas: These are collections of Vedic hymns or mantras.
2. Brahmanas: These are commentaries on Vedic Samhitas explaining the social and religious mean-
ing of rituals.
3. Aranyakas: These texts contain discussions of secret rites to be performed only by certain people,
namely Vanprasthas, who renounce family life and reside in the forests.
4. Upanishads: These are philosophical texts dealing with topics like the soul, rebirth, karma, the origin
of the world and the mysteries of nature.
• Vedic Literature can be divided into two groups:
1. Early Vedic Literature: It includes Rigveda Samhita. It was composed around 1500 BCE in the Sap-
tasindhu region.
2. Later Vedic Literature: It includes Yajurveda Samhita, Samaveda Samhita, Atharvaveda Samhita,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. These texts were composed in the Gangetic basin during the
later Vedic period (1000 BCE to 600 BCE).
• The Rigveda Samhita is not a single book but a compilation of ten distinct books called Mandalas. Its
present form shows that it is a collection of both older and later elements, indicating gradual composition
over time.
 Books II to VII (six books) are the earliest. They are called family books because they are ascribed to
particular families of seers/rishis (Gotra or Vamsha Mandalas)

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 Books I and X are the latest additions.
• Hence, more specifically:
1. The Early Vedic literature refers to Books II-VII of the Rigveda. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
2. The Later Vedic Literature includes Books I, VIII, IX and X of the Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and
Atharvaveda, Brahamanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.
 Iron is not mentioned in Rigveda but is mentioned in later Vedic literature.

Vedic Samhitas
• Generally, the terms Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are used to refer to the Rigveda
Samhita, Yajurveda Samhita, Samaveda Samhita, and Atharvaveda Samhita, respectively.
Rigveda
• Rigveda is the oldest Vedic text composed around 1500 BCE (3500 years ago) in the Saptasindhu region.
• It consists of 1028 hymns. These hymns were sung to praise various gods and goddesses such as Indra,
Agni, Varuna, Soma, etc.
1. Indra: Indra is the most important god in Rigveda. Two hundred and fifty hymns are devoted to him.
 Indra is called Purandara, or the breaker of forts. He played the role of a warlord who led the
Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons.
 Indra was regarded as the rain god and was believed to be responsible for bringing rainfall.
2. Agni: Agni (fire god) held the second position after Indra in Rigveda. 200 hymns are devoted to Agni.
Agni was supposed to be an intermediary between the gods and the people.
3. Varuna: Varuna held the third most important position. He was regarded as the god of water
(ocean). He was supposed to uphold the natural order, and whatever happened in the world was
thought to be the reflection of his desires.
4. Soma: Soma was considered as the god of plants, and an intoxicating drink was named after him.
All hymns in the ninth mandala are dedicated to ‘Soma'.

Rigveda and Rivers

• The Sindhu River (Indus River) is the most mentioned river in the Rigveda. The Saraswati River known
as Naditama (Best of all rivers), Devitama (best of all goddesses) and Matetama (best of all mothers) is
most sacred and also mentioned frequently. The Ganga and Yamuna are named only once.
• Some hymns in the Rigveda are in the form of dialogues. One such hymn features a dialogue between
the sage Vishvamitra and two rivers, the Beas and Sutlej, which were revered as goddesses.

Mandalas

• The Rigveda Samhita is not a single book but a compilation of ten distinct books called Mandalas. Its
present form shows that it is a collection of both older and later elements, indicating gradual composition

125
over time. Books II to VII are the earliest, and Books I and X are the latest additions.
• The Samhita of the Rigveda comprises 10 Mandalas, 85 Anuvakas, 1028 Suktas and 10552 Mantras.
 The Rigveda Samhita consists of ten books called Mandalas.
 Each Mandala is divided into several sections called Anuvakas. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Each Anuvaka consists of several hymns called Suktas
 Each Sukta is made up of several verses (mantras) called riks.

Sukta

• A Sukta is a group of Mantras. The number of Mantras in a Sukta is not fixed. Some popular Suktas are:
 Nasadiya Sukta
 Purusha Sukta
Nasadiya Sukta (The Hymn of Creation)
• It is the 129th hymn of the Tenth mandala of the Rigveda.
• This hymn deals with cosmology and the origin of the universe. It reflects deep philosophical inquiry
into the origins of the universe and existence. It expresses doubt, wonder, and ambiguity about the pro-
cess of creation.

Purusha Sukta
• It is the ninetieth Hymn of the Tenth Mandala of the Rigveda. Here, Purusha refers to the supreme
being with a thousand heads, eyes, and feet. He is the Lord of immortality, and all that existed in the past
or will come into being in the future is also from the Purusha.
• The Sukta describes the sacrifice of Purusha. Devas (gods) performed the yajna (sacrificial ritual), using
the Purusha as the sacrificial material. During this ritual, the mantras of Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda
were born. When the gods sacrificed the Purusha:
1. Brahmana was born from the mouth
2. Kshatriya from the shoulders
3. Vaishya from the thighs
4. Shudra from the feet
• Shudra is mentioned for the first time in the Purusha Sukta.

Yajurveda
• The Yajurveda is more pronouncedly a ritual Veda. It consists of various details of rules to be observed
at the time of sacrifice. It guides ritual sacrifices and instructs priests on the correct chants and proce-
dures.
• The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two:
A. Krishna (Black or Dark) Yajurveda: Black implies the un-arranged, unclear mixture of mantra and
brahmana. Four Samhita of Krishna Yajurveda are available today:
1. Taittiriya Samhita

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2. Kathaka Samhita
3. Kapishthala Samhita
4. Maitrayani Samhita PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
B. Shukla (White or Pure) Yajurveda: White implies the clear separation of mantra and brahmana.
 Two Samhita of Shukla Yajurveda are available today:
1. Madhyandina Samhita
2. Kanva Samhita
 Shatapatha Brahmana is a separate Brahmana text of Shukla Yajurveda

Samaveda
• The hymns from the Rigveda were set to tune in Samaveda for chanting during sacrifice.
• The Samaveda is the shortest of the four Vedas. It is a book of melodic ritual chanting and is considered
the origin of Indian music.

Atharvaveda
• Atharvaveda is the latest Vedas. The Atharvaveda Samhita contains hymns, many of which were charms,
magic spells and incantations to:
 Ward off evils and diseases
 Protect crops from drought and lightning
 Protect from snake bites or injurious insects
• The hymns of the Atharva Veda are not used in public rituals, unlike the hymns of the other three Vedas.
Hence, some scholars do not consider the Atharva Veda to be part of the primary Vedic canon. Instead,
the Atharva Veda focuses on spells and charms for domestic matters, such as health, good fortune, and
protection from evil spirits.
• The content of Atharvaveda throws light on the beliefs and practices of non-Aryans.
• The Atharvaveda mentions and describes the use of medicines and medicinal herbs. It is considered as
the origin of Ayurveda.
• Two Samhita of Atharvaveda are available today:
1. Shaunaka Samhita
2. Paippalada Samhita

Upaveda
• Each Veda consists of a secondary knowledge source called Upaveda. They are:
1. Ayurveda (Medicine): Upaveda of Rigveda
2. Dhanurveda (Archery): Upaveda of Yajurveda
3. Gandharvaveda (Music and sacred dance): Upaveda of Samaveda
4. Arthashastra (Economics): Upaveda of Atharvaveda (Some scholars consider “Shilpa Veda” as
Upaveda of Atharvaveda)

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Ayurveda

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Ayurveda means "the science of life" (ayur means "life" and veda means "science" in Sanskrit). It has
its prime origin from Atharva-Veda and apart as a supplement of the Rig-Veda.
• Scholars do not agree on whether Ayurveda is an Upaveda of the Atharva Veda or the Rig Veda, or is
regarded as the Panchama Veda (the fifth Veda).
• Dhanvantari is worshipped as the God of Ayurveda.

Brahmanas
• The Vedic Samhitas were followed by the composition of Brahmanas, which are commentaries on the
Vedic Samhitas with details of rituals. Brahmanas explain the hymns of Vedas in an orthodox manner.
• Brahmanas are full of ritualistic formulae and explain the social and religious meaning of rituals. These
were composed to explain the difficult meaning and secret knowledge of the Vedic Samhitas.
• Originally, there were numerous Brahmanas, many of whom lost, and 19 still survive. Each Samhita has
corresponding Brahmanas. Some important Brahmanas are:
Veda Important Brahmana
Rigveda Aitareya Brahmana
Kaushitaki/Sankhayana Brahmana
Krishna-Yajurveda Taittiriya Brahmana
Shukla-Yajurveda Shatapatha Brahmana
Samaveda Tandya Brahmana
Samavidhana Brahmana
Upanishad Brahmana
Atharvaveda Gopatha Brahmana

Aranyakas
• Aranyakas (Forest Books) are generally the concluding portions of the several Brahmanas, but they are
a distinct category of literature. They were composed around 700 BCE and contain discussions of secret
rites to be carried out by certain people living in the forest.
• Aranyakas describe the secret meaning of the sacrifice. It also discusses the creation of the universe,
the soul, the cycle of birth and death, etc., which form the basis of the Rahasya or secrets discussed in
the Upanishads.
• The term Aranyaka comes from the word Aranya, meaning 'forest.' These texts are called Aranyakas be-
cause they were intended to be studied in the forest, unlike the Brahmanas, which were meant for study
within the village.

Classification of the Aranyakas

128
• Today, only seven Aranyakas are available. There is no Aranyaka which belongs to the Atharvaveda.
Aranyakas of the Rigveda Aitareya Aranyaka

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Kaushitaki/ Shankhayana Aranyaka
Aranyakas of Krishna Yajurveda Taittiriya Aranyaka
Maitrayaniya Aranyaka
Aranyaka of Shukla Yajurveda Brihadaranyaka
Aranyakas of the Samaveda Talavakara or Jaiminiya-Upanshad Aranyaka
Chandogya Aranyaka

Upanishads
• The Upanishads are the concluding part of the Veda. They came at the end of the Vedic period. They
were composed in the land of the Panchalas (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Videha (north Bihar) around
600 BCE.
• These philosophical texts criticised rituals and stressed the value of right belief and knowledge. They
deal with topics like the soul, karma, rebirth, the origin of the world and the mysteries of nature. What is
this world? Who am I? What becomes of me after death? Such questions are asked and answered in these
Upanishads.
• The Upanishads emphasised the need to acquire knowledge of the self, or the individual soul (Atman),
and the universal soul (Brahman). They believed that, ultimately, both Atman and Brahman were one.
Upanishad uses parables to convey these complex philosophical concepts in a simple, relatable, and
symbolic manner.
• The Upanishads are often called Vedanta, meaning the 'end of the Veda.' Literally, Vedanta signifies
both the conclusion (Anta) of the Vedas and the ultimate goal (Anta) of the Vedas. The chief reason why
the Upanishads are called the 'end of the Veda' is that they represent the central aim of the Veda and
contain the highest and ultimate goal of the Veda as they deal with Moksha or Supreme Bliss.
• Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially Brahmins and Rajas. Occasionally, women thinkers, such
as Gargi, are mentioned. Gargi was famous for her learning and participated in debates held in royal
courts.
• Many ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya. His Advaita
Vedanta philosophy is directly related to the teachings of the Upanishads.
 The word 'Upanishad' literally means 'approaching and sitting near'. This refers to the students sitting
down near their teacher at the time of instruction. Over time, the word came to imply a sense of secret
teaching or doctrine (Rahasya) shared during these sessions.

Number of Upanishads
• It is difficult to determine the exact number of Upanishads. Some scholars estimate the number to be as

129
high as 200. The Muktikopanishad lists 108 Upanishads, categorised according to the four Vedas as fol-
lows:

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 10 Upanishads from the Rigveda
 32 Upanishads from the Krishna-Yajurveda
 19 Upanishads from the Shukla-Yajurveda
 16 Upanishads from the Samaveda and
 31 Upanishads from the Atharvaveda.

Principal Thirteen Upanishads related to the Vedas

Upanishads of the Rigveda Aitareya Upanishad
Kaushitaki Upanishad
 Upanishads of the Krishna-Yajurveda Taittiriya Upanishad
Katha Upanishad
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
Upanishads of the Shukla-Yajurveda Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Isha Upanishad
Upanishads of the Samaveda Chandogya Upanishad
Kena Upanishad
Upanishads of the Atharvaveda Mundaka Upanishad
Mandukya Upanishad
Prashna Upanishad

Important Parables from the Upanishads

 Story of Uddalaka and Svetaketu: It is a brief dialogue between the father (Uddalaka) and his son
(Svetaketu) from Chandogya Upanishad. It teaches us that God exists in everything.
 Story of Gargi: This is story of Gargi (who is known for her intelligence) and Yajnavalkya from Bri-
hadaranyaka Upanishad. It teaches us that we should be humble and respect those who are wiser.
 Story of Yama-Nachiketa: This is a story of Nachiketa, a boy who goes to the Yama (Lord of Death) to
learn about death and what happens after it, from Katha Upanishad.

[UPSC CSE 2024] Consider the following statements:

1. There are no parables in Upanishads.
2. Upanishads were composed earlier than the Puranas
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only

130
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: 2 only
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Different Divisions of Vedas
• Some scholars divided the 'Veda into the following two parts:
1. Karma-Kanda (focused on action or rituals): The Samhita and the Brahmanas mainly represent
Karma-Kanda.
2. Jnana-Kanda (focused on knowledge): The Aranyakas and Upanishads chiefly represent the
Jnana-Kanda.
• Some scholars divided the 'Veda into the following two parts:
 1. Mantras: Samhita portion of the Veda
2. Brahmanas: Other than Mantra
 These scholars also considered the Aranyakas and Upanishads as part of Samhitas/Brahmanas.

Impact of Ancient Indian Heritage

 National Motto: The national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate," which translates to "Truth alone tri-
umphs," is inscribed below the Emblem of India and is taken from the Mundaka Upanishad.
 The Dharma Chakra logo of the Supreme Court: It is a 32-spoked wheel that appears on the abacus
of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Below this, it includes the inscription in Sanskrit, “yatodharmastato
Jayah”, which means – "Where there is Dharma, there will be Victory." The Supreme Court’s motto,
“yatodharmastato jayah,” occurs 13 times in the Mahabharata.
 Gayatri Mantra: The Gayatri Mantra is "Om Bhur Bhuvah Svaha, Tat Savitur Varenyam, Bhargo Devasya
Dhimahi, Dhiyo Yo Nah Prachodayat". The mantra is from the third Mandal of the Rigveda and is at-
tributed to the sage Vishwamitra. It is dedicated to Savitri (a solar deity).
 Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya: The phrase "Asato ma satgamaya, tamaso ma jyotirgamaya, mri-
tyormamritam gamaya..." is taken from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

6.8. Shruti and Smriti texts

131
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Sanskrit literature from the ancient period can be divided into:

1. Shruti (heard and revealed) literature
 2. Smriti (remembered and later recorded) literature

Shruti literature
• According to Indian tradition, Shruti texts were not created by human authors. Instead, they were
revealed to seers (Rishis), who are considered neither the authors of the mantras nor responsible for their
content. These texts were transmitted orally from generation to generation by reciting and memorising.
• The four Vedas – (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda), Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad be-
long to the Shruti form.

Smriti literature
• The word "Smriti" means "to be remembered". The Smriti texts were composed by sages after recount-
ing the traditional wisdom passed on by sages. Hence, they do not enjoy the sanctity of the Vedas.
• Smrti texts include six Vedangas, Puranas, Law of Manu and the epics - the Ramayana and the Maha-
bhārata.

Vedangas
• The Vedangas (explanatory limbs to the Vedas) are the six knowledge streams required for under-
standing the Vedas. They were likely composed around or after the middle of the first millennium
BCE. They are:
1. Shiksha or phonetics or pronunciation
2. Kalpa or ritual
3. Vyakarana or grammar
4. Nirukta or etymology
5. Chanda or meter
6. Jyotisha or astronomy

Shiksha or phonetics

132
• Shiksha means instruction, particularly 'instruction in reciting' — that is, correct pronunciation, accentu-
ation, etc.- of the Samhita texts.
Shiksha lays down the rules of phonetics, sounds of syllables, and pronunciation. Thus, the Shiksha-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
Sutras are treatises on phonetics.

Kalpa
• Kalpa is the method of ritual. It studies the correct ways of performing the ritual.
• The Kalpa-sutras are collections of concise aphorisms that provide guidelines for performing rituals. They
serve as practical manuals for conducting Vedic ceremonies and sacrifices systematically.
• There are four types of the Kalpasutras:
1. Shrauta-sutras: It deals with Shrauta sacrifices
 2. Shulba-sutras: It deals with the rules for measuring fire-altars, etc.
3. Grihya-sutras: It deals with the rules for performing the domestic ceremonies
4. Dharma-sutras: It deals with the rules for the ethics, customs and religious and social laws (conduct
of life).

Vyakarana
• Vyakarana, or grammar, is necessary for understanding the Veda.
• Panini's Ashtadhyayi is one of the famous Vedanga texts on Vyakarana.

Nirukta or etymology
• Nirukta (lexicon) explains why a particular word has been used, i.e., the meaning of usage of the word.
• Nirukta of Yaska discusses and defines the difficult words of Vedas.

Chandas
• A Chandas is a physical form in which the syllables are counted. The Chandas is designed for the purpose
of securing the proper reading and reciting of Vedic texts.
• Pingala's Chandas-sutras is one of the famous Vedanga texts on Chandas.

Jyotisha
• Jyotisha is a system of astronomy and astrology used to determine the right times for rituals. It provides
rules for calculating and fixing the time for sacrifices.
Key Concept or motto or Mantra Source
Satyameva Jayate Mundaka Upanishad
Yatodharmastato Jayah Mahabharata
Gayatri Mantra Third Mandal of the Rigveda
Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Origin of the universe Nasadiya Sukta (Tenth Mandala of the Rigveda)
Shudra is mentioned for the first time Purusha Sukta (Tenth Mandala of the Rigveda)

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First three ashramas Chhandogya Upanishad
All four ashrams Jabala Upanishad

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Story of Uddalaka and Svetaketu Chandogya Upanishad
Story of Gargi Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Story of Yama-Nachiketa Katha Upanishad

6.9. Development in Philosophy

• The Hindu system of philosophy classifies philosophical thought into two classes:
1. Astika or Orthodox schools: These schools believe in the authority of Vedas.
2. Nastika or Heterodox schools: These schools don't believe in the authority of Vedas. They are
mainly Buddhists, Jainas, Ajivika and Charvakas.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 134
Astika or Orthodox Schools (Vedic Philosophy)
• In Indian philosophy, by the beginning of the Christian era, six orthodox schools such as Samkhya,
Vaishesika, Nyaya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa were developed. These are col-
lectively referred to as the six systems of philosophy or Saddarshana.
• These philosophical systems developed gradually over many generations, with contributions from
many individual thinkers. However, today, we observe an underlying harmony in their conception of truth.
All six systems regarded moksha or salvation (liberation from the cycle of birth and death) as the highest
goal of human struggle.
• Nav Darshana: Nine schools of Indian philosophy. It consists of:
1. Aastika Darshana: Saddarshana or Shad Darshana (six schools of Indian philosophy)
2. Nastika Darshan: Buddhism, Jainism and Charavaka

Six Systems of Indian Philosophy

Samkhya
• Samkhya is the oldest of six systems and was founded by sage Kapila.
• According to the early Samkhya philosophy:
 Creation or evolution does not take place due to any divinity but due to the inherent nature of Prakriti
(nature). This was a rational and scientific view.
 A person can attain salvation through acquiring real knowledge and not due to any external agent.
This knowledge can be acquired through perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), and hear-
ing (shabda).
• Around the fourth century CE, in addition to Prakriti (nature), Purusha (spirit) was introduced as an
element in the Samkhya system, and the world's creation was attributed to both.
• According to the new view, Nature and the spiritual element together create the world. Thus, initially,
the Samkhya school of philosophy was materialistic, then it tended to be spiritualistic.

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Yoga
• The sage Patanjali is the founder of the Yoga philosophy. The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali is its basic text.
• According to the Yoga school, a person can attain salvation through meditation and physical exercise. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
To obtain salvation, physical exercises in various postures called asanas are prescribed, and a breathing
exercise called pranayama is recommended. These methods are thought to divert the mind from worldly
matters and achieve concentration.
• The practice of control over pleasure, the senses, and bodily organs is central to this system.
• The Veda school mostly accepts the Samkhya school but admits the existence of God. The god of the
yoga school is an exalted being who is symbolised in the sacred syllable of OM, which plays an important
role in meditation.
  Patanjali was an author, mystic and philosopher. He is believed to live between the 2nd century BCE
and the 5th century CE.

Nyaya
• Nyaya means 'analysis'. It is a school of logic and epistemology.
• It was founded by Sage Gautama, and its principles are mentioned in Nyaya Sutras.
• According to Nyaya philosophy, clear thinking and logical argument are essential for attaining the highest
bliss (salvation), i.e., salvation can be attained through acquiring knowledge (based on critical thinking
or logical argument). Three main methods are used to determine if something is true: inference, hearing,
and analogy.

Vaisheshika
• The sage Kanada founded it.
• The Vaisheshika school gives importance to the discussion of material elements or dravya. Earth, water,
fire, air, and ether (sky), when combined, give rise to new objects.
• The Vaisheshika school propounded the atom theory, believing that all material objects are made up
of atoms. The salvation depends on realising the atomic nature of the universe. Thus, the Vaisheshika
marked the beginning of physics in India, but a belief in God and spiritualism diluted the scientific view.

Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)

• Sage Jaimini founded the Mimamsa school. According to this school, Veda contains eternal truth. It
defends and justifies the Vedic ritualism.
• Mimamsa means the art of reasoning and interpretation. However, reasoning was used to justify var-
ious Vedic rituals.
• According to the Mimamsa school, the Vedas contain the eternal truth. A person will enjoy the bliss of
heaven so long as his accumulated acts of virtue last. When his accumulated virtues are exhausted, he
will return to earth, but if he attains salvation, he will be completely free from the cycle of birth and death.

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• To attain salvation, the Mimamsa school strongly recommended the performance of Vedic sacrifices,
which needed the services of priests and legitimised the social distance between the various varnas.
 Jaimini was an ancient Indian scholar believed to have lived around the 2nd century BCE. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Vedanta
• Vedanta means the end of the Veda. This school was founded by sage Veda Vyasa (Badarayana).
• The doctrines of the Vedanta are based on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras of Badarayana, which
were compiled in the second century BCE.
• Later, famous commentaries were written on Brahma Sutras by:
1. Shankaracharya
2. Ramanujacharya: Sri Bhashya (Sribashyam) is a commentary on Brahma Sutras by Ramanuja.
 3. Madhvacharya; Anu-vyaakhyaana is a commentary on Brahma Sutras by Madhvacharya.
• According to Vedanta philosophy, the universal soul (Brahman) is reality, and everything else is unreal
(Maya). The atman or self (individual soul) coincides with Brahman. Therefore, if a person acquires
knowledge of the self (atman), he acquires knowledge of Brahman and thus attains salvation.

Three major sub-schools of Vedanta philosophy

1. Advaita: It was founded by Adi Shankaracharya in the ninth century CE.

 According to this school, the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the individual soul (atman) are iden-
tical (non-dualism).
 Shankaracharya considered knowledge or jnana to be the chief means of salvation.
2. Vishishtadvaita: It was founded by Ramanujacharya in the twelfth century CE.
 According to this school, the individual soul (atman) is separate from yet dependent on the ulti-
mate reality (Brahman). That is, Atman and Brahman are ultimately one, yet differentiate between
them.
 Sri Ramanujacharya considered devotion/loving faith to be the chief means of salvation.
 Sri Ramanuja is noted as one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavism tradition
within Hinduism. His ideologies were influential in the Bhakti movement.
3. Dvaita: It was founded by Sri Madhvacharya in the 13th century CE.
 According to this school, the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the individual soul (atman) are inde-
pendent and distinct. The individual soul is dependent on Brahman but never identical.
 According to Sri Madhvacharya, renunciation, devotion and direct cognition of the Lord
through meditation lead to the attainment of salvation
Six Schools of Indian Philosophy
Orthodox school Founder Key Idea
Samkhya Sage Kapila A person can attain salvation through acquiring real
knowledge and not due to any external agent.

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Yoga Sage Patanjali A person can attain salvation through meditation and physical
exercise.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Nyaya Sage Gautama Salvation can be attained through acquiring knowledge based
on critical thinking or logical argument.
Vaisheshika Sage Kanada The salvation depends on realising the atomic nature of the
universe.
Mimamsa Sage Jaimini Salvation can be attained by the performance of Vedic sacri-
fices
Vedanta Sage Badarayana If a person acquires knowledge of the self (atman), he acquires
(Veda Vyasa) knowledge of Brahman and thus attains salvation.
 Sub-schools of Vedanta Philosophy
Advaita Adi Shankaracharya Knowledge or jnana is the best means of salvation
Vishishtadvaita Sri Ramanujacharya Devotion/loving faith is the best means of salvation
Dvaita Sri Madhvacharya Renunciation, devotion and direct cognition of the Lord
through meditation lead to the attainment of salvation

• The six systems of philosophical teaching generally promoted an idealistic view of life, while the Sam-
khya and Vaisheshika systems advanced some materialistic views.

6.10. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture

• The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture, dating from around 1200 to 600 BCE, is found in North India. It
is known for its fine, delicate grey pottery decorated with black geometric patterns.

Geographical Distribution
• The Painted Grey Ware pottery was found from the Himalayan foothills to the Malwa plateau in central
India and from Bahawalpur in Pakistan to Kaushambi in Uttar Pradesh.
• The concentration of PGW sites is in the Indo-Gangetic divide, Sutlej basin and the upper Ganga
plains, i.e. Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
• The sites in the north-west are older than those in the Ganga Valley. The PGW culture spread to the
middle Ganga Valley around the 6th century BCE.
 The PGW culture spread from northwestern India to the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, following a pattern
similar to the Aryans.

Important Sites
• The PGW pottery was first discovered at Ahichhatra (Bareilly district) during the excavations in 1940.
• The major archaeological sites of this culture are Ropar in Punjab; Noh in Rajasthan; Bhagwanpura in

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Haryana; Alamgirpur, Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura, Kaushambi, Shravasti, and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh;
Vaishali in Bihar; Manda in Jammu; and Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. Many of these sites, such as Hastina-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

pura, Kurukshetra, Panipat, Ahichchhatra, etc, are mentioned in the Mahabharata.

PGW Culture and Iron

• Not all PGW sites are associated with iron:
1. The early phase, especially most sites in the Ghaggar-Hakra region, shows no association with iron.
2. The later phase, particularly most sites in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, is associated with iron use.
• Rural life: The PGW culture represents a well-developed rural life.
• Occupation: Their main occupations were farming and herding. They cultivated wheat, barley, and rice,
and their main domesticated animals were cows and horses.
• Diet: Food grains and meat formed a major part of their diet.
• Houses: The houses of this period were made of mud bricks and wattle-and-daub. Some baked bricks
were found in Bhagwanpura, but they were not popular.
 Bhagwanpura: A thirteen-roomed mud house has been discovered at Bhagwanpura. Its dating is
not confirmed. This might indicate either a house for a large extended family or for a tribal Chief.
 Hastinapur: Excavations at Hastinapur, dating from 900 BCE to 500 BCE, reveal the faint beginnings
of town life. Hastinapur and Kaushambi (near Allahabad) are considered primitive towns belonging
to the end of the Vedic period and can be classified as proto-urban sites.
• Objects: Excavations found various objects of copper, iron, glass, and bone. Iron was originally used in
weaponry — arrowheads, spearheads, blades, daggers, and lances — but its use gradually extended to
other objects, particularly household ones.
• Trade: Beads made from semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli, jasper, agate, and carnelian have been
found at many sites. Since these stones are not available in the doab as raw materials, they were likely
acquired through trade.
 People of this period engaged in barter or exchange with other regions, as no evidence of coin usage
has been discovered from this phase.

PGW Pottery

• Painted Grey Ware (PGW) pottery is made on a potter's wheel from well-lavigated clay.
• It is a rare luxury item with a thin core and a uniform grey to ash-grey surface.
• It is painted in black colour on the outer and inner surfaces. It carries various geometric designs. The
swastika is also depicted on some pottery.
• It mainly consists of tableware. The most common types are bowls and dishes.

Painted Grey Ware Culture: A Distinct Culture

• Some correlations have been drawn between the material culture of Painted Grey Ware and descriptions
in later Vedic texts. However, it is not accurate to classify these archaeological cultures as either Aryan or

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non-Aryan.

Recent Excavations
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Recently, Bhagwanpura in Haryana and three sites in Punjab have been exçavated. The geographical
area of these four sites coincides with a significant portion of the area represented by the Rig Veda.
• The date assigned to the Bhagwanpura finds ranges from 1600 to 1000 BCE, which is also roughly the
period of the Rig Veda.
• These sites may represent a pre-iron phase of the Painted Grey Ware, as in all these sites:
 Painted Grey Ware has been found along with 'late Harappan' pottery.
 Iron objects and cereals are absent.
 Cattle bones have been found in good quantity.
• Horse bones have also been found in Bhagwanpura.

6.11. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

2300 BCE Spoked wheel first appeared in the Caucasus area
Nineteenth century Hittite inscriptions from Turkey, considered one of the earliest records of an Indo-
BCE European language, date back to the nineteenth century BCE.
1600 BCE Kassite inscriptions from Iraq mention Aryan names.
Fourteenth century Mittani inscriptions from Syria mention Aryan names.
BCE
1500 BCE The Aryan migration to Indian subcontinent represented by the Rig Vedic people.
1500 BCE - 1000 BCE Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
1500 BCE Rigveda Samhita was composed in the Saptasindhu region.
1400 BCE The Avesta, the oldest text in the Iranian language composed Iran.
1000 BCE - 600 BCE Later Vedic Period
1000 BCE - 600 BCE Later Vedic texts were composed in the Gangetic basin.
1000 BCE Iron appeared in the Dharwar district of Karnataka.
800 BCE Iron weapons were commonly used in western Uttar Pradesh
700-600 BCE Spread of iron to eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kosala) and north Bihar (Videha).
700 BCE The Aranyakas (Forest Books) were composed by certain people living in the forest.
600 BCE The Upanishads were composed in Panchalas (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Videha
(north Bihar).

6.12. Summary

Who were Aryans?

• Aryans were speakers of the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, which is a part of the Indo-European lan-

140
guage family. Originally, Aryans likely lived in the steppes between southern Russia and Central Asia.
They were primarily pastoralists, with agriculture being a secondary occupation. Over many centuries,
Aryans gradually migrated to different parts of Asia and Europe in search of pasture fields. On their PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
way to India, they first appeared in Central Asia and Iran.

The Vedic Period

• The period between 1500 BCE and 600 BCE is called the Vedic period. It is divided into:
1. Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 BCE): The history of the Early Vedic period is based mainly on the
Rig Veda, which was composed around 1500 BCE (later additions might be added around 1000 BCE) in
the Saptasindhu region.
2. Later Vedic Period (1000 - 600 BCE): The history of the Later Vedic period is based mainly on the
Vedic texts composed after the age of the Rig Veda. These include the Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva
Veda, Brahmanas, and Upanishads. Later Vedic texts were composed in the upper Gangetic basin.

Vedic Literature
• The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas - Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda.
• Each Veda has four types of texts:
1. Samhitas: These are collections of Vedic hymns or mantras.
2. Brahmanas: These are commentaries on Vedic Samhitas explaining the social and religious mean-
ing of rituals. Each Samhita has corresponding Brahmanas.
3. Aranyakas: These texts contain discussions of secret rites to be performed only by certain people,
namely Vanprasthas, who renounce family life and reside in the forests.
4. Upanishads: These are philosophical texts dealing with topics like the soul, rebirth, karma, the
origin of the world and the mysteries of nature.
• Vedic Literature can be divided into two groups:
1. Early Vedic Literature: It includes Rigveda Samhita. It was composed around 1500 BCE in the Sap-
tasindhu region.
2. Later Vedic Literature: It includes Yajurveda Samhita, Samaveda Samhita, Atharvaveda Samhita,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. These texts were composed in the Gangetic basin during
the later Vedic period (1000 BCE to 600 BCE).

Shruti and Smriti texts

• Sanskrit literature from the ancient period can be divided into:
1. Shruti (heard and revealed) literature: Shruti texts were not created by human authors. Instead,
they were revealed to seers (Rishis), who are considered neither the authors of the mantras nor
responsible for their content. The four Vedas, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad belong to the
Shruti form.

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2. Smriti (remembered and later recorded) literature: The word "Smriti" means "to be remem-
bered". The Smriti texts were composed by sages after recounting the traditional wisdom passed
on by sages. Smrti texts include six Vedangas, Puranas, Law of Manu and the epics - the Ramayana PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
and the Mahabhārata.

Development in Philosophy
• The Hindu system of philosophy classifies philosophical thought into two classes:
1. Astika or Orthodox schools: These schools believe in the authority of Vedas. It includes six systems
of philosophy or Saddarshana: Samkhya, Vaishesika, Nyaya, Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or
Uttara Mimansa
2. Nastika or Heterodox schools: These schools don't believe in the authority of Vedas. They are
mainly Buddhists, Jainas, Ajivika and Charvakas.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 7. India in the Sixth Century BCE

7.1. Changes in Economic and Political Life

• The sixth century BCE is often considered a major turning point in early Indian history. It is an era asso-
ciated with:
 Development of new towns
 Emergence of early states, kingdoms and empires
 Growing use of iron
 Change in agriculture and surplus foodgrain production
 Flourishing arts, crafts and trade
 Development of coinage
 Beginning of the development of a huge professional army, bureaucracy and system of tax collection
 Growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism.

Mahajanapadas
• Around the sixth century BCE, many small, clan-based kingdoms were merged into larger kingdoms
known as Mahajanapadas.

143
• Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen mahajanapadas. Although the lists vary, some names
such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occur frequently and were amongst
the most important mahajanapadas.
• Most mahajanapadas had a monarchical government, while few were ganas, sanghas, or republics. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Over time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got elimi-
nated. Example: Kosala incorporated the Sakya and Kashi ganas.
• By the mid-sixth century BCE, only four kingdoms  Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha, survived.
Finally, the Magadha kingdom emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding an empire.

Fortified Capital Cities

• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, usually fortified, where kings and the ruling elite resided. The
fortification was done:
  To protect the people from the attacks of other kings
 To show the richness and power of a king
 To control the people living inside the fortified cities.

Ganas or Sanghas or Republics

• Some Mahajanapadas were ganas or sanghas. These were oligarchies where power was shared among
many rulers (rajas). Sometimes, thousands of rulers governed together, each called a raja. These rajas
performed rituals together. Example: A Buddhist text mentions that the Lichchhavis had 7,707 kings.
• Oligarchic republics were ruled either by one clan, such as the Shakyas of Lumbini in Nepal or by alli-
ances of different clans, such as the Vajji Sangha. The Vajji Sangha was a grouping of eight clans,
including the Lichchhavis.
 Oligarchy refers to a form of government where a group of men exercises power.
• Democratic Nature of Gana: In the oligarchic republics, rajas met in public assemblies to decide what
had to be done and how through discussion and debate. Consensus arrived through discussion, and if
failed, decisions were taken by a majority vote.
 The Public Assembly was composed of the tribal representatives or heads of families. However,
women, dasas and kammakaras were not allowed.
• Buddhist and Jain texts speak much more about ganas than the Hindu texts. This is because:
 The Buddha (Sakya gana) and Mahavira (Vaji sangha) belonged to ganas or sanghas.
 Brahmanas did not recognise ganas in their law books as they did not exercise any influence in the
ganas.
• The monarchical states slowly defeated the ganas and absorbed them. But many ganas lasted for 1000
years till the Gupta empire. The last of the ganas were conquered by the Gupta ruler.
Monarchy Gana or Sangha
Mostly located in the Gangetic plain. Mostly located in northwestern India (Indus basin)
and foothills of the Himalayas.

144
Ruled by a single king or raja who was not respon- Ruled by many rajas. Rajas functioned under the
sible to anyone. leadership of oligarchic assemblies and were re-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

sponsible to them.
King claimed to be the sole recipient of revenue Every raja has authority on the revenue from the
from the peasants. peasants.
King maintained its regular standing army and did Each raja was free to maintain his own little army
not permit any group or groups of people to keep under his Senapati.
arms within its boundaries.
The brahmanas exercised great influence in mon- The brahmanas had no place in the early republics.
archy.
Emergence of New Cities

145
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• During the long span of 1,500 years following the end of the Harappan civilisation, there is no evidence
of any towns in India.
• Towns began to appear around the sixth century BCE in the middle Gangetic basin and several parts
of the subcontinent, marking the beginning of the second urbanisation in India.
• Houses were mostly made of mudbrick and wood, which naturally perished in the moist climate of the
middle Gangetic basin. From the third century BCE, burnt bricks were used.
• Many newly developed towns (urban centres) were capitals of mahajanapadas. Virtually all major towns
were located along routes of communication (trade routes) to collect taxes or tributes. Example:
 Pataliputra (present-day Patna) was on riverine routes.
 Puhar was near the coast, from where sea routes began.
 Taxila and Ujjayini were along land routes.
 Mathura was located at the cross roads of two major routes - from the northwest to the east and
from north to south.

Ring Wells
• In many cities, archaeologists have found rows of pots or ceramic rings arranged one on top of the other.
These are known as ring wells.
• Ring wells are usually found in individual houses. They seem to have been used for various purposes,
including toilets, drains, and garbage dumps.

Changes in Agriculture
• Around the sixth century BCE, three major changes in agriculture contributed to the increase in agricul-
tural production.
1. Growing use of iron ploughshares
2. Paddy transplantation
3. Use of irrigation

Growing Use of Iron Ploughshares

• Vedic people started using the iron around 1000 BCE. However, they did not use iron ploughshares

146
and relied on wooden ploughshares.
• Around the sixth century BCE, there is evidence of the growing use of iron tools.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Iron axes were used to clear forests, which extended agriculture into forested areas.
 Iron ploughshare was used, which increased the agricultural production.
• The heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better with an iron-tipped ploughshare than a wooden
ploughshare.
• While the iron ploughshare increased agricultural productivity, its use was restricted to certain parts of
the subcontinent, such as the Ganga and Kaveri river valleys.
• Cultivators in semi-arid areas, such as parts of Punjab and Rajasthan, did not adopt it until the twentieth
century. Those living in hilly tracts in the northeastern and central parts of the subcontinent practised hoe
agriculture, which was much better suited to the terrain.
Paddy Transplantation
• In some parts of the Ganga Valley, paddy production was dramatically increased by the introduction of
transplantation. Instead of scattering seeds on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings
were grown and then transplanted into waterlogged fields. This increased production, as many more
plants survived.
• However, paddy transplantation was back-breaking work. Generally, slave men and women (dasas and
dasis) and landless agricultural labourers (kammakaras) had to do this work.

Use of Irrigation
• During this period, people used irrigation to increase the agricultural production. They used wells, tanks
and, less commonly, canals.
• Communities and individuals organised the construction of irrigation works. As this activity was less com-
mon, powerful men, including kings, often recorded it in inscriptions.

Sudarshana Lake

• The Sudarshana Lake was an artificial reservoir in Gujarat. We know about it from a rock inscription (c.
second century CE) of Junagadh rock in Sanskrit. It was composed to record the achievements of the
Shaka ruler Rudradaman. The inscription mentions that:
 The lake, with embankments and water channels, was built by a local governor, Pushyagupta, during
the rule of Chandragupta Maurya. However, a terrible storm broke the embankments, and water
gushed out of the lake.
 Rudradaman, who was then ruling in the area, claimed to have repaired the lake using his own
resources without imposing any tax on his subjects.
• Another inscription on the same rock (c. fifth century) mentions how Skandagupta of the Gupta dynasty
repaired the lake once again.

[Practice Question] Junagadh inscription is written in which of the following languages?

147
a) Prakrit
b) Pali
c) Kharoshthi PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
d) Sanskrit
Answer: Sanskrit

Crafts and Crafts persons

• Around the sixth century BCE, many towns were inhabited by artisans and merchants. Archaeological
findings, including Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), provide evidence of ancient crafts. However,
the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived.
• Texts reveal that cloth manufacturing was important, with renowned centres like Varanasi in the north
and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.

Shrenis (Guilds)
• Both artisans (craft persons) and merchants were organised and formed associations known as guilds
or shrenis under their respective headmen.
 The shrenis of crafts persons provided training, procured raw materials, and distributed the finished
product.
 The shrenis of merchants organised the trade.
• These shrenis regulated crafts, and their heads would interact with the rulers on behalf of each industry.
• Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part
of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries.
• Due to the guild system and localisation, specialisation in crafts developed during this period. Crafts
were generally hereditary, and the son learned about the family trade from his father.

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

• Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is fine, metallic-looking pottery with a glossy (shiny) black sur-
face. The potter exposed the earthenware to a very high temperature in his kiln, blackening its outer
surface. A fine black slip was also applied, giving the pottery a mirror-like shine.
• NBPW, especially bowls and plates, were generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. The
pottery was probably used as tableware by rich people.

Trade
• From the sixth century BCE, trade became more significant, mainly within India but also abroad.
• Trade routes (land and river routes) criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended in various directions:
 Overland: Into Central Asia and beyond
 Overseas: Extending across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the

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Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
• Two major trade routes within India were:

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

1. Uttarapath: Connected the north-west to Bengal across the Indo-Gangetic plain
2. Dakshinapath: From Bihar and stretched across to Maharashtra
• The main items of trade were silk, muslin cloth, jewellery, ivory objects, pots and gold. Spices, especially
pepper, textiles and medicinal plants, were in high demand in the Roman Empire.
• Travelling on foot was risky due to bandits and thieves. Merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock
carts and pack animals paid tolls and customs as they crossed the borders of any kingdom; in return, the
king offered them protection.
 The term masattuvan in Tamil and setthis or satthavahas (Shreshthis) in Prakrit was used for successful
merchants who had grown rich from the increase in trade and moneylending.
Coins or Metal Money
• Metal coins first appeared around the sixth century BCE. Punch-marked coins made of silver and
copper were among the earliest to be minted and used. They remained in circulation till the early centu-
ries CE.
• Generally, kings issued these coins, but merchants, bankers, and townspeople also likely issued some.
The introduction of coinage facilitated trade.
 The terms nishka and satamana mentioned in Vedic texts are often interpreted as names of coins.
However, they appear to have been metal prestige objects rather than actual currency.

Punch-marked Coins

• Punch-marked coins were not inscribed but stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they
are called punch-marked coins.
• They were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape. They were either cut out of
metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules.
• Recently, a silver punch-marked coin was discovered during excavation at Keeladi (Tamil Nadu). This sug-
gests that Keeladi inhabitants were a trading community, and they were involved in trade with north
India, especially the Gangetic Valley.

[Practice Question] Which of the following statements is/are true with reference to punch-
marked coins?
1. They are the earliest coinage in India.
2. They were not in circulation in South India.
3. We can notice symbols on one or both sides of these coins.
4. These coins are made of silver.
Choose the correct answer from the following:
a) 1 and 3 only

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b) 1 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: 1,3 and 4 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Large Professional Army

• During the period of Mahajanapadas, raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate
means of acquiring wealth.
• Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Soldiers were
paid regular salaries; some payments were probably made using punch-marked coins. Other states con-
tinued to depend on the militia recruited from the peasantry.
• The formation of a large professional army indicates a real increase in state power. According to Greek
sources, the Mauryan ruler had a standing army of 600,000 infantry (foot soldiers), 30,000 cavalry and
9,000 elephants. Some historians consider these accounts to be exaggerated.
• During this period:
 The horse chariots introduced by the Vedic people were losing their importance.
 The possession of numerous elephants gave an edge to the Magadhan princes.

Administrative System
• Although many states existed during this period, only Koshala and Magadha emerged as powerful. In
both states, hereditary monarchs belonging to the Kshatriya varna ruled.
• The kings ruled with the help of officials, both high and low. Higher officials were called mahamatras,
and they performed various functions such as those of the minister (mantrin), commander (senanayaka),
judge, chief accountant and head of the royal harem. It is likely that a class of officers called ayuktas also
performed similar functions in some of the states.
• In rural areas, the administration was in the hands of the village headmen, called gramabhojaka or
gramini or gramika.
 In both Koshala and Magadha, despite the use of the punch-marked coins made of silver, some influ-
ential Brahmanas and setthis were paid by the grant of the revenue of villages. The beneficiaries
were granted only revenue; they were not given any administrative authority.

Taxation
• Building the fortified cities and maintaining armies and bureaucracies required resources. Hence, in-
stead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas, the
rulers of the mahajanapadas started collecting regular taxes from:
 Farmers: As most people were farmers, taxes on crops were the most important source of revenue
for the kings. Usually, the tax was fixed at 1/6th of the production, known as a bhaga or share.
 Crafts persons: Taxes on crafts persons could have been in the form of labour for royal work. For

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example, a weaver or a smith may have had to work for a day.
 Herders: Herders were expected to pay taxes in the form of plants and animal produce.
 Traders: Traders had to pay customs on the sale of commodities. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Hunters and Gatherers: They had to provide forest produce to the raja.

Popular Assemblies
• Popular assemblies flourished in smaller republican states such as Shakya, Lichchhavi, etc. However, they
were absent in monarchies.
• The popular assemblies of the Vedic period, such as Sabha and Samiti, had practically disappeared in
the post-Vedic times. These assemblies were essentially tribal institutions. Hence, they decayed and dis-
appeared as tribes disintegrated into varnas and lost their identity.
• During this period, popular tribal assemblies were replaced by varna and caste groups. Parishad, con-
sisting exclusively of Brahmanas, was one such body.

Rural Society
• Non-agriculturists living in towns were fed by agriculturists living in villages.
• Technologies led to an increase in agricultural production. However, the benefits were very uneven. The
unequal distribution of wealth amongst the people engaged in agriculture led to at least three differ-
ent kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent.

• In the northern part of the country, different categories of people living in the villages include:
1. Gramabhojaka: The village headman was known as the gramabhojaka. The post was hereditary.
 He was often the largest landowner.

151
 He also functioned as:
 Tax collector: To collect taxes from the village.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Judge: To administer justice
 Policeman: To maintain law and order
2. Grihapati or Gahapati: He was an independent farmer, most of whom were smaller landowners.
3. Dasa (slaves) and Kammakaras (landless agricultural labourers): They did not own land and had
to earn a living working on the fields owned by others.
• In the Tamil region, different categories of people living in the villages include:
1. Vellalar: Large landowners
2. Uzhavar: Ploughmen
3. Adimai (slaves) and Kadaisiyar (landless labourers)
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 152
Establishment of a State
• The establishment of a state requires a regular system of taxation, a professional army, and a bureaucracy,
which again depends on sufficient tax revenue.
• In the later Vedic period, the agricultural methods did not allow for enough surplus to generate sig-
nificant taxes or tributes, which limited the formation of state structures.
• However, by the sixth century BCE, the widespread use of iron tools enabled farmers to increase crop
yields, producing more food than needed for subsistence. This surplus allowed rulers to collect extra
produce, supporting their military and administrative needs and facilitating the rise of organised states.

7.2. Changes in social life

• With the emergence of new towns, social life became more complex. People from near and far met to
buy and sell their products and share ideas in the urban milieu, which may have led to a questioning of
earlier beliefs and practices.
• Faced with this challenge, the Brahmanas responded by laying down detailed codes of social behaviour.
From c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras and Dharma-
shastras (Brahmanical law books).

Varna Divided Society

• In post-Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and
Shudras. Each varna was assigned well-defined functions. It was emphasised that varna was based on
birth, and the two higher varnas were given some privileges.
1. The Brahmanas claimed the highest status in society and demanded several privileges, including the
right to receive gifts and exemption from taxation and punishment.
2. The Kshatriyas ranked second in the Varna hierarchy. They fought, governed, and lived on the taxes
collected from the peasants.
3. The Vaishyas were engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade. They appear as principal taxpayers.

153
4. The shudras were meant to serve the three higher varnas and, along with women, were barred from
taking Vedic studies. In post-Vedic times, they appeared as domestic slaves, agricultural slaves, craftsmen,
and hired labourers. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 The Brahmanas spread the fiction that the Shudras were born from the feet of the creator. So mem-
bers of the higher varnas, especially the brahmana, shunned the company of the shudra, avoided
the food touched by him and refused to enter into marriage relations with him.

Jatis
• Whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups or wanted to assign a name to occupa-
tional categories which did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them as a jati.
Example:
  Some people living in forests were classified as 'Nishadas'.
 Sometimes, those who spoke non-Sanskritic languages were labelled as mlechchhas.
 The goldsmith or suvarnakara
• In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth. However, while the number of varnas was fixed
at four, the number of jatis was not restricted.
• Jatis, which shared a common occupation or profession, were sometimes organised into shrenis or guilds.
Although membership was based on a shared craft specialisation, some members adopted other occu-
pations.
• One stone inscription (c. fifth century CE), found in Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh), records the history of a
guild of silk weavers who originally lived in Lata (Gujarat). It indicates that the members shared more than
a common profession they collectively decided to invest their wealth, earned through their craft, to con-
struct a splendid temple in honour of the sun god.

Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras

Dharmasutras
• The Dharmasutras, or “manuals on dharma,” are part of the Kalpasutra literature of the Vedanga and
are classified as smriti.
• Dharma sutras contain rules of conduct for a community and explain the duties of people at different
stages of life or ashramas. They outline the rules concerning interpersonal relations and the relationship
between people and the state. They contain rules related to caste, marriage, kinship, inheritance, social
orders, social, economic, and religious relations, etc.
• The most important of these texts are the sutras of Gautama, Baudhayana, Apastamba and Vashishtha.

Dharmashastras
• Dharmashastras were based on Dharmasutras. The contents of the Dharmasutras were further elabo-
rated, forming the Dharma-shastras, which became the basis of Hindu law.

154
• Dharmashastras specifically deals with Dharma, which is one’s duty (a code of conduct) or a righteous
moral law that is in consonance with Rita (fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the uni-
verse).
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• There are several Dharmashastra texts, with the Dharma-shastra of Manu or Manusmriti (Laws of Manu)
being the most prominent, attributed to Manu. Other well-known Dharmashastra texts include the Yaj-
navalkya Smriti by Yajnavalkya, Parashara Smriti by Parashara, and Narada Smriti by Narada.
• The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras were compiled in Sanskrit from around 500 BCE. The
Manusmriti was compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE, while other Dharmashastras, such as the Yaj-
navalkya Smriti, Parashara Smriti, and Naradasmriti, were compiled between 300-600 CE.

Purushartha
 • According to the ancient Indian texts, Purushartha refers to the four goals or aims of a human life.
These are:
1. Dharma (righteousness, moral values)
2. Artha (prosperity, material well-being)
3. Kama (sensual pleasure)
4. Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death)

Some Important Norms Laid Down by Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras

Social Categories

• The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras divided the society into four categories or varnas. They also
considered some people outside the social categories as “untouchable.” Positions within the order were
supposedly determined by birth.
• They ranked Brahmanas first, while Shudras and “untouchables” were placed at the very bottom of the
social order. According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings.
• They contain rules about the ideal occupations of the four categories or varnas.
1. Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices and get sacrifices per-
formed, and give and receive gifts.
2. Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice, study the Vedas, get
sacrifices performed, and make gifts.
3. Vaishyas were expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism, and trade. They were also expected
to study the Vedas, perform sacrifices, and make gifts.
4. Shudras were assigned only one occupation, serving the three “higher” varnas.

Untouchables

• Dharmasutras considered some activities “polluting” and classified certain social categories performing
such functions as “untouchable”. These included some crafts persons, hunters and gatherers (Ni-

155
shadas), and people who helped handle corpses and dead animals, i.e. perform burials and cremations
(chandalas).
Untouchables were placed at the bottom of the hierarchy. Their touch and, in some cases, even seeing
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
them was regarded as “polluting” by those who claimed to be at the top of the social order. This was
based on the notion that certain activities, especially those related to performing rituals, were sacred and
pure. Those who considered themselves pure avoided taking food from those they designated “untouch-
able”.
• The Manusmriti laid down the duties of the chandalas (untouchables). They had to live outside the
village, use discarded utensils, wear clothes of the dead, and wear iron ornaments. They could not walk
in villages and cities at night. They had to dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives and serve
as executioners.
Civil and Criminal Laws

• The Dharmasutras laid down civil and criminal laws based on the varna division. The higher the varna,
the purer and more privileged a person was. The lower the varna of an offender, the more severe the
punishment prescribed for him.
• Crimes committed by Shudras against the Brahmanas and others were punished Severely; on the other
hand, crimes committed against the Shudras were punished lightly.

Gotra of Women

• From c. 1000 BCE onwards, people were classified into gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer,
and all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants.
• Around the sixth century BCE, a person's gotra became an important identifier.
• Two rules about gotra were particularly important:
1. Women were expected to give up their father's gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage
2. Members of the same gotra could not marry

Marriage

• The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognise eight forms of marriage. The first four are regarded
as good, while the remaining four are condemned. The condemned forms were likely practised by
communities that did not follow Brahmanical norms.
1. Brahma Vivaha The most ideal type of marriage.
The families agree on the match, and there is no kind of exchange of money or
gifts.
2. Daiva Vivaha The bride is given to a priest.
3. Arsha Vivaha The groom pays the price for the bride.
Generally, the groom gives a cow and a bull to the bride's family.
4. Prajapatya Vivaha Marriage is based on mutual consent and social approval.

156
5. Gandharva Vivah A love marriage
The couple chooses to marry out of love and personal choice.
6. Asura Vivaha The groom pays the bride's family a large dowry to marry her.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Marriage with a purchased girl
7. Rakshasa Vivaha Abducting the bride and forcing her to marry
Marriage with the daughter of the defeated king
8. Paishacha Vivaha Man misleading and seducing the girl when she is unconscious or unable to give
consent, such as when she is asleep or highly intoxicated.

Inheritance
• According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally among sons after the par-
ents' death, with a special share for the eldest. Women could not claim a share of these resources.

Wealth

• The Manusmriti declares that there are seven means of acquiring wealth for men: inheritance, finding,
purchase, conquest, investment, work, and accepting gifts from good people.
• For women, there are six means of acquiring wealth:
 Stridhana: Wealth given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession
 Wealth given as a token of affection
 Wealth through any subsequent gift
 Wealth comes from her brother, mother, father or husband.

Strategies for Enforcing the Norms

• The Brahmanas evolved the following strategies for enforcing these norms:
1. A divine order: Brahmanas asserted that the varna order was of divine origin. They often cited a
verse from a hymn in Purusha Sukta, which says Brahmana was born from the mouth of the creator
while Shudra was from the feet.
2. They advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
3. They attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth.
4. They gave references to the stories told in the Mahabharata and other texts.

Challenges to Brahmanical Norms

• While the Brahmana authors of these texts claimed that their point of view was universally valid and
that their prescribed norms had to be obeyed by everybody, many people did not accept and follow
them. Here are some examples:
 Some kings thought they were superior to the priests. Many Buddhist and Jain texts mentioned four
varnas but placed Kshatriyas above Brahmana in the hierarchy.

157
 According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, the Shungas and Kanvas were
Brahmanas.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Some Satavahana Queens who married Satavahana rulers retained their father's gotra instead of
adopting names derived from their husbands' gotra.
 Some of the Satavahana Queens belonged to the same gotra (gotra endogamy), which was contrary
to the gotra exogamy recommended in the Brahmanical texts.

7.3. Emergence of New Religious Ideas

• The mid-first millennium BCE is often considered a turning point in world history. It saw the emer-
gence of thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi in China, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in Greece,
and Mahavira and Gautama Buddha in India.
• The sixth century BCE was an important stage in Indian history regarding the development of new reli-
gions. During this period, there was a growing opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of the Brah-
manas, which ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox religious sects.
• Buddhist texts mention that 64 sects or schools of thought emerged during this period. Among these,
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements and later developed
into well-organised popular religions.
• Buddha and Mahavira emphasised individual agency  suggesting that both men and women could
work toward freeing themselves from worldly suffering, i.e. liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Buddha
suggested righteous action as the means for liberation.
• This view was different from the Brahmanical belief, which suggests that a person's life was shaped by
their caste or gender and that not all people could work to attain liberation. Under the Brahmanical
ideas, the study of Vedas and the performance of sacrifices and rituals were not open to everyone.

Debates and Discussions in Kutagarashala

• Around the sixth century BCE, people were curious about the meaning of life, the possibility of life after
death, and rebirth. Was rebirth due to past actions? Such issues were hotly debated.
• Teachers of different sects or schools of thought travelled from place to place, trying to convince one
another and laypersons about the validity of their philosophy or the way they understood the world.
Debates took place in the kutagarashala - literally, a hut with a pointed roof or in groves where travel-
ling mendicants halted.
• If a philosopher convinced one of his rivals, the latter's followers also became his disciples. So, support
for any particular sect could grow and shrink over time.

7.4. Taxila: A Historic University

• Takshashila or Taxila, an ancient Indian city, in present-day Punjab, Pakistan, was as an important centre
of learning. It flourished for more than 1,000 years from the sixth century BCE to the fifth century CE.

158
• Taxila was started as a Vedic seat of learning. It became a prominent centre of Buddhist teaching in the
early centuries CE.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Taxila was well known for its university where the arts and sciences of the day were taught. However,
unlike modern university, it followed the gurukul system.
• Noted teachers who are said to have taught at university of Taxila include:
1. Panini, an Indian grammarian who wrote a book, Ashtadhyayi, a work on sanskrit grammar.
2. Charaka, a court physician of King Kanishka, who authored Charaka Samhita, an authoritative treatise
on Ayurveda.
3. Jivaka, one of the most renowned physicians in ancient India.
4. Chanakya (Kautilya), a skilled exponent of statecraft, taught economics and political science in Taxila.
He is said to have composed his Arthashastra in Taxila.
• Taxila saw the rise and fall of many ruling dynasties:
 In the sixth century BCE, Taxila became a part of Achaemenid Empire.
 The city surrendered to Alexander in 326 BCE
 It was annexed by the Maurya Empire around 317 BCE
 It became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, around 200 BCE,
 It was annexed by the Indo-Scythians around 80 BCE,
 It became a part of the Kushan Empire around 30 CE and flourished as a seat of Buddhist learning
 It was conquered and destroyed by the Hunas in the 5th century CE.
• Archaeologist Alexander Cunningham discovered its ruins in the mid-19th century.
• Taxila was declared as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.

Panini
• An Indian grammarian, Panini, dated variously by most scholars between the sixth and fourth century
BCE, was an expert in language and grammar,.
• Panini prepared a grammar for Sanskrit called Ashtadhyayi. He arranged the vowels and the consonants
in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to
write down the around 3000 grammatical rules.
• Later Indian grammars are mostly commentaries on Panini. It includes Mahabhasya of Patanjali (second
century BCE) and Kasika Vrtti of Jayaditya and Vamana (seventh century CE).

7.5. Summary

Sixth Century BCE

• Period of Mahajanapadas: Around the sixth century BCE, many small, clan-based kingdoms were
merged into larger kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas. Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention sixteen
mahajanapadas. Most mahajanapadas had a monarchical government, while few were ganas, sanghas,

159
or republics. Over time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or grad-
ually got eliminated.
• Development of New Towns: Towns began to appear around the sixth century BCE in the middle
Gangetic basin and several parts of the subcontinent, marking the beginning of the second urbanisa- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
tion in India.
• Changes in Agriculture: Around the sixth century BCE, three major changes in agriculture contributed
to the increase in agricultural production. These are - Growing use of iron ploughshares, paddy trans-
plantation, use of irrigation.
• Crafts and Crafts persons: Many towns were inhabited by artisans and merchants. Archaeological
findings, including Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), provide evidence of ancient crafts. Both
 artisans (craft persons) and merchants were organised and formed associations known as guilds or
shrenis under their respective headmen.
• Trade: Trade became more significant, mainly within India but also abroad. Metal coins first appeared
around the sixth century BCE. Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper were among the earliest
to be minted and used. They remained in circulation till the early centuries CE.
• Large Professional Army: During the period of Mahajanapadas, raids on neighbouring states were
recognised as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth. Gradually, some states acquired standing armies
and maintained regular bureaucracies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries; some payments were prob-
ably made using punch-marked coins. Other states continued to depend on the militia recruited from
the peasantry.
• Rural Society
 In the northern part of the country, different categories of people living in the villages include:
1. Gramabhojaka: The village headman was known as the gramabhojaka. The post was hereditary.
2. Grihapati or Gahapati: He was an independent farmer, most of whom were smaller landowners.
3. Dasa (slaves) and Kammakaras (landless agricultural labourers): They did not own land and had to
earn a living working on the fields owned by others.
 In the Tamil region, different categories of people living in the villages include:
1. Vellalar: Large landowners
2. Uzhavar: Ploughmen
3. Adimai (slaves) and Kadaisiyar (landless labourers)
• Varna Divided Society: In post-Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Each varna was assigned well-defined functions. It was emphasised
that varna was based on birth, and the two higher varnas were given some privileges.
• Emergence of New Religious Ideas: The sixth century BCE was an important stage in Indian history
regarding the development of new religions. During this period, there was a growing opposition to the
ritualistic orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas, which ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox

160
religious sects. Among these, Buddhism and Jainism emerged as the most potent religious reform
movements and later developed into well-organised popular religions.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 8. Buddhism and Jainism

8.1. Emergence of New Religious Ideas

• The sixth century BCE was an important stage in Indian history regarding the development of new reli-
gions. During this period, there was a growing opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of the
Brahmanas, which ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox religious sects. Among these,
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as the most potent religious reform movements and later developed
into well-organised popular religions.

Causes of Origin of New Religions

• During the sixth century BCE, new religious ideas emerged from prevailing social, economic, and religious
conditions. The basic reasons that contributed to their emergence are given below.
 Discrimination against lower varnas
 Reaction of Kshatriya
 Vaishya quest for higher status
 Religious unrest
 New agricultural economy

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 Reaction against the changes in material life

Discrimination Against Lower Varnas

• In post-Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas based on birth. Naturally, this division PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
generated tensions.
• Members of higher varnas enjoyed certain privileges that were denied to members of lower varnas. Some
were restricted from studying the Vedas and participating in rituals. Hence, Vedic religious practices be-
came irrelevant for a large section of society.
• The new religions, such as Buddhism and Jainism, did not accept the notion of birth as a measure of
social status, and hence, many people from lower varnas were attracted to them.

Reaction of Kshatriya
• Kshatriyas, who functioned as rulers, came to wield much more political power than before. They
wanted the highest status in society, but Brahmanas claimed the highest status. Hence, Kshatriyas re-
acted strongly against the domination of the Brahmanas, who claimed various privileges.
• Kshatriya seems to have led a protest movement against the importance of birth in the Varna system,
which is one reason for the origin of new religions.

Vaishya Quest for Higher Status

• The use of iron, surplus agriculture, urban settlement, and metal money facilitated trade, which improved
the economic conditions of the Vaishyas.
• Vaishyas, who were ranked third in Brahmanical society, wanted to improve their social status, but the
orthodox varna system did not allow this. Buddhism and Jainism did not give much importance to the
notion of birth for social status, so Vaishyas were attracted to them.
• In addition to the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas extended generous support to Mahavira and Buddha. Rich
traders like Anathapindika also donated generously to the Buddhist Sanghas.
• The merchants (setthis) extended the chief support to Buddha and Mahavira. This was because:
1. In the initial stage, Jainism and Buddhism did not attach importance to the existing varna system.
Hence, it was possible for Vaishyas to improve their social status in the new religion.
2. They preached the philosophy of non-violence, which would end wars between different kingdoms
and promote trade and commerce.
3. The Brahmanical law books, the Dharmasutras, condemned lending money on interest. They con-
demned a person who lived on interest. In contrast, Buddhism and Jainism did not condemn money
lending.
4. The Brahmanical attitude to trade was not encouraging. Sea voyages were considered taboo because
they could impact the purity of the caste structure. In contrast, the Buddhists approved of sea voy-
ages.

Religious Unrest

162
• The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the later Vedic period were unacceptable to the common
people, and the superstitious beliefs and mantras confused them.
• The teachings of the Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
and not easily understood by all.
• Hence, the people needed a simple, short, and intelligible way to salvation. Such religious teaching
should also be in their own language. The teachings of Buddha and Mahavira fulfilled this need.

New Agricultural Economy

• Iron was introduced in western Uttar Pradesh by 1000 BCE and gradually spread to eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Its use expanded agriculture in forest areas and increased productivity. However, the agricultural
 economy, reliant on iron ploughshares, needed bullocks. This clashed with Brahmanical practices, which
promoted cattle sacrifices for religion or food.
• In this context, the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism, which advocated non-violence and discouraged
the killing of animals, gained popularity.

Reaction Against the Changes in Material Life

• Some people did not like the changes in material life in the mid-Ganga plain between the sixth and fifth
centuries BCE. Old-fashioned people disliked using and accumulating coins, and they detested new dwell-
ings and dresses.
• The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to the masses.
So, the common people wanted to return to primitive life.

8.2. Buddhism

Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE)

• Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born Siddhartha in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu
(Nepal) in 563 BCE. His father, Shuddodana, was the leader of Sakya Gana, and his mother, Mayadevi,
was the princess of the Koliya clan. His mother died during childbirth, so his aunt, Prajapati Gautami,
raised him.
• A royal court scholar at Kapilvastu, serving under King Shuddhodhana, predicted that Siddhartha would
one day renounce his kingdom. Consequently, Siddhartha was given a sheltered upbringing within the
palace and was insulated from the harsh realities of life.
 Kapilavastu is variously identified with Piprawah (Uttar Pradesh) and Tilaurakot (Nepal).
• At the age of sixteen, Siddhartha married Yashodhara and had a son called Rahula.
• One day, at the age of 29, Siddhartha persuaded his charioteer to take him into the city. His first journey
into the world outside was traumatic. He saw an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and an ascetic. At that
moment, he realised that the decay and destruction of the human body were inevitable. Deeply an-

163
guished at these sights, Siddhartha left home in search of the ultimate truth.
• Siddhartha spent six years as a wandering ascetic. He met many teachers and explored several paths,
including extensive fasting and prolonged meditation, but could not get enlightenment. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Finally, at the age of 35, Siddhartha abandoned the extreme methods and started meditation under a
peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. On the 49th day of his meditation, he attained supreme knowledge,
i.e. enlightenment (nirvana/nibbana). Since then, he has been called Buddha (the wise/enlightened
one).
• Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh), which is known as
Dhammachakrapravartana (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma). His five disciples in the first sermon
were Kaundinya, Bhardika, Vashpa, Mahanama, and Ashvajit.
 Kaundinya
• Kaundinya was the first disciple of Lord Buddha. He was also the first disciple of Buddha to become
arahant (attained nirvana).
• Kaundinya was a Brahmin who worked as a royal court scholar at Kapilvastu under King Shuddho-
dhana. He predicted that Siddhartha would become Lord Buddha.

Meditation Teachers of Gautama Buddha

• According to Buddhist scriptures, Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra were Gautama Buddha's first
and second meditation teachers.
• After becoming an ascetic, Siddhartha learned meditation from Alara Kalama, a hermit, a teacher of
yogic meditation, and a master of Shraman thought. Alara taught him a dhyanic state called the sphere
of nothingness. Siddhartha eventually found himself on par with Alara, who could not teach him more.
Then, Siddhartha left and sought a new teacher, Udraka Ramaputra.
• Thereafter, during forty-five years of his life, Buddha visited many places on foot, teaching dhamma or
the path of righteous living, converting people and organising them into a community (Sangha). He en-
countered many staunch supporters of rival sects, including the Brahmanas, but defeated them in de-
bates.
• Buddha visited:
 Vaishali (Vajji)
 Rajgir, Bodh Gaya and Pataliputra (Magadha)
 Kushinagar (Malla)
 Sarnath (Kashi)
 Kausambi (Vatsa)
 Shravasti and Ayodhya (Kosala)
 Mathura (Shurasena)

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• During this long period of 45 years, Buddha wandered with the sangha of monks for eight months each
year, resting in caves during the four monsoon months. The monks had no material possessions and were
dependent on daily alms. They were obliged to eat whatever food they received as alms.
 Some historians believe that Buddha's rule of forbidding monks from wandering during the mon- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

soon was intended to prevent the destruction of seedlings, as agriculture was the primary source of
livelihood for people in the sixth century BCE.
• Buddha's activities did not discriminate between the rich and the poor, the high and the low, and the
man and woman. Hence, people from all Varnas, castes and classes became his disciples.
• The major rulers at the time of the Buddha, such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadh, Chanda
Pradyota of Avanti, Udayana of Vatsa, and Prasenjit of Kosala, became his disciples.
• The Buddha passed away or achieved Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty in 483 BCE in Kushinagar
(Uttar Pradesh). The Mallas of Kushinagara cremated his body with ceremonies befitting a Universal King
(cakravartin). His relics from the funeral pyre were collected and divided into eight shares and were
distributed among Ajathsatru of Magadha, the Licchavis of Vaishali, the Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Mallas of
Kushinagar, Bullies of Allakappa, the Mallas of Pava, the Koliyas of Ramagrama and a Brahmana of Veth-
adipa for erecting stupas over the sacred relics.
• The sacred relics were commemorated in eight different stupas. Two more stupas came into existence,
one over the ashes of the cremation pyre and a further one over the vessel (urn) in which the bones and
ashes had been gathered. Thus, stupas erected over the bodily relics of Buddha (Saririka stupas) are the
earliest surviving Buddhist shrines.
• It is said that Ashoka (272–232 BC), an ardent follower of Buddhism, opened seven of these eight stupas
and collected a major portion of the relics for enshrinement within the 84,000 stupas he built to popu-
larise Buddhism and the cult of the stupas.
 It is difficult to determine the exact dates of Vardhamana Mahavira's and Gautama Buddha's births and
deaths, and there is a dispute over this. The generally accepted birth date of Buddha is 566 to 563 BCE.
 Gautama Buddha was known by the following names:
1. Shakyamuni – The sage (muni) of the Shakya clan.
2. Mahamuni – The Great Sage.
3. Tathagata – One who has attained the enlightenment or the “Thus Gone One.”
4. Siddhartha – His childhood name.
5. Buddha – The Enlightened or Awakened One.

Queen Maya’s Dream

• According to Buddhist texts, before the birth of the Buddha, Queen Maya Devi, the mother of Buddha,
had a in which she saw a white elephant entering her womb. Sage interpreted this dream as a sign that
she would give birth to either a universal monarch or a great enlightened person.

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Mahabhinishkramana
• When Prince Siddhartha was twenty-nine years of age, deeply moved by the suffering he witnessed —
old age, sickness, death, and asceticism, he decided to renounce the world in a quest for truth and liber- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
ation from the cycle of rebirth.
• One night, Siddhartha left the palace quietly on his horse Kanthaka, accompanied by his charioteer
Chhandaka. This event is known as Mahabhinishkramana (the great departure or renunciation), and the
symbol of the horse is associated with It.

[UPSC CSE 2015] Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of the Bud-
dha?
 1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 3 and 4 only
Ans: 3 and 4 only

Teachings of Buddha
• The Buddha's teachings have been reconstructed from stories, mainly from the Sutta Pitaka.
• The Buddha never claimed to be a god or even inspired by divinity. He regarded the social world as the
creation of humans rather than of divine origin. He did not recognise the existence of god and soul
(atman). He also attacked the varna system.
• Buddha questioned the authority of Vedas and discarded the caste system, animal sacrifices and com-
plex rituals.

Arya Satya and Ashtangika Marga

• The basic teachings of the Buddha include:
1. The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)
2. The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)

• The Four Noble Truths form the essence of Buddha's teachings:

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1. Life is full of suffering (Dukkha – Suffering).
2. The root cause of suffering is desire (Samudaya - Cause of suffering).

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

3. Suffering ends when desires are eliminated (Nirodha - End of Suffering).
4. This can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path, which promotes the path of moderation
between severe penance and self-indulgence (Magga - Marga or Way).

The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

• Gautama Buddha recommended an eightfold path for the elimination of human misery. It consists of the
following principles:
1. Right observation
2. Right determination
 3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right exercise
7. Right memory
8. Right meditation.

Panchasheel
• Gautama Buddha laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The rules are called Panchasheel.
1. No killing: Do not commit violence.
2. No lying: Do not speak a lie
3. No stealing: Do not steal
4. No misconduct: Do not indulge in corrupt practices
5. No alcohol or drugs: Do not use intoxicants

Teachings of Buddha
• Practical reformer: Buddha was concerned with people's happiness in this life rather than being in-
volved in fruitless controversies regarding the soul (atman) and the Brahman. In the earliest forms of
Buddhism, whether or not god existed was irrelevant. Buddha even made a list of metaphysical ques-
tions, such as whether there was life after death, the eternity of the universe, the soul, etc. Buddha forbade
his followers from asking these questions as no one could know the answer.
 Avyakta is a Sanskrit word meaning "unfathomable" or "unexplained.” In Buddhism, it refers to a set of
unanswerable questions that the Buddha refused to answer.
• Rationalist: Buddha was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the light of reason and not based
on blind faith. He tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays
of supernatural power. He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than simply accept his
words.

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• Emphasis on karuna (compassion): Buddha advised kings and gahapatis to be humane and ethical. He
also taught people to be kind and to respect the lives of others, including animals.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Emphasis on karma (action): Buddha believed that the results of our actions (karma), good or bad,
affect us both in this life and the next.
• Nibbana: The Buddha preached nirvana, the ultimate goal in a man's life. It means shedding all desires
and ending suffering, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. According to Buddha, desire is the
real problem, and ending desire will liberate the soul (nirvana), i.e., free from the cycle of birth and death.
 Nibbana literally means the extinguishing of the ego and desire.
• Middle Path: The middle path refers to neither indulging in extreme attachment to worldly pleasure
nor committing severe penance. Buddha taught that one should pursue the middle path and avoid the
excesses of luxury and austerity.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 168
• Emphasis on individual action: The Buddha taught that salvation could be achieved through an indi-
vidual’s work and actions and by following the eightfold path. He emphasised individual agency and
righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana
and thus end the cycle of suffering. According to Buddha, prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire.
So, unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in the Vedic religion, he emphasised the moral life of
an individual.
• Emphasis on non-violence: Buddha stressed the importance of love for all living beings, which could be
shown through 'ahimsa' (non-violence). However, the principle of ahimsa was not emphasised as
much as in Jainism.
• Emphasis on social inclusion: Buddha was against any social distinctions. The Buddhist order welcomed
people from all social groups, and both men and women could join.
• Use of Prakrit: Buddha taught in the Prakrit (the language of the ordinary people) so that everybody
could understand his message.

Arhat
• An arhat is someone who has attained enlightenment and gained insight into the true nature of exist-
ence. Having freed himself from the bonds of desire, the arhat has been liberated from the endless
cycle of rebirth and will not be reborn.
• In early Buddhism, the state of an arhat is considered the ultimate goal of a Buddhist. Once the person
attained enlightenment and became an arhat, they lived in complete isolation and meditated in peace.
Except under extraordinary circumstances, a man or woman can become an arhat only while a monk or
nun.
• The understanding of the concept has changed over the centuries and varies between different schools
of Buddhism. Many Buddhist schools, including Mahasanghika and Mahayana, regarded arhats as im-
perfect in their attainments and required salvation.

Sangha

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• The Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. Hence,
they established sanghas where these people could live together.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis) were organised into the Sangha to spread the message of
dhamma. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated most of the time and
went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours.
• Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later, women were also admitted. According to
Buddhist texts, Ananda, one of the Buddha's dearest disciples, persuaded Buddha to allow women into
the sangha. The Buddha's foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, was the first woman to be ordained as
a bhikkhuni.
• There were separate branches for men and women. There was a special code for nuns restricting their
residence and movement.
• Many women who entered the sangha became teachers of dhamma and became theris or respected
women who had attained liberation.
 In Buddhism, 'Theri' refers to senior Buddhist nuns or nuns who have attained liberation and 'theras'
refers to senior Buddhist monks or monks who have attained liberation.
• The membership of Sangh was open to all persons. Those who joined the sangha included Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. All men could join the sangha. However:
 Children had to get the permission of their parents
 Slaves had to obtain the permission of their masters.
 Those who worked for the king had to take his permission.
 Debtors had to obtain the permission of creditors.
 Women had to take their husbands' permission.
• The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka.
• The Sangha was governed democratically. Its internal functioning was based on the traditions of Ganas
and Sanghas, where consensus was reached through discussions. If that failed, decisions were taken by a
vote.

Disciples of Buddha

• Buddha had two kinds of disciples:

1. Monks and Nuns: Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks.
2. Lay worshippers (lay followers) (upasikas)
• Ananda was the primary attendant of the Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Most of the
early Buddhist Sutta-Piṭaka texts are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during
the First Buddhist Council. For that reason, he is known as the Treasurer of the Dhamma, with
Dhamma referring to the Buddha's teaching.
• Sariputra and Moggallana are considered the two chief disciples of Buddha.

Vihara

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• Vihara was a place of residence for monks.
• Buddhist and Jaina monks went from place to place, teaching the people about their philosophy through-
out the year, except during the rainy season when it was very difficult to travel. During this time, support-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
ers provided temporary shelters in gardens or natural caves in hilly areas.
• Over time, both monks and their supporters felt the need for permanent shelters, leading to the con-
struction of monasteries called viharas. The earliest viharas were made of wood and then of brick. Some
were carved into caves, especially in western India.
• Rich merchants, landowners, or kings often donated land for viharas. Local people supported the monks
and nuns by providing food, clothing, and medicines in exchange for teachings.
 Buddha, Dhamma (Teaching) and Sangha are three important pillars of Buddhism. Dhamma is the
Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term 'Dharma'.
Important Buddhist Sites
Place Events associated with Buddha's life
Lumbini Place of birth
Bodh Gaya Place of his enlightenment
Sarnath Place of Buddha's first sermon
Kushinagar Place of death and cremation

Symbols of Worship
• Early sculptors did not depict the Buddha in human form; instead, they showed his presence through
symbols.
Symbol Associated with
Lotus and Bull Birth
Horse Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana)
Empty seat Meditation of Buddha
Peepal tree (Bodhi tree) Enlightenment (Nirvana)
Wheel Dhammachakrapravartana (First sermon at Sarnath)
Stupa Mahaparinirvana (Death)

Buddhist Texts
Tripitaka Content Compilation
Sutta Pitaka Buddha's teachings In the first Buddhist council at Rajgir under the
direction of Ananda.
Vinaya Pitaka Rules and regulations for monks In the first Buddhist council at Rajgir under the
and nuns direction of Upali.
Abhidhamma Pitaka Philosophical text In the third Buddhist council at Patliputra under

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the direction of Moggaliputta Tissa
• The Buddha taught orally  through discussion and debate. None of his speeches were written down

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

during his lifetime. After he died in 483 BCE, his disciples compiled his teachings at a council of elders or
senior monks. These compilations were known as Tipitaka - Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma
Pitaka. They are written in the Pali language.
 The Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were compiled in the first Buddhist council, held at Rajgir in
483 BCE, immediately after Buddha's death. The text of Sutta Pitaka was established under the lead-
ership of Ananda, and that of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali.
 Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled in the third Buddhist council held at Patliputra in 250 BCE.
 Some oldest Buddhist texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit.
• As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such as the Dipavamsa (the chronicle
of the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of Bud-
dhism.
• When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled from China to
India, searching for texts. They took back these texts to their own country, where they were translated by
scholars.
• Modern translations of Buddhist texts have been prepared from Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.

Abhidhamma Divas

• Traditionally, it is believed that Buddha first taught the Abhidhamma to the gods in
the Tavatimsa heaven, including his mother. Later, Buddha conveyed these teachings to his disci-
ple Sariputta, who codified them into Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Abhidhamma Divas, usually observed in October, Buddha's descent from Tavatimsa Heaven to the hu-
man world after preaching the Abhidhamma.

Important Buddhist Pali Texts

1. Tripitaka: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
2. Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda): A dialogue between Milinda (Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and
Buddhist saint Nagasena.
3. Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha

Tripitaka

• Sutta Pitaka: It includes religious discourses and Buddha's teachings.

 It consists of five nikayas (divisions) - Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka.
• Vinaya Pitaka: It includes rules and regulations for those who joined the sangha or monastic order.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical ideas of the Buddha’s teachings, written in the form
of questions and answers. It comprises seven books: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha, Puggala-

172
pannatti, Kathavatthu, Yamaka, and Patthana.

Majjhima Nikaya

• Majjhima Nikaya, or Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, is a Buddhist text in Pali and the second PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
of the five Nikayas in the Sutta Piṭaka.
• Majjhima Nikaya is a collection of 152 suttas or discourses of middle length, distinguished as such from
the longer and shorter suttas of the other collections. It covers nearly all aspects of Buddhism, including
monastic life, the excesses of asceticism, the evils of caste, etc.
• Majjhima Nikaya depicts the Buddha engaging with people from all levels of ancient Indian society —
kings, priests, ascetics, villagers, and philosophers — using drama, reason, parables, and similes to convey
his wisdom, compassion, and humanity.
Dialogue between King Avantiputta and Buddha's disciple Kachchana
• This story from the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya is part of a dialogue between a king named Avanti-
putta and a disciple of the Buddha named Kachchana. While it may not be literally true, it reflects Bud-
dhist views on the varna system.
• Avantiputta asked Kachchana what he thought about Brahmanas who held that they were the best caste
and that all other castes were low; that Brahmanas were a fair caste while all other castes were dark; that
only Brahmanas were pure, not non-Brahmanas; that Brahmanas were sons of Brahma, born of his mouth,
born of Brahma, formed by Brahma, heirs to Brahma.
• Kachchana replied: "What if a Shudra were wealthy would another Shudra ...or a Kshatriya or a Brahmana
or a Vaishya... speak politely to him?"
• Avantiputta replied that if a Shudra had wealth or corn or gold or silver, he could have as his obedient
servant another Shudra to get up earlier than he, to go to rest later, to carry out his orders, to speak
politely; or he could even have a Kshatriya or a Brahmana or a Vaishya as his obedient servant.
• Kachchana then concluded that the four varnas were essentially the same, and the king agreed.

Khuddaka Nikaya

• Khuddaka Nikaya is the last of the five nikayas (collections) in the Sutta Pitaka.
• The following books are part of Khuddaka Nikaya:
 Dhammapada: Collection of important religious and moral sayings of Buddha in verse form.
 Theragati: Collection of religious poems composed by Elder nuns.
 Theragatha: Collection of religious poems composed by Elder monks.
 Jataka: Collection of birth stories of Buddha describing his previous lives.
 Buddhavamsa: Collection of description of the life of Gautama Buddha and the twenty-four Buddhas
who preceded him.

Therigatha
• The Therigatha is the ninth book of the Khuddaka Nikaya. It is written in the Pali language.

173
• It is a unique Buddhist text composed of verses (short poems) by theris (bhikkhunis).
• It is considered the earliest known collection of women's literature in India, with some poems dating
as early as the late sixth century BCE. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Jataka
• The Jataka is the tenth book of the Khuddaka Nikaya. It is a collection of Buddhist stories that describe
the previous lives of Gautama Buddha. It is written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE.
• Many of these stories originated as popular oral tales composed by ordinary people and then written
down by Buddhist monks. These stories were often depicted on the railings and torans of the stupas and
in paintings in places such as Ajanta.
 Jataka is a Pali word and Sanskrit word that means “birth.”
Buddhavamsa (The Chronicle of Buddhas)
• Buddhavamsa is the fourteenth book of the Khuddaka Nikaya.
• Buddhavamsa describes the life of Gautama Buddha and the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded him in
the last twelve ages of the world (Kalpa). Among them, Dipankara Buddha was most remembered because
he predicted that a Brahmin youth named Sumedha (a previous life of Gotama Buddha) would become
Gautama Buddha in the future.
 Dipankara was one of these previous Buddhas, while Gautama Buddha was the current and most re-
cent Enlightened one, and Maitreya will be the next Buddha in the distant future.

Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa

Dipavamsa
• The Dipavamsa (the chronicle of the island) is Sri Lanka's oldest extant historical record. It was com-
piled in Pali by an unknown author in the 4th century CE.
• The Dipavamsa provides detailed information about the spread of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and the estab-
lishment of the Sangha. It covers the period from the arrival of the Buddha's disciple, Mahinda, in Sri
Lanka to the third century CE.
• Compared to Mahavamsa, the Dipavamsa is a crude, unpolished work. It was likely the first Pali text com-
posed by the Sinhalese people. The Dipavamsa is also one of the sources for the more comprehensive
historical chronicle Mahavamsa.

Mahavamsa
• The Mahavamsa (The Great Chronicle or The Great Dynasty) is an important historical chronicle of Sri
Lanka, presenting its history chronologically from the sixth century BCE to 1815 CE. It is a work of Sri
Lankan origin, written in the style of an epic poem in the Pali language.
• The Mahavamsa was first composed by a Buddhist monk named Mahanama in the fifth or sixth century
CE and later updated by different writers.

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• The Mahavamsa is an excellent source of information about:
 The lifetime of the Buddha
 The history of the Buddhist sangha PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 The role of Ashoka in spreading Buddhism
 The rise of Buddhism as a world religion
 The genealogies and lineages of Sri Lankan kings
• In 2023, UNESCO included Mahavamsa as a documentary heritage item in the UNESCO's Memory of the
World International Register.

Buddhist Councils
 Buddhist Place Patronage / President / Details
Councils Reign Chairman
First Buddhist Rajgir King Mahakas- Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were com-
Council (483 Ajatashatru sapa piled under the direction of Ananda and
BCE) (Haryanka Upali, respectively.
Dynasty)
Second Buddhist Vaishali King Kalasoka Sabakami Division of Buddhism into Sthavaravadins
Council (383 (Shishunaga and Mahasangikas
BCE) dynasty)
Third Buddhist Patali- King Ashoka Moggali- Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled.
Council (250 putra (Mauryan Dyn- putta Tissa
BCE) asty)
Fourth Buddhist Kashmir King Kanishka Vasumitra Division of Buddhism into Mahayana and
Council (72 CE) (Kushana Dyn- Hinayana Buddhism.
asty) Compilation of the Vibhasha Shastras, an
authoritative commentary on the Tripita-
kas, by Vasumitra.

Different Schools of Buddhism

Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas
• In the second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali in 383 BCE, there was some disagreement over the
monastic rules. Some monks wanted to add extra rules to make the Vinaya more rigorous, while others
wanted some relaxation. This led to the division of the Buddhist order into two schools:
1. Sthaviravadins: They followed the strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws originally prescribed
in Vinaya Pitaka.

175
 They followed the original teachings of Buddha.
 Sammatiyas, Vibhajyavadins and Vatsiputriyas are prominent offshoots of the Sthaviravadins
school.
2. Mahasanghikas: They followed modified, more relaxed disciplinary rules. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Lokottaravadins, Ekavyavaharikas, Kaukkutikas and Caitika are prominent offshoots of the Maha-
sanghika school.
• This division was the first division in the Buddhist order. Though differences in the disciplinary code
caused the split, there were also doctrinal differences, especially in understanding the nature of the Bud-
dha and the arhat.
• Mahasanghika school advocated the divine nature of the Buddha, emphasising him as a transcendent
figure rather than a mere human figure. They were the first to attribute divinity to Buddha and represent
 him in human form through statues. This idea of deification, emphasising the Buddha's transcendental
and god-like qualities, played a crucial role in fostering Mahayana Buddhism.
 Deification means considering someone or something as a god.
• Mahasanghikas advocated the transcendental nature of bodhisattvas and the ideal of the bodhisattva
over that of the arhat. They viewed arhats as fallible, not free from flaws, and inferior to the Buddha.
Sthaviravadins Mahasanghikas
Buddha Buddha was regarded as a human be- The Mahasanghikas believed Buddha was divine and
ing who attained enlightenment and already enlightened before coming to Earth. They
nibbana through his own efforts. saw his life as Gautama Buddha as an apparition.
They believed in multiple Buddhas and held that
there are Buddhas everywhere.
Arhat They equated the liberation of the ar- They advocated the ideal of the bodhisattva over
hat to that of the Buddha, differing that of the arhat.
only in teaching ability and historical They regarded arhats as imperfect in their attain-
role, i.e. Buddha attains enlightenment ments and inferior to Buddhas. They view arhatship
by himself, while the arhat does so by as a lesser kind of spiritual attainment which still has
following the Buddha's teachings. ignorance and desire.
 Some scholars believe that the Sthaviravada school influenced the development of the Theravada tra-
dition, while the Mahasanghika school influenced Mahayana Buddhism.

Mahayana Buddhism
• Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana. The Buddha was
regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and nibbana through his own efforts.
• By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. Gradually, the idea
of a saviour emerged, and the concept of the Bodhisatta (Bodhisattva) also developed.
• Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who had attained enlightenment, but once

176
they attained enlightenment, instead of living in complete isolation and meditating in peace, they re-
mained in the world to teach and help other people to attain salvation. This new way of thinking was
called Mahayana - literally, the "great vehicle". Those who adopted these beliefs described the older PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
tradition as Hinayana or the "lesser vehicle".
• Mahayana Buddhism formally developed as a new form of Buddhism in the fourth Buddist council, which
was organised by King Kanishka in the first century CE. Kanishka is considered as the founder of the
Mahayana sect of Buddhism.

Birth of Mahayana Buddhism

• Mahayana Buddhism originated in about the first century BCE in the Andhra region. However, due
to the opposition from orthodox Buddhism, it could not make much headway in the beginning.
 • With the advent of Nagarjuna, Mahayana's most outstanding exponent, it started gaining popularity.
It became a recognisable form of Buddhism at the time of Kanishka in the first century CE.

Two Distinct Features of Mahayana Buddhism

Image worship
• Buddha statues were made, and worshipping images of the Buddha and Bodhisattas became an im-
portant part of the Mahayana tradition. This was in contrast to earlier tradition, where the Buddha's pres-
ence was shown in sculpture through certain signs. For instance, sculptures of the peepal tree showed his
attainment of enlightenment.

A belief in Bodhisattvas
• In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas, after attaining enlightenment, dedicate themselves to helping
others achieve liberation. They believe in universal liberation from the suffering of all beings. This con-
trasts with Arhatship, where the focus is on personal liberation without actively working for the welfare
of others. Mahayana Buddhists often criticise Arhatship as being self-centred.
• Mahayana Buddhists consider bodhisattva as a higher goal and urge followers to take up the path of a
bodhisattva and not fall back to the level of arhats.

Hinayana or Theravada?

• Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhists as followers of Hinayana. However, followers of the
older tradition described themselves as theravadins, that is, those who followed the path of old, respected
teachers, the theras.
• According to some scholars, Theravada is a sub-sect of Hinayana Buddhism.
 In Southeast Asia, Hinayana is often referred to as Theravada. Hence, Hinayana is almost nonexistent
today. Theravada, on the other hand, continues to thrive and is practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thai-
land, and other Southeast Asian countries.

Bodhisattva

177
• According to Mahayana Buddhism, many noble individuals have walked the path of the Buddha. All of
them had to follow the stages of Boddhisattva before they could attain the status of Buddha. However,
many Bodhisattvas chose to remain at this stage out of deep compassion for the suffering of the world, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
dedicating themselves to helping others rather than taking the final step to becoming a Buddha.
• Bodhisattva believes in universal liberation and not individual liberation. Buddha, in his previous
births, was thought to be Bodhisattva.
• Prominent Boddhisattvas under Buddhism include:
Boddhisattva Associated with
Avalokiteshvara (Padmapani) Compassion or kind-hearted
Vajrapani Power and Energy
Manjushri Wisdom
Maitreya A future buddha
Samantabhadra Practice and meditation
Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin Purifies wrongdoing
Akashagarbha Great element of space
Kshitigarbha • Bodhisattva of hell-beings and the guardian of children
• Known for his vow:
 To take responsibility to save the souls of all beings in the six
worlds between the death of Gautama Buddha and the rise of
Maitreya.
 Not to achieve Buddhahood until all hells are emptied.

[UPSC CSE 2018] With reference to Indian history, who among the following is a future
Buddha, yet to come to save the world?
a) Avalokiteshvara
b) Lokesvara
c) Maitreya
d) Padmapani
Ans: Maitreya

Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism

Buddhist Hinayana Mahayana
School
Teaching It is a more orthodox school and follows the It is a liberal school and believes in the
original preaching of Buddha. divinity of Buddha and Bodhisattva.
Buddha Buddha was regarded as a human teacher and Deification of the Buddha: Buddha was

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enlightened being. considered a divine figure (god), and
started to worship the Buddha as a deity.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Idol Wor- Did not believe in idol or image worship. Believe in an idol or image worship.
ship Buddha's presence was shown in sculpture Buddha statues were made.
through certain signs.
Liberation Individual Salvation: The ultimate goal is to at- Universal liberation: The Mahayana
tain personal salvation through own effort. concept of liberation is not merely for
Only monks and nuns can attain enlightenment. one but is meant for all. The ideal Bodhi-
sattva defers his own salvation to work
for the salvation of others.
 Everyone could aspire to Buddhahood
and could attain it. He/she need not be
a monk.
Arhat/ bo- The goal is to become Arhat, free from the cycle Consider bodhisattva as a higher goal
dhisattva of rebirth. and urge followers to take the path of a
bodhisattva and not fall back to the level
of arhats.
Language Used Pali language. Mostly used Sanskrit language.
Literature The Pali Canon: The Tripitaka (Three Baskets), Developed its own canon of scriptures,
which consists of the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, incorporating many texts from the Ther-
and Abhidhamma Pitaka, is the Hinayana canon avada canon while adding Mahayana
of sacred literature. Sutras. These additional texts form the
foundation of Mahayana's distinctive
beliefs and practices.
Sub-sect According to some scholars, Theravada is a sub- Some scholars believe that one of the
sect of Hinayana Buddhism. sub-sects of Mahayana Buddhism later
developed into Vajrayana.
Support King Ashoka patronised Hinayana sect (Maha- Kanishka is considered as founder of
yana was not existed during his time) Mahayana sect. He patronised the Ma-
hayana Buddhism.
Location In Southeast Asia, Hinayana is often referred to The Mahayana school is present in Ne-
as Theravada. Hence, it is almost nonexistent to- pal, Sikkim, China, Korea and Japan.
day. Theravada, on the other hand, continues to
thrive and is practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia and other

179
Southeast Asian countries.

[UPSC CSE 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

statements:
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
 d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: 2 and 3 only

[UPSC CSE 2019] Consider the following:

1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3. Image worship and rituals
Which of the above is/are the feature/ features of Mahayana Buddhism?
a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans 1, 2 and 3

[UPSC CSE 2016] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following
statements:
1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment.
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 2 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: 2 and 3 only

Important Buddhist Sanskrit Texts

180
Author Buddhist Sanskrit Text Content
Ashvaghosha Buddhacharita A poetic narrative of the life of the Buddha.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

(Buddhist and philosopher (Biography of the Buddha)
in the court of King Kan- Mahalankara A Mahayana Buddhist text
ishka) (the Book of Glory)
Saundarananda Ma- A Sanskrit poem about the conversion of
hakavya Nanda (Buddha's half brother) to Buddhism.
Sariputraprakarana A Sanskrit drama about the life-histories of
two of the most celebrated disciples of Lord
Buddha — Sariputta and Maudgalana.
 Vajrasuchi It criticises the caste system and inequity in
Vedic religion.
Sutralankara
Vasumitra Vibhasha Shastras An authoritative commentary on the Tripita-
(Buddhist monk who pre- kas.
sided over Fourth Buddhist
Council)
Nagarjuna Mulamadhyamakakarika Basic text of Madhyamika School
(Mahayana Buddhist philos- (Madhyamika Karika)
opher of the second century Prajnaparimita Karika
CE)
Buddhaghosha Visuddhimagga It is a comprehensive summary of older Sin-
(Fifth century Sinhalese (path of Purification) hala commentaries on the scriptural canon of
Theravadin Buddhist) the Theravada school.
Sumangalvasini
Atthakathayen

Spread of Buddhism
• Buddhism grew rapidly during the lifetime of the Buddha and even after his death.
 During the lifetime of Buddha:
 Buddhism expanded rapidly, attracting followers from monarchies like Magadha, Koshala, and
Kausambi and republics like the Sakyas, Vajjis, and Mallas.
 Contemporary rulers such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadh, Chanda Pradyota of Avanti,
Udayana of Vatsa, and Prasenjit of Kosala became his disciples.
 After Buddha's death:
 The spread of Buddhism continued under powerful patrons like King Ashoka and Kanishka.

181
• Over the centuries, Buddhism spread across the subcontinent and beyond:
 In Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia: It was mainly due to the contribution of Ashoka.
 Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 In Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan: It was mainly due to the contribution of Kanishka.
 Mahayana Buddhism was more popular in these areas.
• Although Buddhism has disappeared from India, it still holds ground in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Tibet, China,
and Japan.
• Buddhism appealed to a large section of the population and spread to the subcontinent and beyond.
This was because of the following factors:
 Buddha's personality
  Buddha's teaching
 Rejection of Varna System
 Use of Pali language
 Patronage by Kings
 The institution of Sangha

Buddha's Personality
• The personality of the Buddha and the method adopted by him to preach his religion helped the spread
of Buddhism. He tried to fight evil with goodness and hatred with love. He refused to be provoked by
slander and abuse and maintained calm under difficult conditions.

Buddha's Teaching
• Buddha's teaching emphasised practical morality and focused on acceptable solutions to the problems
of mankind. This simple philosophy attracted the masses as opposed to Brahmanical philosophy, which
confused the people.
• The importance attached to conduct and values rather than claims of superiority based on birth and
the emphasis placed on metta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion) drew men and women to Bud-
dhist teachings.

Rejection of Varna System

• Buddhism attacked the varna system, and people from all castes were allowed in it. This helped it to
get the support of the lower orders. Merchants, like Anathapindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, ac-
cepted the faith because they got due respect in this religion.
• Compared with Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and democratic. Women were also admitted to the
sangha and thus brought on par with men.

Use of Pali

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• The use of the Pali language contributed to the spread of Buddhism. The Brahmanical religion limited
itself to using Sanskrit, which was not the language of the masses. In contrast, Buddhism used Pali, the
language of the people, which helped spread Buddhist doctrines among the common people.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Patronage by Rulers
• Patronage by rulers was an important reason for the rapid growth of Buddhism. King Ashoka and Kan-
ishka embraced Buddhism and made efforts to spread it.
• According to tradition, Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to preach
Buddhism. He also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.

The institution of Sangha

• The organised preaching under the auspices of the sangha helped Buddhism to spread effectively.
Mudras of Buddha
• Mudra is a symbolic gesture of the hands and fingers used for nonverbal communication in Hinduism,
Jainism, and Buddhism. Each mudra conveys a specific message by itself or in combination with others.
Mudra Significant Information (Symbolic meaning)
Dhyana Mudra  Signifies the attainment of spiritual perfection.
(Samadhi or Yoga Mudra)  Buddha used this mudra when meditating under the pipal tree be-
(Gesture of meditation) fore his Enlightenment.
Bhumisparsha Mudra  It represents the moment of the Buddha’s enlightenment, and the
(Gesture of earth-touching or earth is a witness to this.
Buddha calling the earth to wit-  Akshobhya, the second Dhyani Buddha, is associated with this mu-
ness) dra.
Dharmachakra Mudra  It is a gesture exhibited by Buddha while preaching the first sermon
(Gesture of ‘Teaching of the in Sarnath.
Wheel of Dharma’)  Vairochana, the first Dhyani Buddha, is associated with this mudra.
Vitarka Mudra  It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the
(Gesture of discussion) Buddha.
 This mudra has many variants in Mahayana Buddhism. In Tibetan
Buddhism, it is the mystic gesture of Taras and Bodhisattvas, ex-
plaining the Buddha's teachings.
Abhaya Mudra  It signifies protection, peace, benevolence and the dispelling of
(Gesture of fearlessness or bless- fear.
ing)
Varada Mudra  It signifies offering, welcome, charity and compassion.
(Gesture of charity or generosity)  The five extended fingers in this mudra symbolise - Generosity, Mo-
rality, Patience, Effort and Meditative concentration.

183
 Ratnasambhava, the third Dhyani Buddha, is associated with this
mudra.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 It is extensively used in the statues of Southeast Asia.
Anjali Mudra  It represents the greeting, prayer, and adoration.
(Namaskar Mudra)  This is the special gesture of Avalokiteshvara with more than two
(Gesture of Praying or greeting) arms.
Uttarabodhi Mudra  It signifies supreme enlightenment.
(Gesture of Perfection)
Vajra Mudra  It signifies the importance of knowledge.
(Gesture of knowledge)
 Karana Mudra  It signifies expelling demons and sickness or negative thoughts.
(Gesture of warding off evil)

Decline of Buddhism
• By the early twelfth century CE, Buddhism had practically disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.
The following factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.
1. Shift Towards Rituals and Idol Worship: Buddhism initially focused on reform, but gradually adopted
rituals and ceremonies it once opposed. From the first century CE, large-scale idol worship became
common.
2. Abandonment of Pali: From the first century CE, Pali, the language of the masses, was abandoned as
the language of Buddhism. The Buddhists then began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite, which
led to the fall of the popularity of Buddhism.
3. Corruption and Degeneration in Monasteries: Gradually, Buddhist monks became detached from the
lives of ordinary people. From the first century CE onwards, they practised idol worship on a large scale
and received numerous offerings from devotees. The rich offerings and royal grants made monastic life
easy, leading to corruption and indulgence by the seventh century CE. The enormous wealth of the mon-
asteries with women living in them led to further degeneration.
 The Buddha is reported to have said to his favourite disciple, Ananda: "If women were not admitted
into the monasteries, Buddhism would have continued for one thousand years, but because this ad-
mission has been granted, it would last only five hundred years."
4. Persecution by Rulers: The Brahmana rulers such as Pashyamitra Shunga, the Huna king Mihirakula
(a worshipper of Shiva), and Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda are said to have persecuted the Buddhists.
Turkish and other invaders also targeted wealthy Buddhist monasteries.
 The Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda cut off the Bodhi tree at Bodha Gaya, where the Buddha had attained
enlightenment.
 Hsuan Tsang states that 1600 stupas and monasteries were destroyed, and thousands of monks and

184
lay followers were killed.
5. Revival of Brahmanism: Brahmanas reformed their religion to counter Buddhism by promoting cattle
preservation and assuring women and Shudras of admission to heaven. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
6. Rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism: In early medieval times, the Shaivite and Vaishnavite movements
in south India attracted the common people as they were free from rituals and sacrifices. These sects
bitterly opposed Jainism and Buddhism, further weakening Buddhism’s influence.

Kapilvastu and Kapilvastu Relics

• In the 1890s, several monuments were discovered in northern India near the Nepalese border. In 1896,
an Ashokan stone pillar was discovered at Lumbini. After this, people became curious about the
different Buddhist mounds.
• In 1897, William Claxton Pepp, a British colonial engineer, started excavating one mound that was
particularly more prominent than the rest near the village of Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh. This led to the
discovery of one of the original eight stupas in 1898. The Stupa contained five vases containing
offerings, including beads, pearls, precious and semiprecious stones, bones and ash. Based on an in-
scribed casket found in 1898 at the stupa site, the site is now believed to be the ancient city of Kapil-
vastu.
• The Archaeological Survey of India (1971-77) further excavated the stupa and discovered two more
steatite relic caskets containing twenty-two sacred bone relics, known as the Kapilvastu Relics. Cur-
rently, 20 sacred bone relics (bone fragments) are in the safe custody of the National Museum, New
Delhi, and the remaining two are with the Indian Museum, Kolkata.

Important Buddhist Scholars

Buddhist Scholar Important Points
Ananda • Primary attendant of the Buddha.
(6th – 5th century BCE) • Sutta Pitaka was compiled under his direction.
Kaundinya First disciple of Buddha.
(6 – 5 century BCE)
th th
First disciple of Buddha to become arahant (attained nirvana).
Sariputra and Moggallana Two chief disciples of Buddha
(Maudgalyayana)
(6th – 5th century BCE)
Upali • One of the ten chief disciples of the Buddha.
(6th – 5th century BCE) • Vinaya Pitaka was compiled under his direction.
Mahakassapa President of the First Buddhist Council held at Rajgir.
(6 – 5 century BCE)
th th

Sabakami President of Second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali.

(4 century BCE)
th

185
Upagupta • Spiritual teacher of the Mauryan King Ashoka
(3rd century BCE) • Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Upagupta.
Moggaliputta Tissa President of Third Buddhist Council held at Pataliputra. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
(3rd century BCE)
Mahendra • Son and daughter of King Ashoka.
and Sanghamitra • They planted the branch of the original Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka.
• They played an important role in spreading Buddhism in China.
Nagasena A Buddhist monk who converted Indo-Greek ruler Menander to Buddhism.
(2nd century BCE) He wrote a book, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda), a dialogue be-
tween Milinda and Nagasena.
Ashvaghosha A Sanskrit poet and dramatist, a devout Buddhist and a philosopher in the
(1st century CE) court of King Kanishka.
Vasumitra President of Fourth Buddhist Council held at Kashmir.
(1 century CE)
st

Kashyapa Matanga and The first two Indian Buddhist monks who went to China on the invitation
Dharmaratna of Chinese Emperor Han Mingdi. They brought several Buddhist sutras on
(1st century CE) a white horse.
Nagarjuna • Founder of the Madhyamaka school (“Middle Way”) of Mahayana
(2nd century CE) Buddhist philosophy.
• He developed the doctrine of emptiness (shunyata) in his most famous
work, Mulamadhyamakakarika (“Fundamental Verses on the Middle
Way”).
Aryadeva A Madhyamaka philosopher and a disciple of Nagarjuna
(3rd century CE) Famous work: Four Hundred Stanzas of the Middle Way, a commentary on
Nagarjuna's Treatise on the Middle Way.
Maitreyanatha One of the three founders of the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) school of Maha-
(3 – 4 century CE)
rd th
yana Buddhism, along with Asanga and Vasubandhu.
Asanga and Vasubandhu Brothers and Mahayana Buddhist scholars from Peshawar, Pakistan.
(4th century CE)
Buddhaghosha Famous work:
(5th century Sinhalese 1. Visuddhimagga (path of Purification): It is a comprehensive sum-
Theravadin Buddhist) mary of older Sinhala commentaries on the scriptural canon of the
Theravada school (Tripitaka). Hence, it is also known as the Key of Tri-
pitaka.
2. Sumangalvasini (Commentary of the Digha Nikaya)

186
3. Atthakathayen
Buddhapalita A Mahayana Buddhist commentator on the works of Nagarjuna and Ary-
(5 – 6 century CE)
th th
adeva.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Famous work:
Mulamadhyamaka-vrtti: Commentary on the Mulamadhyamakakarika.
Dignaga A Buddhist logician
(5th – 6th century CE) Major works:
1. Pramanasamuccaya (Compendium of the Means of True Knowledge)
2. Hetucakra (The Wheel of Reason)
3. Dignaga's thought influenced the Buddhist philosopher Dharmakirti.
Dharmakirti • Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician.
 (7th century CE) • Key scholars of epistemology (pramana) in Buddhist philosophy.
• His works influenced scholars of Hindu philosophy, including Mimamsa,
Nyaya, and Shaivism, as well as Jain scholars.
• Major work: Pramanavarttika (Commentary on Epistemology).
Chandrakirti A Buddhist scholar of the Madhyamaka school
(7th century CE) Major works:
1. Prasannapada: Commentary on Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika
2. Madhyamakavatara
Diwakarmitra A Buddhist priest and hermit.
(7 century CE)
th
He helped Harshavardhana find his sister, Rajyashree.
Shantarakshita Buddhist scholars of the Madhyamaka school. He visited Tibet at the invi-
(8th century CE) tation of the Buddhist king Khring Saung Lade Batsan and played an im-
portant role in the development of Tibetan Buddhism.
Guru Padmasambhava Indian tantric Buddhist (Vajrayana Buddhist) who introduced Tantric Bud-
dhism to Tibet.
• One of the founding fathers of Tibetan Buddhism, along with Shanta-
rakshita and King Thisong Deotsen.
• He established the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet.
Atish Dipankar

Important Buddhist Architecture

Buddhist Caves
• Madhya Pradesh: Bagh caves
• Andhra Pradesh: Guntapalle rock-cut caves
• Maharashtra: Ajanta, Ellora, Pitalkhora, Bhaja, Thana-Nadsur, Karla, Kanheri, Patan, Bedse, Nasik (Tri-

187
rashmi caves or Pandavleni), Ganeshleni (Junnar cave), Kondane, Kondivite (Mahakali) caves.

Buddhist Stupas
• Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at: PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Bihar: Rajagraha, Vaishali, Vethadipa and Pava
 Nepal: Kapilavastu, Allakappa and Ramagrama
 Uttar Pradesh: Kushinagar and Pippalvina

Famous Stupas

• Bairat stupa (Rajasthan)

• Sanchi and Bharhut stupas (Madhya Pradesh)
• Devnimori stupa (Gujarat)
• Sarnath stupa (Uttar Pradesh)
• Sannati stupa (Karnataka)
• Rampaerrampallam or Anakapalle rock-cut stupa (Andhra Pradesh)
• Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli, Salihundam, Dantapuri, and Kalingapatam
stupas (Andhra Pradesh)

Buddha Image
• Seated Buddha at Katra (Mathura)
• Buddha head from Taxila (Gandhara region)
• Seated Buddha at Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)
• Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda and Guntapalle (Andhra Pradesh)
• Bronze image of Buddha, Sultanganj (Bihar)
• Bronze image of Buddha, Phophnar, Maharashtra

Other Famous Buddhist Structures

• Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhgaya (Bihar)
• Nalanda University (Bihar)
• Buddhist chaitya halls, Aihole (Karnataka)
• Buddhist vihara at Sirpur (Chhattisgarh)
 Guntapalle in Eluru district of Andhra Pradesh is a unique site where the structured stupas, viharas and
the caves are excavated at one place.

8.3. Jainism

• According to Jaina traditions, the basic philosophy of the Jainas existed in north India before the birth of
Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira (great hero).
• Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara (teacher or one who led people to salvation). He was

188
preceded by 23 other Tirthankaras, including the first Tirthankara Rishabhadev and the 23rd Tirthankara
Parshvanatha.
• Of the 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism, the historicity of the first 22 is uncertain, as their origins are rooted in
mythology. However, historical evidence, including references in Buddhist texts, confirms the existence PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
of the last two Tirthankaras — Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
 Tirthankaras literally means those who guide men and women across the river of existence.
• Mahavira was born Prince Vardhamana in 540 BCE in Kundagrama (modern day Kundalpur) near Vaishali
in Bihar. He was a Kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that belonged to the Vajji sangha. His
father, Siddhartha, was the chief of the Kshatriya clan Jnatrika. His mother, Trishala, was a Lichchavi prin-
cess.
• At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. He became ascetic and, for the next twelve
years, practised severe hardship, including rigorous fasting, meditation and discomfort like not wearing
clothes.
• Finally, at the age of 42, Vardhamana attained the supreme knowledge (complete knowledge) called Kai-
valya (Gnan) under sal tree on the banks of the Rijupalika river in Jambhikagrama. Through kaivalya, he
conquered misery and happiness and hence called a conqueror, i.e. Jina.
• After attaining enlightenment, Vardhamana is known as Mahavira (great hero), or Jina (conqueror) or
Nirgranth (free from fetters). His followers are known as Jainas, and his religion is called Jainism.
• Mahavira delivered his first sermon at Pava to his 11 principal disciples, known as the Gandharas or
Gandharvas. subsequently he established a Jaina Sangha at the Pava.
• For the next thirty years Mahavira moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in Kosala,
Magadha and further east. He often visited the courts of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He passed away at
the age of 72 in 468 BCE at Pavapuri near Rajgir.
 According to some Jain traditions, Mahavira was born in 599 BCE and passed away in 527 BCE.
 Important Ganadharas include Indrabhuti Gautama, Agnibhuti and Vayubhuti (three brothers) and
Sudharman. Nine of the eleven Ganadharas died within the life time of Mahavira and only two of them
Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman (Sudhamma) survived him.
 After Mahavira's death, Sudharman became the first president of the Jain Sangha. After him, Jambu
led the Sangha for 44 years. Bhadrabahu was the president during Chandragupta Maurya's time.
 According to some Jain traditions, Jamali, Mahavira's nephew and son-in-law, was first disciple of
Mahavira.

Teachings of Jainism
• Jainism questioned the authorities of Veda and criticised the rituals.
• It recognised the existence of the soul. It recognised the existence of the gods but placed them lower
than the Jina.

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• It did not condemn the varna system. People from all varna could enter Jainism, i.e. It did not accept
the varna system but did not condemn it either. According to Mahavira, a person is born in a high or

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

lower varna due to the sins or the virtues he acquired in the previous birth.
• Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers because they used Prakrit,
the language of common people.
 Several forms of the Prakrit language were used in different parts of the country and named after the
regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi.
• Mahavira advocated severe asceticism and extreme penance to attain nirvana, the highest spiritual
state. He asked monks to give up everything, including their clothes. Parshvanatha, Mahavira's predeces-
sor, asked his followers to cover the upper and lower portions of their bodies. This implies that Mahavira
asked his followers to lead a more austere life.
Strict Rules of Ahimsa (non-violence)
• Jainism emphasises ahimsa, or non-injury, to living beings. This principle has left its mark on Indian think-
ing. The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and
water have life (all objects have a soul). Non-injury to living beings, especially humans, animals, plants
and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy.
• Jainism prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture for its followers because both involve the
killing of living beings. Farmers who had to kill insects to protect their crops found it more difficult to
follow the rules. Hence, it was eventually confined to traders.

[UPSC CSE 2023] “Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks,
running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious
sects."
The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of
ancient India?
Buddhism
Jainism
Shaivism
Vaishnavism
Ans: Jainism

Triratna (three jewels) of Jainism

• Both Jainism and Buddhism believed in human effort as a means to moksha. According to Jainism,
members of the lower castes can achieve liberation. No ritual is necessary for such liberation, and it can
be obtained through:
1. Samyak Darshana: Right faith
2. Samyak Gyana: Right knowledge
3. Samyak Charitra: Right action

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These three are considered to be the three jewels or triratna of Jainism.

Monastic life: A Pre-condition for Salvation

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. Asceticism and
penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma, which can be achieved only by renouncing
the world. Therefore, monastic life is a necessary condition of salvation, and a householder cannot attain
it.
• Jaina monks and nuns had to observe certain strict rules. They had to lead very simple lives, begging for
food. They could walk only during the day, taking care that they do not kill or injure any being.
• They took five great vows:
1. Satya: To abstain from lying
 2. Ahimsa: To abstain from killing
3. Asteya: To abstain from stealing
4. Aparigraha: To abstain from possessing property
5. Brahmacharya: To observe celibacy
• Mahavira added only the fifth doctrine (Brahmacharya); he took over the other four from previous
teachers.
 Parshvanath was born in Varanasi (Kashi Mahajanpada). He gained complete knowledge (Kaivalya) in
Ashrampad Udyan near Varanasi and attained Parinirvana on the mount Sammed Shikhar on Parasnath
hill of Jharkhand.

Spread of Jainism
• Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the
Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The dedicated work of the members of the
Sangha helped in the spread of Jainism.
• Jainism used the Prakrit language for preaching, which also helped spread Jainism.
• Since Jainism did not very clearly mark itself out from the Brahmanical religion, it failed to attract the
masses. However, Jainism gradually spread into south and west India, where the Brahmanical religion was
weak. The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is due to:
1. Efforts of Chandragupta Maurya: Chandragupta Maurya, the emperor, became a Jaina and gave up
his throne. He migrated with Bhadrabahu to the south and spread Jainism. He spent the last years of
his life in Karnataka as a Jaina ascetic.
2. Great Famine of Magadh: A great famine occurred in Magadha 200 years after the death of Maha-
vira. The famine lasted for twelve years, and to protect themselves, many a Jaina went to the south
(Shravanabelagola, Karnataka) under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, but the rest stayed back in
Magadha under the leadership of Sthalabahu. The emigrant Jainas spread Jainism in south India.
• In subsequent centuries, especially after the fifth century, numerous Jaina monastic establishments

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called basadis sprang up in Karnataka and were granted land by the king for their support.
 The epigraphic evidence for the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is not earlier than the third century CE.
• Jainism spread to the Kalinga in Orissa in the fourth and first centuries BCE, under the patronage of the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Kalinga king Kharavela.
• In the second and first centuries BCE, Jainism reached the southern districts of Tamil Nadu due to the
patronage of royal dynasties of south India, such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas.
• In later centuries, Jainism penetrated Malwa, Gujarat and Rajasthan, and even now, these areas have many
Jainas mainly engaged in trade and commerce.
• Although Jainism did not spread very fast in early times, it still retains its hold in the areas where it
spread. On the other hand, Buddhism practically disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.
• The following factors limited the spread of Jainism:
1. Strict rules for followers: Jainism prohibited the practice of war and even agriculture. Hence, it
was eventually confined to traders.
2. Jainism did not clearly distinguish itself from the Brahmanical religion, such as not condemning the
varna system or recognising the existence of god and soul; hence, it failed to attract the masses.
3. Jainism did not win as much state patronage as Buddhism did.
 Like the Buddhists, initially, the Jainas were not image worshippers. Later, they began to worship Ma-
havira and the twenty-three Tirthankaras.

Different Schools of Jainism

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Over time, Jainism split into Digambars and Shvetambars. There are two different stories associated with
this division.
1. Differences in Clothing Practices: Mahavira's predecessor, Parshvanatha, allowed followers to cover
the upper and lower parts of their bodies. However, Mahavira advocated complete renunciation of
 clothing. Over time, this led to the division between Shvetambaras (who wore white garments) and
Digambaras (who remained unclothed).
2. Post-Famine Conflict: After a 12-year famine in Magadha, Jainas who had migrated south under
Bhadrabahu returned and accused those who remained in Magadha under Sthalabahu of relaxing
their religious practices.
 The migrated Jainas claimed that they had strictly observed the religious rules even during the famine.
They alleged that the Jaina ascetics living in Magadha had violated those rules and had become lax.
 The southern group boycotted a council held in Pataliputra (modern Patna) to settle these disputes
and compile the principal teachings of Jainism. From now onwards, the southerns began to be called
Digambaras and the Magadhans Shvetambaras.
 However, the tradition that attributes the division to the drought and subsequent famine is from a
later period and is considered doubtful.
Digambara School Svetambara School
Follows the teachings of Mahavira and all the five con- Follows the teachings of Parshvanatha and
straints - Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brah- four restraints (except Brahmacharya)
macharya.
Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect. Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this school.
Believe that women cannot be Tirthankaras. Believe that both men and women can be
Tirthankaras.
Monastic rules are more rigid. Monastic rules are not as rigid as Digambaras.
Monks do not wear clothes and believe in complete nu- The monks of Svetambara School can have
dity. simple white clothing.
Nuns wear unstitched, plain white sarees.

Sub-sects of Digambara sect

• Digambara sect has been divided into the following sub-sects:
 Major sub-sects

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1. Bisapantha
2. Terapantha

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

3. Taranapantha or Samaiyapantha
 Minor sub-sects
1. Gumanapantha
2. Totapantha
Bisapantha Terapantha Taranapantha
• Considered to be the original • Rejects the authority of the • They strong opposed idolatry.
form of the Digambara sect. Bhattarakas and their prac- They worship sacred books
tices. (Sarnaya) rather than idols.
 • The Bisapanthas revere • They worship only idols of • Three main traits of the Tarana-
Dharma-gurus (Bhattarakas) Tirthankaras (no other deities panthis are:
and support their authority. like Ksetrapala or Padmavati). 1. The aversion to idol worship
• Worship includes idols of 2. The absence of outward reli-
Tirthankaras, Ksetrapala, gious practices
Padmavati, and other deities. 3. The ban on caste distinctions

Sub-sects of Svetambara sect

• Svetambara sect has been divided into three main sub-sects:
1. Murtipujaka
2. Sthanakvasi
3. Terapanthi
Murtipujaka Sthanakvasi Terapanthi
• Idolatrous: Murtipujaka • Non-idolatrous: They do • Non-idolatrous: The terapanthi
Svetambaras are the original not believe in idol-wor- sub-sect is derived from the
Svetambaras. They worship ship. They do not have Sthanakvasi. They do not believe in
idols and offer flowers, fruits, temples instead they have idol-worship but are finely orga-
saffron, etc to idols. They stay prayer halls (sthanakas) nized under the complete direc-
in temples or in upasrayas where they carry on their tion of one Acharya, religious
(reserved buildings). religious fasts, prayers, head.
• They are also called Pujera festivals, practices, etc. • The Terapanthis are considered re-
(worshippers), Deravasi (tem- • They are also called formists as they emphasize sim-
ple residents), Chaityavasi Dhundhiya (searchers) plicity in religion. For example,
(temple residents) and Man- and Sadhumargi (follow- they do not build monasteries; in-
dira-margi (temple goers). ers of ascetics). stead, their monks live in parts of
houses provided by householders.

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[UPSC CSE 2018] With reference to the religious practices in India, the "Sthanakvasi" sect
belongs to
a) Buddhism PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
b) Jainism
c) Vaishnavism
d) Shaivism
Ans: Jainism

[UPSC CSE 2017] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following
statements:
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
 2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary but existed
forever in a latent form.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans: 2 only

Ashtamangala (Eight Auspicious Symbols of Jainism)

• Ashtamangala are eight auspicious symbols of Jainism, which are an integral part of Jain culture. They are
depicted in Kalpasutra and revered in various religious rituals and ceremonies.
• In Jainism, it is customary to draw the swastika at the beginning of all religious ceremonies.
Symbol Represented by Significance
Swastika Swastika It signifies the well-being of humans.
Nandyavart A large swastika with nine corners It signifies the higher meditative attainment.
Shrivatsa A mark manifested on the heart of the It signifies compassionate, universal, eternal love
Jina for all living beings.
Vardhamanak A shallow earthen dish used for lamps It signifies the increase of wealth, fame, and merit
Bhadrasana The sacred seat sanctified by the feet It is considered the sacred seat for the ones who
(Sinhasana) of the blessed Lord Jina. have attained nirvana.
Kalash A holy pot filled with pure water It signifies the wisdom and abundance
Minyugal A pair of fish It signifies the flow of divine life in the cosmic
ocean.
Darpan Mirror Reflects one’s true self

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Jaina Literature
• The earliest Jain texts were orally transmitted from acharyas (gurus) to their disciples. As monks strictly
followed the five great vows of Jainism and considered even religious scriptures as possessions, the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
knowledge of the religion was never documented.
• Later, acharyas realized it was difficult to memorize the vast literature, much of which was already lost or
corrupted with modifications and errors. To document the Jain literature, a council was convened under
the presidentship of Sthalbhadra around 300 BCE in Pataliputra. The council compiled 12 Angas, which
were later recompiled at the second council by the Svetambara monks in Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 CE.

Cannon of the Shvetambaras

• Ganadharas, immediate disciples of Lord Mahavira, compiled the preaching of Mahavira into many
texts collectively known as Agam Literature (Agamas).
• Agamas are sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. Agam literature is
divided into two groups:
1. Ang-agams
2. Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang‑agams)

Anga-agamas

• Gautama and other Ganadharas orally compiled the original preaching of Mahavira into twelve Angas.
These are the oldest religious scriptures and the backbone of Jain literature.
• Drastivad consists of fourteen Purva texts is twelfth Anga‑agama. Purvas were the oldest sacred texts
of Jainas.
• Twelve Angas (Dwadashangi) have an important place in Jain Agam. These are Acharanga-Sutra, Sutra-
kritang, Sthananga, Samavayanga, Vyakhya Pragnapti (Bhagavati Sutra), Jnatrdharmakatha, Upasa-
kadasah, Antakrddasah, Anuttaraupapatikadasah, Prasnavyakarana, Vipaksruta and Dristivada.

Purvas
• The Fourteen Purvas are ancient Jain scriptures that was preached by all Tirthankaras of Jainism.
• The monks having the knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas were known as Shrutakevali. Acharya
Bhadrabahu was the last person who had the knowledge of Purvas.
• All Jain sects believe that the knowledge of the Purvas were gradually lost starting two hundred years
after Lord Mahavir's nirvan (death).
• All Swetambar Jains believe that the proper meaning and the original intent of the eleven Anga-agamas
survived and were properly documented by elder monks at the second council in Vallabhi (Gujarat) in
512 CE. However, Digambaras believe that the Purvas and remaining original eleven Agamas were lost.
Therefore, they did not consider the Agamas compiled by the Svetambara monks as the original teach-
ings of Mahavira.

196
Anga-bahya-agamas

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Ang-bahya-agams or non-agam literature consists of commentaries and explanations of Agam literature,
along with separate works created by others. These writings are found in various languages such as Pra-
krit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Maharashtri, etc. The different Jain sects accept different numbers of
Ang‑bahya texts.
• Anga-bahya-agamas are clssified into:
 12 Upangas: There is an Upanga (sub-section) for each of the Angas. They provide further explanation
of Angas.
 10 Parikarnas: Parikarnas are supplement to 12 Angas. They describe independent or miscellaneous
subjects of the Jain religion.
  6 Chhedasutras: Chheda-sutras describe the rules that monks and nuns should follow in monastic
life. These texts are only for ascetics not for lay people.
 4 Mulasutras: Mulasutras are essential scriptures for monks and nuns to study in the earlier stages
of their monkhood
 Individual texts (Sutra-Granthas) such as Nandi Sutra and Anuyogadvara
• The Digambars believes that all Ang-bahya-agams were also lost gradually. Hence they did not accept
complete Jain agam literature.

Digambara Jain Literature

• Digambaras believe that the original 11 Agamas and 14 Purvas containing original preaching of Lord
Mahavira were gradually lost starting about two hundred years after Lord Mahavir's nirvana. Hence, they
did not accept Agamas which are accepted by the Swetambars.
• There is no strict distinction between the canonical and non-canonical texts in the Digambara-tradition.
However two main texts, Satkhandagama (Scripture of Six Parts) by Puspadanta and Bhutabali and Ka-
saya-pahuda (Kasaya-prabhrta) by Gunadharacharya are most revered.
• Along with two main texts, Digambaras follow four Anuyogs written in Sauraseni or in Sanskrit by great
Acharyas (scholars) from second to elevanth century CE as the basis for their religious philosophy and
practices. Four Anuyoga (Expositions) includes:
1. Pratham‑anuyoga (Dharma‑kath‑anuyoga) – Religious Stories
2. Charn‑anuyoga – Conduct
3. Karan‑anuyoga (Ganit‑anuyog) – Mathematics
4. Dravy‑anuyog – Philosophy

Some important Jaina Texts

 Pravachanasara: It provides the essence of Jaina scriptures. It is composed by Jain monk Kundakunda
in the second century CE or later.
 Brihat (Vrihat ) Katha: It is composed by Harisen, scholar and court poet of King Samudragupta

197
 Jain Puranas: These texts are hagiographies that glorify the lives and deeds of the Jain Tirthankaras.

Mahapurana or Trishashthilkshana Mahapurana

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Mahapurana is a Jain text composed by Acharya Jinasena and Gunabhadra in the 9th century CE.
• Mahapurana consists of two parts:
1. Adi Purana: It is the first part written by Acharya Jinasena in Sanskrit. It praises the life of first Tirthan-
kara, Rishabhanatha.
2. Uttarapurana: It is the second part written by Gunabhadra in Apabhramsa.
 The sacred literature of the Svetambaras written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit includes - 12 Angas, 12 Upan-
gas, 10 Parikarnas, 6 Chhedasutras, 4 Mulasutras and 2 Sutra-Granthas.
Jaina Councils
Jaina Council Year Place President Jaina Texts
First 300 Pataliputra Sthalbhadra Initial compilation of 12 angas replac-
BCE (present day Patna) ing lost 14 purvas
Second 512 Vallabhi Devarddhi Final compilations of 12 angas and 12
CE (Gujarat) Kshamashramana upangas

Important Jaina Scholars

Jaina Scholar Important Points
Indrabhuti Gautama • Senior-most of eleven Ganadharas
(6th-5th Century BCE) • Gained Kevala Jnana immediately after the death of Mahavira
Sudharma • One of the eleven Ganadharas
(6th-5th Century BCE) • President of the Jain after Mahavira's death
Bhadrabahu • Founder of Digambara Sect of Jainism
(4 century BCE)
th
• Spiritul guru of Chandragupta Maurya
Major work:
• Kalpa Suta: Contains biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably Parsh-
vanatha and Mahavira.
• Bhadrabahu Sanhita or Charita,
• Vasudev Charit
• Niryuktis (short commentaries on 10 of the 12 Agamas)
Sthulbhadra • A disciple of Bhadrabahu
(3rd century BCE) • Founder of Shvetambar sect
Siddhasena Divakara • Jain monk of the Shvetambara sect
(Kumudachandra) Major work:

198
(5 century CE)
th
• Nyayvatara
• Sanmati-tarka-prakaraṇa

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Kalyana-mandira-stotra: 44-verse poem in praise of Parshvanatha.
Haribhadra Suri Major work:
(8 century CE)
th
• Dhurtakhyan
• Samaraichcha
• Shad Darshan Samucchaya: Based on six philosophical systems of India
Somadeva Suri Upasakadhyayana: It contains ideals, norms, and rules of proper conduct for
(10th century CE) sravakas, Jain lay followers.
Nitivakyamrita: It deals with ethics and ethical values. It is a work on ethics, pol-
itics, and social norms (work on political science).
 Yashastilaka: It is a sanskrit text that promotes the Jaina doctrine using the story
of king Yashodhara.
Hemachandra Suri • Jain acharya of the Shvetambara sect
(11 -12 century)
th th
• A courtier of Solanki Kings of Gujarat - Siddharaja Jayasimha and Kumarapala
Major work:
• Trishashti Shalaka Purusha-charitra: A Sanskrit epic poem describing the
lives of 63 Jain saints
• Parisishta Parvan: This book is an appendix to the Trishashtisalaka Purusha
Charita and provides additional information about Jaina teachers.
• Siddha Hemachandra Shabdanushan: A book on grammars of Sanskrit, Pra-
krit and Apabhramsa
• Kumarpal Charita: A biography of Kumarapala, the Solanki king of Gujarat
Merutunga Prabandha-Chintamani
(14 century CE)
th

Hiravijaya Suri • Jain scholar of Shvetambara tradition.

(16th century CE) • Known for propounding the Jain philosophy to Mughal Emperor Akbar and
turning him towards vegetarianism.
• Emperor Akbar invited him to explain to him the principles of Jainism in reli-
gious conference held at Ibadatgarh in Fatehpur Sikri.
• Akbar bestowed on him the title of Jagatguru (World Teacher)

[UPSC CSE 2023] With reference to ancient Indian History, consider the following pairs:
Literary work: Author
1. Devichandragupta: Bilhana
2. Hammira-Mahakavya: Nayachandra Suri
3. Milinda-panha: Nagarjuna

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4. Nitivakyamrita: Somadeva Suri
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

a) Only one
b) Only two
c) Only three
d) All four
Ans: Only two

[UPSC CSE 2022] With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts:
1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
 3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
Which of the above are Jaina texts?
a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 2, 3 and 4
Ans: 2 and 4 only

[UPSC CSE 2022] With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs:
Historical person: Known as
1. Aryadeva: Jaina scholar
2. Dignaga: Buddhist scholar
3. Nathamuni: Vaishnava scholar
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
a) None of the pairs
b) Only one pair
c) Only two pairs
d) All three pairs
Ans: Only two pairs

List of 24 Jaina Tirthankaras

Tirthankara Symbol
1 Rishabhanatha (Adinatha) Bull
2 Ajitanatha Elephant
3 Sambhavanatha Horse

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4 Abhinandananatha Monkey
5 Sumatinatha Red Goose

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

6 Padmaprabha Red lotus
7 Suparshvanatha Swastika
8 Chandraprabha Crescent moon
9 Pushpadanta (Suvidhinatha) Crocodile
10 Shitalanatha Shrivatsa
11 Shreyansanatha Rhinoceros
12 Vasupujya Buffalo
13 Vimalanatha Boar
 14 Anantnatha Falcon
15 Dharmanatha Thunderbolt (Vajra)
16 Shantinatha Deer
17 Kunthunatha Goat
18 Aranatha Fish
19 Mallinatha Water pot
20 Munisuvrata Tortoise
21 Naminatha Blue lotus
22 Neminatha (Arishtanemi) Conch shell
23 Parshvanatha Snake (serpant)
24 Mahavira Lion

Important Jain Heritage Sites and Jain Architecture

Jaina Caves
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves (Odisha): Hathigumpha, Ranigumpha, Baghagumpha
• Ellora caves (Maharashtra)
• Sittanvasal cave (Tamil Nadu): Sittanvasal rock-cut monastery or temple.
• Badami cave temple (Karnataka)
 Ellora caves belong to three different religious creeds, Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism.
 Aihole has Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments.
 The temples at Khajuraho belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism.
 Badami cave temples belong to two different religions – Hinduism and Jainism.

Jaina Temples
• Deogarh temples (Uttar Pradesh)

201
• Pavapuri and Rajagriha temples (Bihar)
• Khajuraho, Gwalior and Chanderi temples (Madhya Pradesh)
• Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan)
• Aihole Temples (Karnataka) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Palitana temples (Shatrunjaya hills, Gujarat)

Jaina Bronze Sculptures

• Most of the Bronze images represent the Jain tirthankaras like Mahavira, Parshvanath or Adinath. A hoard
of Jain bronzes were found at many sites, including:
 Aluara, Bokaro (Jharkhand)
 Chausa and Buxar (Bihar)
 Akota (outskirts of Baroda, Gujarat)
  Hansi (Haryana)

Statue
• Bahubali or Gomateshwara statue (Shravanabelagola, Karnataka)

Bahubali or Gomateshwara

• Bahubali or Gomateshwara was son of the Rishabhadeva, first Tirthankara of Jainism.

• 57-foot monolithic statue of Gommateshwara Bahubali of Shravanabelagola (Hassan district of Kar-
nataka) is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage destinations) for Jains. It was built by Chamunda-
raya or Chavundaraya, Commander-in-Chief of King Rachamalla of the Ganga dynasty around 983 CE
(10th century CE).
• There are five monolithic statues of Bahubali in Karnataka - Shravanabelagola, Karakala, Dharamasthala,
Venur and Gommatagiri.
• The Mahamastakabhisheka festival is held every 12 years when the Gommateshwara statue is anointed
with milk, saffron, ghee, etc. to propagate the idelas upheld by Bahubali.

[UPSC CSE 2023] Consider the following pairs:

Site: Well known for
1. Besnagar: Shaivite cave shrine
2. Bhaja: Buddhist cave shrine
3. Sittanavasal: Jain cave shrine
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) All three
d) None
Ans: Only two

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Contribution of Jainism
Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the Varna order and the ritualistic Vedic
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
religion.
• The early Jainas discarded the Sanskrit language, mainly patronised by the Brahmanas. They adopted
Prakrit, the language of the common people, to preach their doctrines. Their religious literature, agamas,
was written in Ardhamagadhi. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language
and its literature.
• Jaina wrote extensively in Kannada and contributed to its growth.
• The Jainas composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first grammar.
• Although Jaina art in ancient times was not as rich as Buddhist art, Jainism contributed substantially to
art and architecture in medieval times.

8.4. Buddhism and Jainism

Similarities
Both Mahavira and Buddha hailed from royal families.
Rejected the authority of Vedas
Rejected rituals and sacrifices
Opposed the cruelties of animal sacrifice
No caste and varna system
Absence of worship of gods
Monasteries for monks and nuns
Emphasis is placed on human effort to attain liberation (moksha) instead of performing religious ceremo-
nies and rituals as the means to achieve it.
Differences
Buddhism Jainism
Followed the middle path Followed the extreme path.
Did not recognise the existence of god and soul. Recognised the existence of god and soul.
Condemned the varna system. Did not condemn the varna system.
Won more state patronage than Jainism. Did not win as much state patronage as Buddhism.
Spread very fast in the early times. Did not spread very fast in the early times.
Spread in many parts of the world. Remained in India only.
Virtually disappeared from the Indian subcontinent. Still retains its hold in the areas where it spread.

8.5. Other Heterodox Ideas

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• Around the 5th-6th century BCE, other heterodox beliefs also existed apart from Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Samannaphala Sutta of the Digha Nikaya mentions six teachers who were contemporaries of Gau-
tama Buddha. They were called the six heretical teachers. Except for Nigantha Nataputta or Vardhamana PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Mahavira, the other five heretical teachers were regarded as the holders of some or other form of Akiri-
yavada views.
 According to Akriyavada, moral acts do not have any consequences.

Purana Kassapa
• Purana Kassapa preached the doctrine of Akriya or non-action. According to him, everything was pre-
ordained, and hence, action did not lead to either merit or demerit. A man would not incur any sin for his
wrongdoing, and he would not earn any merit through good deeds.
Makkhali Goshala
• Makkhali Goshala, the founder of the Ajivika sect, put forward the materialistic view of life. He pre-
scribed the Niyati doctrine, where everything is determined by fate (niyati) and human action has no
consequence. Actions cannot affect destiny or decide future birth.
• Along with Buddhism and Jainism, the Ajivika sect was popular till the Maryan period. King Ashoka was
an Ajivika for most of his life.

Lomas Rishi Cave

• Lomas Rishi Cave is a rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar.
• The cave was built during the Ashokan period of the Maurya Empire in the third century BCE. It was
donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
• The facade of the cave is decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The elephant frieze
carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows considerable movement. The interior hall of this cave is
rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The entrance is located on the side wall of the hall.

Ajita Kesakambala
• Ajita Kesakambala is considered the forerunner of the Charvaka school (Lokayata school). He denied
the soul, rebirth, salvation and existence of God. He rejected rejected rites and rituals. He considered
pursuing happiness in this life as the only goal.

Lokayata (Charvaka) School

• Charvaka philosophy is a fully materialistic philosophy. This philosophy was prevalent among the people
and derived from them, hence known as Lokayata philosophy.
• Brihaspati is considered the founder of the Lokayata philosophy. Charvaka is credited with many of its
teachings.
• The Charvaka philosophy accepted the existence of only those things that could be experienced by hu-
man senses and organs. Hence, it rejected metaphysical concepts like the soul, karma, afterlife, and sal-

204
vation. It also rejected rituals, as it believed that Brahmanas manufactured rituals to acquire gifts
(Dakshina).
• According to this philosophy, enjoyment is the ultimate end; hence, it insists on joyful living. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Pakudha Kachchayana
• Pakudha Kachchayana believed that the world was made up of seven eternal and unchanging elements:
earth, fire, air, water, pleasure, pain, and the soul. All actions, including death, just rearranged these ele-
ments.

Sanjaya Belatthiputta
• Sanjaya Belatthiputta was agnostic. He did not provide a clear answer to any metaphysical question.
• Sanjaya said, "If you asked me, 'Is there another world?' and if I believed there was, I would say so. But I
don’t claim that it exists, nor do I deny it. I don’t say it isn’t so, and I don’t say it is neither so nor not so."
• Sanjaya had the same answer for every question: "I do not say it is true. I do not say it is not true."

Nigantha Nataputta
• Nigantha can be identified with Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th tirthankara of Jainism.

Shramana Tradition
• Shramanas, meaning seekers or ascetics, rejected the authority of the Brahmanas and the Vedas, ad-
vocating a more austere path to spiritual liberation. Around the 8th-6th century BCE, they initiated var-
ious religious movements (the Shramana tradition) with diverse beliefs and practices which disagree
with each other. The most famous shramana tradition includes Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika, Lokayata,
Ajana etc (Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy).

8.6. Classical Indian languages

• Indian classical languages are those which have a deep historical background, vast literary traditions
and significant contributions to the nation’s cultural heritage. These languages have been essential in
preserving and transmitting India's ancient knowledge systems, philosophies, and values across genera-
tions for thousands of years.
• In October 2024, the Central government granted classical language status to five more languages:
Bengali, Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, and Assamese. This brings the total number of classical Indian languages
to 11, including Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia
(2014), which had previously received the status.

Change in the Criteria for conferring Classical Language

Criteria in 2005 Criteria in 2024
High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history High antiquity of (its) is early texts/recorded history

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over a period of 1500-2000 years. over a period of 1500- 2000 years.
A body of ancient literature/texts, which is consid- A body of ancient literature/texts, which is consid-
ered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers. ered a heritage by generations of speakers. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

The classical language and literature being distinct The Classical Languages and literature could be dis-
from modern, there may also be a discontinuity be- tinct from its current form or could be discontin-
tween the classical language and its later forms or uous with later forms of its offshoots.
its offshoots.
The literary tradition be original and not borrowed Knowledge texts, especially prose texts in addition
from another speech community. to poetry, epigraphical and inscriptional evidence.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 206
Prakrit: The language of the people
• The term 'Prakrit' comes from 'Prakriti,' meaning source or origin. Scholars believe Prakrit languages
evolved from Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas.
• There is no single Prakrit language. Instead, the term refers to a group of closely related Indo-Aryan
languages. They were much simpler than Sanskrit and, thus, the language used by the masses, as op-
posed to Sanskrit, which was restricted to the elites and high literature.
 In Kalidasa's plays, kings and most Brahmins speak Sanskrit, while women and common men use Pra-
krit.
• Most Prakrit languages were named after the regions where they were spoken. For example, the Prakrit
spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Prakrit is said to have been spoken between 500 BCE and
500 CE.
• Being vernacular languages, Prakrits were also the language of heterodox religions like Jainism and
Buddhism. Both religions spread their teachings through Prakrit.
• Unlike Sanskrit texts, inscriptions and edicts were intended for the general public rather than an elite
intelligentsia. Hence, most pre-Gupta inscriptions were written in various forms of Prakrit.
• Some notable Prakrits include Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Shauraseni, Paisaci, Maharashtri, and Avanti.
1. Magadhi: Magadhi was the official language of the Mauryan court and the language of the people
of Magadha (present-day Bihar).
 According to Buddhist scholar Buddhaghosa, Buddha preached in Magadhi and Pali is considered
to be based on it.
 The Ashokan edicts were composed in Magadhi.
 Magadhi later evolved into modern-day languages such as Bengali, Assamese, Odia, and the Bi-
hari languages (Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maithili).
2. Ardhamagadhi: This was a later variation of the Magadhi language and was prominently used by
Jain scholars. Jain agamas are written in Ardhamagadhi.

207
3. Shauraseni: It was used in North and Central India and later evolved into Hindustani, Punjabi, and
other Hindi languages. The speech of women and people from the lower classes in Sanskrit plays was
often denoted in Shauraseni Prakrit.
4. Maharashtri: Gathasaptashati was written in Maharashtri Prakrit by King Hala. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 The use of Maharashtri Prakrit is also seen in Kalidas's famous drama Abhijnana Shakuntalam.

Pali
• Pali has traditionally been identified with Magadhi Prakrit and considered a form of somewhat San-
skritised Magadhi Prakrit. However, some modern scholars believe Pali to be a mix of several Prakrit
languages (including more Western dialects), which were combined and partially Sanskritised.
• Pali is the language of the Theravada Buddhist Canon, the Tipitakas, and is considered to be the lan-
guage of the Buddha himself.
  According to Buddhaghosa, Lord Buddha preached in Magadhi, and Pali is believed to have been de-
rived from it.
• After Theravada Buddhism declined in India, Pali also declined. It is survived in places like Sri Lanka, My-
anmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where the Theravada school continued to prosper.

Important Pali texts of Buddhism

• Tipitaka (Pali Canon): Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Milinda Panha: A dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander (Milinda) and the Buddhist sage
Nagasena. It was written by Nagasena.
• Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification): It is a manual of meditation and a comprehensive treatise on
Theravada Buddhist doctrine.
 It is the most important Pali work in the Theravada after the Pali canon.
 It was written by Buddhaghosa in the fifth century in Sri Lanka.

8.7. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

Sixth century BCE Growing opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas, led to the
emergence of many heterodox religious sects, including Buddhism and Jainism.
563 BCE Gautama Buddha was born Siddhartha in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu (Nepal).
540 BCE Vardhamana Mahavira was born Prince Vardhamana in Kundagrama near Vaishali in
Bihar.
483 BCE The Buddha passed away at the age of eighty in Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh).
483 BCE First Buddhist Council was held at Rajgir under the presidentship of Mahakassapa.
468 BCE Vardhamana Mahavira passed away at the age of 72 at Pavapuri near Rajgir.
383 BCE Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali under the presidentship of Sabakami.
Fourth century BCE Jainism spread to the Kalinga in Orissa

208
300 BCE First Jaina Council was held at Pataliputra under the presidentship of Sthalbhadra.
250 BCE Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the presidentship of Moggali-
putta Tissa. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Second century BCE Jainism reached the southern districts of Tamil Nadu.
First century BCE Mahayana Buddhism originated in the Andhra region. It became a recognisable form
of Buddhism at the time of Kanishka in the first century CE.
72 CE Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kashmir under the presidentship of Vasumitra.
First century CE Idol or image worship of Buddha started.
512 CE Second Jaina Council was held at Vallabhi under the presidentship of Devarddhi
Kshamashramana.
8.8. Summary

Buddhism
Gautama Buddha (563-483 BCE)

• Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born Siddhartha in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu
(Nepal) in 563 BCE.
• At the age of 35, Siddhartha started meditation under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. On the 49th
day of his meditation, he attained supreme knowledge, i.e. enlightenment (nirvana/nibbana). Since
then, he has been called Buddha (the wise/enlightened one).
• Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh), which is known as
Dhammachakrapravartana (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma). His five disciples in the first sermon
were Kaundinya, Bhardika, Vashpa, Mahanama, and Ashvajit.
• Thereafter, during forty-five years of his life, Buddha visited many places on foot, teaching dhamma or
the path of righteous living, converting people and organising them into a community (Sangha). He
encountered many staunch supporters of rival sects, including the Brahmanas, but defeated them in
debates.
• The major rulers at the time of the Buddha, such as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of Magadh, Chanda
Pradyota of Avanti, Udayana of Vatsa, and Prasenjit of Kosala, became his disciples.
• The Buddha passed away or achieved Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty in 483 BCE in Kushinagar
(Uttar Pradesh). The Mallas of Kushinagara cremated his body with ceremonies befitting a Universal
King (cakravartin).

Teachings of Buddha

The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)

1. Life is full of suffering (Dukkha – Suffering).
2. The root cause of suffering is desire (Samudaya - Cause of suffering).

209
3. Suffering ends when desires are eliminated (Nirodha - End of Suffering).
4. This can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path, which promotes the path of moderation between
severe penance and self-indulgence (Magga - Marga or Way). PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)
• Gautama Buddha recommended an eightfold path for the elimination of human misery. It consists of
the following principles: Right observation, Right determination, Right speech, Right action, Right live-
lihood, Right exercise, Right memory and Right meditation.

Panchasheel
• Gautama Buddha laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The rules are called Panchasheel. These
are: No killing, No lying, No stealing, No misconduct, No alcohol or drugs.
Important Buddhist Pali Texts

• Tripitaka: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

 Sutta Pitaka: It includes religious discourses and Buddha's teachings. It consists of five nikayas (di-
visions) - Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta, Anguttara, and Khuddaka.
 Vinaya Pitaka: It includes rules and regulations for those who joined the sangha or monastic order.
 Abhidhamma Pitaka: It contains the philosophical ideas of the Buddha’s teachings, written in the
form of questions and answers. It comprises seven books: Dhammasangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha,
Puggalapannatti, Kathavatthu, Yamaka, and Patthana.
• Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda): A dialogue between Milinda (Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and
Buddhist saint Nagasena.
• Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha

Different Schools of Buddhism

Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas

• In the second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali in 383 BCE, there was some disagreement over the
monastic rules. This led to the division of the Buddhist order into two schools:
1. Sthaviravadins: They followed the strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws originally prescribed
in Vinaya Pitaka.
2. Mahasanghikas: They followed modified, more relaxed disciplinary rules.

Hinayana and Mahayana

• By the first century CE, there is evidence of changes in Buddhist ideas and practices. Gradually, the idea
of a saviour emerged, and the concept of the Bodhisatta (Bodhisattva) also developed. This led to a
new form of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism. Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhists
as followers of Hinayana.

Decline of Buddhism

210
• By the early twelfth century CE, Buddhism had practically disappeared from the Indian subcontinent.
The following factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.
 Shift Towards Rituals and Idol Worship PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Abandonment of Pali
 Corruption and Degeneration in Monasteries
 Persecution by Rulers
 Revival of Brahmanism
 Rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism

Jainism
• According to Jaina traditions, the basic philosophy of the Jainas existed in north India before the birth
of Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira (great hero). Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th
Tirthankara (teacher or one who led people to salvation). He was preceded by 23 other Tirthankaras,
including the first Tirthankara Rishabhadev and the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha.

Vardhamana Mahavira

• Mahavira was born Prince Vardhamana in 540 BCE in Kundagrama (modern day Kundalpur) near
Vaishali in Bihar. He was a Kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that belonged to the Vajji sangha.
His father, Siddhartha, was the chief of the Kshatriya clan Jnatrika. His mother, Trishala, was a Lichchavi
princess.
• At the age of 42, Vardhamana attained the supreme knowledge (complete knowledge) called Kaivalya
(Gnan) under sal tree on the banks of the Rijupalika river in Jambhikagrama. Through kaivalya, he
conquered misery and happiness and hence called a conqueror, i.e. Jina. After attaining enlightenment,
Vardhamana is known as Mahavira (great hero), or Jina (conqueror) or Nirgranth (free from fetters). His
followers are known as Jainas, and his religion is called Jainism.
• Mahavira delivered his first sermon at Pava to his 11 principal disciples, known as the Gandharas or
Gandharvas. subsequently he established a Jaina Sangha at the Pava.
• For the next thirty years Mahavira moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in Kosala,
Magadha and further east. He often visited the courts of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He passed away at
the age of 72 in 468 BCE at Pavapuri near Rajgir.

Teachings of Jainism

Triratna (three jewels) of Jainism

• According to Jainism, members of the lower castes can achieve liberation. No ritual is necessary for
such liberation, and it can be obtained through:
• Samyak Darshana: Right faith
Samyak Gyana: Right knowledge

211
•
• Samyak Charitra: Right action

Five Great Vows

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Jaina monks and nuns had to observe certain strict rules. They had to lead very simple lives, begging
for food. They could walk only during the day, taking care that they do not kill or injure any being.
• They took five great vows:
1. Satya: To abstain from lying
2. Ahimsa: To abstain from killing
3. Asteya: To abstain from stealing
4. Aparigraha: To abstain from possessing property
5. Brahmacharya: To observe celibacy
Contribution of Jainism

• Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the Varna order and the ritualistic Vedic
religion.
• The early Jainas discarded the Sanskrit language, mainly patronised by the Brahmanas. They adopted
Prakrit. The adoption of Prakrit by the Jainas helped the growth of this language and its literature.
• Jaina wrote extensively in Kannada and contributed to its growth.
• The Jainas composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first grammar.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 9. Persian and Macedonian Invasions

9.1. Achaemenids (Achaemenian Dynasty)

• The Achaemenids were an ancient Iranian (Persian) dynasty whose kings founded and ruled the Achae-
menid empire from 559 to 330 BCE.
• The Achaemenid Empire was the first and largest world empire in ancient times, lasting over 200 years.
It was founded by Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) in the sixth century BCE. Cyrus II started as a small ruler,
conquered many lands, and created a vast empire.
• The important rulers of the Achaemenid Empire were:
1. Cyrus II (559–530 BCE): Founder of the Achaemenid Empire.
2. Darius I (522–486 BCE): Ruled at the peak of the empire.
3. Xerxes I (486-465 BCE): Employed Indians in the Iranian army to fight against the Greeks.
4. Darius III (336-330 BCE): Last ruler of the Achaemenid Empire.

Cyrus the Great

• Cyrus the Great was a tolerant ruler who respected the local religions, languages and customs of the

213
people he conquered.
• In 539 BCE, the armies of Cyrus the Great conquered the city of Babylon (near modern-day Al-Hillah,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Iraq). He freed the slaves, established racial equality and declared that all people had the right to
choose their religion. These and other decrees were written on a baked clay cylinder called the Cyrus
Cylinder. The Cyrus Cylinder is considered the world’s first charter of human rights.

Darius I

• Darius I built the 2,500-km-long Royal Road from Persia to Turkey for faster communication and
established the world's first postal system.
• He introduced standardised gold and silver coins, which popularised the usage of coins worldwide.
 • He introduced the concept of official language and made Aramaic, the most widely spoken language,
the official language of his empire instead of his native Persian.

9.2. Persian (Iranian) Invasion

• In the sixth century BCE:

 In north-east India, smaller principalities and republics gradually merged with the Magadhan Em-
pire.
 In north-west India, there was no overarching powerful kingdom, so the principalities could not
be organised into one kingdom. Various principalities, such as the Kambojas, Gandharas, and Madras,
fought with each other and created political disunity.
• Along with its political disunity, north-west India was also wealthy and easily accessible through the
passes in the Hindukush. The Achaemenian kings took advantage of this and penetrated north-west
India.
• Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) was the first conqueror to lead an expedition into India. He captured the
Gandhara and Kamboja (in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan).
• Darius I ruled the empire at its peak. In 516 BCE, he penetrated north-west India and annexed Sindh and
part of Punjab west of the Indus River, which constituted the twentieth province (satrapy) of his empire.
However, he did not annex any land beyond the Indus River.
• Out of the total 28 satrapies (provinces) during the rule of Darius I, Indian regions constituted two sa-
trapies:
1. Seventh satrapy (Gadara satrapy): Included Gandhara and Kamboja.
2. Twentieth satrapy (Hindus satrapy): Included Sindh and part of Punjab that lay west of the Indus.
It was the most fertile and populous part of the empire. It paid a tribute of 360 talents of gold (most
by any province), which accounted for one-third of the total revenue of Iran from its Asian provinces.
 A satrapy was the name of the Persian province, and a satrap was a governor of a province.
Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians in the long war against the Greeks. India continued to

214
•
be a part of the Iranian empire till Alexander's invasion of India.

Effects of the Persian Invasion

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
1. Trade: The Indo-Iranian contact, which lasted over 200 years, gave an impetus to Indo-Iranian trade
and commerce.
2. Script: The Iranian script influenced the development of the Kharoshthi script. Like Arabic, Kharoshthi
was written from right to left. Some Ashokan inscriptions in north-west India were written in this script
in the third century BCE.
3. Architecture: Iranian contact influenced the Maurya sculpture.
 The monuments of Ashoka's time, especially the bell-shaped capitals, owed something to the Iranian
models.
  The preamble of Ashoka's edicts and certain terms used in them show Iranian influence. For instance,
for the Iranian term dipi, the Ashokan scribe used the term lipi.
4. Alexander’s invasion: The Greeks learned about India's great wealth from the Iranians, eventually lead-
ing to Alexander's invasion of India.

9.3. Macedonian Invasions: Alexander's Invasion (327-325 BCE)

Alexander the Great

• Alexander the Great was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon.
• Alexander was born in 356 BCE as prince of Macedon, one of the small Greek states. He succeeded his
father, Philip II, to the throne in 336 BCE at the age of 20 and united Greece within two years.
• In the fourth century BCE, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. In the
battle of Arbela in 330 BCE, Alexander defeated Darius III, conquered Persia and finally destroyed the
Iranian empire. He then turned his focus to India in 327 BCE.

Reasons for Alexander's Invasion

1. The writings of Herodotus and other Greek writers about the wealth of India tempted Alexander to
invade it.
2. Alexander possessed a strong passion for geographical inquiry and natural history. He believed that
on the eastern side of India, there was the continuation of the sea. So, he thought that by conquering
India, he would also conquer the eastern boundary of the world.
 Alexander's invasion (326 BCE) is not mentioned in Indian sources, and its history is reconstructed from
Greek writings. Greek writers refer to "Sandrokottas," identified as Chandragupta Maurya. This identi-
fication is key to ancient Indian chronology.

Alexander's Invasion of India

• In 327 BCE, Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months fighting with the

215
tribes. He crossed the Indus in February 326 BCE.
• The political condition in north-west India was suitable for Alexander as it was divided into small inde-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

pendent monarchies and tribal republics. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well-known:
1. Ambhi, the prince of Taxila
2. Porus, the ruler of a kingdom between the Jhelum and the Chenab.
• Both Ambhi and Porus together could have defeated Alexander, but they could not put up a joint front.
• Ambhi did not oppose Alexander and readily submitted to him, augmented his army and replenished
his treasure. From there, Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused and decided
to fight against Alexander. Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhe-
lum).
• Although Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes, he was impressed by his bravery and
courage. When Alexander asked how he should be treated, Porus replied, “Like a King”. Pleased with the
reply and the Porus's bravery, Alexander restored his kingdom and made him his ally.
 Some rulers, such as Ambhi, surrendered to Alexander, but hill tribes, such as the Astakenoi and Ash-
vakayanas, resisted and were defeated. The Ashvakayanas (tribal people of the Ashvaka republic) of
Massaga, led by their queen Cleophis, fought valiantly against him.
• Alexander continued his march into the Indian subcontinent and advanced as far as the Beas River (Vedic
name - Vipasa or Vipasha; Greek name - Hyphasis). He wanted to cross it and continue eastward, but
his army refused to go further.
• Alexander's soldiers refused to advance further because:
 They had grown war-weary and diseased.
 The hot climate of India and ten years of continuous campaigning made them homesick.
 They were scared, as they had heard about the Nandas, who had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots
and elephants.
 During the time of Alexander's invasion, Dhana Nanda, the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty (345-321
BCE), was ruling over North India.
• Alexander could not persuade them and, therefore, decided to return. The king, who had never known
defeat at the hands of his enemies, had to accept defeat from his own men.
• Alexander left India in 325 BCE. On his return march, he made arrangements to look after his conquered
territories in India. Most conquered states were restored to their rulers who submitted to his authority.
However, his territorial possessions from the Indus to the Beas were divided into three parts, which
were placed under three Greek governors.
• On his way, Alexander reached Babylon, where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 BCE at the age of 32.
After his death, a war of succession broke out. Once it ended, his generals divided the fragmented empire
among themselves. Seleucus Nicator claimed the lands west of the Indus River and established the
Seleucid Empire.

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• Alexander’s authority in the Indus Valley was short-lived, and Greek possessions in India lost to the Mau-
ryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
[UPSC NDA II 2022] Which one of the following rivers in India was not crossed by Alexander
and his army?
a) Hyphasis
b) Acesines
c) Hydraotes
d) Hydaspes
Answer: Hyphasis
 [Prelims Practice] Which one of the following dynasties was ruling over North India at the
time of Alexander's invasion?
a) Nanda
b) Sunga
c) Maurya
d) Kanva
Answer: Nanda

Effects of Alexander's Invasion

• By destroying the power of small independent states in north-west India, Alexander's invasion paved the
way for the political unification of northern India under Mauryas.
• The invasion established direct contact between India and Greece in different fields.
• Alexander's campaign opened up four distinct routes by land and sea, increasing the existing trade facil-
ities between India and West Asia.
• Alexander's historians provided valuable geographical accounts that helped us build Indian chronology
for subsequent events. They also documented social and economic conditions, including the sati system
and the sale of girls and fine oxen breeds. From their accounts, we now know that the art of carpentry
was the most flourishing craft in India, and carpenters built chariots, boats and ships.
• According to tradition, Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, learned from Alexan-
der's military tactics and gained knowledge that helped him overthrow the Nanda dynasty.

The Legacy of Indian Iron and Steel

• In the fifth century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned Indian iron, noting that Indian
soldiers used iron-tipped arrows against invaders. By the Gupta era, iron production advanced enough
to create the Iron Pillar of Delhi, famous for its durability and resistance to corrosion.
• Similarly, Indian steel, called 'wootz steel,' was highly valued.

217
 American historian Will Durant wrote that King Porus gifted Alexander 30 pounds of steel instead
of gold or silver.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Indian swords made from this steel were known for their sharpness and strength.
• Indian wootz steel also fascinated Europeans:
 Francis Buchanan, who toured through Mysore in 1800, has left an account of the technique by
which Wootz Steel was produced in the smelting furnaces in Mysore.
 Michael Faraday, the scientist and discoverer of electricity and electromagnetism, spent four
years studying the properties of Indian Wootz (1818-22).

9.4. Timeline
 Timeline Key Events
Sixth century BCE Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Persian Empire.
Sixth century BCE In north-east India, smaller principalities and republics gradually merged with the
Magadhan Empire.
Sixth century BCE In north-west India, various principalities, such as the Kambojas, Gandharas, and
Madras, fought with each other and created political disunity.
516 BCE Achaemenid Persian ruler, Darius I annexed Sindh and part of Punjab west of the
Indus River.
330 BCE Greek ruler Alexander defeated Darius III and destroyed the Iranian empire.
329-321 BCE Dhana Nanda's reign in Magadh.
326 BCE Alexander Invaded India.
325 BCE Alexander left India.

9.5. Summary

• The Achaemenids were an ancient Iranian (Persian) dynasty whose kings founded and ruled the Achae-
menid empire from 559 to 330 BCE.

Persian (Iranian) Invasion

• In the sixth century BCE, the Achaemenian kings took advantage of the political disunity in north-west
India and invaded India.
• Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) was the first conqueror to lead an expedition into India. He captured the
Gandhara and Kamboja (in modern Pakistan and Afghanistan).
• In 516 BCE, Darius I penetrated north-west India and annexed Sindh and part of Punjab west of the
Indus River, which constituted the twentieth province (satrapy) of his empire. However, he did not
annex any land beyond the Indus River.
Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed Indians in the long war against the Greeks. India continued

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•
to be a part of the Iranian empire till Alexander's invasion of India.

Macedonian Invasions: Alexander's Invasion (327-325 BCE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Alexander the Great was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He was born in 356 BCE as
prince of Macedon. He succeeded his father, Philip II, to the throne in 336 BCE at the age of 20 and
united Greece within two years.
• In the fourth century BCE, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. In the
battle of Arbela in 330 BCE, Alexander defeated Darius III, conquered Persia and finally destroyed the
Iranian empire. He then turned his focus to India in 327 BCE.
• In 327 BCE, Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months fighting with
the tribes. He crossed the Indus in February 326 BCE.
• Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, did not oppose Alexander and readily submitted to him, augmented his
army and replenished his treasure. From there, Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus
refused and decided to fight against Alexander.
• Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). Although Alexander
defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes, he was impressed by his bravery and courage. Alexander
restored his kingdom and made him his ally.
• Alexander continued his march into the Indian subcontinent and advanced as far as the Beas River. He
wanted to cross it and continue eastward, but his army refused to go further. Alexander could not
persuade them and, therefore, decided to return. On his way, Alexander reached Babylon, where he
fell seriously ill and died in 323 BCE at the age of 32.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 10. The Rise of Magadh

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 220

10.1. Sixteen Mahajanapadas

• Around the sixth century BCE, many small, clan-based kingdoms were merged into larger kingdoms
known as Mahajanapadas.
• The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya gives the following list of sixteen great states (mahajanapadas):
Mahajanapada Capital Important Ruler
Kamboja Poonch (Rajouri)
Gandhara Pushkalavati, Taxila (later) Pukkusati (Push-
karasarin)
Matsya (Eastern Rajasthan) Viratnagara (modern Vairat)
Shurasena or Surasena (Western UP) Mathura
Kuru (Western UP) Indraprastha (Imdapatta)
Panchala (Western UP) Adhichhatra or Ahichchhatra (Ramnagar in Ba-
reilly)
Koshala or Kosala (Eastern UP) Shravasti (twin village of Sahet-Mahet) Prasenajit
(Other important town: Ayodhya)
Malla (Eastern UP) Kushinagara and Pava
Kashi or Kasi (Eastern UP) Varanasi
(Other important town: Sarnath)
Vatsa (South-eastern UP) Kausambi (near Prayagraj) Udayana
Vajji or Vrijji (Northern Bihar) Vaishali
Magadha (Bihar) Rajgir, Patliputra (later) Bimbisara
(Other important town: Bodh Gaya) Ajatashatru
Anga (Eastern Bihar) Champa
Chedi (Northern Madhya Pradesh) Suktimati

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Avanti (Madhya Pradesh) Ujjayini (Ujjain) Pradyota
Ashmaka or Asmaka Potana or Potali (Bodhan in Telangana) Brahmadatta

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

(Parts of Maharashtra and Telangana)
• The Digha Nikaya mentions twelve Mahajanapadas and omits four from the above: Ashmaka, Avanti,
Gandhara, and Kamboja.
• The Bhagavati Sutra, a sutra of Jainism, gives a different list of sixteen Mahajanapadas. It includes Vanga.
 Bimbisara and Ajatshatru of Magadha, Pradyota of Avanti, Udayana of Vatsa, and Prasenjit of Kosala,
were contemporaries of Buddha.

Kamboja
• The Kingdom of Kamboja includes the Rajouri and Hajra areas of Jammu, parts of the NWFP of Pakistan
and parts of Afghanistan. Its capital was Poonch (modern-day Rajouri).

Gandhara
• The kingdom of Gandhara comprised modern-day Peshawar and Rawalpindi districts in Pakistan, parts of
Afghanistan and Kashmir valley.
• Its capital, Takshasila or Taxila, was a major centre of trade and learning.

Matsya (Eastern Rajasthan)

• The Matsyas were situated near the eastern parts of present-day Rajasthan. Their capital was Viratnagara
(modern Vairat), named after the founder of the kingdom, king Virata.
• The Matsya could not compete with powerful kingdoms and was absorbed into the Magadh empire.

Shurasena (Western Uttar Pradesh)

• The Surasenas were located in the Yamuna doab region, with their capital at Mathura.

Mathura
• Mathura was an important city because it was located at the junction of two famous ancient Indian
trade routes: the Uttarapatha (northwest to the east) and the Dakshinapatha (north to south).
• Mathura later became an important religious centre for Buddhists, Jains and Hindus. It also became the
second capital of the Kushanas
• In mathura we have found:
 Headless erect statue of Kanishka with name inscribed on its lower part. It was carved from red and
white spotted sandstone
 Stone images of the Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira
 Pre-Gupta sculpture and inscriptions of Mathura ignore Krishna, although Mathura is considered his
birthplace and scene of early life.

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Kuru (Western Uttar Pradesh)
• The Kurus were settled in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. Different sources indicate a diffused
chiefship structure with many political centres rather than an absolute monarchy. Hastinapura, In- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

draprastha, and Isukara are mentioned as the capitals of the Kurus, each with its own chief.
• According to Buddhist tradition, the Kuru kingdom was ruled by kings belonging to the Yuddhitthila gotta
(gotra), the family of Yudhishthira. Their capital was Indraprastha (Imdapatta).

Panchala (Western Uttar Pradesh)

• The Panchala mahajanapada was located in the Rohilkhand and parts of Central Ganga-Yamuna Doab
(roughly Bareilly, Pilibhit, Badaun, Bulandshahr, Aligarh etc.)
• The kingdom also had two capitals:
1. The capital of Uttara (north) Panchala was Ahichchhatra (modern-day Ramnagar in Bareilly in Uttar
Pradesh)
2. The capital of Dakshina (south) Panchala was Kampilya (modern-day Kampil in Farukkhabad district,
Uttar Pradesh).
 In the post-Vedic period, the Kurus and the Panchalas no longer enjoyed the political importance that
they had attained in the later Vedic period.

Kosala (Eastern Uttar Pradesh)

• The Kingdom of Kosala, with its capital at Shravasti (modern-day twin village of Sahet-Mahet), covered
the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. It was bounded by the river Gandak on the east and the river Gomati
on the west.
• Shakyas of Kapilavastu were under the control of Kosala. Koshala also included the city Ayodhya, asso-
ciated with the story in Ramayana.
• King Prasenajit, a contemporary of Buddha, was a popular ruler of Kosala. There was a conflict between
Kosala and Kashi, which ended when King Prasenajit annexed the Kashi.

Kosala vs Magadh
• Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadh, married the daughter of the king of Koshala and the sister of Prasenajit
and received Kashi as a dowry, yielding a revenue of 1,00,000.
• During the reign of Ajatashatru (ruler of Magadh and son of Bimbisara), a prolonged conflict began be-
tween Magadha and Koshala. King Prasenajit of Kosala seized Kashi and stopped its revenue from going
to Magadha.
• A war broke out between Kosala and Magadh, which compelled King Prasenajit to purchase peace by
giving his daughter (Vajjira) in marriage to Ajatashatru. The Kashi was given as a dowry.
• Finally, after the death of Prasenjit, Ajatashatru annexed the Kosala.

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Malla (Eastern Uttar Pradesh)
• The Malla Ganasangha was a confederacy of nine clans. It was located north of Vajji Sangh and east and
south-east of Sakya Gana. Kushinagar (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and Pava were the two capitals of Mallas. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Kashi (Eastern Uttar Pradesh)

• With its capital at Varanasi, Kashi was one of the prominent mahajanpadas in the beginning. It was
bounded by the river Varuna in the north and the river Asi in the south.
 Varanasi is said to be located between two confluences: one of Ganga and Varuna, and the other of
Ganga and Asi.
• By the time of Buddha, King Prasenajit of Kosala had annexed Kashi. This annexation was one reason for
the conflict between Kosala and Magadha. Later, Prasenjit’s daughter, Vajjira, was married to Ajatasatru,
and Kashi was given a dowry to the bride.

Historical Significance of Kashi (Varanasi)

 King Ashvasena, the father of Parshvanath (23rd Jain Tirthankara), was a king of Kashi.
 Varanasi is the birthplace of four Jain Tirthankaras  Suparshvanath (7th), Chandraprabhu (8th), Shrey-
anshnath (11th) and Parshvanath (23rd).
 Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath, near Varanasi.
 Adi Sankara came to Varanasi in the Eighth Century CE and was taught a lesson in spiritual humility by
Lord Shiva.
 ‘Hindu-Muslim’ Sant Kabir was born in Varanasi in the 15th century
 In the 16th century, Goswami Tulsidas composed the Ramcharitmanas and the Hanuman Chalisa in
Varanasi.
 Ramcharitmanas was composed by Goswami Tulsidas at Ayodhya, Varanasi and Chitrakoot.
 Varanasi (Kashi) was the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) 's first cultural capital from
2022 to 2023.

Vajji (Northern Bihar)

• The Vajji Sangh, with its capital at Vaishali, was located north of the Ganga River.
• The Vajji Sangh was a confederacy of eight clans. The most powerful clan was Lichchhavi, with its capital
at Vaishali. Other important clans included Videha (associated with King Janaka, father of Sita) and Jna-
trika.
• Ajatashatru destroyed the confederacy and annexed the kingdom to Magadh.

[Prelims Practice] Which of the following was the capital of Vajji Mahajanapada?
a) Pataliputra

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b) Champa
c) Vaishali
d) Koshala PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Answer: Vaishali

[UPSC CDS I 2022] From among the following Mahajanapadas, identify the gana/sangha
(oligarchy):
a) Magadha
b) Vajji
c) Avanti
d) Kosala
 Answer: Vaji

Anga (eastern Bihar)

• The Kingdom of Anga covered the modern districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr of eastern Bihar. Its capital
was Champa.
• In the middle of the sixth century BCE, Bimbisara of Magadha defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and an-
nexed the Anga kingdom.

Vatsa (South-eastern Uttar Pradesh)

• The Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi, near modern
Prayagraj.
• The Vatsas were a Kuru clan who had shifted from Hastinapur and settled down at Kaushambi.
 The Puranas say that Nichaksu, a descendant of the Pandavas, shifted his capital to Kausambi after the
floods washed away Hastinapur.
• Its most popular ruler was Udayana. Around the same time, King Pradyota was ruling Avanti, and King
Ajatshatru was ruling Magadha. The conflict between them is a subject of many legends.
• After the death of Udayana, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

King Udayana
• King Udayana was featured as the protagonist of at least three Sanskrit dramas from later periods:
1. Swapnavasavadatta by Bhasa: Based on the story of the romantic affair between Udayana and
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Pradyota, the ruler of Avanti.
2. Ratnavali by Harsha: Based on the love story of the Udayana and Ratnavali, the daughter of King
Vikramabahu
3. Priyadarshika by Harsha: Based on the union of Udayana and Priyadarshini, daughter of Emperor
Dridhavarman.

225
Chedi (Northern Madhya Pradesh)
• The kingdom of the Chedi was located in the eastern parts of modern Bundelkhand and adjoining

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

areas. Its capital was Suktimati. The exact location of Suktimati is unknown. Some believe It was near
Banda, Uttar Pradesh, and others believe it was in modern-day Rewa, Madhya Pradesh.

Avanti (Madhya Pradesh)

• The kingdom of Avanti was located in the Malwa region of central India (Madhya Pradesh). It was di-
vided into two parts  northern and southern. The capital of the northern part was Ujjaini (modern-day
Ujjain), and that of the southern part was Mahishamati.
• King Pradyota was a powerful king of Avanti. During his reign, Avanti entered into military conflicts with
Vatsa, Magadha, and Kosala. He annexed the Vatsa to Avanti.
• The successors of Pradyota were weak, and later, this kingdom was taken over by the Shishunaga, the
founder of the Shishunaga dynasty of Magadha.

Assaka or Asmaka (Maharashtra and Telangana)

• The kingdom of Assaka was located along the Godavari River in Maharashtra (between the Godavari
and Manjira rivers). The capital of Assaka was Potana/Podana and is identified with modern Bodhan in
the Nizamabad district of Telangana.
 Sources differ regarding the capital of Assaka. Some identify modern-day Paithan in Maharashtra as
the capital, while others associate it with Bodhan in Telangana’s Nizamabad district.

Magadha (Bihar)
• The kingdom of Magadha roughly covered the areas of modern-day Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar.
Its first capital was Girivraja, or Rajagriha, or Rajgir, during the time of Buddha and Mahavira. Later, it
shifted to Pataliputra (modern Patna).
• Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha defeated the other kingdoms and founded the
first empire in India.

[UPSC CAPF 2020] Which one of the following is NOT listed as one of the sixteen mahajana-
padas in the pre-Mauryan period?
a) Kuru
b) Vatsa
c) Gandhara
d) Kalinga
Answer: Kalinga

[UPSC CDS I 2014] Which one of the following statements about ancient Indian Mahajana-
padas is correct?

226
a) All Mahajanapadas were oligarchies where power was exercised by a group of people
b) All Mahajanapadas were located in eastern India
c) No army was maintained by the Mahajanapadas
d) Buddhist and Jaina texts list sixteen Mahajanapadas PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Answer: Buddhist and Jaina texts list sixteen Mahajanapadas

[Prelims Practice] Which was the first capital of ancient Mahajanapada Magadh?
a) Pataliputra
b) Vaishali
c) Champa
d) Rajgir
 Answer: Rajgir

10.2. The Rise of Magadh

• At the beginning of the sixth century BCE, northern India consisted of many independent kingdoms.
Buddhist and Jain literature mentioned Sixteen Mahajanapadas.
• In the course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually
got eliminated. By the mid-sixth century BCE, only four kingdoms - Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha
survived. Finally, the kingdom of Magadha emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding
an empire.

Important Rulers of the Magadha

Dynasty Important Rulers
Haryanka Dynasty (544-413 BCE) Bimbisara (544-492 BCE)
Ajatashatru (492-460 BCE)
Udayin (460-444 BCE)
Shishunaga Dynasty (413-345 BCE) Shishunaga
Kalashoka
Nanda Dynasty (345-321 BCE) Mahapadma Nanda (345-329 BCE)
Dhana Nanda (329-321 BCE)
Mauryan Dynasty (321-185 BCE) Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BCE)
Bindusara (298-273 BCE)
Ashoka (272/268-231 BCE)

Haryanka Dynasty (544-413 BCE)

Bimbisara (544-492 BCE)

• Most scholars believe Bimbisara's grandfather was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty. However, during

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the reign of Bimbisara, the Magadh became prominent.
 Some scholars consider that Bimbisara was the founder of the Haryanka dynasty.
• Bimbisara used both diplomacy and conquest to increase Magadh's power. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Conquest: Bimbisara defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and placed Anga under the viceroyalty of his
son Ajatashatru at Champa.
 Diplomacy: Magadha's most serious rival was Avanti. Its king, Chanda Pradyota Mahasena, fought
Bimbisara, but ultimately, they thought it wise to become friends. Later, when Pradyota was attacked
by jaundice, Bimbisara sent the royal physician Jivaka to Ujjain.
• Bimbisara also strengthened his position by marriage alliances. Marriage relations with the different
princely families gave Magadha enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for its expansion west-
ward and northward. Bimbisara took three wives:
 1. He married the princess of Kosala (Prasenajit's sister) and received Kashi as a dowry. This marriage
ended hostility with Kosala, allowing him to focus on other states.
2. His second wife, Chellana, was a Licchavi princess from Vaishali who gave birth to Ajatashatru. This
matrimonial alliance secured the safety of the northern frontier.
3. His third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.
• Girivraja (Rajgir) was the capital of Magadh during the Bimbisara's reign. It was surrounded by five hills;
the openings were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.
• Buddhists and Jains have claimed Bimbisara as a follower because he was an important king.
• Unfortunately, Bimbisara met a tragic end when his own beloved son, Ajatashatru, imprisoned him and
starved him to death.

Ajatashatru (492-460 BCE)

• Ajatashatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself. His reign is known for its expansionist and
aggressive policies. He fought successful wars against Koshala and Vaishali.
 In Jain history, Ajatashatru was known as Kuniya or Kunika (Pitruhanta) because he killed his father
and took the throne.
• Ajatashatru had no respecter of relations. Although his mother was a Lichchhavi princess, he fought a war
against Vajji. He destroyed the independence of Lichchhavis after a long war of 16 years.
• Ajatashatru was successful in his military conquest because of the following:
 Stone-hurling catapults (Mahashilakantaka): He used a war engine to throw stones like catapults.
 Chariot with mass (Rathamusala): He possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, which
facilitated mass killings.
• Ajatashatru realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama. He fortified it and built
the city of Pataliputra to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
• The ruler of Avanti, Pradyota, posed formidable opposition to Ajatashatru. He had defeated the Vatsas of
Kaushambi and now threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger, Ajatashatru began fortify-

228
ing Rajgir. However, the invasion did not materialise in his lifetime.
• Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion. However, it is generally

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

believed that in the beginning, he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism.
• Ajatashatru is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of
Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas and viharas.
• Ajatashatru was also killed at the hands of his own son.

Ajatasattu And the Vajjis

• Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis and sent his minister, Vassakara, to seek Buddha's advice. The
Buddha asked if the Vajjis held frequent and full assemblies. When told they did, the Buddha advised
against the attack, saying the Vajjis would thrive as long as:
 1. They held regular public assemblies.
2. They acted together in unity.
3. They followed established rules.
4. They respected and listened to their elders.
5. Vajji women were not held by force or captured.
6. Local shrines (chaityas) were well-maintained in both towns and villages.
7. Wise saints of different beliefs were respected and allowed to come and go freely.

Udayin (460-444 BCE)

• Udayin succeeded Ajatashatru. He shifted the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.

History of Pataliputra
 Pataliputra began as a village known as Pataligrama.
 Ajatshatru transformed a Pataligrama into a city by fortifying it.
 Udayin shifted the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.
 When the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited the Pataliputra city in the seventh century CE, he found
it in ruins, and with a very small population.

Shishunaga Dynasty (413-345 BCE)

• The successors of Udayin were very weak rulers. During the reign of one of his descendants, the
Magadhans revolted, instating the minister Shishunaga as king and starting the Shishunaga dynasty.
Shishunaga temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
• Shishunaga defeated the Avanti and made Avanti and Vatsa a part of the Magadhan empire.
• Shishunaga was succeeded by Kalashoka, who held the Second Buddhist Council at Vaisali in 383 BCE.
Kalashoka also shifted the capital back to Pataliputra.
• The Shishunaga dynasty ended when one of the descendants was murdered by his own son, Mahapadma
Nanda, born to a Shudra mother.

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Nanda Dynasty (345-321 BCE)
• The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda dynasty founded by Mahapadma Nanda.
• The Nandas were the most powerful rulers of Magadha. Their conquests went beyond the boundaries PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
of the Gangetic basin and North India. The Nandas were fabulously rich and enormously powerful. It is
said that they maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 3000 to 6000 war elephants.
• Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler. According to the Hatigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Ka-
linga, Mahapadma conquered Kalinga and brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy.
• Mahapadma Nanda uprooted the Kshatriya dynasties in north India and assumed the title Ekarat, mean-
ing sole monarch (sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes). The Puranas call him the
'destroyer of all Kshatriyas' (Sarvakshatrantak). He is often referred as first empire builder of India.
• According to Buddhist texts, Mahapadma Nanda was succeeded by his eight sons, who ruled successively.
• The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. During his reign, Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent
and reached Punjab (Beas River). However, he did not move further eastward as his soldiers heard about
the vast army of Nanda and refused to move eastward.
• Dhana Nanda's oppressive tax collection methods created resentment among the people. Chandra-
gupta Maurya took advantage of the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days
of their rule. With the help of Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta), he overthrew the Nandas and estab-
lished the rule of the Maurya dynasty in 321 BCE.

Important Rulers And Their Conquest

• Bimbisara: Defeated the Anga.

• Ajatashatru: Defeated the Koshala and Vaishali.
• Shishunaga: Defeated the Avanti.

Causes of Magadha's Success

• Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE. Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most pow-
erful mahajanapada. This was because of the following factors:
1. Ambitious rulers and their ministers
2. Naturally fortified capitals
3. Accessible iron mines
4. River Ganga
5. Productive agriculture
6. Forest
7. Unorthodox character of the magadhan society

Ambitious Rulers and Their Ministers

• The early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of

230
ruthlessly ambitious kings, such as Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda and their ministers,
who helped implement their policies.

Naturally Fortified Capitals PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Initially, Rajagaha (Rajgir) was the capital of Magadha. It was surrounded by a group of five hills, and
so it was impregnable in those days when there were no easy means of storming citadels.
• Later, in the fifth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna) which was
situated at the confluence of Ganga and Son. Pataliputra, surrounded by rivers on almost all sides, was a
true water fort (jaladurga), and it was not easy to capture this town in those days.

Magadha's Changing Seats of Power

  Rajgir was the capital of Magadh during the Bimbisara's reign.
 Udayin shifted the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.
 Shishunaga temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
 Kalashoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra.

Accessible Iron Mines

• Iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
• Iron was used to clear the forest and expand agriculture. Iron ploughshares also increased productiv-
ity.
• The ready availability of the rich iron ores in the neighbourhood enabled the Magadhan princes to equip
themselves with effective weapons, which were not easily available to their rivals.
 Iron mines were also found in eastern Madhya Pradesh and near the Avanti kingdom. This was one
reason Avanti was Magadha's most serious competitor for supremacy in north India. Magadha took
about a hundred years to subjugate Ujjain.

River Ganga
• The Ganga and its tributaries provided cheap and convenient communication. They also helped make
the land fertile and increased productivity.

Productive Agriculture
• The alluvial soil, heavy rain, ploughshare use, and easy water availability made agriculture highly produc-
tive. This surplus production enabled peasants to pay taxes and helped in the growth of town, trade
and metal money.

[EPFO 2023] Which one of the following was an important contributing factor in the rise of
Magadha as the most powerful Mahajanapada between the Sixth and the Fourth Centuries
BCE?

231
a) Easy access to rich gold mines
b) Superior cavalry
c) An agriculturally productive region
d) Republican system of governance PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Answer: An agriculturally productive region

Forest
• Elephants, an important component of the Magadhan army, were easily found in forests in the eastern
part of the Magadha.
• Magadha was the first state to use elephants on a large scale in its wars against its neighbours. Elephants
could be used in storming fortresses and marching over marshy and other areas lacking roads and other
means of communication.
• Forests also provided the wood used to construct houses, chariots, and carts.

Unorthodox Character of the Magadhan Society

• Magadhan society was originally inhabited by Kiratas and Magadhas, groups regarded with low esteem
by orthodox Brahmanas. However, the advent of the Vedic people led to a favourable racial and cultural
amalgamation. Being more recently Vedicised, Magadha exhibited greater enthusiasm for expansion
compared to kingdoms that had been under Vedic influence for a longer period.

10.3. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

Sixth century BCE Many small, clan-based kingdoms were merged into larger kingdoms known as Ma-
hajanapadas.
544 - 413 BCE Haryanka dynasty
544 - 492 BCE Bimbisara's reign
492 - 460 BCE Ajatashatru's reign
460 - 444 BCE Udayin's reign
413 - 345 BCE Shishunaga dynasty
345 - 321 BCE Nanda dynasty
321 - 185 BCE Mauryan dynasty

10.4. Summary

Sixteen Mahajanapadas
• Around the sixth century BCE, many small, clan-based kingdoms were merged into larger kingdoms
known as Mahajanapadas. Buddhist and Jain literature mentioned Sixteen Mahajanapadas.
• In the course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually

232
got eliminated. By the mid-sixth century BCE, only four kingdoms - Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha
survived. Finally, the kingdom of Magadha emerged as the most powerful and succeeded in founding

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

an empire.

Important Rulers of the Magadha

Dynasty Important Important Points
Rulers
Haryanka Dyn- Bimbisara • Conquest: He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and placed Anga
asty (544-492 under the viceroyalty of his son Ajatashatru at Champa.
(544-413 BCE) BCE)
 • Diplomacy: Magadha's most serious rival was Avanti. Its king,
Chanda Pradyota Mahasena, fought Bimbisara, but ultimately,
they thought it wise to become friends.
• He strengthened his position by marriage alliances.
• Girivraja (Rajgir) was the capital of Magadh during his reign.
Ajatashatru • He destroyed the independence of Lichchhavis after a long war of
(492-460 16 years.
BCE) • He fortified Pataligrama and built the city of Pataliputra to serve
as a convenient base of operations against Vaishali.
• He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also de-
picted in the sculptures of Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa,
he constructed several chaityas and viharas.
Udayin • Udayin shifted the capital from Rajgriha to Pataliputra.
(460-444
BCE)
Shishunaga Shishunaga • He temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Dynasty • He defeated the Avanti and made Avanti and Vatsa a part of the
(413-345 BCE) Magadhan empire.
Kalashoka • He held the Second Buddhist Council at Vaisali in 383 BCE.
• He shifted the capital back to Pataliputra.
Nanda Dynasty Mahapadma • He uprooted the Kshatriya dynasties in north India and assumed
(345-321 BCE) Nanda the title Ekarat.
(345-329 • The Puranas call him the 'destroyer of all Kshatriyas' (Sar-
BCE) vakshatrantak).
• He is often referred as first empire builder of India.

233
Dhana Nanda • During his reign, Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent and
(329-321 reached Punjab (Beas River). However, he did not move further
BCE) eastward as his soldiers heard about the vast army of Nanda and
refused to move eastward. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Chandragupta Maurya overthrew him and established the rule of

the Maurya dynasty in 321 BCE.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 11. The Mauryan Period: Emergence of An Early Empire

• The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan Empire, which was the first pan-
Indian empire that spanned modern India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and parts of Afghanistan.

11.1. Sources

234
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Historians have used various sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. These include
literary sources and archaeological finds, such as Ashoka's inscriptions.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 235
Literary Sources
Kautilya's Arthashastra

• Arthashastra is a Sanskrit text on political science written by Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta), who
helped Chandragupta in his rise to power and the establishment of the Mauryan Empire. It is an important
literary source of the Mauryan empire.
• Arthashastra is an Ancient Indian sanskrit treatise on statecraft, politics, economic policy and military
strategy. It gives information about many topics for rulers who wish to run government effectively. It
includes books on governance, ethics, economics, ministers, law, civil and criminal court systems, markets
and trade, diplomacy, war, peace, and the duties and obligations of a king. It discussed diplomacy and
war in detail.
• Arthashastra consists of 15 books and 180 chapters, divided into three parts: the first deals with the king,
his council, and the departments of government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the third with
diplomacy and war.
• The Arthashastra discusses various aspects of social and economic life, including the conditions of slaves.
According to it:
 A person could become a slave as a result of war or debt.
 If a female slave gave birth to a son fathered by her master:
 Female slave would be granted legal freedom.
 The child would be considered the master's legitimate son, entitled to inherit property and other
right.
• Though mentioned in ancient texts, no copy of Arthashastra was known to exist until 1905. In 1905, a
pandit near Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, gave a Sanskrit manuscript to a library, which had been passed down
in his family. Rudrapatna Shamasastry, a scholar and librarian at the Oriental Research Institute in My-
sore, identified it as the Arthashastra by Kautilya.
• According to some scholars, Arthashastra is likely the work of several authors over centuries.

236
Megasthenes' Indica

• Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He lived
in Pataliputra and wrote an account of the Maurya empire in his book 'Indica'. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Though the original text is lost, quotations occur in the works of several subsequent Greek writers, in-
cluding Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, and Arrian. However, their accounts are not accurate.
They often incorporate ideas from other sources and contradict each other, making it hard to deduce the
original accurately.
 In 1846, E.A. Schwanbeck compiled the surviving fragments from the works of different authors. The
compilation is now known as Indica. J.W. McCrindle translated them into English in 1877.
• Megasthenes' Indica gives details about the Mauryan administration, particularly the administration of
the capital city of Pataliputra and also the military organisation. His picture of contemporary social life is
notable. Certain unbelievable information provided by him has to be treated with caution.

Visakadatta's Mudrarakshasa

• The Mudrarakshasa, written by Visakadatta, is a Sanskrit drama. Although written during the Gupta
period, it describes how Chandragupta, with the assistance of Kautilya, overthrew the Nandas. It also
gives a picture of the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas.

Other Literature

• Apart from these three important works, the Mauryas are mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic
literature, as well as in Sanskrit literary works.
• The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role of Ashoka in spreading
Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Archaeological Sources
Edicts of Asoka

• The inscriptions of Ashoka are often regarded as among the most valuable sources.

11.2. Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BCE)

• Chandragupta's origins are cloaked in mystery.

 According to the Brahmanical tradition, he was born to a shudra woman in the court of the Nandas.
 According to the Buddhist tradition, he came from the Moriya Kshatriya clan.
• Chandragupta went to Taxila to study political science, where he met Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher of
political science who had vowed revenge on the Nandas after being insulted by them.
• Chandragupta and Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta) raised troops to overthrow the Nanda dynasty.
They allied with the local king in Taxila and gradually gained control over Punjab. Slowly, Chandragupta

237
swept eastward, conquering one territory after another. Finally, he defeated the last Nanda king, Dhana
Nanda and established the rule of the Mauryan dynasty.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• After firmly establishing his power in the Gangetic valley, Chandragupta marched to the northwest and
subdued the territories up to the Indus. Then, he moved to central India and occupied the region north
of the Narmada River.
• In 305 BCE, Chandragupta marched against Seleucus Nicator, Alexander's General controlling north-
western India. Chandragupta defeated him and signed a treaty. By this treaty, Seleucus Nicator gave:
 Eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus to Chandragupta
 His daughter in marriage to the Chandragupta.
• In return, Chandragupta gave 500 elephants to Seleucus as a gift.
• Seleucus even sent Megasthenes to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.
  Dynasty: When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called
a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers: Chandragupta, his son Bindusara,
and Bindusara's son, Ashoka.
 Emperors vs Kings: Empires are larger than kingdoms. Emperors need more resources than kings.
They need larger armies for protection, and more officials to collect taxes.
• Toward the end of his life, Chandragupta embraced Jainism and stepped down from the throne in favour
of his son Bindusara. He then went to Shravanabelagola, near Mysore, along with Jain monks led by
Bhadrabahu and starved himself to death in a cave in the Chandragiri mountain at Shravanabelagola.

11.3. Administering the Empire

• Chandragupta established a well-organised administrative system and gave it a sound financial base.

Central Administration
• The Mauryans developed an organised and elaborate system of administration. The government was
centralised, with a hierarchy of officials, from the king to each province, district, and village.
• The King was the supreme and sovereign authority of the Mauryan administration. He was assisted by a
council of ministers called Mantri Parishad.
• A well-organized hierarchy of bureaucrats looked after the executive, judicial, and revenue offices.
 Adhyaksha: The entire administration system was organised into departments, each headed by a
Superintendent known as ‘Adhyaksha.’
 Samaharta: The Samaharta was the chief of the revenue department. He was the highest officer in
charge of assessment and the collection of all revenue of the empire.
 Sannidhata: The Sannidhata was the officer-in-charge of the state treasury and store.
 Senapati: Commander in chief.
• The administrative mechanism was backed by an elaborate system of espionage. Various types of spies
collected intelligence about foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous officers.

238
• Important functionaries were called tirthas and most were paid in cash. The highest functionaries were
minister (mantrin), high priest (purohita), commander-in-chief (senapati) and crown- prince (yuvaraja).

The History of Pataliputra (Patna) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Pataliputra began as a village known as Pataligrama. To protect it from the repeated Lichchavi inva-
sions, Ajatashatru (492-460 BCE) fortified it and built the city of Pataliputra.
• Udayin (460-444 BCE) moved his capital from Rajagriha to Pataliputra, and this status was maintained
during the reign of the Mauryas and the Guptas. Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka the Great, and Sam-
udragupta administered their empire from Pataliputra.
• Subsequently, its importance declined. When the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang visited the city in the
seventh century CE, he found it in ruins and with a very small population.
 • The famous Chinese travellers Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang visited the city. Many noted scholars like Kau-
tilya stayed here.

Provincial Administration
• As the empire was so large, it was divided into four provinces. Each province was placed under a governor,
usually a royal prince and was called Kumara. Example:
 Ashoka had been the Kumara of Ujjayini and Taxila before becoming the King.
 The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Pushyagupta was the governor of
Saurashtra under Chandragupta Maurya who built the Sudarshan lake dam.
• The Kumara was in turn assisted by Mahamatyas (Mahamatras during Asoka's period) and a council of
ministers.
• There were five major political centres in the empire. These were:
1. Pataliputra: The imperial capital and seat of the empire.
2. Taxila: The provincial capital of the northern province.
3. Ujjayini (in Madhya Pradesh): The provincial capital of the western province.
4. Tosali (in Odisha): The provincial capital of the eastern province.
5. Suvarnagiri (in Karnataka): The provincial capital of the southern province.
• These provincial centres were carefully chosen. Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important long-dis-
tance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (the golden mountain) was possibly important for tapping the gold
mines of Karnataka.
• The provincial administration worked on similar lines of the central administration.

No Uniform Administration
• As the empire was large and the regions included within the empire were too diverse, it was unlikely to
have a uniform administrative system. Although there was some control from Pataliputra, local cus-
toms and rules were followed while administering the region.
The administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centres.

239
•

Local Administration

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The provinces were divided into smaller units, and arrangements were made for both rural and urban
administration. The administrative units were a set up at the district level consisting of a number of vil-
lages and at the same time each village had its own administrative unit.
• District administration: Pradesika, Rajuka and Yukta were officials at the district level. Their functions
included - survey and assessment of land, tours and inspections, revenue collection, and maintaining law
and order, etc.
 Pradesika's position and functions were similar to those of modern collector (overall incharge of the
district). Rajukas were responsible for the survey and assessment of land. Yuktas, or subordinate offi-
cials, assisted Rajukas.
• Urban Administration: There was a Municipal Board with 30 members in the urban area. Megasthenes
refers to six committees of five Board members each to manage the administration of Pataliputra. The six
committees were:
1. Committee on Industrial Arts
2. Committee on Foreigners
3. Committee on Registration of Births and Deaths
4. Committee on Trade and Commerce
5. Committee on Supervision of Manufacturers
6. Committee on Collection of Excise and Custom Duties
• Village Administration: Village administration was in the hands of Gramani, and his official superior was
called Gopa, who was in charge of ten or fifteen villages.

Census
• The census became a permanent institution during the administration of the Mauryas. It was a regular
activity, and the village officials were to number the people along with other details such as their castes
and occupations. They were also to count the animals in each house.
• Municipal officials conducted Census in towns, especially to track the movements of both foreign and
indigenous. The spies cross-checked the data collected by officials.

Army
• The army was the backbone of the Mauryan Empire. It was headed by the Senapati (Commander in chief).
• The Mauryas' military strength was almost three times that of the Nandas. According to Greek sources,
the Mauryan ruler had the largest army in the world at the time, with 6,00,000 foot soldiers, 30,000
cavalry, 9,000 elephants, and 8,000 chariots. Some historians consider these accounts exaggerated.
• Megasthenes mentions a committee of 30 members with six subcommittees, each with five members, to
control the six wings of the military - the army, the cavalry, the elephants, the chariots, the navy and the

240
transport.
• The activities of the transport and provisions subcommittee were rather varied. They included arranging
bullock carts to carry equipment, procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals, and recruiting serv-
ants and artisans to look after the soldiers. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Revenue Administration
• During the Maurya period, elaborate machinery for assessing and collecting taxes was developed for the
first time in ancient India. Kautilya names many taxes that are to be collected from peasants, artisans, and
traders.
• Agriculture remained the most important source of revenue, and land revenue was one-sixth of total
produce. The state provided irrigation facilities, but those who received them had to pay for them.
• Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale. The state enjoyed a monopoly in mining,
the sale of liquor, the manufacture of arms, etc.
• The samaharta was the highest officer in charge of assessment, and the sannidhata was the chief cus-
todian of the state treasury and store house.
• Much of the Mauryan revenue was spent on paying the army, royal government officials, charities, and
other public works, such as irrigation projects and road construction.

Punch-marked Silver Coins

• The punch-marked silver coins, which carried the symbols of the peacock, hill, and crescent, formed
the imperial currency of the Mauryas. They helped collect taxes and paid officers in cash.

Judicial Administration
• The Supreme Court was located in the capital, and the Chief Justice was called ‘Dharmathikarin.’
• Subordinate courts were also at the provincial capitals and districts under ‘Amatyas.’
• In villages and towns, cases were settled by the ‘Gramavradha’ and ‘Nagaravyavaharikamahamatra’, re-
spectively.
• The offenders were given different kinds of punishment, such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation, and
death. Police stations were found at all major places in the city. It was ensured that no innocent would
get punished.
 Ashoka asked Dhamma Mahamatras to take steps against unjust imprisonment. The remission of sen-
tences is also mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions.

11.4. Bindusara (297-272 BCE)

• Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who ruled between 297 and 273 BCE. Greeks called
him "Amitraghat," which means slayer of enemies.
• Bindusara conquered the Deccan up to Mysore and extended the empire to the south. However, he did

241
not conquer the Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, and Kalinga (present-day coastal Odisha).
• Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to Anti-
ochus I asking for sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist (clever Greek debater). The latter sent all but a
sophist because Greek law prohibited sending a sophist. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Bindusara supported the Ajivikas sect. He died in 272 BCE.

11.5. Ashoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE)

• After Bindusara's death in 272 BCE, his son, Ashoka (Asoka), the governor of Ujjain, became the em-
peror.
 During Bindusara's reign, Ashoka was appointed governor of Taxila and then Ujjain. He also sup-
pressed a revolt in Taxila.
• According to historical accounts and legends, Ashoka was not the designated heir to the Mauryan throne.
There was also a four-year gap between his accession (272 BCE) and coronation (268 BCE). Such a delay
strongly suggests a power struggle following the death of Bindusara.
• The Ceylonese chronicles, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, claim that Ashoka seized power by killing
ninety-nine of his brothers, including his elder brother Susima, sparing only his youngest brother, Tissa.
However, this account is likely exaggerated, as Buddhist legends often aimed to highlight the miraculous
transformation of Ashoka from a ruthless prince to a compassionate and just ruler under the influence of
Buddhism.

Kalinga War
• In around 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a war against Kalinga (modern-day coastal Odisha) and successfully
conquered it. However, he was horrified by the violence and bloodshed.
• According to Ashoka's Edicts, the Kalinga War resulted in the death of one lakh people, the deportation
of one and a half lakh people, and the loss of countless more lives due to its devastating effects. The war
filled Ashoka with grief and remorse, leading to his decision not to fight any future war. Ashoka aban-
doned the policy of physical conquest (Bherighosha) in favour of cultural conquest (Dhammaghosha).
• Ashoka remains unique in world history as a ruler who voluntarily gave up war and conquest after winning
a major war.

After the Kalinga War

• Ashoka now made an ideological appeal to the tribal people and the frontier kingdoms. The tribal people
were asked to follow the principles of dhamma (dharma). The subjects of the independent states in Ka-
linga were asked to obey the king as their father and trust in him.
• Ashoka no longer considered foreign dominions legitimate areas for military conquest. He tried to con-
quer them ideologically and took steps to improve the welfare of men and even animals in foreign lands.
• Ashoka sent ambassadors of peace to the Greek kingdoms in West Asia and Greece. As an enlightened

242
ruler, Ashoka tried to enlarge his area of political influence through propaganda.
• Assuming that the Kalinga war turned Ashoka into an extreme pacifist would be incorrect. The following
points suggest this:
1. Ashoka retained Kalinga after its conquest and integrated it into his empire. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
2. There is no evidence to suggest that he disbanded the large army inherited from Chandragupta Mau-
rya.
3. While he frequently urged tribal people to adhere to the principles of dharma, he also warned them
of consequences if they disrupted the established social order and righteousness (dharma).

Major Rock Edict XIII

 • This is Ashoka's description of the Kalinga war. "Eight years after becoming king, I conquered Kalinga.
About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled
me with sorrow. Why? Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are
taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to
their slaves and servants, die or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and I have decided to
observe Dhamma and teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through
dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the
future so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to
think about how to spread dhamma."

Ashoka and Buddhism

• After the Kalinga war, Ashoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk Upagupta.
However, his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and not immediate. First, he became an Upasaka (lay
disciple) and then, two and a half years later, a Bhikkhu (monk).
• In c. 250 BCE, Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under the chairmanship of
Moggaliputta Tissa.
• Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to places such as Tamil Nadu, Burma, Sri Lanka and central and
western Asia. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra, who
planted the branch of the original Bodhi tree there.
• Ashoka made dhamma yatra and visited the holy places of Buddhism, such as Lumbini Garden, Sarnath,
Sravasti and Kusinagara.

Ashoka’s Dhamma
• After the Kalinga war, Ashoka decided to observe Dhamma. He believed that winning people over
through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force.
• Ashoka's dhamma did not involve the worship of a god or the performance of a sacrifice. It was a way

243
of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and practised by the people.
• The principles of Dhamma were inscribed on his Edicts (rocks and pillars). Ashoka asked his officials to
read his message to those who could not read it themselves.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The main features of Asoka's Dhamma, as mentioned in his various Edicts, include:
 Respect towards elders
 Generosity towards Brahmanas and those who renounced worldly life
 Treating slaves and servants kindly
 Respect for religions and traditions other than one's own
 Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
 Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth, reverence to teachers and good treat-
ment of relatives.
  Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive and meaningless cer-
emonies and rituals.
• Ashoka forbade killing certain birds and animals and completely prohibited the slaughter of animals in
the capital.
• Ashoka felt that there were several problems in his empire, and it was his duty to solve them. So, he
appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta, who went from place to place teaching people
about dhamma.
• Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece
and Sri Lanka.
• Paternal Kingship: Ashoka repeatedly asked his officials to tell the subjects that the king looked upon
them as his children. As agents of the king, the officials were also asked to take care of the people. He
built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human
beings and animals.
• Ashoka’s policy of peace was not pursued for its own sake but as a practical measure to consolidate his
empire. His principles of Dhamma reduced family quarrels, minimised societal conflicts, preserved social
order, and prevented social upheaval.

Ashoka's Dhamma: Beyond Buddhism

• Ashoka was inspired by the teachings of the Buddha. He embraced Buddhism and took efforts to spread
it. However, his policy of Dhamma was a broad concept and general code of conduct.
• Though the concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asoka's Dhamma are identical to the
teachings of Buddha, Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be equated with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism remained
his personal belief.

Major Rock Edict IX

• This is Ashoka's message to his subjects about the futility of rituals and the importance of Dhamma.
"People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children

244
•
are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful. If instead, people observe other
practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are:
 Being gentle with slaves and servants. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Respecting one's elders.
 Treating all creatures with compassion.
 Giving gifts to brahmins and monks."

Major Rock Edict XII

• This is Ashoka's message to his subjects about tolerance for all religions and sects. "It is both wrong
to praise one's own religion or criticise another's. Each one should respect the other's religion. If one
 praises one's own religion while criticising another's, one is actually doing greater harm to one's own
religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another's religion, and respect it."

[UPSC NDA I 2021] Which one of the following was not a part of the dhamma of King
Ashoka?
a) Honouring the king
b) Tolerance of religions other than one's own
c) Respecting Brahmanas
d) Promoting the welfare of his subjects
Answer: Honouring the king

[UPSC CSE 2020]"Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive
devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own
sect very severely."
a) Ashoka
b) Samudragupta
c) Harshavardhan
d) Krishnadeva Raya
Answer: Ashoka

Ashokan Inscriptions (Edicts of Ashoka)

• Ashoka's edicts (royal orders or instructions), inscribed on natural rocks and polished pillars, were his
messages to his subjects and officials. They were generally placed on ancient highways.
• Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions. He used the
inscriptions to proclaim dhamma.

Languages and scripts

Most Ashokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit language and the Brahmi script in the greater part of

245
•
the sub-continent.
• They were mostly in Aramaic and Greek languages and Kharosthi script in the northwest of the sub-
continent. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• They were mostly in both Aramaic and Greek languages and scripts in Afghanistan.
 James Prinsep deciphered Asokan Brahmi in 1838.
 Decipherment of Kharosthi: The Kharosthi script is used in inscriptions in the northwest. Here, the
coins of Indo-Greek kings contain the names of kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts. European
scholars who could read the Greek compared the letters and deciphered Kharosthi.

Identifying Ashoka Through His Inscriptions

• In many inscriptions, the King referred to himself as Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) and Piyadassi
(pleasant to behold). However, the name Asoka is mentioned in copies of the Minor Rock Edict I found
in Gujarra (Madhya Pradesh), Maski (Raichur, Karnataka), Nittur (Ballari, Karnataka) and Udegolam (Bal-
lari, Karnataka) which also contains these titles.
• After examining all these inscriptions and finding that they match content, style, language, and palaeog-
raphy, epigraphists concluded that the same ruler issued them. The tone of the edicts is personal, and
the words are Ashoka's own.

246
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 247
 [UPSC CAPF 2016] Ashokan inscriptions in Afghanistan are written in which one of the fol-
lowing scripts?
a) Brahmi
b) Sharada
c) Kharoshthi
d) Greek-Aramaic
Answer: Greek-Aramaic

[UPSC CSE 2016] Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka?
a) Georg Buhler
b) James Prinsep
c) Max Muller
d) William Jones
Answer: James Prinsep

Classification of Ashokan Inscriptions

• The history of Ashoka is reconstructed based on his inscriptions, which are found all over the Indian
subcontinent covering India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Currently, 39 inscriptions are known.
• In the early part of his reign, Ashoka's edicts were inscribed on rocks (Rock Edicts), while later, they
appeared on polished sandstone pillars with sculpted animal capitals (Pillar Edicts). Based on their size,
they are also called major or minor. Chronologically, the minor inscriptions precede the major ones. In
addition to these, two separate edicts are found at Dhauli and Jaugada.
• According to their contents, extent and the surface whereon they are engraved, the inscriptions are clas-
sified into:
1. Rock Edicts
2. Pillar Edicts

248
3. Cave Edicts
Rock Edicts 1. Fourteen Major Rock Edicts

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

2. Two Separate Rock Edicts
3. Minor Rock Edicts
Pillar Edicts 1. Seven Major Pillar Edicts
2. Minor Pillar Edicts: It includes Schism Pillar Edict (SPE) at:
 Allahabad
 Sarnath
 Sanchi
3. Two Tarai Pillar Edicts
  Nigali Sagar Pillar Inscription
 Rummindei/Lumbini Pillar Inscription
4. Allahabad Pillar Queen’s Gifts Edict (Queen’s Edict)
Cave Edicts Three Barabar Cave Edicts
• The Major Edicts are moral and political in nature. They express the general doctrine of Dhamma as
adopted and understood by the Ashoka. They also contain information regarding some of his core state
policies.
• The Minor Edicts are religious in their content. They extensively mention the Buddha, the Sangha, Bud-
dhism, and Buddhist scriptures.
• The inscriptions can also be classified into:
1. Major Rock Edicts
2. Separate Rock Edicts
3. Minor Rock Edicts
4. Major Pillar Edicts
5. Minor Pillar Edicts

Fourteen Major Rock Edicts

• There are 14 major rock edicts, and every major rock edict has a specific message engraved on it.
• These major rock edicts can be found in ten places and are mostly in the group of fourteen. However,
less than 14 major rock edicts are found in some places.
• The Dhauli and Jaugada inscriptions of Ashoka omit Edicts XI, XII, and XIII, which are found in other
inscriptions. Instead, they include two special edicts known as the Separate Kalinga Edicts (Separate
Rock Edict I and Separate Rock Edict II), which focused on the need for good administration.
 Separate Kalinga Edict I mentions “All men are my children”
• Major Rock Edict XIII records the casualties of the Kalinga war, expressing Ashoka's remorse and
transformation against warfare. Ashoka may have omitted this inscription in Odisha deliberately to avoid

249
deepening the sorrow of the Kalinga people.

Dhauli Inscriptions (Odisha)

• Dhauli Hill or Dhauligiri is located on the left banks of river Daya, a tributary of Mahanadi, in Odisha. It is PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

believed to be the location of the Kalinga war, where the banks of Daya would have provided a natural
boundary line between the two armies.
• At Dhauli, 33 inscriptions are engraved on rocks, cave walls, and pillars. Each inscription carries the mes-
sage of Dhamma. Rock Edicts numbering I-X, XIV and two separate Kalinga Edicts are found here.
• Rock-cut elephant: It was created during Ashoka's reign (272-231 BCE). Both the Ashokan inscription
and the Elephant are engraved on the same rock.

Junagadh inscription (Girnar Inscription)

• Fourteen edicts of Ashoka are inscribed on a large stone at the foot of Girnar Hills, Junagarh. Other
inscriptions from the Shaka ruler Rudradaman and Gupta ruler Skandagupt are also inscribed on the same
rock.
• The Sanskrit inscriptions of c. second century CE by Shaka ruler Rudradaman proclaim his conquest over
Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Maharashtra. The inscription mentions that the lake, with embankments and
water channels, was built by a local governor, Pushyagupta, during the rule of the Mauryas. However, a
terrible storm broke the embankments, and water gushed out of the lake. Rudradaman repaired the lake
using his resources without imposing any tax on his subjects.
• The inscription of c. fifth century mentions how Skandagupta of the Gupta dynasty repaired the lake once
again.
 The Junagadh rock inscription contains inscriptions of Ashoka (one of fourteen of the Major Rock
Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.

List of Major Rock Edicts

Major Rock Edict Description

I Prohibition of animal slaughter and bans festive gatherings.
II Medical treatment for humans and animals.
The presence of Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, and the Keralaputras.
III Generosity to friends, acquaintances, relatives and Brahmans. Moderation in spending
and saving.
The Yuktas, Rajukas, and Pradesikas traveled to all parts of the kingdom every five
years to spread the Dhamma policy. This edict was issued after 12 years of Asoka’s
coronation.
IV Dhammaghosa (sound of righteousness) over the Bherighosa (sound of war).
V Concerns about the policy of people towards their slaves.
Thirteen years after coronation, Dhamma Mahamatras are appointed.

250
VI Desire to stay informed about the conditions of the people: Reports of affairs in
Ashoka's kingdom could be brought to his notice anytime.
Welfare measures for the people. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
VII Tolerance for all religions and sects (repeated in the XII edict)
VIII Ashoka’s first Dhamma Yatra/visit to the Bodhgaya (Sambodhi) and Bodhi Tree.
IX Condemns popular ceremonies and stresses on Dhamma.
X Condemns the desire for fame and glory of the individual and stresses upon the pop-
ularity of Dhamma: Priyadarshi does not consider glory in this life or fame after death
as of any consequence, except in guiding his people to practice Dhamma.
 XI Elaborates on Dhamma: There is no gift like the gift of Dhamma, there is no dis-
tribution like the distribution of Dhamma and no kinship like the kinship of Dhamma.
XII Tolerance for all religions and sects: Dhamma grows through restraint in speech,
avoiding praise of one’s own faith or criticism of other faiths.
XIII Casualties of the Kalinga war, Ashoka's remorse and conquest by Dhamma: The
conquest of Kalinga, resulting in unprecedented slaughter and captives, filled Pri-
yadarshi with remorse, leading him to pursue conquest through Dhamma instead.
Victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over four Greek Kings (Antiochus, Ptolemy, Magas, Alex-
ander) and Cholas, Pandyas, etc.
XIV Describes the engraving of inscriptions installed in different parts of the country

Ten Places of Ashoka’s Fourteen Major Edicts

Place Location
Mansehra Pakistan
Shahbazgarhi Pakistan
Kandahar Afghanistan
Kalsi Uttarakhand
Girnar Gujarat
Sopara Maharashtra
Dhauli Odisha
Jaugada Odisha
Sannati Karnataka
Yerragudi Andhra Pradesh

Kanaganahalli Buddhist site

• Sannati and Kanaganahalli are buddhist sites located on the bank of Bhima River in Karnataka. The exca-

251
vation at Kanaganahalli led to the discovery of Maha Stupa, stone-portrait of Ashoka, parts of sculp-
tures of Yakshas and lion, Brahmi inscriptions, etc.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Maha Stupa is refeered as Adholoka Maha Chaitya (the Great Stupa of the netherworlds) in the
inscriptions. This Maha Stupa is developed in three constructional phases – Maurya, Early Satavahana
and Later Satavahana periods stretching from 3rd Century BCE to 3rd Century CE. It is believed to have
been destroyed in an earthquake.
 The stone-portrait of Emperor Ashoka is surrounded by his queens and female attendants. In this
inscription on a stone portrait Ashoka is mentioned by his name, ‘Ranyo Asoko’ in Brahmi. This is
only inscribed portrait of the Ashoka discovered so far.
 Emperor Ashoka has been depicted at both Sanchi and Amaravati, but his name is not directly inscribed
on these sculptures.
 The Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra Rock Edicts are written from right to left in the Kharosthi script.

[UPSC CSE 2022] Consider the following pairs:

Site of Ashoka's major rock edicts: Location in the State of
1. Dhauli: Odisha
2. Erragudi: Andhra Pradesh
3. Jaugada: Madhya Pradesh
4. Kalsi: Karnataka
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
a) Only one pair
b) Only two pairs
c) Only three pairs
d) All four pairs
Answer: Only two pairs

[UPSC CSE 2019]In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka'
(King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
a) Kanganahalli
b) Sanchi
c) Shahbazgarhi
d) Sohgaura
Answer: Kanganahalli

[UPSC CDS I 2014] The only inscribed stone portrait of Emperor Ashoka has been found at
a) Sanchi

252
b) Amaravati
c) Kanaganahalli

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

d) Ajanta
Answer: Kanaganahalli

[UPSC CDS I 2023] Consider the following statements about the Kanaganahalli archaeolog-
ical site:
1. It is situated on the bank of Bhima river.
2. The remains of the Kanaganahalli Stupa can be dated between 1st and 3rd centuries CE.
3. Emperor Ashoka's image was found at the site.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
 a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 1, 2 and 3

Minor Rock Edicts

• There are three minor rock edicts of Ashoka. These are found at fifteen different places across subcon-
tinent. These are usually in sets of two, rarely in three. The minor rock edicts are found at: Bahapur (near
Srinivaspuri in Kalkaji, Delhi), Bhabtu-Bairat (Rajasthan), Gujarra (Madhya Pradesh), Sahasram (Bihar), Ah-
raura (Uttar Pradesh), Maski, Gavimath, Palkigundu, Jatinga Rameshwar, Siddapur (Karnataka), Brahmagiri,
Nittur, Udegolam, Rajula Mandagiri (Andhra Pradesh) and Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh).
• In the Minor Rock Edict No.1, Ashoka describes himself as a Buddhist layman (Upasaka) and also explains
he has been getting closer to the Sangha and has become more ardent in the faith. This edicts indicates
that Ashoka turned towards Buddhism gradually and not suddenly.
• Some Ashoka inscriptions are difficult to categorize, and are sometimes included in the "Minor Rock
Edicts". These includes:
 Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription
 Taxila Aramaic Inscription
 Aramaic inscription of Laghman
 Inscriptions of the Barabar Caves

Name of Ashoka

• In many inscriptions, Ashoka is referred to as Devanampiye or Piyadasi or both. These are titles and not
names. However, in Gujarra and Maski Minor Rock Edicts, his name is given in inscriptions.
1. Gujarra Minor Rock Edict (Madhya Pradesh): Devanampiya Piyadasi Asoka
2. Maski Minor Rock Edict (Karnataka): Devanampiya Asoka

253
[UPSC NDA II 2023] Which one of the following Ashokan Minor Rock Edicts, contains the
personal name of King Ashoka?
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
a) Maski
b) Bahapur
c) Bairat
d) Sahasram
Answer: Maski

Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription

• The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription, located near Shar-i-Kuna, is engraved on a block of rock in the
vicinity of Shar-i-Kuna. It is unique for being written in both Greek (upper part) and Aramaic (lower part)
script. It is often categorized as one of the Minor Rock Edicts.
• It is distinct from the Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka (one of fourteen of the Major Rock Edicts of
Ashoka), also found near Shar-i-Kuna, which are written in Greek and Prakrit.

Taxila Aramaic Inscription

• Taxila Aramaic Inscription is an inscription on octagonal pillar of white marble at Taxila, Pakistan.
• The inscription is written in Aramaic, probably by the Ashoka around 260 BCE. It is often categorized as
one of the Minor Rock Edicts.

Aramaic inscription of Laghman

• It is an inscription on a vertical slab of stone near the top of a hill, on the left bank of the Laghman river
(Afghanistan).
• The inscription consists of six lines is composed in Aramaic script, probably by the Ashoka around 260
BCE. It is often categorized as one of the Minor Rock Edicts.

Seven Major Pillar Edicts

• Ashoka's Major Pillar Edicts are found at six places, all in North India. These pillars typically bear Edicts
1-6. Notably, the Delhi-Topra pillar is unique in that it includes Edict 7 in addition to Edicts 1-6.
• The six locations where these pillars are found include:
1. Allahabad or Kausambi Pillar
2. Topra-Delhi or Badi Lata: Originally erected in Topra Kalan (Haryana), the pillar was transferred to
Delhi in the 14th century by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
3. Meerut-Delhi or Chhoti Lata: Originally erected in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh), the pillar was transferred
to Delhi in the 14th century by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.
4. Lauriya Araraj (Bihar)

254
5. Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar)
6. Rampurva (Champaran, Bihar)

Schism Pillar Edict PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Schism Edict (Kaushambi edict) warns the senior officials (Mahamatras) urging them to avoid dissen-
sion and stay united. It warns the members of sangh against causing division in ranks and outline the
punishment for those monks and nuns who cause divisions within the Buddhist Sangha.

Allahabad Pillar Inscriptions

• Allahabad pillar bears inscriptions of three rulers of India:

1. Ashoka: In addition to Schism Pillar Edict (SPE), this pillar bears Major pillar edicts Edicts 1-6 and
Allahabad Pillar Queen's Gifts Edict (APQGE).
 2. Samudragupta
3. Jahangir

Tarai Pillar Edicts

Nigali Sagar Inscriptions

• The Nigali Sagar Inscriptions is located near Lumbini in Nigalihawa (Nepal).

• The English translation of the inscription is given below:
 In the 14th year of his reign, Beloved of the Gods Priyadarsin (Ashoka) expanded the stupa of Buddha
Kanakamuni for the second time. In the 20th year, he personally visited the site, paid reverence, and
erected a stone pillar.
• The Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien and Huen Tsang describe the Kanakamuni Stupa and the Asoka Pillar in
their travel accounts.

Rummindei Pillar Inscription (Lumbini Pillar Edict) of Ashoka

• The Rummindei pillar inscription is in Brahmi script and Prakrit language on a stone pillar in Lumbini
(Nepal). It commemorates Emperor Ashoka’s visit to the Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha). It also
mentioned the tax exemption in Lumbini by Ashoka.
• The English translation of the inscription is given below:
 In the 20th year of his reign, King Devanampriya Priyadarsin (Ashoka) visited this site to worship it, as
it was the birthplace of Buddha Sakyamuni. He erected a stone pillar and a stone wall to mark the
sacred spot (birthplace of Buddha). He exempted the village of Lumbini from Bali (tribute) and re-
duced the bhaga (the royal share of the produce) to one-eighth.

[UPSC CDS I 2022] Consider the following statements about Ashoka's faith in Buddhism:
1. Rummindei Pillar Inscription and Nigali Sagar Pillar Inscription provide clear evidence of Ashoka's
faith in Buddhism.
2. Minor Rock Edict-I gives evidence of a sudden change in Ashoka's faith in Buddhism.

255
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: 1 only

Ashoka's Place in History

• It is said that the pacific policy of Ashoka ruined the Maurya empire, but this is not true. On the contrary,
Ashoka has several achievements to his credit.
• Political unification: Ashoka brought about the political unification of the country. He further bound
it with one dhamma, one language, and practically one script, Brahmi, which was used in most of his
inscriptions. In unifying the country, he respected other scripts, such as Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic, and
Greek, as well as other languages, such as Greek, Aramaic, and Sanskrit.
• Religious tolerance: Ashoka embraced Buddhism and contributed to its growth. However, he never
enforced his Buddhist faith on his subjects. He promoted religious tolerance and various religious sects.
He made gifts to non-Buddhist and even anti-Buddhist sects.
• Cultural conquest: Ashoka is important in history for his policy of peace, non-aggression and cultural
conquest. He had no model in early Indian history for pursuing such a policy. Although Kautilya advised
the king to focus on physical conquest, Ashoka followed the reverse policy. He tried to hold his empire
together by propagating dhamma, the principles of which were simple and virtually universally applicable.
He also asked his successors to give up the policy of physical conquest and aggression.
• Give up war: Ashoka is the only king in world history who gave up conquest after winning a war.
Although he possessed sufficient resources and maintained a huge army, he did not wage war after the
conquest of Kalinga.
• Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions.

11.6. End of the Mauryan Empire

• The Mauryan Empire lasted for about 150 years. The empire did not encompass the entire subconti-
nent. And even within the frontiers of the empire, control was not uniform.
• After Ashoka died in 232 BCE, the Mauryan Empire declined rapidly. His successors could not keep the
vast empire intact, and different provinces kept breaking away to form independent kingdoms. The last
Mauryan king, Brihadratha, who was ruling over a shrunken empire around Magadha, was assassinated
by his military commander, Pushyamitra Sunga, who founded the Shunga dynasty in 185 BCE.
• The following factors were responsible for the decline and fall of the Maurya empire.

256
Brahmanical Reaction
• Ashoka adopted a tolerant policy and asked the people to respect even the Brahmanas. However, his

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

policy of nonviolence and discouragement of animal sacrifices reduced the income of the Brahmanas,
who relied on gifts from such rituals.
• Brahmanas wanted rulers who would restore their privileges and support traditional practices. Hence,
after the fall of the Maurya Empire, new kingdoms led by Brahmanas emerged.
1. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas.
2. The Satavahanas in the western Deccan and Andhra were Brahmana rulers.
• These dynasties revived Vedic rituals and sacrifices, which had been neglected under Ashoka’s rule, mark-
ing a return to practices that supported Brahmanical interests.
Financial Crisis
• The enormous expenditure on the army and payment to bureaucracy created a financial crisis for the
Maurya empire. Ashoka made large grants to the Buddhist monks which left the royal treasury empty. In
order to meet expenses in the last stage they had to melt the images made of gold.

Oppressive Rule in the provinces

• Oppressive rule in the provinces was a key reason for the empire's decline. During Bindusara's reign,
Taxila's citizens complained about corrupt officials. Ashoka was appointed to resolve this, but the same
complaint arose when Ashoka became emperor.
• Ashoka, concerned about oppression in the provinces, instructed officials not to torture townspeople and
rotated officers in regions like Tosali, Ujjain, and Taxila. He also spent 256 nights on a pilgrimage tour
which may have helped administrative supervision. Despite these efforts, oppression continued, and after
his retirement, Taxila rebelled.

New Knowledge in the Outlying Areas

• Magadha owed its expansion to certain basic material advantages. Once the knowledge of the use of
these elements of culture spread to central India, the Deccan and Kalinga as a result of the expansion of
the Magadhan empire, the Gangetic basin which formed the heart of the empire lost its special advantage.
• The regular use of iron tools and weapons in the peripheral provinces coincided with the decline and
fall of the Maurya empire. On the basis of material culture acquired from Magadha, new kingdoms could
be founded and developed. This explains the rise of the Shungas and Kanvas in central India, of the Chetis
in Kalinga and that of the Satavalmanas in the Deccan.

Neglect of the North-West Frontier and the Great Wall of China

• Since Ashoka was mostly preoccupied with missionary activities at home and abroad, he could not pay
attention to the safeguarding of the north-western frontier, which was necessary due to rising threats

257
from Central Asian tribes in the 3rd century BCE. The Scythians, a horse-riding nomadic people, posed
serious threats to empires in China and India.
• To defend against them, the Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti built the Great Wall around 220 BCE. However,
Ashoka took no such measures. As a result, the Scythian push towards India forced the Parthians, Shakas, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

and Greeks to migrate. The Bactrian Greeks, based in north Afghanistan, were the first to invade India,
followed by a series of invasions until the start of the Christian era.
 The Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional
skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people. It was created in 1952, following a donation from
Biju Patnaik, founder president of the Kalinga Foundation Trust in India.

11.7. Mauryan Art and Architecture

• Very little sculpture has been found in India between the Harappan and Mauryan periods. The Mauryas
made a remarkable contribution to art and architecture. During this period, stone pillars, stupas, viharas,
rock-cut caves and monumental figure sculptures were carved at several places.
• Before the period of Maurya, monuments were mostly made of wood and therefore perished. The Mau-
ryas introduced stone masonry on a wide scale. Fragments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating the
existence of a 80-pillared hall (ten rows of eight stone pillars each) at Kumrahar on the outskirts of Patna.

Pillars
• Polished stone pillars with inscriptions engraved on them were erected by Ashoka. The top portion of
the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc. All the capital figures
are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylised
lotuses.
• Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh
and Rampurva in Bihar, Sankisa and Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh.
• The tradition of constructing pillars is very old and erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian
empire as well. There is a similarity between the Ashokan pillars and Persian royal pillars. Both have
polished surface and animal capitals. However, the Mauryan pillars are different from the Achamenian
pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars. Each Mauryan pillar is made of a single piece of buff
coloured sandstone. Only their capitals in the form of lions or bulls, are joined with the pillars on the
top. Whereas the Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason.

Important Pillar Capitals

• Rampurva Bull
• Rampurva Lion
• Sarnath Lions
• Sankisa Elephant

258
• Sanchi Lions

Sarnath Lion Capital

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Sarnath Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan sculptural tradition. It consists of four lions,
mounted back to back, on a circular abacus, which itself rests on a bell-shaped lotus. The abacus has
sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull and a lion separated by intervening
Dharma Chakras.
• This pillar capital symbolising Dhammachakrapravartana (the first sermon by the Buddha) has become
a standard symbol of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.
• The Indian government adopted this capital with some modifications as its state emblem. The Lion
Capital showing three lions mounted on the abacus with a Dharma Chakra in the centre, a bull on the
 right and a galloping horse on the left, and outlines of Dharma Chakras on the extreme right and left was
adopted as the State Emblem of India on January 26, 1950. The bell-shaped lotus was omitted.

Rampurwa bull

• A finely polished stone sculpture of bull was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar. It has
now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan.

Stupa
• Stupa is a mound-like structure containing relics of Buddha or Buddhist monks worshipped by Bud-
dhists.
• The tradition of erecting stupas is pre-Buddhist. These dome-shaped mounds were built since Vedic
times, usually around the remains of kings and powerful nobles after their cremation. However, after the
death of Buddha, many stupas were built around the Buddha's relics and stupas came to be associated
with Buddhism.
• According to a Buddhist text known as the Ashokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha's
relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them. By the second century
BCE a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath had been built.

The Structure of Stupa

• The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth. Grad-
ually, it evolved into a more complex structure, balancing round and square shapes.
• Generally, there is a small box called relic casket placed at the centre or heart of the stupa. This may
contain bodily remains (such as teeth, bone or ashes) of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used,
as well as precious stones, and coins.
• Anda: The box (relic casket) was covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added
on top. This semi-circular mound of earth is called anda.
• Harmika: Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony- like structure (Small square fencing) that rep-

259
resented the abode of the gods.
• Yashti: Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surrounded by a chhatri or umbrella.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 A yashti (central pillar) symbolizes the cosmic axis.
 A chhatri or chhatrawali (triple umbrella structure) represent the three jewels of Buddhism — the
Buddha, the dhamma, and the sangha.
• Medhi: A Medhi is an elevated circular or square terrace (base) on which the stupa is built. It surrounds
the dome and is enclosed by railing. It is used as the "pradakshina patha" where devotees perform the
ritual of circumambulation (walking around in a clockwise direction).
• Vedika: Generally, pradakshina patha was also laid around the stupa (entire structure). This was sur-
rounded by a stone or wooden railing (Vedika) which separated the sacred space from the secular world.
This outer railing consists of stambha (stone uprights) and suchi (horizontal crossbars).
 260
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Torana: The vedika is punctuated at the four cardinal points by toranas (ceremonial gateways). Torana is
a gateway to the pradakshina patha. Devotees entered through the eastern gateway and walked around
 the mound in a clockwise direction keeping the mound on the right, imitating the sun's course through
the sky.
• Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture.

Evolution

• Initially, stupas were originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth. In the subsequent century,
stupas were elaborately built with certain additions like:
1. Railings
2. Gateways
3. Sculptural decoration: Events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the
railings and torans of the stupas.
 The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted were events related
to the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakra- pravartana, and mahaparinibbana (libera-
tion from the cycle of birth.)
 Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka,
Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
• There were numerous stupas constructed earlier but expansions or new additions were made in the sec-
ond century BCE. Example - the Great Stupa at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.
• The great stupa at Sanchi was built over several centuries. While the brick mound was built during the
time of Ashoka, the railings and gateways were added during the time of later rulers.
 Ashoka: Brick stupa
 Sunga dynasty (184-72 BCE): Brick stupa was increased in scale. Stupa was covered with an ashlar
stone veneer, and augmented with circumambulatory paths and staircases with harmika, yashti,
chhatra, and four torana.
 Satavahanas dynasty: Added elaborate decorations to the Sanchi Stupa.
 Gupta dynasty: Four shrines were added at the cardinal entry points.

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Sculptures at Sanchi
Sculptures from Buddhist Traditions

• Vessantara Jataka: A sculpture on the gateway depict a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. This is a story PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with
his wife and children.
• Symbols of worship: The empty seat, stupa and wheel are shown to indicate meditation of Buddha,
mahaparinibbana and first sermon of Buddha respectively.

Sculptures from Popular Traditions

• Some sculptures at Sanchi were not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. They were inspired by popular
traditions or beliefs. These includes:
  Shalabhanjika: A woman swinging from the edge of the gateway, holding onto a tree. According to
popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and bear 'fruit. The shalabhanjika
motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched it with their own pre-Buddhist
and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.
 Animals: Many animals including elephants, horses, monkeys and cattle were depicted. Animals were
often used as symbols of human attributes. Example - Elephants were depicted to signify strength
and wisdom.
 Maya or Gajalakshmi: A woman surrounded by lotuses and elephants, which seem to be sprinkling
water on her as if performing an abhisheka or consecration. While some historians identify the figure
as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi, the
goddess of good fortune who is associated with elephants.
 Serpent: Serpent is found on several pillars. This motif seems to be derived from popular traditions,
which were not always recorded in texts.

Role of Buddhist Literature in Interpretations of Sculptures

• James Fergusson, one of the earliest modern art historians, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree
and serpent worship. He was not familiar with Buddhist literature most of which had not yet been trans-
lated and arrived at this conclusion by studying only the images on their own. Hence, art historians had
to acquire familiarity with hagiographies of the Buddha in order to understand Buddhist sculpture.

Votive inscriptions

• Votive inscriptions record gifts made to religious institutions. These inscriptions mention the name of the
donor, and sometimes specify the name of the place from where they came, his/ her occupation and
names of their relatives.
• Some donations were made by kings; others were made by guilds, Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, traders, etc.
Example: Ivory workers financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.

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[UPSC CDS I 2018] Which one of the following statements about Buddhist Stupas in India
is not correct?
1. Ashoka played an important role in popularizing the Stupa cult.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
2. They were repositories of relics of Buddha and other monks.
3. They were located in rural areas.
4. They were located close to trade routes.
Answer: They were located in rural areas

Rock-cut caves
• The Maurya artisans started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. The rock-
cut caves belonging to the third century BCE have been found in different parts of India.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 263
• The Lomus Rishi cave is an example of this period. It is the rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near
Gaya in Bihar. The facade of the cave is decorated with the semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The
cave was donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
• Dhauli caves (on Dhauli hills near bhubaneswar, odisha) containing rock cut elephant and Ashokan
inscriptions on the same rock was carved during the period of Ashoka.

Images of Yaksha and Yakshinis

• Worship of Yakshas and mother-goddesses were prevalent during that time. Yaksha worship was very
popular before and after the advent of Buddhism and it was assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism.
• Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. One of
the distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished surface. The depiction of faces is in full
round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail.
• One of the finest examples is a Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and well-built. It shows
sensitivity towards depicting the human physique.

Spread of Material Culture

• The Maurya period withnessed rapid development of material culture in the Gangetic basin which was
based on intensive use of iron, prevalence of writing, plenty of punch-marked coins, abundance of
Northern Black Polished Ware pottery, introduction of burnt bricks and ring wells, and the rise of towns
in north-eastern India.
• The elements of material culture of Gangetic basin spread to the distant parts of the empire. The ex-
istence of inscriptions, occasional NBPW potsherds and punch-marked coins in parts of Bangladesh
(Mahasthana inscription in Bogra district), Orissa (Sisupalgarh), Andhra (Anaravati) and Karnataka from
near about 300 BCE indicates the spread.

Cultural Integration

• The Maurya towns facilitated the diffusion of the material culture of the Gangetic plains into the tribal

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belt of central India. The contact of tribal people with the dhammamahamatras appointed by Ashoka
must have enabled them to imbibe rudiments of higher culture prevalent in the Gangetic basin.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Ashoka launched a deliberate and systematic policy of acculturation. He states that as a result of the
diffusion of dhamma men would mingle with gods. This implies that tribal and other people would
take to the habits of a settled, taxpaying, peasant society and develop respect for paternal power, royal
authority and for monks, priests and officers who helped enforce his authority. His policy succeeded.
Ashoka claims that hunters and fishermen had given up killing and practised dhamma. This means that
they had taken to a sedentary agricultural life.

Mauryan Influence on State Formation

• The stimulus to state formation in peninsular India such as the Chetis, the Satavahanas, the Cheras
(Keralaputras), the Cholas and the Pandyas came from the Mauryas. According to Ashokan inscriptions,
the Cheras, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satyaputras and the people of Taipraparni or Sri Lanka lived
on the borders of the Maurya empire. Therefore, they were familiar with the Maurya state.
• Ashoka called himself 'dear to the gods', a title which was translated into Tamil and adopted by the
chiefs mentioned in the Sangam texts.

11.8. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

321 - 297 BCE Chandragupta Maurya's reign
305 BCE Chandragupta marched against Seleucus Nicator, Alexander's General controlling north-
western India.
297 - 272 BCE Bindusara's reign
272 / 268 BCE Ashoka became the emperor
260 BCE Ashoka waged a war against Kalinga
250 BCE Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under the chairmanship of
Moggaliputta Tissa.
232 BCE Death of Ashoka
220 BCE Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti built the Great Wall of China
185 BCE End of the Mauryan Empire
185 BCE Pushyamitra Sunga founded the Shunga dynasty

11.9. Summary

The Mauryan Period

265
• The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan Empire, which was the first pan-
Indian empire.
Dynasty Important Rulers Important Points
Mauryan Dynasty Chandragupta • He overthrew him and established the rule of the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

(321-185 BCE) Maurya (322-298 BCE) Maurya dynasty in 321 BCE.

• In 305 BCE, he marched against Seleucus Nicator,
Alexander's General controlling northwestern In-
dia. Chandragupta defeated him and signed a
treaty.
• Toward the end of his life, he embraced Jainism and
stepped down from the throne in favour of his son
 Bindusara. He then went to Shravanabelagola, near
Mysore, along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabahu
and starved himself to death in a cave in the Chan-
dragiri mountain at Shravanabelagola.
Bindusara • Greeks called him "Amitraghat," which means
(298-273 BCE) slayer of enemies.
• Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador
from the Syrian king Antiochus I.
• Bindusara supported the Ajivikas sect. He died in
272 BCE.
Ashoka
(272/268-231 BCE)

Ashokan Inscriptions (Edicts of Ashoka)

• Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions. He used the
inscriptions to proclaim dhamma.
• Most Ashokan inscriptions were in the Prakrit language and the Brahmi script in the greater part of the
sub-continent. They were mostly in Aramaic and Greek languages and Kharosthi script in the northwest
of the subcontinent. They were mostly in both Aramaic and Greek languages and scripts in Afghanistan.

Fourteen Major Rock Edicts

• There are 14 major rock edicts, and every major rock edict has a specific message engraved on it. These
major rock edicts can be found in ten places and are mostly in the group of fourteen. However, less
than 14 major rock edicts are found in some places.

Two Separate Rock Edicts

• The Dhauli and Jaugada inscriptions of Ashoka omit Edicts XI, XII, and XIII, which are found in other

266
inscriptions. Instead, they include two special edicts known as the Separate Kalinga Edicts (Separate
Rock Edict I and Separate Rock Edict II), which focused on the need for good administration.

Minor Rock Edicts PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• There are three minor rock edicts of Ashoka. These are found at fifteen different places across subcon-
tinent.

Seven Major Pillar Edicts

• Ashoka's Major Pillar Edicts are found at six places, all in North India. These pillars typically bear Edicts
1-6. Notably, the Delhi-Topra pillar is unique in that it includes Edict 7 in addition to Edicts 1-6.

End of the Mauryan Empire

• After Ashoka died in 232 BCE, the Mauryan Empire declined rapidly. His successors could not keep the
vast empire intact, and different provinces kept breaking away to form independent kingdoms. The
last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, who was ruling over a shrunken empire around Magadha, was assassi-
nated by his military commander, Pushyamitra Sunga, who founded the Shunga dynasty in 185 BCE.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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 12. Central Asian Contacts

12.1. Post-Mauryan India

• After the decline of the Mauryan empire, several new kingdoms emerged in different parts of the Indian
subcontinent. In the north, central and western India, native rulers succeeded the Mauryas, while in north-
western India, the Mauryas were succeeded by the invading ruling dynasties from Central Asia.
• This period is also notable for intimate and widespread contact between Central Asia and India. During
this period, many foreign tribes invaded India. The invaders settled in India, became Hindu or Buddhist,
and blended into Indian culture.

Emergence of New Kingdoms

• In the north-west and parts of north India:
1. Indo-Greeks: Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years from c. second to first centuries BCE.
2. Shakas: Indo-Greeks were followed by the Shakas (a Central Asian people) who ruler from c. first

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century BCE to fourth century CE. They set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India.
3. Kushanas: The Shakas, in turn, were followed by the Kushanas who ruled from c. first to third cen-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

tury CE.
• In the north and parts of central India:
1. Shungas: A general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom.
2. Kanvas: The Shungas were followed by the Kanvas, Mitras and rulers from other families till the
establishment of the Gupta empire.
• In parts of central and western India:
1. Satavahanas: The Satavahana kingdom was established about 2100 years ago in parts of western
and central India and lasted about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, the Vaka-
takas, became powerful in central and western India.
12.2. Background of Foreign Invasions

Key Players of the Invasions

269
• After the death of Alexander, his empire started disintegrating, and regional kingdoms ruled by erstwhile
generals emerged. The Seleucid kingdom was one such kingdom established by Seleucus Nicator in
west Asia, contiguous with the Mauryan empire.
• Greco-Bactrians and Parthians: In the middle of the third century BCE, Bactria (In north Afghanistan) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

and Parthia (parts of Iran) broke away from Seleucus and formed the Greco-Bactrian and Parthian
kingdoms in northern Afghanistan and parts of Iran, respectively.
• Shakas: Shakas (Scythians), the horse-riding Central Asian nomadic tribe, roam large parts of central
Eurasia. Their movement and migration in Central Asia put pressure on Indo-Greeks and Parthians,
which ultimately led to their invasion of India.
• Kushanas: The Yuechi (Yuezhi or Yuchi) was a Central Asian nomadic tribe living in the neighbourhood
of China in the north-western part. Kushanas belonged to the Yuechi (Yuezhi or Yuchi) tribe.
The Scythian Movements and Their Impact on China and India
• The Scythians were in a state of constant flux. They made intermittent raids into Chinese territory, search-
ing not only for new pastures but also for the wealth of the Chinese. This posed a serious danger to the
settled empires in China and India. To shield his empire against the attacks of the Scythians, the Chinese
ruler Shih Huang Ti (247-210 BCE) constructed the Great Wall of China in about 220 BCE.
• The building of the Great Wall of China pushed the Yuechi tribe into central Asia. The Yuechi tribe
defeated the Scythians and occupied Uzbekistan.
• Now, the Scythians moved southward into Greco-Bactrian territory, weakening the Bactrian power
there. The Indo-Greeks could not hold their power in this area and invaded India. Some Scythians
pushed into Parthian territory to the west. Later, the Shakas swept down into the Indus Plain and es-
tablished their kingdom in western India.

12.3. Foreign Invasions of Northwest India

• The series of foreign invasions began around 200 BCE. The Indo-Greeks or Bactrian Greeks were the
first to invade India.
• The Indo-Greeks established their rule in the north-west and parts of north India in the second century
BCE and ruled for about one hundred years till they were defeated by Shakas.

The Indo-Greeks (Bactrians) (c. second - first centuries BCE)

• In the middle of the third century BCE, Diodotus, the governor of Bactria, revolted against Antiochus, the
Seleucid king and established an independent kingdom, ‘Bactria’.
• Demetrius, the Greek ruler of Bactria, invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and established the Indo-Greek
power in north-western India. In the beginning of the second century BCE, the Indo-Greeks occupied a
large part of north-western India, much larger than that conquered by Alexander.
• The Indo-Greeks advanced up to Ayodhya and Pataliputra, but the power base remained in the northwest.
They failed to establish a united rule in India.

270
• Two Greek dynasties ruled north-western India on parallel lines at one and the same time.

Menander (165-145 BCE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 BCE), also known as Milinda.
• Menander had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab (Pakistan). He invaded the Ganga-Yamuna
doab but failed to retain it due to the strong opposition of Shungas.
• Nagasena, also known as Nagarjuna, converted Menander to Buddhism. Menander asked Nagasena
many questions about Buddhism, and Nagasena answered them. These questions and Nagasena's an-
swers were compiled in the Pali book Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda).

Coins
• The history of the Indo-Greeks is primarily reconstructed through their coins, which were the first in
India to bear the names and images of kings, inscribed in Greek and Kharosthi scripts. The Indo-Greeks
were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings.
• Menander’s early coins featured the king on one side and Greek deities on the other. In later coins, the
Greek deities were replaced by Buddhist motifs like the elephant, bull and the Wheel of Dharma. The
Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased in number under the Kushanas.

Art
• The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in northwest India. This art was not purely Greek but
a blend of Greek and local influences. Gandhara art was its best example in India.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

The Shakas (c. First century BCE - Fourth century CE)

• Indo-Greeks were followed by the Shakas. They did not meet much effective resistance from the rulers
and peoples of India and set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. They controlled
a much larger part of India than the Greeks did.
• Moga or Maues (c. 50 BCE) was the first Shaka king in India. He established the Shaka power in
Gandhara. Azes, the successor of Maues, defeated the last of the Indo-Greek kings in north India and
annexed their territory.
• Shaka administration largely continued along the lines of the Achaemenid systems in Iran, where the
kingdom was divided into provinces ruled by mahakshatrapas. Each of these provinces was further sub-
divided into areas ruled by the kshatrapas.

Five Branches of the Shakas

• There were five branches of the Shakas, with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghan-
istan.
1. The first branch of the Shakas settled in Afghanistan.
2. The second branch settled in Punjab, with Taxila as its capital.
3. The third branch settled in Mathura, where it ruled for about two centuries.
4. The fourth branch (Western Kshatrapas) established its hold over western India. They fought several
battles with the Satavahanas. They continued to rule until Chandragupta II defeated them in the
fourth century CE.
5. The fifth branch of the Shakas established its power in the upper Deccan.
• The Shakas ruled in various parts of India, but only those in western India held power for a long time,
about 500 years. They benefited from the sea-borne trade in Gujarat and issued a large number of silver
coins.

Western Kshatrapas (c. First - Fourth century CE)

• Western Kshatrapas were rulers of the Shaka dynasty that ruled over parts of western India from the
first to fourth century CE. They ruled a considerable kingdom, including parts of the modern states of
Sind, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Malwa and Maharashtra.
• The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the second century CE after Gautamiputra Sa-
takarni of the Satavahana dynasty defeated the Saka rulers. Although Rudradaman I revived their rule, it

272
was ultimately ended by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the fourth century CE.

Independent Rule of the Western Kshatrapas

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The Western Kshatrapas called themselves kshatrapas or satraps (governors or viceroys or subordinate
rulers), leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps" in modern historiography to differenti-
ate them from the "Northern Satraps", who ruled in Punjab and Mathura until the second century CE.
However, they were independent rulers of the western and central parts of India.
 Kshatrapas was a title adopted by Western Kshatrapa rulers, derived from the Shaka language term
term meaning "lord of the country."
 Ptolemy, in his "Geographia", called Western Kshatrapas the "Indo-Scythians".
• According to some scholars, Western Kshatrapas were subordinates or feudatories of Kushanas, who
were the dominant power at that time. Hence, they called themselves Kshatrapas or satraps. However,
there is little evidence to support this idea.

Kshaharatas and Kardamakas

• There were two important dynasties or lines of Kshatrapa rulers:

1. The Kshaharata Kshatrapa
2. The Kardamaka Kshatrapa

The Kshaharata Dynasty

• The Kshaharata (Khaharata or Khakharata) dynasty consisted of three kings:
1. Abhiraka
2. Bhumaka
3. Nahapana
• The Shakas dispossessed the Satavahanas of their dominions in Maharashtra and western India. However,
later, Gautamiputra Satakarni defeated the Nahapana, uprooted his Khakharata family and restored the
supremacy of the Satavahanas.

The Kardamaka Dynasty

• Chashtana was the founder of the Kardamaka dynasty. He began his rule probably in 78 CE. He assumed
the title ‘kshatrapa’ on his earlier coins and ‘mahakshatrapa’ on his later ones.
• Chashtana was ruling in western India conjointly with his grandson, Rudradaman I, in Saka Era 52 (130
CE).
 According to the Andhau inscription from Kutch in western Gujarat, Rudradaman I took the title "Ma-
hakshatrapa" in Saka Era 52 (130 CE).
• The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps were often at war. Rudradaman married his daughter to the
Satavahana king Vashishtiputra Satakarni to ease the conflict. The Junagarh Prashasti states that Rudrad-

273
aman I defeated Vashishtiputra twice but did not destroy the Shakas due to their family ties, as Vash-
ishtiputra was his son-in-law. Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, prob-
ably with the exception of the southern areas of Poona and Nasik.
• The successors of Rudradaman I could not keep his entire territory intact but retained their independent PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

position in western Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. Towards the end of the fourth century CE, Chandra-
gupta II of the Gupta Empire defeated Rudrasimha III and ended their rule.

Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)

• The most famous Shaka ruler was Rudradaman I (130-150 CE). He ruled over Sindh, Gujarat, Konkan, the
Narmada Valley, Malwa, and Kathiawar. He is known for repairing Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat.
• Rudradaman was a great admirer of Sanskrit. Though of foreign origin, he issued the first long inscription
in chaste (pure) Sanskrit. In India, the earlier longer inscriptions were in Prakrit.
Junagadh Rock Inscription

274
• The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman I is written in the Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
• The inscription mentions a historical record of water management and irrigation conduits at the Sudar-
shana Lake from the era of Chandragupta Maurya. It also records the achievements of Rudradaman and PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
praises him. The inscription mentions that:
1. The lake, with embankments and water channels, was built by a local governor, Pushyagupta, during
the rule of Chandragupta Maurya. However, a terrible storm broke the embankments, and water
gushed out of the lake.
2. Rudradaman repaired the lake using his own resources without imposing any tax on his subjects.
• The Junagadh rock inscription is one of the three significant inscriptions on the rock near Girnar Hill near
Junagadh, Gujarat, India:
1. Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka
 2. Inscription of Rudradaman
3. Inscription of Skandagupta

Vikrama Era
• In about 58-57 BCE, the king of Ujjain defeated the Shakas, successfully expelled them from Ujjain and
called himself Vikramaditya. To commemorate this event, he started an era called the Vikrama Samvat.
• From this time onwards, Vikramaditya became a coveted title. Anyone who achieved anything great
adopted this title, just as the Roman emperors adopted the title Caesar to emphasise their great power.
• As a result of this practice, there have been as many as 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history. Chandragupta
II was the most famous Vikramaditya. The title continued to be fashionable with Indian kings until the
twelfth century CE. It was especially prevalent in western India and the western Deccan.

Vikrami calendar

• Vikram Samvat, also known as the Vikrami calendar, is a national Hindu calendar historically used in the
Indian subcontinent and is still used in several Indian states and Nepal.
• It is usually 57 years ahead of the Gregorian calendar, except from January to April when it is ahead by
56 years.

The Parthians
• The Parthians, originally from Iran, established their rule in northwestern India around 20 BCE after the
Shakas. For some time, the Shakas and Parthians ruled parallel in this region. Ancient Indian Sanskrit
texts often refer to them together as Shaka-Pahlavas.
• The Parthians controlled a smaller area in northwestern India during the first century than the Greeks and
Shakas. Over time, like the Shakas, the Parthians became an integral part of Indian polity and society.
• The most notable Parthian king was Gondophernes, under whose reign St. Thomas is believed to have
come to India to spread Christianity.

The Kushanas (c. First - Third century CE)

275
• The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas. The Kushanas belonged to the Yuechi (Yuezhi or Yuchi)
tribe, a group of nomadic people from north central Asia near China. The Yuechi were divided into five
clans, and the Kushanas were one of them. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Kushanas first occupied Bactria (northern Afghanistan) by displacing the Shakas. They then moved
to the Kabul Valley, seized Gandhara, and later extended their rule over the lower Indus Basin and much
of the Gangetic Basin.
• Over time, the Kushanas brought vast territories under their control, including Central Asia, parts of Iran
and Afghanistan, most of Pakistan, and northern India. Their empire stretched from the Oxus to the
Ganga, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh.

Kujula Kadphises
• In the first century CE, Kujula Kadphises (Kadphises I) united all five Yuezhi tribes living in Bactria and
established the Kushana dynasty. He occupied Kabul Valley and minted copper coins in his name in imi-
tation of Roman coins.
• Kujula's successor, Vima Kadphises (Kadphises II), expanded the empire east of the Indus and issued a
large number of gold coins.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Kanishka (78-120 CE)
• The house of Kadphises was succeeded by Kanishka (c. 78-120 CE), who was the son and successor of
Vima Kadphises. He extended the Kushana power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
• The Kushana Empire reached glorious heights under Kanishka. He expanded his empire from Central
Asia to the upper part of Maharashtra. He fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories
from them. During the first expedition, he was defeated by the Chinese. He undertook a second expedi-
tion in which he was successful.
• Kanishka's primary capital was Purushapura (Peshawar), while Mathura served as his secondary capital.
• Kanishka was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion and art. He is famous for:
1. Starting the Shaka era
2. Patronising Mahayana Buddhism

Rabatak Inscription
• The Rabatak Inscription is a 23-line stone inscription in the Bactrian language and Greek script in
Rabatak, Afghanistan.
• The Rabatak Inscription provides a complete genealogy of Kanishka, tracing his father, Vima
Kadphises and his grandfather, Vima Taktu, to his great-grandfather, Kujula Kadphises.
• The inscription mentions:
 Kanishka the Great was a righteous and just king worthy of divine worship.
 The language used in the inscription: It was described as the "Aryan language."
 Cities which were under the rule of Kanishka.
 The list of the kings who ruled up to his time

The Shaka Era

• Most early dynasties followed their own systems of time reckoning, leading to several independent eras.
In 78 CE, Kanishka ascended the throne and started the Shaka era, which became widely used.
• The national calendar of the Government of India is based on the Shaka Era, with Chaitra as its first
month and a normal year of 365 days. It was adopted on 22 March 1957, along with the Gregorian
calendar. Dates of the national calendar have a permanent correspondence with dates of the Gregorian
calendar, with 1 Chaitra falling on 22 March normally and on 21 March in the leap year.
 The exact date of Kanishka's accession is uncertain. Earlier, scholars believed he ascended to the throne
in 78 CE, but Harry Falk estimated it as 127 CE. However, it is now agreed that it was not the Vikrama
era of 58 BCE, as Fleet and Kennedy suggested.

Kanishka and Buddhism

277
• During the Kanishka's time, Mahayana Buddhism developed. This had two distinct features:
1. Image worship of Buddha: Image worship and rituals developed in Mahayana Buddhism. Now,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in
Taxila.
2. Belief in Bodhisattvas.
• Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. He sent missionaries to Central Asia and China
for the propagation of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Kanishka set up many other stupas to perpetuate the memory of the Buddha. He also built Buddhist
chaityas and viharas in different places.

Fourth Buddhist Council

• Kanishka convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology and
doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship
of Vasumitra.
• The Council prepared the Vibhasha Shastras, an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas. It is believed
that Kanishka engraved these commentaries on sheets of red copper, placed them in a stone casket, and
built a stupa over it.
• The Council also gave the Mahayana doctrine its final shape.

[UPSC CSE 2001] Who among the following presided over the Buddhist council held during
the reign of kanishka at Kashmir?
a) Parsva
b) Nagarjuna
c) Sudraka
d) Vasumitra
Answer: Vasumitra

Kanishka's Contribution to Buddhist Literature

• Kanishka patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha and Nagarjuna.
• Earlier, Pali literature was prominent in Buddhism; however, with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, Sanskrit
literature was gaining prominence. Ashvaghosha and other Buddhist scholars began writing in Sanskrit.

Ashvaghosha

• Ashvaghosha, a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, was a devout Buddhist and philosopher in the court of King
Kanishka. His famous works (in Sanskrit) include:
1. Buddhacharita (Biography of the Buddha): A poetic narrative of the life of the Buddha.
2. Mahalankara (the Book of Glory): A Mahayana Buddhist text.
3. Saundarananda Mahakavya: A Sanskrit poem about the conversion of Nanda (Buddha's half

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brother) to Buddhism.
4. Sariputraprakarana: A Sanskrit drama about the life-histories of two of the most celebrated disciples

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

of Lord Buddha — Sariputta and Maudgalana.
5. Vajrasuchi: It is a Buddhist work that criticises the caste system and inequity in Vedic religion.

Charaka and Charaka Samhita

• The Charaka Samhita is an authoritative treatise on Ayurveda, written in Sanskrit. It emphasises modern
insights, stating that lifestyle, nutrition, exercise, and meditation significantly influence health and lon-
gevity.
• The Charaka Samhita contains names of numerous plants and herbs from which drugs are to be prepared
for the use of patients. The processes laid down for the pounding and mixing of the plants give us an
 insight into the developed knowledge of chemistry in ancient India. It is still widely used as an alternative
medicine.
• For the cure of ailments, the ancient Indian physician relied chiefly on plants, for which the Sanskrit
word is oshadhi, and as a result, medicine itself came to be known as aushadhi.
• The Charaka Samhita is one of three great classics of Ayurveda ('the science of life').
• The Charaka Samhita was translated into early Persian and brought to the West.

Composition and Evolution of the Charaka Samhita

• The dates of the composition of the Charaka Samhita are uncertain. It was composed over different his-
torical periods by Acharya Agnivesha, Charaka, and Dridhabala.
• It is believed that Punarvasu Atreya taught Ayurveda to his disciple Agnivesha, who originally composed
the text. Charaka later revised it, likely between 100 BCE and 200 CE, and Dridhabala completed it. Dri-
dhabala noted in the Charaka Samhita that he had to rewrite one-third of the book, as the original portion
was lost, and he also re-wrote the last part of the book.
 Charaka was the court physician during the reign of King Kanishka.

Controlling the Silk Road

• The Kushanas controlled the Silk Route, which was a source of great income for them. The tolls levied on
the traders enabled them to build a large, prosperous empire.

Coins
• The Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a large scale in c. first century CE.
These gold coins are found mainly west of the Indus and had a higher degree of metallic purity than
the Gupta gold coins.
• These coins were virtually identical in weight to those issued by contemporary Roman emperors and the
Parthian rulers of Iran and have been found in several sites in north India and Central Asia. The widespread
use of gold coins indicates the enormous value of the transactions that were taking place.

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• Hoards of Roman coins have also been found at archaeological sites in South India. This indicates that
trade networks were not confined to political boundaries. Although South India was not part of the Ro-
man Empire, it had close connections through trade.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Coins and Kushana Rulers

Early Coins
• The earliest Kushana coins have the king figured on the obverse and some deity, preferably a Greek God,
on the reverse. All these coins are bilingual, with Greek inscriptions on the obverse and Kharoshti on the
reverse.
• Kujala Kadphises is believed to have issued the earliest Kushana copper and silver coins, but historians
remain uncertain. Therefore, the earliest Kushana coinage is generally attributed to Vima Kadphises, who
also introduced Kushana gold coins.
Kanishka’s Coins
• King Kanishka issued coins in copper and gold (Gold dinar). The coin portrays a standing king sacrificing
at an altar on the obverse and some deity on the reverse.
• Kanishka ended the bilingual tradition of Greek and Kharoshthi and introduced the Bactrian language
on the coins. His early coins feature Greek legends or deities but later included legends from Bactrian,
Iranian and Indian mythology.
• Kanishka retained Shiva from his predecessor's coins under the name Oesho and introduced the image
of Buddha on his own coins.

[Practice Questions] Who of the following did not adorn the court of Kanishka- I?
a) Ashvaghosha
b) Patanjali
c) Vasumitra
d) None of the above
Answer: Patanjali

The Decline of the Kushanas

• Kanishka's successors ruled northwestern India until around 230 CE. After his death, his son Huvishka
became king, followed by Vasudeva, who ruled from 191 to 232 CE.
 Vasudeva, the last "Great Kushan," was the first Kushan king named after an Indian god. His name
reinforces the notion that his centre of power was in Mathura.
• By the mid-third century, the Sassanian Empire from Iran replaced the Kushan Empire of north-western
India. However, Kushan principalities survived in India for nearly a century.
• Kushan rule ended completely in the fifth century CE after the Huns invasion.

[Practice Question] Consider the following statements:

1. Sanchi inscription tells about the various achievements of Rudradaman-I.

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2. Vikram Samvat was started in 57 CE.
3. Saka Samvat was started in 78 CE.
How many of the statements given above are correct? PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) All three
d) None
Answer: Only two

12.4. Impact of Central Asian Contacts

Religious Developments
Buddhism

• During the time of Kanishka, Mahayana Buddhism, which is different in many respects from the religion
taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka, came into being. It incorporated elements of Hinduism,
Zoroastrianism, and Greek culture.
• The followers of Mahayana Buddhism gradually translated the Buddhist literature into Sanskrit.

The Origin of Mahayana Buddhism

• In the post-Maurya period, Indian religions underwent significant changes mainly due to increased trade
and artisanal activity and partly due to the influx of Central Asian people. Buddhism, in particular, was
deeply affected.
 Monks and nuns depended on cash donations from traders and artisans in towns. Such donations,
along with generous royal grants to the Buddhist monasteries, made the life of monks easy.
 The Buddhists also welcomed foreign followers, including non-vegetarians, which resulted in a more
relaxed approach to monastic discipline.
 Some monks left the Sangha and returned to regular household life.
• This transformation led to a new form of Buddhism called Mahayana or the "Great Wheel."

Vaishnavism and Shaivism

• During this period, Vishnu and Shiva gained popularity, leading to the rise of Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.
In Mathura, a sect also emerged that worshipped Vishnu as Vasudeva Krishna.
• Some foreign rulers adopted Buddhism, while others converted to Vaishnavism or Shaivism. Buddhism
was initially more accessible to foreigners since Vaishnavism and Shaivism were closely tied to birth and
caste. However, these sects eventually adapted to overcome this challenge.
 Indo-Greek ruler Menander and Kushana ruler Kanishka adopted Buddhism.
 Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador to the Shungas, set up a pillar in honour of Vasudeva near Sanchi.

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The Kushana ruler Vasudeva also worshipped Vishnu.

[UPSC CSE 1998] Many of the Greeks, kushanas and shakas embraced Buddhism rather than

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Hinduism because:
a) Buddhism was in the ascendant at that time
b) They had renounced the policy of war and violence
c) Cast-ridden Hinduism did not attracted them
d) Buddhism provided easier access to Indian society
Answer: Buddhism provided easier access to Indian society

New Elements in Indian Society

• The Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas settled in India, gradually losing their distinct identity and
blending into Indian culture. Since they did not have their script, written language, or any organised
religion, they adopted these aspects from Indian traditions and became an integral part of Indian soci-
ety.
• Over time, they became fully Indianized. As most of them arrived as conquerors, they were absorbed
into Indian society as Kshatriyas (warriors), though often regarded as second-class Kshatriyas. This large-
scale assimilation of foreigners into Indian society was unique to the post-Maurya period.

Better Cavalry
• The Shakas and Kushanas introduced better cavalry and popularised the use of riding horses on a large
scale. They commonly used reins and saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculptures of the second and
third centuries CE.
• The Shakas and Kushanas were skilled horsemen, some heavily armoured, fighting with spears and lances.
They possibly used some toe stirrup made of rope, which facilitated their movements.
• They also introduced new clothing styles, such as turbans, tunics, trousers, and long coats. The sherwani,
worn today, is a successor to these coats. Caps, helmets, and boots brought by Central Asians became
common among warriors.
• These advantages enable them to dominate regions like Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.

Divine kings
• The Shakas and the Kushanas strengthened the idea of the divine origin of kingship. To claim their high
status, they identified themselves with various deities.
• Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura (Uttar
Pradesh). Similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this
indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike.
• Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra (son of god), possibly inspired by Chinese rulers
who called themselves sons of heaven. It was used to legitimise the royal authority. The Hindu law-giver

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Manu asks the people to respect the king even if he is a child because he is a great god ruling in the form
of a human being.
 Kanishka adopted titles like Kaisara (from the Roman Caesar), Maharajadhiraja (king of kings, from PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
the Persian shahanshah), and Devaputra (from the Chinese 'son of heaven').

Polity
• The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes, leading to the devel-
opment of a feudatory organisation. The Kushanas adopted the pompous title Maharajadhiraja (king of
kings), which indicates their supremacy over numerous small princes who paid tribute.
• There was less centralisation under Central Asian conquerors:
 1. The Indo-Greeks introduced the practice of military governorship. They appointed their governors
called strategos. Military governors were necessary to maintain the power of the new rulers over the
conquered people.
2. The Shakas divided their kingdom into provinces ruled by mahakshatrapas. Each of these provinces
was further subdivided into areas ruled by the kshatrapas (satraps). The satraps were independent
and issued their own money and coins.
3. The Kushanas introduced the satrap system of government. The empire was divided into numerous
satrapies, and each satrapy was placed under the rule of a satrap. Some curious practices, such as
hereditary dual rule (two kings ruling in the same kingdom at one and the same time), were also
introduced.

[UPSC CSE 1998] The practice of military governship was first introduced in India by the ...
a) Greeks
b) Shakas
c) Parthians
d) Mughals
Answer: Greeks

Trade and Agriculture

• The arrival of the Central Asian people established intimate contacts between Central Asia and India. As
a result, India received a good deal of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia and through trade
with the Roman Empire.
• The Kushanas controlled the Silk Route, which was a source of great income for them. The tolls levied
on the traders enabled them to build a large, prosperous empire.
• The Kushanas also promoted agriculture. The earliest archaeological traces of large-scale irrigation in
Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western Central Asia belong to this period.

Literature and Learning

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• The foreign rulers patronized and cultivated Sanskrit literature. The earliest specimen of kavya style is
found in the Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman in Kathiawar in about 150 CE. From now onwards
inscriptions began to be composed in chaste Sanskrit, although the use of Prakrit in composing inscrip- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
tions continued till the fourth century CE, and even later.
• The progress of Mahayana Buddhism led to the composition of numerous avadanas. Most of these texts
were composed in the Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit. Their one objective was to preach the teachings of
Mahayana Buddhism to the people. Some of the important books of this genre were the Mahavastu and
the Divyavadana.
1. The Mahavastu is a canonical text of the Mahasamghika Lokottaravada school of Early Buddhism. It
contains three sections narrating the former lives of the Buddha, full of instructive stories, Jatakas and
Avadanas.
 2. Divyavadana or Divine narratives is a collection of avadanas belonging to the Mulasarvastivada Vi-
naya texts. These Buddhist stories involve the Buddha explaining to a group of disciples how gestures
of faith, especially offerings, can bring the reward of future happiness and ultimate liberation.
 Avadana is a type of Buddhist literature that tells stories about the consequences of good and bad
deeds in past lives.
• The Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, belong to the second to third century CE is the best example of secular
literature. It is the earliest work on erotics dealing with sex and love-making. It gives us a picture of the
life of a city-bred person or nagaraka who lived in a period of thriving urbanism.
• The Greeks contributed to the Indian theatre by introducing the use of the curtain. Since the curtain
was borrowed from the Greeks it came to be known as yavanika, a Sanskrit term for the Ionians, a Greek
group known to ancient Indians. In the beginning, the term yavana referred specifically to the Greeks, but
later it was used to describe all foreigners.

Science and Technology

• In post-Maurya times, Indian astronomy and astrology benefited from Greek contact. Sanskrit texts
adopted Greek terms for planetary movements, and Greek ideas influenced Indian astrology. The term
horashastra (astrology) was derived from the Greek word horoscope.
• Greek coins, well-shaped and stamped, improved upon India’s punch-marked coins. The Greek term
drachma became dramma in India. In return, Greek rulers used the Brahmi script and Indian motifs on
their coins. Greeks exported items like dogs, cattle, spices, and ivory, but it’s unclear if they learned any
crafts from India.
• In medicine, botany, and chemistry, however, India did not adopt much from the Greeks. Indian scholars
like Charaka and Sushruta advanced these fields. The Charakasamhita contains names of numerous
plants and herbs from which drugs are to be prepared for the use of patients. The processes laid down
for the pounding and mixing of the plants give us an insight into the developed knowledge of chemistry
in ancient India. For the cure of ailments the ancient Indian physician relied chiefly on plants, for which

284
the Sanskrit word is oshadhi, and as a result medicine itself came to be known as aushadhi.
• India benefited from its contact with Central Asia in the field of technology.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Kanishka is depicted wearing trousers and long boots, suggesting that the practice of making leather
shoes may have started in India during this period.
 The Kushans imitated Roman coins, with their copper coins resembling Roman ones, and gold coins
struck in the style of Roman gold coins.
 There were two embassies exchanged between Indian kings and Roman emperors — one to Au-
gustus in 27-28 CE and another to Trajan in 110-120 CE. These interactions likely introduced new
technological practices, including advancements in glass-making, which saw significant progress
during this time, influenced by foreign techniques.
12.5. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

Second - First centuries BCE Indo-Greeks ruled in the northwest.

First century BCE - Fourth century CE The Shakas set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western

India.

First - Third century CE The Kushanas ruled over northern part of India.

185 BCE End of the Mauryan Empire

165-145 BCE Menander's reign

58-57 BCE The king of Ujjain defeated the Shakas and started an era called

the Vikrama Samvat.

78 CE Kanishka ascended the throne and started the Shaka era

130-150 CE The reign of Shaka ruler Rudradaman I

230 CE End of Kushana rule in northwestern India

12.6. Summary

• After the decline of the Mauryan empire, several new kingdoms emerged in different parts of the Indian
subcontinent. In the north-western India, the Mauryas were succeeded by the invading ruling dynasties
from Central Asia.
1. Indo-Greeks: Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years from c. second to first centuries BCE.
2. Shakas: Indo-Greeks were followed by the Shakas (a Central Asian people) who ruler from c. first
century BCE to fourth century CE. They set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India.
3. Kushanas: The Shakas, in turn, were followed by the Kushanas who ruled from c. first to third cen-
tury CE.

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The Indo-Greeks (Bactrians) (c. second - first centuries BCE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Menander (165-145 BCE)

• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 BCE), also known as Milinda. Menander
had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab (Pakistan). He invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab
but failed to retain it due to the strong opposition of Shungas.
• Nagasena, also known as Nagarjuna, converted Menander to Buddhism. Menander asked Nagasena
many questions about Buddhism, and Nagasena answered them. These questions and Nagasena's an-
swers were compiled in the Pali book Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda).

Coins
• The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India. They were the first rulers in India to issue
coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings. Their coins bear the names and images of kings,
inscribed in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.

The Shakas (c. First century BCE - Fourth century CE)

• Indo-Greeks were followed by the Shakas. They did not meet much effective resistance from the rulers
and peoples of India and set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India.
• There were five branches of the Shakas, with their seats of power in different parts of India and Af-
ghanistan. The fourth branch (Western Kshatrapas) established its hold over western India. They fought
several battles with the Satavahanas. They continued to rule until Chandragupta II defeated them in
the fourth century CE.

Western Kshatrapas (c. First - Fourth century CE)

• Western Kshatrapas were rulers of the Shaka dynasty that ruled over parts of western India from the
first to fourth century CE. The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the second century
CE after Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty defeated the Saka rulers. Although Rudrad-
aman I revived their rule, it was ultimately ended by Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire in the fourth
century CE.

Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)

• The most famous Shaka ruler was Rudradaman I (130-150 CE). He is known for repairing Sudarshana
Lake in Gujarat. Rudradaman was a great admirer of Sanskrit. Though of foreign origin, he issued the
first long inscription in chaste (pure) Sanskrit.

The Parthians
• The Parthians, originally from Iran, established their rule in northwestern India around 20 BCE after the
Shakas. For some time, the Shakas and Parthians ruled parallel in this region. Ancient Indian Sanskrit

286
texts often refer to them together as Shaka-Pahlavas.

The Kushanas (c. First - Third century CE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Kushanas belonged to the Yuechi (Yuezhi or Yuchi) tribe, a group of nomadic people from north
central Asia.

Kanishka (78-120 CE)

• The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka. The Kushana Empire reached glorious heights under
Kanishka. He expanded his empire from Central Asia to the upper part of Maharashtra. He fought
against the Chinese and acquired some territories from them.
• Kanishka's primary capital was Purushapura (Peshawar), while Mathura served as his secondary capital.
• Kanishka was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion and art. He is famous for:
1. Starting the Shaka era
2. Patronising Mahayana Buddhism: During the Kanishka's time, Mahayana Buddhism developed.
He convened the Fourth Buddhist Council under the presidentship of Vasumitra.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 13. The Rise of Regional Powers

13.1. Emergence of New Kingdoms

• After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire declines rapidly. After Ashoka’s death:
1. Provinces started declaring their Independence:
 Kalinga of Orissa declared their independence under Kharavela.
 Satavahanas established their rule in parts of central and western India.
2. Northwest India slipped out of the control of the Mauryas due to a series of foreign invasions: The
invaders, such as Indo-Greeks, Shakas (Scythians), Pahlavas (Parthians), and Kushans (Yuechi), came
one after another. However, some of them ruled over different regions at the same time.
3. Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic Valley and was soon replaced by Shungas.
• However, India remained rich, contributing nearly 33% of the world economy, mainly due to a trade boom
between South India and the West.

Brahmanical Reaction
• Ashoka adopted a tolerant policy and asked the people to respect even the Brahmanas. However, his

288
policy of nonviolence and discouragement of animal sacrifices reduced the income of the Brahmanas,
who relied on gifts from such rituals.
• Brahmanas wanted rulers who would restore their privileges and support traditional practices. Hence, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
after the fall of the Maurya Empire, new kingdoms led by Brahmanas emerged.
3. The Shungas and Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas.
4. The Satavahanas in the western Deccan and Andhra were Brahmana rulers.
• These dynasties revived Vedic rituals and sacrifices, which had been neglected under Ashoka’s rule,
marking a return to practices that supported Brahmanical interests.

Emergence of Shungas in Gangetic Valley in the Second Century BCE

• Pushyamitra Shunga, the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas, assassinated the last Mauryan ruler,
Brihadratha and established the Sunga dynasty in 185 BCE.
• The Shungas were occupied with wars:
1. They protected north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest. The
Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for some time. However, Pushyamitra succeeded
in regaining the lost territory.
2. They fought against their southern neighbours in the Deccan.
3. They fought against the Kharavela of Kalinga, who invaded north India.
• Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices.
• Different sources portray the Shungas in contrasting ways. Kalidasa’s play Malavikagnimitram presents
them positively, while Buddhist texts like the Divyavadana accuse them of persecuting Buddhists and
damaging monasteries. However, there is enough evidence to show that Pushyamitra patronised Bud-
dhist art. The Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and improved during his reign.

289
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler. Over the next century, after ten
Shunga kings, their kingdom was confined to Magadh. Devabhuti, the last Shunga king, was murdered
by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, who founded the Kanva dynasty.
• The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years and was replaced by Mitras. Finally, in the fourth century CE, the
Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire ended the Mitra dynasty of Kosambi.

[UPSC CSE 2020] With reference to the scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider the
following statements:
1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra Shunga.
2. Amarasimha is associated with Harshavardhana.
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta - II.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: 3 only

Emergence of Kharavela in Kalinga

• Kalinga's post-Maurya history is obscure, and it is not known when Kalinga regained its independence.
• After the Mauryas' decline, Kharavela, a member of the Chedi-Mahameghavahana dynasty, ruled the
Kalinga in the second century BCE. He was a strong follower of Jainism and is known for his military
conquests and patronage of the arts.
• The Hatigumpha inscription (the Elephant's Cave), authored by Kharavela on Udaygiri hill near Bhuba-
neswar, is a primary source of information for Kharavela. The 17-line inscription lacks a date, is damaged
and permits alternative readings. The inscription mentions Kharavela's victories over the Satavahanas,

290
Magadha, the Indo-Greek ruler Demetrius and the Tamil countries.
• The inscription states that the king of Magadha conquered Kalinga and took the image of Kalinga Jina.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Later, King Kharavela led a campaign to Magadha, defeated its army, and triumphantly brought back the
image. The inscription also mentions that Kharavela excavated 117 caves for Jaina saints to use as resting
places.
• The Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves and the Hathigumpha inscriptions highlight Kharavela's strong as-
sociation with Jainism.

Sisupalgarh
• The ancient city of Sisupalgarh, near Bhubaneswar, was built around the 7th – 6th century BCE and served
as the capital of the Kalinga kingdom.
• A unique feature of Sisupalgarh was its water management system. It was built using the Jala Durga
(Water Fort) concept, where the city was encircled by water bodies to act as natural barriers against inva-
sions.
• This is the only fortified site in India having eight gateways (two on each side), indicating strategic defense
planning. These gateways also suggest controlled entry and exit points for administrative and security
purposes.

Emergence of Tribal Republics in Punjab and Haryana

• In the post-Mauryan period, tribal or clan-based republics reappeared in Punjab and Haryana. An ex-
ample is the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana (c. first century CE).
• Many of these clans claimed Kshatriya status, asserting descent from legendary Kshatriya heroes of epics
and myths.
• Tribal republics also issued coins. Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued
by the Yaudheyas, pointing to the latter's interest and participation in economic exchanges. Yaudheya
copper coins depict a standing figure of six-headed God Kartikeya along with peacock.

Emergence of Satavahanas in Central and Western India

• During the reign of Ashoka, the Rathikas and Bhojas of Maharashtra were feudatories of Maurya in
the northern Deccan. Satavahana, father of Simuka, was a feudatory under Ashoka. He probably be-
longed to the Rathika or Bhojaka family.
• Satavahana was succeeded by his son Simuka (the Brahmin ruler). When the Mauryan empire began to
disintegrate, Simuka declared independence from the Mauryan empire and established the Satavahana
dynasty, which dominated the Deccan for nearly 500 years.

The Uncertain Beginnings of the Satavahana Dynasty

• Most scholars agree that the Satavahana rule started in the late second century BCE and lasted until
the early third century CE. However, some scholars date their rule as early as the third century BCE

291
based on the Puranas, though this lacks archaeological evidence.
• Based on available evidence, Simuka cannot be dated with certainty. According to some scholars,
Simuka established his independent rule and started the Satavahana dynasty in the first century BCE, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
i.e. 100 years after the decline of the Mauryan empire. Epigraphical evidence strongly suggests a first
century BCE date for Simuka. He is mentioned as the father of the acting king Satakarni in the Naneghat
inscription dated to 70-60 BCE.
• Note: According to NCERT, Satavahanas ruled over parts of western and central India from c. second
century BCE to the second century CE.

Reconstructing the History of Satavahanas

• The Puranas and inscriptions are important sources for the history of Satavahanas.
  The Puranas did not mention the Satavahana rule but spoke only about the Andhra rule.
 The Nasik and Naneghat inscriptions highlight the reign of Gautamiputra Satakarni. Vashishtaputra's
inscriptions are found in Andhra. These inscriptions did not mention the Andhra rule.
• The coins issued by the Satavahanas also helped us understand the economic conditions of that period.
 The earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas belong to the first century BCE when they defeated the
Kanvas and established their power in parts of central India.
• The Satavahanas are considered to be identical to the Andhras. However:
 The Puranas speak only of the Andhra rule and not the Satavahana rule.
 The name Andhra does not occur in Satavahana inscriptions.
 Before the foundation of the Satavahana empire, the Deccan was ruled by many petty kingdoms, which
were often at war with one another. The Satavahanas, for the first time, wielded the Deccan into a
powerful State and gave cohesion and integrity to its history.
 Here, the Deccan (from the Sanskrit word dakshin, meaning south) roughly includes present-day Ma-
harashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Political History
• Initially, Simuka, the Brahmin ruler, established his kingdom around Paithan in Maharashtra. He was
succeeded by his brother Kanha, who extended the Satavahana rule to Nasik in the west. Sri Satakarni,
son of Simuka, was the third king of Satavahanas. He conquered western Malwa and Berar.
• At their peak, the Satavahanas ruled over Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, northern Karnataka, parts of
Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra.

Satavahanas vs. Western Kshatrapas (Shakas)

• The Shakas, who ruled the upper Deccan and western India, were the greatest competitors of the Sa-
tavahanas. At one stage, they dispossessed the Satavahanas of their dominions in Maharashtra and west-
ern India. Later, Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 CE) regained these lost lands.

292
Gautamiputra Satakarni or Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani (106-130 CE)

• Gautamiputra Satakarni, the best-known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, ruled for 24 years, from 106 to

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

130 CE. His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription composed on behalf of his mother,
Gautami Balashri.
• He claimed to be both a unique Brahmana or only Brahmana (eka Brahmana) and a destroyer of the
pride of Kshatriyas.
• He expanded his empire to include Malwa and Kathiawar, which were under the control of the Shakas.
Hence, his empire extended from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south. He also enjoyed general
authority over Andhra.
• The first revival of Satavahanas: Gautamiputra Satakarni defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana (the
ruler of Malwa), uprooted his Khakharata family and restored the supremacy of the Satavahanas.
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130- 154 CE)

• Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130- 154 CE). He established
his capital at Paithan, on the Godavari River in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.

293
• Vashishtaputra's coins and inscriptions are found in Andhra, which shows that by the middle of the second
century, this area had become part of the Satavahana kingdom.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Vasisthiputra Pulumavi was the earliest Satavahana ruler whose coins were found in the Andhra. He
was the first Satavahana ruler to conquer Andhra.

Satavahanas vs. Western Kshatrapas (Shakas)

• During the reign of Vashishtaputra, the Shakas resumed their conflict with the Satavahanas for possessing
the Konkan coast and Malwa.
• Rudradaman I (130-150 CE), the Shaka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathiawar), defeated the Vashishtaputra twice
but did not destroy the Shakas because of matrimonial relations.

Yajna Sri Satakarni (165-194 CE)

• Yajna Sri Satakarni was the last great ruler of the Satavahanas.
• Second revival of Satavahanas: Yajna Sri Satakarni recovered North Konkan and Malwa from the Shaka
rulers.
• His coins have been found in Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. The represen-
tation of a ship on his coins shows his love for navigation and overseas trade. They also reveal the
naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.

King Hala

• King Hala was the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty. He is known for his book, Gathasap-
tashati (Sattasai).

Gathasaptashati
• Gathasaptashati was written in Maharashtri Prakrit, a form of Prakrit by King Hala. It contains 700 verses
in the form of Gatha. It had likely been revised after the sixth century CE.
• These are short poems, mostly on the theme of love. They are in the form of frank monologues by
unmarried ladies or married women. Some of them are overly sentimental in nature and tone; few are
rather amorous, while others are enjoyably comical.

Decline of Satavahanas
• The successors of Yajna Sri Satakarni ruled the Satavahana kingdom till 220 BCE. After that, the empire
was disintegrated by the third century CE.
• After the death of Pulumavi IV, the following kingdoms established their rule in different parts:
 Western Kshatrapas: Ruled over the parts of parts of Malwa, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
 Abhira kingdom: Ruled over some parts of Maharashtra, including Nashik.
 Vakataka dynasty: It was extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to
the Tungabhadra River in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the edges of Chhattis-
garh in the east.

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 Ikshvaku dynasty (Andhra Ikshvaku): Ruled over Krishna-Guntur regions (Eastern Andhra region)
 Kadambas: Ruled over the northern Karnataka.
 Western Ganga dynasty: Set up their rule in southern Karnataka.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Social Organization
• Originally, the Satavahanas seem to be a tribe of the Deccans. However, as they rose to power, they were
Brahmanised.
 According to the Brahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas.
• Though originally tribal and later Brahmanised, once Satavahanas came to power, they claimed to uphold
the fourfold varna order to maintain peace and order in society. Gautamiputra Satakarni also claimed
that he ended the intermixture between people of different social orders.
• The absorption of the Shakas in Brahmanical society as Kshatriyas were facilitated by intermarriage be-
tween the Shakas and the Satavahanas. Hence, though Satavahanas claimed to uphold the fourfold varna
order, they entered into marriage alliances with people who were supposed to be excluded from the
system (Shakas).

Family Structure
• The Satavahana rulers had a matrilineal social structure. They were identified through metronymics
(names derived from that of the mother), such as Gautamiputra and Vishisthiputra. This indicates that
mothers enjoyed a great deal of importance in their society. Queens made important religious gifts in
their own right, and some acted as regents.
• However, the Satavahana dynasty was patriarchal because the succession to the throne was generally
patrilineal, i.e., the throne was inherited through the male line of descent.

[UPSC CDS I 2020] Which of the following rulers were identified through matronymics
(names derived from that of the mother)?
a) Mallas of Pava
b) Videhas of Mithila
c) Yaudheyas
d) Satavahanas
Answer: Satavahanas

[UPSC CAPF 2020] Which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The Satavahanas ruled over parts of western India and the Deccan
2. The Satavahanas repaired and rebuilt Sudarshana Lake

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

a) 1 only
b) 2 only

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c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: 1 only PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

[UPSC CAPF 2019] Consider the following statements pertaining to the Satavahanas:
1. Satavahana rulers were identified through metronymics
2. Satavahana succession to the throne was generally patrilineal

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
 c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Both 1 and 2

Marriage

• Many Satavahana rulers practised an endogamy marriage system (marriage within the kin group) in-
stead of the exogamous system recommended in the Brahmanical texts.

Administration
• The Satavahana rulers followed the royal ideals of the Dharmashastras, portraying the king as the up-
holder of dharma. They attributed divine qualities to the king, comparing him to mythical heroes like
Rama, Bhima, Keshava, Arjuna, and supernatural forces to emphasise his divinity and prowess.
• The Satavahanas retained some administrative units from Ashokan times, such as districts called ahara
and officials named amatyas and mahamatras. However, their administration had distinct military and
feudal traits.
 The Senapati served as a provincial governor to maintain military control over the Deccan's tribal
people, who were not fully reconciled to the new rule.
 In rural areas, the gaulmika, heading a military regiment with chariots, elephants, horses, and foot
soldiers, was responsible for ensuring peace and order.
• The military character of the Satavahana rule is evident from the frequent use of terms like "kataka" and
"skandhavaras" in their inscriptions. These terms refer to military camps and settlements that served as
administrative centres when the king was present. This highlights that coercion Played a key role in the
Satavahana administration.
• The Satavahana kingdom had three levels of feudatories.
1. First level: Raja, who could strike coins.
2. Second level: Mahabhoja
3. Third level: Senapati

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• These feudatories and land beneficiaries held some authority in their local regions.

Flourishing Trade
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• During the Satavahana era, trade and industry made remarkable progress. The period also witnessed
overseas commercial activity. The Satavahanas had important seaports at Kalyani on the west coast and
Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast.
• The numerous Roman and Satavahana coins indicated the increasing trade. The Satavahanas may have
used gold from Kolar fields as bullion, as they did not issue gold coins like the Kushans. They mainly
issued lead coins, which are found in the Deccan. They also issued potin, copper, and bronze coins.
• Increasing craft and commerce during this period brought many merchants and artisans to prominence.
Merchants took pride in naming themselves after the towns to which they belonged.
Land Grants
• The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks.
These recipients were usually exempted from paying land revenue and other dues to the king and were
often given the right to collect these dues from the local people.
• Kings gave land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks to maintain social and political stability.
 Buddhist monks played a pivotal role in the acculturation of indigenous tribal people. They preached
peace and rules of good conduct among the people and taught them to respect political authority
and social order.
 The Brahmanas helped enforce the rules of the varna system, which made society stable.
 The Satavahanas were the first rulers to grant land to Brahmanas, but they made even more land
grants to Buddhist monks.
• According to some scholars, the king also granted land to Buddhist monasteries and Brahmans to gain
legitimacy for his rule.

Religion
• The Satavahana rulers were Brahmanas, and they represented the march of triumphant Brahmanism.
They performed Vedic sacrifices such as the Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, etc. They also worshipped many
Vaishnava gods, such as Krishna, Vasudeva and others. They paid liberal sacrificial fees to the Brahmanas.
• The Satavahana rulers also promoted Buddhism.
 They built chaityas and viharas and granted land to Buddhist monks.
 Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
 Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under
the Satavahanas and, more so, under their successors, the Ikshvakus.

Patronage of Artisans and Merchants to Buddhism

• The Mahayana Buddhism enjoyed considerable following in their kingdom, especially in the artisan class.

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• Both artisans and merchants generously donated to the Buddhist cause.
 The gandhikas, or perfumers, are repeatedly mentioned as donors.
 Buddhism flourished in areas like Nasik and Junar in the western Deccan, largely due to the support
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
of traders.
 Later, the term Gandhika became a general term for all kinds of shopkeepers. The modern title Gandhi
is derived from this ancient term.
• Stupas were built from donations by:
 Satavahana rulers
 Guilds of artisans and merchants: For example, Ivory workers financed part of one of the gateways at
Sanchi.

Dhanyakataka: A Buddhist Centre

• The ancient Dhanyakataka in the Andhra Pradesh was the capital of later Satavahanas. It covers pre-
sent day Amaravati and Dharanikota. Buddhism had existed in this region even before the Mauryan
period. The famous Buddhist sites of Amaravati and Dhanyakataka (Dharanikota) are associated with
Buddha, as a birthplace of one of the previous births of Buddha & a preaching site of Buddha respectively.
• During Emperor Ashoka's reign, Buddhism in Dhanyakataka gained prominence. The Amaravati Stupa
(Mahachaitya) dates back to the Mauryan period, as confirmed by an Ashokan edict found at the site.
The region was a stronghold of the Mahasanghika school of Theravada Buddhism.
• In the post-Mauryan period, Buddhism continued to thrive under the royal patronage of the Satava-
hanas and Ikshvakus. Under the Satavahanas, Dhanyakataka became the most important centre of Ma-
hayana Buddhism, leading to the emergence of several Buddhist sites, including: Amaravati, Bhattiprolu,
Chezrala, Goli (Guntur), Jaggayyapeta, Gudiwada, Ghantasala, Guntapalle, and Bezwada (Vijayawada).
These sites contained stone-built stupas, chaityas and viharas.
• In the first century CE, the Satavahanas expanded their rule over coastal Andhra and shifted their capital
to Dhanyakataka. This led to increased Roman trade, bringing prosperity to the region and further
strengthening Buddhist establishments.
 The post-Mauryan period witnessed the expansion of Buddhist sites and the rise of Buddhism in Dhan-
yakataka. Though Buddhism received the royal patronage, it was the popular support and patronage
of the common people from all classes of the society that led Buddhism to a high position.

Language
• The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit, and all inscriptions were composed in this language
and written in the Brahmi script.
• The Satavahanas patronised the Prakrit language and literature. Hala's Sattasai is an excellent piece of
Prakrit literature.

Architecture

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• The Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda stupas were built during the period of Satavahana.

Amaravati Mahachaitya (Great Stupa)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Amaravati Mahachaitya, originally a magnificent stupa, is now in ruins. Situated on the bank of the
Krishna River in Amaravati village, Andhra Pradesh, it was built in phases from the third century BCE to
about 250 CE, with the most notable construction occurring in the first and second centuries CE.
• The construction of Amaravati Mahachaitya was completed in two main phase.
1. In the early phase, the chaitya was established along with railing and carved slabs placed around the
stupa (drum slabs).
2. In the later phase, in the second and third centuries CE, the Buddha images are carved on the drum
slabs and at many other places. Interior space in the composition is created by different postures of
the figures such as semi-back, back, profile, frontal, semi-frontal, side, etc.
Discovering the Amaravati Stupa
• 1796: A local raja who wanted to build a temple stumbled upon the ruins of the stupa at Amaravati. He
decided to use the stone, and thought there might be some treasure buried in what seemed to be a hill.
• 1797: A British official, Colin Mackenzie, heard of Amaravati, visited the site. He had been unable to do
much, apart from observing the few pieces of ruins. he started an intensive survey which led only to
further destruction of the stupa. After Mackenzie left, people used the sculptures to built the buildings
and the stone was burned to produce lime.
• 1816: Colin Mackenzie visited the Amaravati again and carried out further excavations and recorded
what he saw and then drew a plan of the stupa.
• By the 1850s: Some of the slabs from Amaravati had begun to be taken to different places: to the Asiatic
Society of Bengal at Calcutta, to the India Office in Madras and some even to London. It was not unusual
to find these sculptures adorning the gardens of British administrators. In fact, any new official in the area
continued to remove sculptures from the site on the grounds that earlier officials had done the same.
• 1854: Sir Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visited Amaravati and collected
several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras. (These came to be called the Elliot marbles
after him.) He also discovered the remains of the western gateway and came to the conclusion that the
structure at Amaravati was one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist stupas ever built.
• 1860s: Orientalist James Fergusson published a detailed account of the stupa in his book, Tree and
Serpent Worship.

H.H. Cole's View on Preservation of Amaravati Artifacts

• An archaeologist H.H. Cole wrote: "It seems to me a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the coun-
try to be looted of original works of ancient art." He believed that museums should have plaster-cast
facsimiles of sculpture, whereas the originals should remain where they had been found. Unfortunately,
Cole did not succeed in convincing the authorities about Amaravati, although his plea for in situ preser-
vation was adopted in the case of Sanchi.

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Chaityas and Viharas

• In the post-Mauryan period, two types of rock caves - chaityas (sacred shrines) and viharas (monasteries)
were constructed. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The chaitya or Buddhist temple is a place of congregation and worship. It is a large prayer hall with a
number of columns. Example: Karle Chaitya Hall, Ajanta caves (It has four chaityas)
 Chaitya may have been derived from the word chita, meaning a funeral pyre, and by extension a fu-
nerary mound.
• The Vihara is a place of residence of Buddhist monk and consisted of a central hall entered by a door-
way from verandah in front. Example: Three viharas at Nasik carry the inscriptions of Nahapana and
Gautamiputra. It seems that they belong to the first-second centuries CE.
 [UPSC CSE 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished
as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?
a) Andhra
b) Gandhara
c) Kalinga
d) Magadha
Ans: Andhra

Vakataka dynasty
• Vakatakas were the major successors of the Satavahanas and contemporaneous with the Guptas in
northern India. They are known from a large number of copper-plate land grants issued to the Brah-
manas.
• Vindhyashakti, a Brahmin, founded the Vakataka dynasty in the third century. From the third to the fifth
century CE, the Vakatakas ruled over the Deccan from Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in
the south.
• Prabhavati Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE), married to Rudrasena II of the Va-
kataka dynasty. After the sudden death of her husband, she ruled the kingdom for 20 years (as regent for
her son) with the help of her father.
• Vakatakas, who were brahmanas themselves, were great champions of the Brahmanical religion and per-
formed numerous Vedic sacrifices. Though, their political history is of more importance to north India,
culturally, they became a channel for transmitting Brahmanical ideas and social institutions to the
south.
• The Ajanta Caves were built under the patronage of the Vakataka dynasty.

Ikshvakus or Andhra Ikshvakus

• Vasishtiputra Chamtamula, a feudatory of the Satavahanas, founded the Ikshvakus, who ruled in the

300
Krishna River valley (Krishna-Guntur region) from the early third century to the early fourth century CE.
• The Ikshvaku was a local clan that took a lineage name from the Suryavamsha, the solar line, to associate

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

the dynasty with the Rama of Ayodhya.
• Ikshvakus started the practice of land grants in the Krishna-Guntur region, where several of their copper-
plate inscriptions have been discovered.
 In Hindu mythology, Lord Ram is said to be a descendant of King Ikshvaku.
• Ikshvakus built the magnificent city of Vijayapuri, now known as Nagarjunakonda, in Andhra Pradesh,
which was the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty.
 Nagarjunakonda means "Nagarjuna's Hill" and is named after the great Buddhist teacher Nagarjuna.
• Gender division of patronage: The Ikshvaku kings were Shaivites and performed Vedic sacrifices, while
the women of the royal family strongly supported Buddhism and were generous donors to the Buddhist
Sangha.
• Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under
the Ikshvakus.
• Nagarjunakonda prospered most in the second and third centuries under the patronage of the Ikshvakus.
It contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the earliest Brahmanical brick temples.

Nagarjuna
• Nagarjuna was an Indian Mahayana Buddhist philosopher of the second century CE associated with
the Ikshvaku dynasty.
• Nagarjuna is considered the founder of the Madhyamaka school (“Middle Way”) of Mahayana Buddhist
philosophy. He also developed the doctrine of emptiness (shunyata) in his most famous work, Mula-
madhyamakakarika (“Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way”).
• Mulamadhyamakakarika combines stringent logic with the religious vision to present the doctrine of ul-
timate “emptiness”. According to it, nothing, not even the Buddha or Nirvāṇa, is real in itself.
• Nagarjuna is also associated with the writing of Prajnaparamita (“Perfection of Wisdom”) sutras.
 Recent Findings: At the Phanigiri Buddhist site in Suryapet district (Telangana), archaeologists found
a pot containing 3,730 lead coins from the Ikshvaku period. The coins have an elephant symbol on one
side and a Ujjain symbol on the other.
 "Scion of Ikshvaku" is a book by Indian author Amish Tripathi, reimagining the life of Lord Rama.

The Kadambas
• After the decline of the Satavahana Empire, Mayurasharman founded the Kadamba kingdom in the fourth
century CE. The Kadambas ruled the northern Karnataka and Konkan from their capital Banavasi in present
day Uttara Kannada district in Karnataka.

301
• The Kadambas claimed to be brahmanas and rewarded their fellow caste men generously.
• The Chalukyas of Badami were originally feudatories of the Kadambas. They declared their independence
from Kadambas in sixth century CE.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
13.2. Timeline

Region Second - First First Century BCE First - Third Centuries CE

Centuries BCE
Northwest In- Indo-Greek ruled in Shakas ruled in the north- The Kushanas ruled over north-
dia the northwest west ernwestern and northern part of
India.
Gangetic Val- Shungas ruled in Kanvas ruled from Magadha. Satavahanas ruled in Gangetic
ley Gangetic Valley Valley (some scholars disagree)
or Magadh
Deccan and Satavahanas ruled in • Satavahanas ruled in the • Satavahanas ruled in the
Western India the Deccan. Deccan. Deccan.
• Western Kshatrapas • Western Kshatrapas ruled
ruled over parts of west- over parts of western India.
ern India.
South India Cholas, Cheras and Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
Pandyas ruled in ruled in South India ruled in South India
South India

13.3. Summary

• After the decline of the Mauryan empire, several new kingdoms emerged in different parts of the Indian
subcontinent. In the north, central and western India, native rulers succeeded the Mauryas.
• In the north and parts of central India:
 Shungas: A general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom.
 Kanvas: The Shungas were followed by the Kanvas, Mitras and rulers from other families till the
establishment of the Gupta empire.
In parts of central and western India:
 Satavahanas: The Satavahana kingdom was established about 2100 years ago in parts of western
and central India and lasted about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, the
Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India.

Emergence of Shungas
• Pushyamitra Shunga, the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas, assassinated the last Mauryan ruler,

302
Brihadratha and established the Sunga dynasty in 185 BCE. The Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and
Sanchi were renovated and improved during his reign.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler. Over the next century, after ten
Shunga kings, their kingdom was confined to Magadh. Devabhuti, the last Shunga king, was murdered
by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, who founded the Kanva dynasty. The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years
and was replaced by Mitras. Finally, in the fourth century CE, the Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire
ended the Mitra dynasty of Kosambi.

Emergence of Kharavela in Kalinga

• After the Mauryas' decline, Kharavela, a member of the Chedi-Mahameghavahana dynasty, ruled the
Kalinga in the second century BCE. He was a strong follower of Jainism and is known for his military
 conquests and patronage of the arts. The Hatigumpha inscription (the Elephant's Cave), authored by
Kharavela on Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar, is a primary source of information for Kharavela.

Emergence of Tribal Republics in Punjab and Haryana

• In the post-Mauryan period, tribal or clan-based republics reappeared in Punjab and Haryana. An ex-
ample is the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana (c. first century CE). Yaudheya issued copper coins
depicting a standing figure of six-headed God Kartikeya along with peacock.

Emergence of Satavahanas
• During the reign of Ashoka, Satavahana, father of Simuka, was a feudatory under Ashoka.
• Satavahana was succeeded by his son Simuka (the Brahmin ruler). When the Mauryan empire began
to disintegrate, Simuka declared independence from the Mauryan empire and established the Satava-
hana dynasty.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni ruled from 106 to 130 CE. His achievements were recorded in the Nasik in-
scription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana
(the ruler of Malwa), uprooted his Khakharata family and restored the supremacy of the Satavahanas.
• Vashishtaputra Pulamayi ruled from 130- 154 CE. His coins were found in the Andhra. He was the first
Satavahana ruler to conquer Andhra. Rudradaman I (130-150 CE), the Shaka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathi-
awar), defeated him twice but did not destroy the Shakas because of matrimonial relations.
• Yajna Sri Satakarni was the last great ruler of the Satavahanas. He recovered North Konkan and Malwa
from the Shaka rulers. The representation of a ship on his coins shows his love for navigation and
overseas trade.
• King Hala was the seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty. He is known for his book, Gathasap-
tashati (Sattasai), which was written in Maharashtri Prakrit and contains 700 verses in the form of Gatha.
• Decline of Satavahanas: The successors of Yajna Sri Satakarni ruled the Satavahana kingdom till 220
BCE. After that, the empire was disintegrated by the third century CE.
Social Organization: Though originally tribal and later Brahmanised, once Satavahanas came to power,

303
•
they claimed to uphold the fourfold varna order to maintain peace and order in society. Gautamiputra
Satakarni also claimed that he ended the intermixture between people of different social orders.
• Family Structure: The Satavahana rulers had a matrilineal social structure. They were identified PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
through metronymics (names derived from that of the mother). However, the Satavahana dynasty was
patriarchal because the succession to the throne was generally patrilineal, i.e., the throne was inherited
through the male line of descent.
• Land Grants: The Satavahanas were the first rulers to grant land to Brahmanas, but they made even
more land grants to Buddhist monks.

Vakataka dynasty
• Vakatakas were the major successors of the Satavahanas and contemporaneous with the Guptas in
northern India. Vindhyashakti, a Brahmin, founded the Vakataka dynasty in the third century.
• Prabhavati Gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE), married to Rudrasena II of the
Vakataka dynasty. After the sudden death of her husband, she ruled the kingdom for 20 years (as
regent for her son) with the help of her father. The Ajanta Caves were built under the patronage of the
Vakataka dynasty.

Ikshvakus or Andhra Ikshvakus

• Vasishtiputra Chamtamula, a feudatory of the Satavahanas, founded the Ikshvakus, who ruled in the
Krishna River valley (Krishna-Guntur region) from the early third century to the early fourth century CE.
• Ikshvakus built the magnificent city of Vijayapuri, now known as Nagarjunakonda, in Andhra Pradesh,
which was the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty. Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh be-
came important seats of Buddhist culture under the Ikshvakus.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 14. Early History of South India

14.1. The Megalithic Period (1000 BCE to Second Century BCE)

• In the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, the prehistoric age (before the written records are avail-
able) is generally followed by the historical period around sixth century BCE. This period was marked
by the beginning of written literature, development of new towns, emergence of early states, use of iron
ploughshare in agriculture, development of coinage, etc. However, these developments did not occur
simultaneously in South India, especially at the tip the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as the nuclear
zone (mostly present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala).
• In south India, the neolithic phase was followed by the Megalithic phase. People during this period are
known primarily from their graves (megaliths) rather than their actual settlements which are rare.
• The Megalithic phase began around 1000 BCE and continued until the second century BCE. In many
regions, it lasted from the fifth to the first century BCE. However, in certain areas, this phase persisted
even as late as early centuries of the Christian era.
• Megalithic Burials: The Megalithic people (megalith builders) encircled the grave (megalith) by stone
boulders to mark burial sites. Sometimes, they placed a single large stone standing on the ground to

305
indicate that there are burials beneath. While some megaliths can be seen on the surface, other megalithic
burials are often underground.
Family Burials: Sometimes, megaliths contain more than one skeleton. These indicate that people, per-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
haps belonging to the same family, were buried in the same place though not at the same time. The
bodies of those who died later were brought into the grave through the portholes. Stone circles or
boulders placed on the surface probably served as signposts to find the burial site, so that people could
return to the same place whenever they wanted to.
• Grave Goods: Generally, the dead was buried with distinctive pots including red ware, but Black and
Red Ware seems to have been popular with them. The graves also contain tools and weapons of iron
and sometimes, skeletons of horses, horse equipment and ornaments of stone and gold. Tridents, which
later came to be associated with Shiva, have also been found in the megaliths. Tools used for fighting
 and hunting are larger in number as compared to agricultural tools, indicating that megalithic people did
not practise an advanced type of agriculture.
• Social Differentiation: The practice of burying goods in the graves with the dead bodies was based on
the belief that the dead would need all these in the next world. Differences in the quantity and quality of
grave goods point to social distinctions:
 In Brahmagiri:
 One skeleton was buried with 33 gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4 copper bangles, and one conch shell.
 Other skeletons have only a few pots.
• Regional Variations: The megalithic people in the southern districts of Tamil Nadu buried the skeletons
of the dead in urns made of red pottery in pits. The practice of urn burial was different from that of pit-
burial or cist-burial (rectangular box made of stone slabs) surrounded by stone circles which prevailed
in the Krishna Godavari valley.
 Pit burial: The dead remains were placed in a pit.
 Cist burial: dead remains were placed rectangular box made of stone slabs.
 Urn burial: A terracotta urn was placed in a pit. Urn was used to hold the bodies of the dead.
• The practice of erecting megaliths was prevalent throughout the Deccan, south India, in the north-east
and Kashmir. However, their concentration seems to be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
• Limitations: Despite using iron tools, the Megalithic people partly relied on hill slopes for both settle-
ments and burials and did not settle on the plains or the low lands due to the thick forest cover. Although
they cultivated crops such as paddy and ragi, the extent of cultivable land was limited.

Types of Megaliths
• Based on the methods of disposal of death, the megalithic structures can be divided into two categories:
1. Polylithic Megaliths: More than one stone is used to make the megalithic structure
a) Dolmen: Dolmen usually consisting of three or more upright stones supporting a large flat hori-
zontal capstone.

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b) Cairn: A Cairn is a pile of stones, often in conical form. They are usually found in uplands, on
moorland, on mountaintops, or near waterways. In modern times Cairns are often erected as land-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

marks.
c) Cist: A cist or kist a small stone-built coffin-like box to hold the bodies of the dead. Generally, it
was surrounded by stone circles.
2. Monolithic Megaliths: It consists of a single stone.
a) Menhir: A Menhir is a single huge stone standing vertically. It is the simplest of all megalithic
structures.
• In pit burials the dead remains were placed in a pit. If the pit was marked by:
 A circle of large stones, it is called pit circle.
 A heap of large stones piled on the top, it is called a cairn.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 307
  A single, huge free–standing stone, it is called a menhir.

Important Megalithic Sites

• Maski, Hallur, Piklihal, Hanamsagar and Brahmagiri in Karnataka
• Adichanallur and Perumbair in Tamil Nadu
• Nagarjunakonda, Gallapalli and Amravati in Andhra Pradesh. Kadambapur in Telangana
• Kuttoor, Ramavarmapuram, Mangadu, Nagaparamba, Pulimattu, Tengakkal, Muthukar, Peria Kanal, Ma-
chad in Kerala
• Junapani in Maharashtra (near Nagpur)

14.2. The Sangam Age

• The historical period in South India began around the third century BCE. During this time, Sangam lit-
erature was likely began to be composed, villages and towns developed, and three early kingdoms
emerged.
• The period from third century BCE to third century CE is considered as Sangam period and the details
about this period are mainly derived from the Sangam literature. Apart from sangam literature, other
sources used for reconstructing the history of this period, includes:
 Ashokan inscriptions: The Ashokan inscriptions mention the Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras, Satya-
putras and Tamraparnis (the people of Sri Lanka) living on the borders of the empire; of these only
the Satyaputras are not clearly identified.
 Megasthenes’ Indica: The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenes. He mentioned that their
kingdom was celebrated for pearls and was ruled by a woman, which may suggest some matriarchal
influence in the Pandya society. He described the Pandyan queen at the time, Pandaia as a daughter
of Heracles.
 Other literary sources: The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Ptolemy's Geography and Pliny's Nat-
ural History mention the commercial contacts between the West and South India.

308
 Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga mentions about Tamil kingdoms.

State Formation and Rise of Civilization

• By the third century BCE, the megalithic people moved from uplands to fertile river basins and re- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
claimed marshy delta areas. With influence from northern material culture, including iron technology
that promoted forest clearing and plough-based farming, they began wet paddy cultivation, founded
numerous villages and towns, and developed social classes.
• Over time, three major kingdoms — Chola, Chera, and Pandya — emerged in the rice-growing regions
of Tamilakam (the land between the Tirupati hills and the southernmost tip of peninsula). Their devel-
opment was driven by:
 Spread of Iron Technology: Enabled forest clearing and agriculture.
  North-South Trade: Punch-marked coins from northern regions show flourishing trade links.
 Roman Trade: From the first century CE, rulers benefited from exports and imports with the Roman
Empire, especially Egypt.

Spread of Culture
• Cultural and economic contacts between the north and the deep south, known as Tamizhakam, gained
importance from the fourth century BCE.
• The spread of material culture was the result of the missionary and acculturating activities of the Jainas,
Buddhists, Ajivikas and brahmanas as well as the traders and conquerors.
 In the earliest stage much of the influence of Gangetic culture over the south was felt through the
activities of the heterodox sects which are mentioned in the earliest Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
 The Brahmanical influence also percolated in a large measure to the Tamizhakam, but this really
happened after the fourth century CE.
• Eventually many elements of Tamil culture spread to the north, and in the Brahmanical texts the Kaveri
came to be regarded as one of the holy rivers in the country.

Three Early Kingdoms: The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas

• The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river, encompassing present-day
Tamil Nadu and Kerala, was divided into three kingdoms: Chola, Pandya and Chera or Kerala.
• The political history of these dynasties and the life of people during this period can be traced from San-
gam literature, which describes turbulent times where three kingdoms constantly fought with one
another and also with Sri Lanka.
• Sangam poems used the term muvendar meaning three chiefs for heads of three ruling families, the
Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
• All three kingdoms had their strongholds both in the interior and on the sea coast. These six cities were
the most important political centres of the period in the region.

309
1. The Cheras had Karur or Karayur or Vanji in the interior and Muciris (Musiri or Muchiri) and Tondi as
chief port towns.
2. The Cholas had Uraiyur in the interior and Puhar (poompuhar or kaveripattinam) as chief port town.
3. The Pandyas had Madurai in the interior and Korkai as chief port town. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Kingdom Emblem Capital Chief Port Important Ruler

Cheras Bow Karur or Karayur Muciris (Musiri or Muchiri) and Tondi Senguttuvan
or Vanji
Cholas Tiger Uraiyur Puhar (poompuhar or kaveripattinam) Karikalan
Pandyas Fish Madurai Korkai Nedunchezhiyan

The Pandyas
• The Pandyan Kingdom was the earliest Kingdom to be established in the Sangam age. They ruled from
Madurai. They occupied the southern-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian peninsula, and it
roughly included the modern districts of Tirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
• Korkai was their main port. It was famous for pearl fishery. Korkai is referred to in the Periplus as Kolkoi.
• According to tradition, Pandyas patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the
Sangam poems. The Sangam poems mention the names of several kings, but their succession and regnal
years are not clear.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• According to Sangam literature, the kingdom was wealthy and prosperous. The Pandya kings profited
from trade with the Roman empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus.
• The brahmanas enjoyed considerable influence, and the Pandya king performed Vedic sacrifices in the
early centuries of the Christian era.
• The most famous ruler was Nedunchezhiyan. He is praised for his victory over the combined army of the
Chera, the Chola and five Velir chieftains (minor chieftains) at Talayalanganam.
• The Pandyan rule during the Sangam Age began to decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras in the
third century CE. However, they drove out the Kalabhras & established their rule in the sixth century CE.

[UPSC CDS II 2021] Which one of the following was an important Pandya port, celebrated
for its pearls in Sangam poems and Greek accounts?
a) Muchiri
b) Korkai
c) Puhar
d) Arikamedu
Answer: Korkai

The Cholas
• The Chola kingdom, which came to be called Cholamandalam (Coromandel) in early medieval times,
controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. It was situated to the north-east of the territory
of the Pandyas, between the Pennar and the Velar rivers.
• The capital of Chola kingdom was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade and Puhar or Kaviripattinam
was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.
 Puhar is identical with Kaveripattanam, which was the Chola capital (in later times). It was a great
centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show that it had a large dock.
• In the middle of the second century BCE, a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over
it for nearly 50 years.
• Karikalan, the most famous Chola king, ruled the kingdom in the second century CE. Pattinappalai
gives a vivid account of his reign. In the Battle of Venni, Karikalan defeated the mighty confederacy
consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains (Velir chieftains). Trade and commerce
flourished during the reign of Karikalan. He was responsible for the reclamation of forest lands and

311
brought them under cultivation thus adding prosperity to the people. He founded Puhar and constructed
160 km of embankment along the Kaveri river.
• One of the main sources of the wealth of the Cholas was trade in cotton cloth. They maintained an effi- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
cient navy.
• Under Karikala's successors the Chola power rapidly declined. Their capital, Kaveripattanam, was over-
whelmed and destroyed. Their two neighbouring powers, the Cheras and the Pandyas, extended at the
cost of the Cholas. What remained of the Chola power was almost wiped out by the attacks of the
Pallavas from the north. From the fourth to the ninth century CE, the Cholas played only a marginal part
in south Indian history.

The Cheras
• The Chera kingdom controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil
Nadu. It was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas.
• Karur or Vanji was their capital and Musiri and Tondi were their important seaports.
• The history of the Cheras was marked by continuous fight with the Cholas and the Pandyas. Although the
Cheras killed the father of the Chola king Karikala, the Chera king also lost his life. Later the two kingdoms
temporarily became friends and concluded a matrimonial alliance. The Chera king next allied himself with
the Pandya rulers against the Cholas. But the Cholas defeated the allies, and it is said that since the Chera
king was wounded in the back he committed suicide out of shame.
• Senguttuvan (Red or Good Chera), the greatest Chola king, defeated many chieftains and is said to have
ensured the safety of the great port Musiri by putting down piracy. It is said that he invaded the north
and crossed the Ganga. However, his north Indian expedition mentioned in Silappathikaram is not men-
tioned in the Sangam poems.
• The Chera kingdom owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments
at Muziris identical with Cranganore in the Chera country to protect their interests. They also built there
a temple of Augustus. Some Cheras issued copper and lead coins, with Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating
Roman coins.
 The Pugalur inscription (near Karur) of the first century CE refers to three generations of Chera
rulers. The Patitruppathu speaks of eight Chera kings, their territory and fame.
• After the second century CE, the Chera power declined, and we know nothing of its history until the
eighth century CE.

Polity, Economy and Social Life in the Three Early Kingdoms

Sangam Polity
• The main system of government during the Sangam period was hereditary monarchy. The king was
supreme and was called Ko, Mannan, Vendar, Korravan, Iraivan and Korravan.
 Ko: It was frequently used interchangeably for the monarch and god.

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 Mannan: It was used for smaller and less important king.
 Vendar: Vendan wore a crown — veyndon. Only the three crowned monarchs of Tamilakam were
vendar. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The king took the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court (avai). The imperial court or
avai was attended by a number of chiefs and officials. The king was assisted by a large body of officials
who were divided into five councils. They were:
1. Ministers (amaichar)
2. Priests (anthanar)
3. Military commanders (senapathi)
4. Envoys (thuthar)
 5. Spies (orrar)
• Kings were often guarded by armed women. The state maintained a rudimentary army. It consisted of
chariots drawn by oxen, of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an important part in war.
Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom.
 The nobles and princes or captains of army rode on elephants
 The commanders drove on horse-drawn chariots
 The footmen and horsemen wore leather sandles for the protection of their feet
• The eldest son of the king succeeded his father. The throne was inherited by him as by right and was
called Murai Mudal Kattil.
• Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem - fish for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow
for the Cheras.
• Land revenue was the chief source of state's income. Land was divided into five parts: Kurinji (hilly tracks),
Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert).

Administrative Units

• The Chola, Pandya, and Cheras kingdoms were divided into smaller regions for administrative purposes.
The entire kingdom was called Mandilam. The Pandya Mandalam, the Chola Mandalam, and the Chera
Mandalam were the original major mandalams.
• The Ur was a town while Perur was a big village and Sirur was a small village.

Minor Chieftains or Lesser Rulers (Velir)

• The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam period. They paid tribute to the three great
kings. Although they were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they were powerful and
popular in their respective regions.

Trade and Economy

• The income from agriculture, trade and spoils of war were important constituents of royal income for

313
these kingdoms.

Agriculture

• Agriculture was the chief occupation. The tip of the peninsula and the adjacent regions (especially Kaveri PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
delta) were extremely fertile. The land produced paddy, ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric,
cinnamon and a variety of fruits.
• The king had share in all this produce and income from agriculture produce is chief source of income
for the king.

Trade

• These three early kingdoms were profited from their natural resources and foreign trade. Both internal
and foreign trade was well organized in the Sangam Age.
• These kingdoms grew spices, especially pepper, which was in great demand in the western world. Their
elephants supplied ivory, which was highly valued in the West. The sea yielded pearls and their mines
produced precious stones which were sent to the west in good quantity.
• External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms. After the Roman conquest of
Egypt in 30 BCE and the discovery of monsoon in the beginning of first century CE, the trade assumed
great importance.
• South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly
valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold.
 Main items of export: cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric,
ivory products, pearls and precious stones.
 Main items of import: Gold, horses, sweet wine, Roman pottery and amphorae
• The southern kingdoms carried on lucrative trade with the Romans in the first two and a half centuries
CE. A large amount of Roman gold coins in south India indicates this flourishing trade. With the decline
of this trade, these kingdoms also began to decay.
 After the discovery of monsoon, the sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas
more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or
Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon (summer monsoon winds) and to return, they
used the winter monsoon winds.

Foreign merchants (yavanas)

• Because of the seasonal nature of the monsoon winds, and the prevailing levels of technology, long
voyages necessitated long periods of stay in host countries. These foreign merchants were called as
yavanas by Indians. These yavana merchants lived in especially ear-marked residential quarters in the
harbour area.

Handicrafts
• The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They include weaving, metal works and carpentry,

314
ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory.
• Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality. The poems mention the cotton
clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake. Uraiyur was noted for its cotton trade. There PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.

Important Ports
• The port city of Puhar (Poompuhar or kaveripattinam) became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships
entered this port with precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Muciris (Musiri
or Muchiri), Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

Arikamedu
 • Arikamedu (in Puducherry) was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands.

Key Findings
 A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, was found at the site.
 A pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained
liquids such as wine or oil) and Arretine Ware (stamped red-glazed pottery), which was named after
a city in Italy, have been found.
 Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
 Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth.

War Booty

• These three kingdoms continuously fought with one another and also with Sri Lanka. The spoils of
war further added to the royal income.
• The chiefs went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some
of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, sol-
diers, and poets. The defeated king, in order to save his honour and prestige, commit suicide by starv-
ing himself to death. This Tamil ritual of fasting till death was known as Vattakirutal.

[UPSC CSE 2023] Which one of the following explains the practice of ‘Vattakirutal' men-
tioned in Sangam poems?
a) Kings employing women bodyguards
b) Learned persons assembling in royal courts to discuss religious and philosophical matters
c) Young girls keeping watch over agricultural fields and driving away birds and animals
d) A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death
Ans: Option D

[UPSC CSE 2023] With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri
were well known as

315
a) capital cities
b) ports
c) centres of iron-and-steel making PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras
Ans: ports

Rise of Social Classes

• In the early Sangam age, there was an emergence of the brahmanas and the ruling caste, but acute caste
distinctions which appeared in later times are lacking.
• Tolkappiyam refers to four castes namely arasar (rulers), anthanar (priests), vanigar (traders) and vel-
lalar (farmers). The vellalar held the bulk of the land and divided into the rich and the poor. The rich did
 not plough the land themselves but employed labourers for this purpose. Agricultural operations were
generally carried on by members of the lowest class (kadaisiyar), whose status appears to have differed
little from that of the slave.
• Some artisans were not different from agricultural labourers. The pariyars were agricultural labourers
who also worked in animal skins and used them as mats.
• Several out-castes and forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty and lived from hand to mouth. Other
tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the San-
gam society. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• There was a sharp social inequalities in the age of the Sangam. The rich lived in houses of brick and
mortar, and the poor in huts and humbler structures. In the cities the rich merchants lived in the upper
storey of their houses.

Brahmanas in the South

• The brahmanas first appear in the Tamil land in the Sangam age. Sangam poems tells that an ideal king
was one who never hurt the brahmanas, donate generously to religious cause, and support art and culture
including poets.
• Many brahmanas functioned as poets, and in this role they were generously rewarded by the king. Ka-
rikala is said to have given one poet 1,600,000 gold pieces but this seems to be an exaggeration. Besides
gold, the poets or bards also received cash, land, chariots, horses and even elephants. The Tamil brahma-
nas took meat and wine.

Beginnings of Brahmanism

• The state and society that were formed in the Tamil land in the early centuries of the Christian era devel-
oped under the impact of Brahmanism.
• The kings performed Vedic sacrifices. The brahmanas, who were the followers of the Vedas, carried on
disputations.
• Under the influence of brahmanas, Local deities were absorbed into the Hindu pantheon and Murugam,

316
the chief local god, slowly associated with Shiva’s son, Subramaniya (Kartikeya).
• The megalithic practice of providing for the dead continued. People offered paddy to the dead. Cremation
was introduced, but inhumation followed in the megalithic phase was not abandoned. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Gods and Religion

• Murugan was the chief god worshipped by the people of the hilly region. The worship of Vishnu is also
mentioned, although it may have been a later practice.
• The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected
in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
• During the Sangam Age, both Buddhism and Jainism spread to South India. However, Buddhism had a
limited presence in Tamil Nadu, with evidence mainly from sites like Kaviripattinam and Kanchipuram,
 where Buddhist stupas were found. Jainism, on the other hand, was more prominent, as seen from
numerous cave shelters with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. While the impact on common people is unclear,
merchants and lay devotees supported Jain monks by providing shelters and offerings. In the post-San-
gam period, Jains made significant contributions to Tamil literature.

Sangam Literature
• Sangam was an assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage of Pandyan kings. According to
Tamil legends, three sangams were held at different places under the royal patronage of Pandyan kings.
First two were held in cities since destroyed, while the last was in Madurai.
• The sangam literature is the collection of work of tamil poets and authors in three sangams. As no text
of first sangam survived and only Tolkappiyam of second sangam survived, most of the available Sangam
literature was produced by third sangam (assembly).
• The period of composition of sangam literature is disputed among the scholars. However, it was most
likely composed between third century BCE to third century CE. These poems were transmitted for
several generations before they were being written down.
Sangam Place Chairman Surviving Texts
First Thenmadurai Agastya No
Second Kapadapuram Agastya Tolkappiyam
Tolkappiyar
(disciple of Tolkappiyar)
Third Madurai Nakkiar Other existing corpus of Sangam literature
such as Ettutogai, Pattuppattu and Path-
inenkilkanakku.
• The Sangam literature can roughly be divided into two groups, narrative (tells stories) and didactic
(instructional).
1. Melkannakku or Eighteen Major Works: These are narrative texts.

317
2. Kilkanakku (Pathinenkilkanakku) or Eighteen Minor Works: These are didactic works. These texts
deal with ethics and moral codes.

Melkannakku PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Melkannakku or Eighteen Major Works consist of eight anthologies (Ettutogai) and ten idylls (Pat-
tuppattu).
 Eight Anthologies (Ettutogai) are - Natrinai, Kurunthogai, Aingurunuru, Patitruppathu, Paripadal,
Kalithogai, Akananuru, Purananuru.
 Ten Idylls are - Thirumurugatrupatai, Porunaratrupatai, Sirupanatruppatai, Perumpanatruppatai, Mul-
laipattu, Maduraikanchi, Nedunalvadai, Kurinjipattu, Pattinappalai, Malaipadukadam.
• Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups:
 1. Agam or Akam (inner field) poems: Poems about emotions like love and fear
2. Puram (outer field) poems: Poems about human actiuons like bravery, valour and heroism

Tolkappiyam and Tirukkural

• Apart from the above poems, the books Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar and Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar
are also considered as Sangam literature.
 The Tolkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar and poetics. It t also deals with the society and culture
of the times.
 Tirukkural (Sacred Couplets) deals with philosophy and wise maxims. It is a collection of 1,330 cou-
plets (‘kurals’ in Tamil) and are an essential part of every Tamil household — in the same way as the
Bhagavad Gita or the Ramayana/ Ramcharitmanas are in traditional North Indian Hindu households.
Thirukkural does not name Thiruvalluvar as its author; he is named first in a later collection of verses
known as ‘Thiruvalluva Malai’.

Sage Agastya

• Agastya was a revered Indian sage of Hinduism. He is one of the seven most revered rishis (Saptarishi)
in the Vedic texts.
• Agastya was an influential scholar in diverse languages of the Indian subcontinent. He is traditionally
attributed to be the author of many Sanskrit texts. He and his wife Lopamudra are the celebrated authors
of hymns in Rigveda and other Vedic literature. Agastya appears in numerous itihasas and Puranas in-
cluding the major Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Agastya revered as the Brahman who brought Sanskrit-speaking civilization to South India. He in-
vented an early grammar of the Old Tamil language, Agattiyam (Non-extant text)and he is often revered
as the Father of Tamil Language.
• Agastya is considered to be the father of Siddha medicine. He founded the ancient Siddha Tamil medical
university, Agathiyar Thapanam in Sri Lanka.

[UPSC CDS II 2022] The Tolkappiyam is

318
a) A work of grammar.
b) A Tamil poem in praise of Rajendra Chola.
c) An ancient didactic work in Tamil. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

d) A drama composed by a Chera King

Answer: A work of grammar

Tamil Epics
• The five tamil epics belong to post-Sangam times - Silappathikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka Chintamani,
Valayapathi and Kundalakesi - describe a social and cultural set-up.
• Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics belong to fourth to sixth century CE.
They throw light on the social and economic life of the Tamils up to about the sixth century CE.
• Jivaka Chintamani is authored by a Jain ascetic Tiruttakrdevas in the early tenth century CE.

Silappadikaram

• The Silappadikaram was composed by a Jaina poet Ilango, around 1800 years ago. It is considered to
be the brightest gem of early Tamil literature.
• It is the story of a merchant named Koyalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named
Madhavi, neglecting his wife Kannagi. Later, he and Kannagi left Puhar and went to Madurai, where he
was wrongly accused of theft by the court jeweller of the Pandya king. The king sentenced Kovalan to
death. Kannagi, who still loved him, was full of grief and anger at this injustice, and destroyed the entire
city of Madurai. The author apparently seems to be a Jaina and tries to locate the scenes of the story in
all the kingdoms of the Tamil country. The epic features and praises the Cauvery river in its verses.

Manimekalai

• The Manimekalai was composed by a Buddhist poet Sittalai Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This de-
scribes the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi though this epic is of more religious than
literary interest.
 The art of writing was known to the Tamils before the beginning of the Christian era. Brahmi script
was the earliest script used for writing Tamil. More than 75 short inscriptions in the Brahmi script
have been found in natural caves, mainly in the Madurai region. They provide the specimens of the
earliest form of Tamil mixed with Prakrit words. They belong to the second-first centuries BCE when
the Jaina and Buddhist missionaries appeared in this area.

[UPSC CDS I] 2018 Who is the author of Manimekalai?

a) Kovalan
b) Sathanar
c) Ilango Adigal
d) Tirutakkatevar

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Answer: Sathanar

[UPSC CDS II 2017] Which river is praised in the fifth century Tamil epic, Silappadikaram?
a) Cauvery PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
b) Godavari
c) Saraswati
d) Ganges
Answer: Cauvery

[UPSC CDS II 2016] The epic, Silappadikaram refers to the

a) story of Rama
 b) Jaina elements in the storyline
c) culture of Sri Lankan Buddhists
d) cult of Shakti worship
Answer: Jaina elements in the storyline

Social Evolution from Sangam Texts

• Both narrative and didactic texts suggest several stages of social evolution.
• The narrative texts are considered works of heroic poetry in which heroes are glorified and perpetual wars
and cattle raids frequently mentioned. Iron objects found at many sites include wedges, flat celts, arrow-
heads, swords, lances, spikes, spearheads, and horse-bits, etc. These tools were primarily used for war
and hunting. This aligns with the Sangam texts, which speak of perpetual war and cattle raids.
• The narrative texts show that:
 The early Tamil people were primarily pastoral, hunters and fishermen although they also produced
rice.
 The three early kingdoms were probably belong to the late megalithic phase.
 Hoes and sickles occur at many sites in peninsular India but not the ploughshares.
• The narrative texts suggest that war booty was an important source of livelihood. They also state that
when a hero dies he is reduced to a piece of stone. This reminds us of the circles of stone which were
raised on the graves of the megalithic people. It may have led to the later practice of raising hero stones
called virarkal in honour of the heroes who died fighting for king and other objects. It is likely that the
earliest phase of social evolution reflected in the Sangam works relates to the early megalithic stage.
 The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected
in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
• The narrative Sangam texts also give some idea of the state formation in which the army consisted of
groups of warriors, and the taxation system and judiciary appeared in a rudimentary state. The texts also
tell us about trade, merchants, craftsmen and farmers. They speak of several towns such as Kanchi, Korkai,

320
Madurai, Puhar and Uraiyur. The Sangam references to towns and economic activities are attested by
Greek and Roman accounts, and by the excavation of the Sangam sites.
• According to the Tamil Sangam texts, different categories of people living in the villages include: PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Vellalar: Large landowners
 Uzhavar: Ploughmen
 Adimai (slaves) and Kadaisiyar (landless labourers)
• A good deal of Sangam texts, Including the didactic texts, was the work of the brahmana Prakrit-San-
skrit scholars. The didactic texts cover the early centuries of the Christian era and prescribe a code of
conduct not only for the king and his court but also for various social groups and occupations. All this
could have been possible only after the fourth century CE when brahmanas appear in good numbers
 under the Pallavas. The texts also refer to grants of villages, and also to the descent of kings from solar
and lunar dynasties.

[UPSC CSE 2022] Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient
South India is correct?
a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to material culture.
b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets.
c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior ethic.
d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as irrational.
Ans: Option B

[Prelims Practice Question] According to the Tamil Sangam texts, who among the following
were the large landowners?
a) Gahapatis
b) Uzhavars
c) Adimais
d) Vellalars
Answer: Vellalars

End of the Sangam Age

• Towards the end of the third century CE, the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. During the
period, roughly between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, the three early kingdoms disappeared and Kalabhras
occupied their territory. However, around the sixth century CE, the Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu
and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras and established their rule.

14.3. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

321
1000 BCE Beginning of Megalithic Culture
Sixth century BCE Beginning of historical period in the northern part of the In-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

dian subcontinent.
Fourth century BCE Cultural and economic contacts between the north and the
deep south gained importance.
Third century BCE The megalithic people moved from uplands to fertile river
basins and reclaimed marshy delta areas.
Third century BCE to third century CE The Sangam Age
First century CE Discovery of monsoon
Early centuries of the Christian era The Megalithic phase continued in certain areas.
14.4. Summary

The Megalithic Period (1000 BCE to Second Century BCE)

• In the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, the prehistoric age (before the written records are
available) is generally followed by the historical period around sixth century BCE. In south India, the
neolithic phase was followed by the Megalithic phase. People during this period are known primarily
from their graves (megaliths) rather than their actual settlements which are rare.
• The Megalithic phase began around 1000 BCE and continued until the second century BCE. In many
regions, it lasted from the fifth to the first century BCE. However, in certain areas, this phase persisted
even as late as early centuries of the Christian era.
• Megalithic Burials: The Megalithic people (megalith builders) encircled the grave (megalith) by stone
boulders to mark burial sites. Sometimes, they placed a single large stone standing on the ground to
indicate that there are burials beneath. While some megaliths can be seen on the surface, other meg-
alithic burials are often underground.

The Sangam Age

• The historical period in South India began around the third century BCE. During this time, Sangam
literature was likely began to be composed, villages and towns developed, and three early kingdoms
emerged. The period from third century BCE to third century CE is considered as Sangam period and
the details about this period are mainly derived from the Sangam literature.

Three Early Kingdoms: The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas

• The southern end of the Indian peninsula situated south of the Krishna river, encompassing pre-
sent-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala, was divided into three kingdoms: Chola, Pandya and Chera or
Kerala. These three kingdoms constantly fought with one another and also with Sri Lanka.
• All three kingdoms had their strongholds both in the interior and on the sea coast. These six cities

322
were the most important political centres of the period in the region.

The Pandyas

• The Pandyan Kingdom was the earliest Kingdom to be established in the Sangam age. They ruled from PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Madurai and occupied the southern-most and the south-eastern portion of the Indian peninsula, which
roughly constitute northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Korkai was their main port.
• According to tradition, Pandyas patronized the Tamil Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the
Sangam poems.

The Cholas

• The Chola kingdom controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. It was situated to the
north-east of the territory of the Pandyas, between the Pennar and the Velar rivers.
• The capital of Chola kingdom was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade and Puhar or Kaviripattinam
was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.

The Cheras

• The Chera kingdom controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region of Tamil
Nadu. It was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. Karur or Vanji was their capital
and Musiri and Tondi were their important seaports.

Sangam Literature
• Sangam was an assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage of Pandyan kings. According to
Tamil legends, three sangams were held at different places under the royal patronage of Pandyan kings.
First two were held in cities since destroyed, while the last was in Madurai.
• The sangam literature is the collection of work of tamil poets and authors in three sangams. As no text
of first sangam survived and only Tolkappiyam of second sangam survived, most of the available San-
gam literature was produced by third sangam (assembly).
• The Sangam literature can roughly be divided into two groups, narrative (tells stories) and didactic
(instructional).
1. Melkannakku or Eighteen Major Works: These are narrative texts.
2. Kilkanakku (Pathinenkilkanakku) or Eighteen Minor Works: These are didactic works. These texts
deal with ethics and moral codes.

Post-Sangam literature
• The five tamil epics belong to post-Sangam times - Silappathikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka Chintamani,
Valayapathi and Kundalakesi.
 The Silappadikaram was composed by a Jaina poet Ilango
 The Manimekalai was composed by a Buddhist poet Sittalai Sattanar
 Jivaka Chintamani is authored by a Jain ascetic Tiruttakrdevas.

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End of the Sangam Age
• Towards the end of the third century CE, the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. During the
period, roughly between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, the three early kingdoms disappeared and Kalabhras PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
occupied their territory.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 15. The Rise of Crafts, Trade, & Towns in the Post-Maurya Period

15.1. Crafts

• The period of the Shakas, Kushans, Satavahanas (200 BCE - 300 CE) and the three early Tamil states
was the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. Arts and crafts
witnessed a remarkable growth.
• Many kind of artisans are mentioned in the writings of this period.
 Pre-Maurya times texts: The Digha Nikaya mentions nearly two dozen occupations.
 Post-Maurya times texts: The Mahavastu mentions 36 kinds of workers living in the town of Rajgir.
The Milinda Panho enumerates as many as 75 occupations, 60 of which are connected with various
kinds of crafts.

Advancement and Specialization in Mining and Metallurgy

• Eight crafts were associated with the working of gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, brass, iron and precious
stones or jewels, Various kinds of brass, zinc, antimony and red arsenic are also mentioned.

Progress in Iron Technology

324
• Iron technology advanced significantly, with numerous artifacts found in Kushana and Satavahana sites.
But the Telangana region of Andhra seems to have been the richest in this respect. Iron weapons, bal-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

ance rods, socketed axes and hoes, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladles have been discovered in the
Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts of this region.
• Indian iron and steel including cutlery were exported to the Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great
prestige in Western Asia.

Advancement in Crafts and Industries

• Cloth-making, silk-weaving, and the production of arms and luxury items saw significant progress. Ma-
thura became famous for its special cloth called shataka.
• Dyeing was a thriving craft in towns of south India, with brick-built dyeing vats discovered at Uraiyur
(near Tiruchirapalli) and Arikamedu, dating to the first to third centuries CE, the period during which
handloom textile industry flourished in these towns.
• Inscriptions from this era mention various skilled artisans such as weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, metal and
ivory workers, jewellers, sculptors, fishermen, and perfumers as constructors of caves and donors of pil-
lars, cisterns, etc. to the Buddhist monks, suggesting that their crafts were in a flourishing condition.

Luxury Handicrafts
• During this period, luxury crafts like ivory work, glassmaking, and bead-cutting were prominent. The shell
industry also thrived. Excavations revealed Indian ivory artifacts in Afghanistan and Rome, similar to those
found in excavations at Satavahana sites in the Deccan.
• Roman glass items appeared in Taxila and Afghanistan, but glass-blowing techniques reached India and
attained its peak around the beginning of the Christian era. Beads of semi-precious stones and shell
beads/bangles were also common during this period.

Terracotta Craftsmanship in Urban Centres

• Urban handicrafts during the Kushana and Satavahana periods included the production of terracotta
items, which have been found in large quantities at various sites.
• Yelleshwaram in Nalgonda district of Telangana stands out for its abundance of terracotta pieces and
the moulds used to create them. Similar finds have been discovered at Kondapur, near Hyderabad. These
terracotta items were primarily used by the upper classes in towns. However, as urban centres declined
during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, the popularity of such terracottas faded.

Coin-minting
• Coin-minting was a significant craft during this period, and it saw the production of a wide variety of
coins made from gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead, and potin. In addition to legitimate coins, craftsmen
also made counterfeit Roman coins.

Shrenis

325
• Artisans during this period were organized into guilds called shrenis. Evidence suggests there were at
least two dozen such guilds. Most artisans mentioned in inscriptions were located in the Mathura region
and the western Deccan, areas connected to trade routes leading to western ports. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• In second century CE, in Maharashtra, Buddhist lay devotees donated money to guilds of potters, oil-
millers, and weavers to provide robes and essentials for monks. Similarly, in Mathura, a chief donated
money to a flour-makers' guild, using its monthly income to feed 100 Brahmins daily.

Craftsmen in Villages
• In literary texts, craftsmen are mostly associated with towns, but some excavations show that they also
inhabited villages. In a village settlement in Karimnagar in Telangana, carpenters, blacksmiths, gold-
smiths, potters, etc. lived in separate quarters, and agricultural and other labourers lived at one end.
15.2. Foreign Trade

• During this period, India's trade with the eastern Roman Empire flourished. Initially, trade occurred
overland, but disruptions caused by the Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas shifted the focus to sea routes
by the first century CE. Although the Parthians of Iran imported iron and steel from India they presented
great obstacles to India's trade with the lands further west of Iran.
• The discovery of monsoon winds allowed sailors to travel faster, connecting Indian ports like Broach or
Bharukaccha or Barygaya (Bharuch port, Gujarat), Sopara (Nallasopara, Maharashtra), Arikamedu
(Puducherry), and Tamralipti (Tamluk, West Bengal) with Roman markets. Broach emerged as the most
important port, handling goods from the Satavahana, Shaka, and Kushan kingdoms.
• The emergence of the Roman empire as the dominant power in the Western world gave a fillip to India's
trade from the first century BCE onwards. The trade between India and Rome was primarily focused on
luxury goods, not everyday items for the common people. The Romans first started trading with the
southern parts of India, where their early coins have been found. The Romans imported spices from south
India.
 India exported luxury items like spices, pearls, jewels, precious stones, iron goods, and textiles to
Rome. The main exports were: pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spikenard, malabathrum, diamonds, saffron,
precious stones, and tortoise shell.
 Woods: Ebony, teak, blackwood, sandalwood and bamboo.
 Aromatics: Spikenard, bdellium, costus, lycium and saffron.
 Spices: Pepper, malabathrum, and cinnabar.
 Dyes: Indigo and lac.
 Semi-precious stones: Agate, red jasper, carnelian, and onyx.
 Textiles: Silk, muslin and mallow cloth.
 Cutlery was important for the higher class.
 In addition to items directly from India, some goods were brought from China and Central Asia and

326
then sent to the Roman Empire. Silk travelled from China to Rome through the Silk Route but was
later redirected to Indian ports due to the Parthian Empire's control over parts of Iran. From India, silk

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

was then shipped to the Roman Empire, making India a key transit point in the silk trade.
 In return for the exports, India imported both essential and luxury items. The Periplus refers to frank-
incense and tortoise shell in exchange for grains. The main imported items include wine, dates, glass
beads, tin, lead, copper, gold, and silver coins, wine amphorae and red glazed Arretine (which have
been found at Arikamedu (near Pondicherry) and several other places), and Red Polished Ware. Lead,
used by the Satavahanas for making coins, was likely imported from Rome in coiled strips.
• Both the Satavahanas and the Kushanas benefited from trade with Rome, though the Satavahanas likely
profited the most.
 [UPSC CDS II 2018] In the first century AD, which among the following was not a major item
of Indian exports to Rome?
a) Pepper
b) Spikenard
c) Tortoiseshell
d) Nutmeg
Answer: Nutmeg

Positive Balance of Trade

• The most significant Roman export to India was gold and silver coins. Roman gold and silver coins, found
in large numbers in south India, highlight the trade imbalance and leave no doubt that India was a gainer
in its trade with the Roman empire.
• Around 150 finds of Roman coins have been discovered in India, mostly south of the Vindhyas, with a
total of fewer than 6,000 coins found. However, this number likely doesn't reflect the full extent of Roman
coin circulation in India.
• Roman writer Pliny, in his Natural History, complained about Rome being drained of gold due to trade
with India. This may have been an exaggeration but by 22 CE, complaints about the high spending on
pepper from India were already emerging. The Romans also criticized the high prices they paid for Indian
steel cutlery. The loss of Roman gold was so significant that measures were eventually taken in Rome to
ban trade in Indian pepper and steel.
• The Romans played the major role in Indo-Roman trade and shipping, with Roman. While Roman traders
resided in south India, evidence of Indians in the Roman Empire is scarce, with only a few Tamil inscriptions
found in Egypt. Overall, India benefited significantly from this trade.

15.3. Money Economy

• During this period, the money economy deeply influenced the daily life of the common people, espe-

327
cially in towns and their suburbs. This development coincided with the flourishing arts and crafts, and the
country’s thriving trade with the Roman Empire.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The silver and gold currency that came to India from Rome was likely used for big transactions, given
the intrinsic value of the Roman gold coins. While the Indo-Greek rulers in the north issued some gold
coins, the Kushanas produced gold coins in large numbers. However, it’s incorrect to assume that all
Kushana gold coins were minted from Roman gold. This gold may have been extracted from the gold
mines in Sindh, procured from Karnataka or from the gold mines of Dhalbhum in South Bihar, or
obtained from Central Asia.
• Due to contact with Rome, the Kushanas minted gold coins in the Roman dinar style, which became
abundant under the Gupta rule. However, gold coins were likely not used for daily transactions. In-
stead, everyday transactions were carried out with coins made of lead, potin, or copper.
  The Kushans issued the largest number of copper coins in northern and north-western India.
 The Andhras issued numerous lead or potin coins in the Deccan.
 Lead and copper deposits were abundant in Andhra, while gold was found in Karnataka.
 Some early coins from the Sangam age and punch-marked coins were discovered in the southern
peninsula.
 Copper and bronze coins were also used widely by other regional dynasties such as the Nagas in
central India, the Yaudheyas in eastern Rajasthan, and the Mitras in areas like Kaushambi and Mathura.

15.4. Urban Settlements

• The growth of crafts, commerce, and the increasing use of money led to the prosperity of many towns
during this period, especially in the Kushana era.
• The material remains from the Kushana period reflect urbanization at its peak. This is also true for
towns in the Shaka kingdom of Malwa and western India. Ujjain, the most important town in the region,
thrived due to its strategic location (a key junction for two major trade routes) and the export of agate
and carnelian stones. However, during the Gupta period, many structures were poorly built, often using
recycled Kushan bricks.
• Towns in the Satavahana kingdom thrived, similar to those under the Shakas and Kushanas. Prosperous
towns like Tagar, Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu, and
Kaveripattanam flourished in western and southern India. The decline of towns in Maharashtra, Andhra,
and Tamil Nadu began around the middle of the third century CE or later.

Decline of Towns in the Kushana and Satavahana Empires

• Towns prospered in the Kushana and Satavahana empires because they carried on thriving trade with
the Roman empire. Towns in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh thrived because the centre of Kushana
power lay in north-western India and most Kushan towns in India lay on the north-western or uttarapatha
route passing from Mathura to Taxila, which ensured security on the routes. However, the empire's

328
decline in the third century CE significantly impacted these towns.
• Similarly, in the Deccan, the Roman Empire's trade ban in the third century CE led to the decline of

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

towns, as artisans and merchants could no longer sustain their livelihoods. Archaeological findings in the
Deccan suggest a decline in urban settlements after the Satavahana period.

15.5. Silk Road

• The Silk Road was a network of trade routes that started in China and passed through Central Asia and
Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia. It was a major conduit for trade between the Roman Empire and
China.
• It was named after the silk that was extensively traded along the route. It was used by traders to trade
spices, grains, fruits, animal skin, metal, precious stones, etc.
The Craze for Silk
• When Chinese silk first reached Rome, it caused a sensation. The Romans had never seen such rich, glossy
colours of silk, making silk a highly valued fabric in most societies. Soon, silk garments became the
height of fashion amongst the aristocracy. The Romans could not get enough silk to satisfy the demand,
so silk began to fetch high prices.
• Besides the high demand, silk was expensive because it had to be brought from China along dangerous
roads, through mountains and deserts. Traders also had to pay tolls to people controlling the trade routes.

Chinese Monopoly
• Making silk is a complicated process involving extracting raw silk from silkworm cocoons, spinning it
into threads, and weaving it into cloth. These techniques, first developed in China around 7,000 years
ago, were closely guarded secrets for thousands of years. This allowed the Chinese to maintain their
monopoly and reap immense profits by exporting silk along the Silk and Spice Routes.

Prosperity of Kushanas
• Some kings tried to control large portions of the Silk Route and its branches. This was because they
could benefit from taxes, tributes, and gifts from traders travelling along the route. In return, they often
protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers.
• During the first century CE, the Chinese Empire protected traders on the eastern Silk Route, while the
Roman Empire ensured safety on the western end. However, the lands in between were controlled by
the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India. The Kushanas greatly benefited from
tolls collected from traders. Their wealth helped them build a prosperous empire, and they were the
first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a large scale.

15.6. Summary

Crafts

329
• The period of the Shakas, Kushans, Satavahanas (200 BCE - 300 CE) and the three early Tamil states was
the most flourishing period in the history of crafts and commerce in ancient India. Arts and crafts
witnessed a remarkable growth. During this period: PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Iron technology advanced significantly.
 Cloth-making, silk-weaving, and the production of arms and luxury items saw significant progress.
 Luxury crafts like ivory work, glassmaking, and bead-cutting were prominent.
 Artisans during this period were organized into guilds called shrenis.

Foreign Trade
• During this period, India's trade with the eastern Roman Empire flourished. Initially, trade occurred
overland, but disruptions caused by the Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas shifted the focus to sea routes
by the first century CE.
• The discovery of monsoon winds allowed sailors to travel faster. Broach emerged as the most important
port, handling goods from the Satavahana, Shaka, and Kushan kingdoms.
• The trade between India and Rome was primarily focused on luxury goods, not everyday items for the
common people. India was a gainer in its trade with the Roman empire.

Money Economy
• During this period, the money economy deeply influenced the daily life of the common people, espe-
cially in towns and their suburbs. The silver and gold currency that came to India from Rome was likely
used for big transactions. Everyday transactions were carried out with coins made of lead, potin, or
copper.

Urban Settlements
• The growth of crafts, commerce, and the increasing use of money led to the prosperity of many towns
during this period, especially in the Kushana era.

Decline of Towns

• Towns prospered in the Kushana and Satavahana empires because they carried on thriving trade with
the Roman empire. Towns in Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh thrived because the centre of Kushana
power lay in north-western India. Roman Empire's trade ban in the third century CE and decline of
Kushana power led to the decline of towns.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

330
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 16. The Gupta Empire

• After the end of the Maurya empire, Pushyamitra Shunga established the Sunga dynasty in the Gan-
getic Valley. During this period, the Satavahanas and the Kushans emerged as two large political powers,
which kept the Northwest India, North India and Deccan stable. However, both these empires came to an
end in the middle of the third century CE.
• In about 275 CE, the Gupta dynasty (mid third century CE to mid sixth century CE) came to power on
the ruins of the Kushan empire. The Guptas expanded their rule over much of the former Kushan and
Satavahana territories. Though their empire was smaller than the Mauryas, they kept north India politi-
cally united for more than a century from 335 to 455 CE. Their original kingdom included Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar, but Uttar Pradesh was likely more significant, as early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been
mainly found in that state. Uttar Pradesh seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated.
With Prayag (Prayagraj or Allahabad) as their center, they expanded into surrounding regions.
• The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh and may have been of
vaishya origin. They likely succeeded the Kushanas without much time gap, as Gupta antiquities imme-

331
diately follow Kushan remains in many places.
• It is likely that the Guptas learnt the use of saddle, reins, buttoned-coats, trousers and boots from the

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Kushans. All these gave them mobility and made them excellent horsemen. During the Kushanas, horse-
chariots and elephants had ceased to be important. Like the Kushans, Guptas prioritized horsemen over
chariots and elephants. While some Gupta kings were praised as chariot warriors, their true military
strength lay in use of horses.
• The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages. Their core region, Madhyadesha (Bihar and Uttar Pra-
desh), had fertile land and access to iron ores in central India and south Bihar. They also took advantage
of their proximity to North India which carried on silk trade with the Eastern Roman empire. These factors
helped them establish rule over Anuganga (middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (Prayagraj or Allahabad),
Saketa (Ayodhya), and Magadha, eventually expanding into an all-India empire.
16.1. Sources

• There are plenty of source materials to reconstruct the history of the Gupta period. They include literary,
epigraphical and numismatic sources.

Literary sources
• The Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings.
• The Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Vishakhadatta provide information re-
garding the rise of the Guptas. Devichandraguptam narrates the contest for the throne between Rama-
gupta and Chandragupta-II.
• Dharmasastras such as Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti were probably written during the Gupta
period. They provide a lot of useful information about that period.
• The Kaumudi Mahotsava, a sanskrit play lays down the political condition of Magadha on the eve of
ascendancy of the Guptas.
• The account of Chinese traveller Fa Xian (Fa hien) provides information about the social, economic and
religious conditions of the Gupta empire during the reign of Chandragupta II.
• Chinese traveller I-Qing (I-tsing), who travelled in India after the Gupta age refers to Maharaja Srigupta
(probably the founder of the Gupta dynasty), who created a shrine for the use of Chinese pilgrims near
Mrigasikhava known as the Temple of China.

Epigraphical sources
• Apart from these literary sources, there are inscriptions including prashastis which provides information
about the Gupta rulers.
 Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayaga Prashasti): It is the most important source for the reign of
Samudragupta.
 Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription: It records the achievements of Chandragupta II.
 Udayagiri inscriptions: Cave 6 and Cave 8 inscriptions at Udayagiri Caves mention the rule of Chan-

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dragupta II, his victory over western region and his patronage of art and architecture.
 Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta: It provides valuable information about the Guptas, espe-
cially Skandagupta. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Prashasti was composed in praise of kings in particular, and patrons in general, by poets. Prashasti
became far more important from the time of the Guptas. While historians often attempt to draw factual
information from prashastis, those who composed and read them often treasured them as works of
poetry rather than as accounts that were literally true.
• Besides these inscriptions there are a number of copperplates (Tamrapatra), which record the land
grants mostly to the religious institutions or to Brahmanas. These Copper Plates mention the names of
donor, donees and donation.
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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Numismatic sources
• The coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends and figures. These coins provide interesting details
about the titles and sacrifices performed by the Gupta monarchs. Samandragupta's image with veena
is found on the coins issued by him, indicating that he was a patron of art.

Monuments
• In ancient India, art was mostly inspired by religion. The temples of the Gupta period give us an idea of
the religious beliefs of the people.
• The Guptas were supporters of Brahmanism. The earliest temples having a small square room (garbha-
griha) with images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods were built during this period.
 A temple at Deogarh is dedicated to the worship of Shiva and Vishnu.
 A temple at Aihole is dedicated to the worship of Durga.

16.2. Chandragupta I (319/320-334 CE)

• Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. He was succeeded by his son, Ghatotkacha. Both
were rulers of a small kingdom in Magadha and adopted the title maharaja. Ghatotkacha was succeeded
by his son, Chandragupta I, the first important king of the Gupta dynasty.
• Chandragupta I was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharajadhiraja (the
great king of kings). He started the Gupta era in 319-20 CE, which marked the date of his accession.
• Chandragupta I married Princess Kumara devi of the prestigious Lichchhavi gana (probably from Nepal),
which strengthened his position. The Guptas were possibly vaishyas, and hence marriage in a kshatriya
family gave them prestige. Chandragupta I started expanding through conquest and ended up ruling
from Magadha to Prayag.
 Chandragupta I minted gold coins with images of his queen. The coins also had the legend 'daughter
of the Lichchhavis' inscribed on them.

16.3. Samudragupta (335-380 CE)

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta I's son and successor Samudragupta. He
also used the grand title of maharajadhiraja.
• Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of Sam-
udragupta. The inscription is engraved at Allahabad on the same pillar which carries the inscriptions of
the peace-loving Ashoka. In a long inscription the poet enumerates the peoples and countries that were
conquered by Samudragupta.
Samudragupta was the opposite of Ashoka. Ashoka believed in a policy of peace and non-aggression,

334
•
but Samudragupta delighted in violence and conquest.

Allahabad Pillar Inscription

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Allahabad Pillar Inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. It is written in classical Sanskrit, using the
Nagari script.
• It consists of 33 lines composed as a Kavya by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta. It describes
the personality and achievements of Samudragupta.

Allahabad Pillar
• The Allahabad pillar stands now inside the Allahabad Fort. This pillar is a unique monument of Indian
history as it bears the inscriptions of three great rulers of India - Ashoka, Samudragupta and Jahangir.
• Harishena praised Samudragupta as a great warrior, poet (Kaviraja), and equal to the gods — Kubera

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(the god of wealth), Varuna (the god of the ocean), Indra (the god of rains), and Yama (the god of death).
• Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers, and tells us about Samudragupta's policies towards
them. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
1. The rulers of Aryavarta: There were nine rulers, mostly belong to the Naga family. Samudragupta
defeated them and their kingdoms were made a part of his empire.
2. The rulers of Dakshinapatha: There were twelve rulers. Samudragupta defeated them but allowed
them to rule again. However, they had to acknowledge his suzerainty.
3. The inner circle of neighbouring states: It includes Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of
gana sanghas in the north- west. They brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court.
4. The rulers of the outlying areas: It includes the descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the
ruler of Sri Lanka, who submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage.
 Excerpt from the Prayaga Prashasti
• He was without an antagonist on earth; he, by the overflowing of the multitude of (his) many good
qualities adorned by hundreds of good actions, has wiped off the fame of other kings with the soles
of (his) feet; (he is) Purusha (the Supreme Being), being the cause of the prosperity of the good and
the destruction of the bad (he is) incomprehensible; (he is) one whose tender heart can be captured
only by devotion and humility; (he is) possessed of compassion; (he is) the giver of many hundred-
thousands of cows; (his) mind has received ceremonial initiation for the uplift of the miserable, the
poor, the forlorn and the suffering; (he is) resplendent and embodied kindness to mankind; (he is)
equal to (the gods) Kubera (the god of wealth), Varuna (the god of the ocean), Indra (the god of rains)
and Yama (the god of death)...
• ...... Whose body was most charming, being covered with the plenteous beauty of the marks of hun-
dreds of scars caused by battle-axes, arrows, spikes, spears, barbed darts, swords, iron clubs, javelins,
barbed arrows, long arrows and many other weapons.
• If we believe the Allahabad inscription, Samudragupta was never defeated. Due to his bravery and military
skill, British historians called him the "Napoleon of India." However, since Samudragupta came first,
Napoleon should have been called the "Samudragupta of France."
• After these military victories, Samudragupta performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice, perhaps for the first
time after the one conducted by Pushyamitra Shunga centuries back. He also issued gold and silver
coins with the legend 'restorer of the Aswamedha'.

Extent of Samudragupta’s Empire

• By the end of Samudragupta's reign, the Gupta Empire covered Bihar, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
and Punjab.
• Samudragupta forcibly unified the greater part of India under him, and his power was felt in a much
larger area. He brought nearby states under his direct rule, but reinstated faraway kings to rule in his

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name. Kingdoms from Gandhara in the north, the Shakas of Gujarat and Malwa, the Pallavas of Kanchi-
puram, Sri Lanka, Assam, and Nepal all acknowledged his suzerainty.
• The prestige and influence of Samudragupta spread even outside India. According to a Chinese source,
Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build a Bud- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

dhist temple at Gaya. This was granted, and the temple was developed into a huge monastic establish-
ment.

[UPSC NDA I 2023] Who among the following composed the Prayag Prashasti' of Samudra-
gupta ?
a) Harishena
b) Chand Bardai
 c) Vishakhadatta
d) Kalidasa
Answer: Harishena

[UPSC CDS II 2021] Who among the following ancient Indian kings was praised in glowing
terms in the Prayaga Prashasti?
a) Ashoka
b) Harshavardhana
c) Samudragupta
d) Bindusara
Answer: Samudragupta

[UPSC CDS I 2016] Which one among the following was not an attribute of Samudragupta
described in Prayag Prashasti?
a) Sharp and polished intellect
b) Accomplished sculptor
c) Fine musical performances
d) Poetical talent of a genius
Answer: Accomplished sculptor

16.4. Chandragupta II (380-412 CE)

• Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II. However, according to some scholars, the
immediate successor of Samudragupta was Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta II.
• According to Devichandragupta, after Samudragupta’s death, his son Ramagupta became king but suf-
fered defeat by the Shakas and forced to surrender his wife, Dhruvaswamini. His younger brother, Chan-
dragupta II, killed the Shaka king in disguise, later killed Ramagupta, married Dhruvaswamini, and took
the throne.

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• Chandragupta II extended his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.

Marriage alliance
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Chandragupta II married his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince in central India. After the prince’s
death, she ruled as regent for her young son, promoting Gupta interests. Thus Chandragupta II exercised
indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India. This alliance helped Chandragupta-II in
his campaign against the Shakas in western India.

Conquest of Western India

• Chandragupta II defeated Rudrasimha III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap and conquered western
Malwa and Gujarat. After this victory he performed the horse sacrifice and assumed the title Sakari,
 meaning, 'destroyer of Sakas'. He also adopted the title of Vikramaditya, which had been first used by
an Ujjain ruler in 57 BCE as a mark of victory over the Shaka shatrapas of western India.
• The conquest of western Malwa and Gujarat gave Chandragupta II the western sea coast, famous for
trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain became
an important commercial city and soon became the alternative capital of the Guptas.
• The conquest of western India, enabled the Gupta empire to control trade with the western countries.
The western traders poured Roman gold into India in return for Indian products. The great wealth of the
Gupta Empire was reflected in the variety of gold coins issued by Chandragupta II.

Navaratna
• The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was full of learned people. Navaratna (nine gems or nine luminar-
ies) include: Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Varahmihira, Dhanavantri, Araruchi, Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Ve-
labhatt, Shanku.

Fa Xian's Visit
• Fa Xian (Fa Hien) was the first of the three renowned Chinese pilgrim travellers to visit India between the
fifth and seventh centuries. Other two includes Xuan Zang or Hsuan Tsang (seventh century) and I-Qing
or I-tsing (seventh century).
• Fa Xian visited India during the Chandragupta II’s reign for around nine years, probably 400-410 CE. The
main purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts from
India. Out of his nine years stay in India, he spent six years in the Gupta empire. He stayed in Pataliputra
for three years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.
• Fa Xian provides valuable information on the religious, social and economic condition of the Gupta em-
pire. According to him, Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India but in the
Gangetic valley it was in a state of neglect. He refers to the Gangetic valley as the 'land of Brahmanism'.
He mentioned the unsatisfactory state of some of the Buddhist holy places like Kapilavastu and Kusina-

338
gara. According to him the economic condition of the empire was prosperous. Although his account is
valuable in many respects, he did not mention the name of Chandragupta II. He was not interested in
political affairs. His interest was primarily religion. He assessed everything from the Buddhist angle. His
observations on social conditions are found to be exaggerated. Yet, his accounts are useful to know the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

general condition of the country.

16.5. Successors of Chandragupta II

• After Chandragupta II came his son Kumaragupta I (Shakraditya) (c. 415-455 CE). His reign was marked
by general peace and prosperity. Under his patronage, the Gupta Empire reached new cultural heights.
He founded Nalanda University, which became a globally renowned institution. Kumaragupta also is-
sued numerous coins, inscribed his achievements across the empire, and performed an Ashvamedha
 sacrifice. Towards the end of his reign, the Hunas from Central Asia attempted to invade India through
the Hindukush mountains.
• Kumaragupta's son Skandagupta (c. 455-467 CE) was the one who really faced the Hun invasion. He
spent most of his time battling them, as they wreaked havoc while sweeping down and across northern
India. He fought successfully against the Hunas and saved the empire.

Bhitari Pillar Inscription

• The Bhitari pillar inscription is a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script on a pillar in the village of Bhitari,
Uttar Pradesh. It is associated with the Gupta Empire ruler Skandagupta (455–467 CE).
• The inscription provides the information about:
 The genealogy of the Gupta kings.
 The achievements of Skandagupta such as defeating the Pushyamitras and the Hunas.
 Skandagupta’s military prowess.

[UPSC CDS I 2014] The University of Nalanda was set up by which Gupta ruler?
a) Kumaragupta II
b) Kumaragupta I
c) Chandragupta II
d) Samudragupta
Answer: Kumaragupta I

16.6. Gupta Administration

• The Gupta rulers assumed a number of titles such as Rajadhiraja, Maharajadhiraja, Parambhattarka,
Paramesvara, Samrat and Chakravartin.
• Monarchy was the form of government during the Gupta period. The king was the head of the state as
well as that of administration.

339
• Succession: The kingship was hereditary but the succession to kingship was not based on the practice
of primogeniture. Instead the dying King selected the best fitted prince amongst his sons.

Decentralized Administration Under the Guptas

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The Gupta administration differed from the Mauryan system, which had strict central control and involve-
ment in the minute details of governance. The Guptas followed a more decentralized, feudal model.
• Gupta rulers did not require to maintain elaborate administrative machinery as that of the Mauryas.
This was because:
 Many administrative tasks were handled by feudatories, beneficiaries, and local elites like artisans
and merchants
 They didn’t heavily regulate economic activities on a large scale.
• Their bureaucracy was simpler, with kumaramatyas as key officials, appointed by the king and likely paid
in cash.
• The king was assisted in his administration by a council of ministers (Mantri Parishad) consisting of
princes, high officials and feudatories. The decisions of the council of Ministers were conveyed to the
King through an Amatya.

Decentralization of Administration in Post-Mauryan India

• The post-Mauryan period witnessed a gradual decline in centralized administrative power due to
several factors:
1. Feudatory Relations: The Satavahanas and Kushanas established feudatory relationships with
smaller kingdoms, reducing direct central control.
2. Land Grants: Land grants, especially to religious beneficiaries, created autonomous administra-
tive units in the countryside, weakening the central authority.
3. Autonomous City Governments: Many northern Indian cities had self-governing administrations.
Guilds of traders from these cities even issued coins, a power traditionally reserved for the sover-
eign.
• These developments collectively contributed to the decentralization of power during this period.

Provincial and Local Administration

• The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration.
 Provinces (Bhuktis): The empire was divided into divisions (bhuktis), and each bhukti was placed
under the charge of an uparika.
 District (Vishaya): The bhuktis were divided into districts (vishayas), which were placed under the
charge of vishayapati.
 In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which again were divided into villages, which
were placed under the charge of Gramikas.

340
Village and Urban Administration
• The village headman became more important in Gupta times. He managed the village affairs with the

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

assistance of elders. No land transactions could be effected without their consent.
• In the urban administration, organised professional bodies were given considerable share. Their con-
sent to land transactions was considered necessary. The artisans, merchants and scribes served on
these bodies and conducted the affairs of towns.

Army
• The king maintained a standing army, supported by troops from feudatories. Horse chariots became
less important, while cavalry and horse archery became prominent in military tactics.

Judicial System
• The judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas than in earlier times. Several law books
such as Narada Smriti and Brihaspati Smriti were compiled in this period. For the first time civil and crim-
inal laws were clearly demarcated.
• Like earlier times, many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas. It was the duty of the king
to uphold the law. The king tried cases with the help of brahmana priests.
• The guilds of artisans, merchants and others were governed by their own laws.

Source of Revenue
• During the Gupta period, land taxes increased while taxes on trade decreased. The king likely collected
one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.
• When the royal army passed through the countryside, locals had to feed it. The peasants had to supply
animals, foodgrains, furniture, etc. for the maintenance of royal officers on duty in rural areas. In central
and western India, villagers also had to perform forced labor, called vishti, for the army and officials.

[UPSC CSE 2019] With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period,
which one of the following statements is correct?
a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.
b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.
d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer.
Ans: Option A

Gupta Emperor and the Feudal Lord

• Apart from the north Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and part of Madhya Pradesh, which were ruled directly
by the officers appointed by the Gupta kings, the kingdom was held by feudatory chiefs, which were
defeated by the king but often reinstated and left to rule.

Samantas

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• During the Gupta period, samantas were given land grants. Samantas sustained themselves through
local resources, including land revenue. They paid homage and provided military support to rulers.
Powerful samantas could become kings when there was a weakening of central authority, while weak PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
rulers could be reduced to subordinates.

Land Grants
• The land grants to religious institutions or Brahmanas and administrators was an important feudal
development that surfaced under the Guptas. First introduced by the Satavahanas in the Deccan in the
early centuries of the Common Era, this practice became common under the Guptas.
• Land grants were tax-free forever, allowing recipients to collect taxes from peasants all the taxes which
could have otherwise gone to the emperor.
• The villages granted to the beneficiaries could not be entered by royal agents, retainers, etc. The benefi-
ciaries had the authority to punish criminals.
 An agrahara was land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from paying land revenue
and other dues to the king, and was often given the right to collect these dues from the local people.
• The impact of land grants is a subject of heated debate among historians.
 Some feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages to extend agriculture
to new areas.
 Others suggest that land grants were indicative of weakening political power: as kings were losing
control over their samantas, they tried to win allies by making grants of land. They also feel that
kings tried to project themselves as supermen because they were losing control: they wanted to pre-
sent at least a façade of power.

Guilds
• The guilds of artisans, merchants and others were flourished well in Gupta times. These guilds, especially
those of merchants, enjoyed certain immunities. They could look after the affairs of their own members
and punished those who violated the customs and law of the guild.

Fa Xian on Gupta Administration

• Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Xian's account on the Gupta administration provides useful information. Fa
Xian characterises the Gupta administration as mild and benevolent. Overall, the administration was
more liberal than that of the Mauryas.
• According to Fa Xian:
 There was no state interference in the individual's life. There were no restrictions on people's move-
ments and they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom.
 There was no spy system. The administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for trav-
elers, and there was no fear of thieves.

342
 People were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
 Punishment was not severe, imposing a fine was a common punishment and capital punishment
was rare.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
16.7. Trade and Economy

• According to Fa Xian, Magadha was full of cities & its rich people supported Buddhism and gave charities.

Decline In Trade
• Compared to the earlier period, there was a decline in long-distance trade during the Gupta period.
 Due to the decrease in demand for Indian silk abroad, in the middle of the fifth century a guild
of silk-weavers left their original home in Gujarat and migrated to Mandasor, where they gave up
their original occupation and took to other professions.
  Around the middle of the sixth century, the people of the Eastern Roman empire learnt from the
Chinese the art of growing silk, which adversely affected the export trade of India.
 Mahasthan or Mahasthangarh (identified by inscriptions as Pundravardhana) in Bangladesh was an
urban centre during the Gupta period. It consists of the ruins of the ancient city of pundranagara.

Gupta Coinage
• In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called dinaras in their
inscriptions. The obverses of coins are carved with the images of the kings, , indicating the latter's love
for war and art and on the reverse are carved deities. The goddess Lakshmi is also represented on the
Gupta coins as the wife of Vishnu.
• Gold content of these coins are not as pure as Kushan. These coins served to pay the officers in the army
and administration and to meet the needs of the sale and purchase of land.
• After the conquest of Gujarat, the Guptas issued a good number of silver coins mainly for local ex-
change, in which silver occupied an important position under the Western Kshatrapas. In contrast to
those of the Kushans, the Gupta copper coins are very few. This would suggest that the use of money
did not touch the common people so much as it did under the Kushans.
• From the sixth century CE, the discovery of gold coins significantly declined, leading to a debate about a
possible economic crisis.
 Some suggest that with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, long-distance trade declined,
and this affected the prosperity of the states, communities and regions that had benefited from it.
 Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging around this time. Though finds
of coins of that time are fewer, coins continue to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts. The reduced
coin finds may indicate fewer hoarded coins rather than decreased circulation and coins might have
been actively circulating in the economy instead of being stored.

[UPSC CDS II 2020] Which one of the following statements about Gupta coins is not correct?
a) Gupta kings issued large number of gold coins known as Dinar.

343
b) Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta and Budhagupta issued silver coins.
c) The obverses of coins are carved with the images of the kings and on the reverse are carved deities.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

d) The largest number of coins issued by the Guptas were of copper
Answer: The largest number of coins issued by the Guptas were of copper

Emergence of Priestly Landlords

• During the Gupta period, priestly landlords emerged, especially in Madhya Pradesh, often at the expense
of local peasants. Land grants to priests brought new areas under cultivation, but tribal peasants were
pushed to a lower status. In central and western India the peasants were also subjected to forced labour.

16.8. Social Life

• The Guptas, originally Vaishyas, gained legitimacy by giving generous land grants to Brahmanas, who
recognized them as Kshatriyas. The Brahmanas portrayed Gupta kings as divine, comparing them to
Vishnu, the protector and preserver of the world. These land grants strengthened Brahmana dominance,
as they enjoyed many privileges, as recorded in the Narada Smriti (5th century CE). This mutual support
helped the Guptas to legitimise their power.

Caste System
• During the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid. The Brahmanas occupied the top ladder of the
society. They were given enormous gifts by the rulers as well as other wealthy people.
• The Gupta period saw a proliferation of castes into numerous sub-castes due to two main factors:
 Assimilation of Foreigners: A large number of foreigners were integrated into Indian society, each
group being recognized as a distinct caste. Since most foreigners arrived as conquerors, they were
granted Kshatriya status. For example, the Hunas, who came to India in the late 5th century, were
later recognized as one of the thirty-six Rajput clans. Even today, some Rajputs carry the title Huns.
 Incorporation of Tribal Communities: Land grants led to the assimilation of many tribal communi-
ties into the Brahmanical social order. Tribal chiefs were given a respectable origin, while ordinary
tribespeople were placed in lower castes. As each tribe transformed into a caste, the caste system
expanded further — a process that, in some forms, continues to this day.

Improvement in the Status of Shudras

• The social position of Shudras improved during the Gupta period due to changes in their economic status.
• Religious Participation: Shudras were allowed to listen to epics like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and
the Puranas. They could now worship deities like Krishna, which was previously restricted. They were also
permitted to perform certain domestic rituals, benefiting the priests through ritual fees.
• Economic Advancements: By the seventh century, Shudras were increasingly seen as agriculturists,
marking a shift from their earlier roles as servants, slaves, and laborers.

344
Untouchables in the Gupta Period
• During the Gupta period, the untouchables increased in number, especially the chandalas. Their disa-
bilities so glaring that it attracted the attention of the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian. He wrote that the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
chandalas lived outside the village and engaged in occupations like meat dealing and scavenging.
Whenever they entered the town, they had to sound a clapper in the streets so that people could avoid
seeing them because the road was supposed to have been polluted by them.
• Chinese pilgrim, Xuan Zang (c. seventh century), observed that executioners and scavengers were forced
to live outside the city.

Women in Gupta Society

• The status and role of women during the Gupta period was marked by limited freedoms and increased
patriarchal control.

Religious Access
• Women were allowed to listen to the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas, and advised to
worship Krishna.

Education
• Only a few wealthier women had some education.

Social and Economic Restrictions

• Higher-caste women lacked independent livelihoods, while lower-caste women (Vaishyas and Shudras)
had more economic freedom through agricultural and domestic work.
• The members of the higher orders came to acquire more and more land which made them more polyg-
amous and more property minded. They began to treat women as property, so much so that a woman
was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The first recorded instance of Sati — a widow’s
self-immolation dates back to 510 CE during the Gupta era. However, the sati practice was not yet wide-
spread.

Marriage and Property Rights

• The main reason for the subordination of women belonging to the upper varnas was their complete
dependence on men for their livelihood. They lacked proprietary rights. However, the oldest Smritis
state that the gifts of jewellery, ornaments, garments and similar other presents made to the bride on the
occasion of her marriage were considered her property.
• Gupta and post-Gupta law-books substantially enlarged the scope of these gifts. Katyayana (6th-century
lawgiver) holds that women could sell and mortgage her immovable property along with her stridhana.
Despite these provisions, patriarchal practices remained dominant, with women largely excluded from

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land inheritance in most communities.

[UPSC CDS II 2017] Which one of the following statements about the Gupta period in Indian
History is not correct?
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
a) Sanskrit language and literature, after centuries of evolution, reached what has been described as
a level of classical excellence through royal patronage.
b) The status of women was redefined. They were entitled to formal education and hence there were
women teachers, philosophers and doctors. Early marriage was prohibited by law and they were
given the right to property.
c) Decentralization of administrative authority was impacted by increased grants of land and villages
with fiscal and administrative immunities to priests and temples.
 d) Land grants paved the way for feudal developments and emergence of serfdom in India, resulting
in the depression of the peasantry
Answer: Option B

16.9. Religion

Resurgence of Hinduism
• The Gupta period marked a great resurgence of Hinduism, which regained prominence after centuries
of Buddhist dominance under the Mauryas and Kushanas.
• In the post-Maurya times, the notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism and similar ideas being
developed in Vaishnavism (a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped as the principal deity)
and Shaivism (a tradition within which Shiva was regarded as the chief god) which are part of Hinduism.
In both of these traditions, there was growing emphasis on the worship of a chosen deity. In such worship
the bond between the devotee and the god was visualised as one of love and devotion (bhakti).

Vaishnavism
• Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism centred around the worship of Vishnu or Bhagavat. It overshadowed
Mahayana Buddhism by Gupta times.
• Vaishnavism developed around the various avatars or incarnations of the Vishnu. Ten avatars were rec-
ognised within the tradition and history was presented as a cycle of ten incarnations. It was believed
that whenever the social order faced crisis, Vishnu appeared in an appropriate form to save it. Each in-
carnation of Vishnu was considered necessary for the salvation of dharma which was identical with the
varna-divided society and the institution of patriarchal family protected by the state.
 Dashavatara: Ten avatars of Vishnu (in sequence) includes – Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Narasimha, Va-
mana, Parashurama, Rama, Krishna , Buddha and Kalki.
 Guptas were devotees of Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu. The great epic Mahabharata was recast
to show that Krishna was identical with Vishnu.

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• Bhagavatism was marked by:
 Bhakti: Loving devotion to the deity.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Ahimsa: People worshipped the image of Vishnu, and offered it rice, sesamum, etc. the doctrine of
non-killing of animals suited the agricultural society. Out of their aversion to killing of animals some
of them took only vegetarian food.
 Inclusivity: It was open to women, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Bhagavatism was liberal enough to attract foreigners. It also appealed to artisans and merchants who
became important under the Satavahanas and Kushans.
• By the sixth century Vishnu became a member of the trinity of gods along with Shiva and Brahma.
However, he was a dominant god in his own right. The Bhagavata Purana was written during this period
to promote Vishnu’s worship.
Shaivism
• Shaivism centred around the worship of Shiva. A few Gupta kings were worshippers of Shiva, the god
of destruction. However, it gained prominence after the early Gupta phase and was not as important as
Vishnu in the early phase of the Gupta rule.

Religious Literatures
• The religious literatures like Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas were reinterpreted, expanded and
written down during this period.

Idol Worship
• Idol worship in the temples became a common feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period onwards.
Agricultural festivals observed by different classes of people were given religious significance, benefiting
the priestly class.

Other Religions
• The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects. We find no ex-
ample of the persecution of the followers of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Buddhism no longer received royal patronage. Though no longer at its peak, it still flourished. Fa Xian
gives the impression that this religion was in a very flourishing state. But really it was not so important in
the Gupta period as it was in the days of Ashoka and Kanishka. However, some stupas and viharas were
constructed, and Kumaragupta I founded the Buddhist university of Nalanda.
• Jainism was also popular, particularly in the western and southern India (Karnataka). The great Jain
Council was held at Valabhi during this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambaras was written.

Nalanda Mahavira
• Kumaragupta I (Shakraditya) (c. 415-455 CE) founded the Nalanda Mahavira (great monastery), a centre
for Mahayana Buddhism. It was active from the fifth to thirteenth century CE. Though the Hun king

347
Mihirakula destroyed it in the early sixth century, it was later rebuilt & continued to flourish for centuries.
• Nalanda University taught a wide range of subjects, including the Vedas, Hindu philosophy, grammar,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

medicine, logic, mathematics & astronomy. However, the study of Mahayana Buddhism was compul-
sory.
• The history of Nalanda has primarily been written based on Buddhist manuscripts, and accounts of Chi-
nese and Tibetan pilgrims.
1. Chinese monk Fa Xian (Fa Hien), who journeyed through Magadh in the beginning of the fifth century
CE, did not mention Nalanda mahavihara.
2. The most detailed description of ancient Nalanda was provided by the seventh century Chinese
pilgrim Xuanzang (Hsuan Tsang or Mokshadeva). He travelled across India from 630 – 645 CE in
search of Buddhist manuscripts and teachings. He spent five years in Nalanda. He estimated that
more than 10,000 students students resided in the monastery. However, based on archaeological
evidence from the ancient university’s ruins, many scholar consider his writings an exaggration.

348
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 3. Chinese pilgrim I-Qing, who stayed in the mahavihara from 675-685 CE, mentions that over 3,000
people lived in Nalanda.
• There were many reasons for the decline of Nalanda Mahavira. This includes foreign invasions, reduced
royal patronage and overall decline in Buddhism.

16.10. Art and Architecture

• The Gupta period is often regarded as a Golden Age of Indian Culture due to remarkable achievements
in art, science, and literature. Some scholars even describe it as a renaissance, though it's more accurately
seen as the culmination of centuries of intellectual and cultural growth, as there was no dark period
before the Gupta rule
• In Gupta times, architecture flourished with the construction of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples. How-
ever, over time, Hindu temples became larger and more elaborate, while Buddhists continued to carve
smaller cave structures. Most of the architecture of this period had been lost due to foreign invasions
like that of Hunas. Yet, the remaining temples, sculptures and cave paintings provide an idea about the
grandeur of the Gupta art.
• The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons. The pillar
has not rusted in all these years though completely exposed to sun and rain for so many centuries.

Buddhist Art in Gupta Period

• Two metre high bronze image of the Buddha of Gupta period was recovered from Sultanganj near
Bhagalpur (Bihar). It is now kept at Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery, England.
• The Mahabodhi temple of Buddha in Bodhgaya is a reconstruction of a Gupta-period temple
• The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is provided by the Ajanta paintings. Although
these paintings covered the period from the first to the seventh century CE, most of them belong to
Gupta times. They depict various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and the previous Buddhas. The
artists used the technique of shading to give a three-dimensional quality. Some of the paintings are

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extremely naturalistic. However, there is nothing to show that the Guptas were the patrons of the Ajanta
paintings.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The paintings of Bagh caves near Gwalior also belong to the Gupta period.

Ajanta Caves
• The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE
to the fifth century CE in Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar or Aurangabad (Maharashtra, India).
• The caves at Ajanta are excavated out of a vertical cliff above the left bank of the river Waghora in the
hills of Ajanta. They are thirty in number, including the unfinished caves (caves 5, 24, 29), of which five
(caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29) are chaityagrihas and the rest viharas (monastery).
The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta are considered as masterpieces of Buddhist religious art.
 • The caves were built in two phases:
1. Caves of the first phase: The first phase coincides with the rule of the Satavahana dynasty from
about the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE.
 Six caves (caves 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A) were excavated in the first phase by Hinayana/Therava-
din followers of Buddhism, wherein Buddha was worshipped in symbolic form. These caves are
simple and austere, and carry mural paintings sparsely. The chaityagrihas are characterized by a
vaulted ceiling and an apsidal end, the façade dominated by a horseshoe-shaped window, known
as chaitya window.
2. Caves of the second phase: The second phase corresponds to the Vakataka dynasty with their
Asmaka and Rishika feudatories in the fifth to sixth centuries CE.
 In the second phase, the rupestral activity was dominated by the Mahayana followers of Bud-
dhism, where Buddha was worshipped in an idol form. The walls were embellished with exquisite
mural paintings, executed in tempera technique; and pillars, brackets, door jambs, shrines and fa-
cades were richly decorated with sculptural splendour.

Hindu temple architecture

• In ancient India, art was mostly inspired by religion. The temples of the Gupta period give us an idea of
the religious beliefs of the people.
• The Guptas were supporters of Brahmanism. The earliest temples having a small square room (garbha-
griha) with images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods were built during this period.
 The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh near Jhansi in Uttar Pradesh depicts Vishnu's ten avatars.
 The terracotta-and-brick temple in Bhitargaon near Kanpur is one of the oldest remaining terra-
cotta Hindu shrine with a roof and a high Sikhara. The walls are decorated with terracotta panels
depicting aquatic monsters, Shiva and Vishnu etc.
 A temple at Aihole (Karnataka) c. sixth century CE is dedicated to the worship of Durga. The Varaha
sculpture in the Durga temple depicts the Varaha or boar avatar of Vishnu rescuing the earth god-

350
dess,
 The depiction of Vishnu as Varaha (boar-headed incarnation) in Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

belong to Gupta period.
• The Gupta period was poor in architecture. All we get are a few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh
and a stone temple.

Udayagiri Caves
• The Udayagiri Caves are twenty rock-cut caves near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. These rock-cut caves,
belong to Gupta period, are primarily dedicated to Hindu gods Vishnu and Shiva. The caves were dis-
covered by Alexander Cunningham in the 1870s.
• Cave 5 is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and features a huge sculpture of him in his Varaha (boar) incarnation.
According to the Puranas, Vishnu took the shape of a boar in order to rescue the earth, which had sunk
into water.

[UPSC CDS II 2023] Where is the famous Gupta period Deogarh Temple situated ?
a) Uttar Pradesh
b) Madhya Pradesh
c) Chhattisgarh
d) Rajasthan
Answer: Uttar Pradesh

16.11. Literature

• For thousands of years, Indians preserved their vast religious and cultural knowledge through oral tradi-
tion, passing texts unchanged across generations by listening and repeating. These texts were finally
written down during the Gupta period.
• The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. It was the court language of the
Guptas. The best of the Sanskrit literature belonged to the Gupta age. During this time, Nagari script had
evolved from the Brahmi script.

Secular Literature
Author Work
Shudraka Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart: It deals with the love affair of
a poor brahmana with the beautiful daughter of a courtesan. It is con-
sidered one of the best works of ancient drama.
Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam
Bharavi Kiratarjuniya: It is the story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva
Dandin Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita

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Vishnu Sharma Panchatantra
Subandhu Vasavadatta

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Amarasimha (Buddhist author) Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicon)
Kalidasa Abhijnana Shakuntalam (Drama)
Malavikagnimitra (Drama)
Meghaduta (Poem)
Vikramorvashiyam (Drama)
Raghuvamsha (Poem)
Kumarasambhav (Poem)
Ritusamhar (Poem)

Sanskrit Grammar
• The Gupta period saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period
is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a luminary
in the court of Chandragupta II.

Kalidasa
• Kalidasa is known for his plays depicting life in the king's court. An interesting feature about these plays
is that the king and most brahmins are shown as speaking Sanskrit, while women and men other than
the king and brahmins use Prakrit. His most famous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, is the story of the
love between a king named Dushyanta and a young woman named Shakuntala. It is considered to be
one of the best hundred literary works in the world. An interesting description of the plight of a poor
fisherman is found in this play.

A verse from the Meghaduta

• Here is a verse from Kalidasa's best-known poem, the Meghaduta, in which a monsoon cloud is imag-
ined to be a messenger between lovers who are separated from one another.
• "A cool breeze, delightful as it is touched With the fragrance of the earth Swollen by your showers,
Inhaled deeply by elephants, And causing the wild figs to ripen, Will blow gently as you go."

Religious Literature
• During this period, there was an increase in the production of religious literature.
1. The epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana which began as oral traditions were reinterpreted, expanded
and eventually compiled during the gupta period.
2. The Bhagavadgita forms an important part of the Mahabharata. It is treasured in Hinduism as the
essence of Hindu philosophy. It teaches that a person must carry out the righteous action (duties assigned
to him) under all circumstances without any desire for reward.
3. The Puranas follow the lines of the epics, and the earlier ones were finally compiled in Gupta times.
There are eighteen Puranas. The most important among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and

352
Matsya Puranas.
4. The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the law books such as Narada Smriti, Parashara
Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti and Katyayana Smriti, in which social and religious norms were written in verse. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
The phase of writing commentaries on the Smritis begins after the Gupta period.

Scientific Literature
• The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and
medicine.

Astronomy and Mathematics

• Aryabhata was a great mathematician and astronomer during the Gupta period. He wrote books Ary-
abhatiyam and Surya Sidhant. Aryabhata stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the
earth on its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a
scientific explanation for eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a
circle, which is nearly as accurate as the formula we use today.
• Varahamihira and Brahmagupta were some other mathematicians and astronomers of Gupta period.
• Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems. one of this was, Romaka
Sidhanta, which was influenced by Greek ideas. His other works include Brihadsamhita and Brihadjataka.

Medicine
• In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Sum-
mary of the eight branches of medicine).
• Vagbhata was the last of the great medical trio of ancient India. The other two scholars Charaka and
Susruta lived before the Gupta age.

[UPSC CSE 2020] With reference to the scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider the
following statements:
1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra Shunga.
2. Amarasimha is associated with Harshavardhana.
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta - II.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Ans: 3 only

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16.12. The Decline of the Gupta Empire

Hunas invasion
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Towards the end of the reign of Kumaragupta I (c. 415-455 CE), the Hunas from Central Asia attempted
to invade India through the Hindukush mountains. Kumaragupta's son Skandagupta (c. 455-467 CE) was
the one who really faced the Huna invasion. He spent most of his time battling them, as they wreaked
havoc while sweeping down and across northern India. He fought successfully against the Hunas and
saved the empire.
• Although Skandagupta initially resisted the Hunas invasion, his weaker successors failed to stop them.
The Huns, skilled horsemen and archers, possibly using metal stirrups, achieved success in both Iran and
India. By 485 CE, they had occupied eastern Malwa, central India, Punjab, and Rajasthan, significantly
 shrinking the Gupta Empire by the early sixth century. Although Yashodharman of Malwa later overthrew
Huna rule, he also challenged Gupta authority. In 532 CE, he erected victory pillars to mark his conquest
of much of northern India. Though his rule was short-lived, it dealt a severe blow to the already weakened
Gupta Empire.

Rise of the Feudatories

• The Gupta empire was further undermined by the rise of the feudatories. The governors appointed by
the Gupta kings in north Bengal and their feudatories in south-east Bengal tended to become independ-
ent. The late Guptas of Magadha established their power in Bihar. Alongside them the Maukharis rose to
power in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and had their capital at Kanauj. It seems that by 550 CE Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh had passed out of Gupta hands.
• By the beginning of the sixth century we find independent princes issuing land grants in their own
rights in northern Madhya Pradesh, although they use the Gupta era in dating their charters. The rulers
of Valabhi established their authority in Gujarat and western Malwa. After the reign of Skandagupta, i.e.
467 CE, hardly any Gupta coin or inscription has been found in western Malwa and Saurashtra. The loss
of western India, which seems to have been complete by the end of the fifth century, must have deprived
the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce and crippled them economically. In north India
the princes of Thanesar established their power in Haryana and then gradually moved on to Kanauj.

Land Grants
• The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army on account of the
growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, which was bound to reduce their
revenues. Their income may have further been affected by the decline of foreign trade. The migration
of a guild of silk-weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in 473 CE and their adoption of non-productive profes-
sions show that there was not much demand for cloth produced by them. The advantages from Gujarat
trade gradually disappeared. After the middle of the fifth century the Gupta kings made desperate at-

354
tempts to maintain their gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold in it. But this proved of no
avail. Although the rule of the Imperial Guptas lingered till the middle of the sixth century CE, the imperial
glory had vanished a century earlier.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
16.13. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

275 CE The Gupta dynasty came to power.
319-20 CE Chandragupta I started the Gupta era.
335-380 CE Reign of Samudragupta
380-412 CE Reign of Chandragupta II
400-410 CE Fa Xian visited India
415-455 CE Reign of Kumaragupta I (Shakraditya)
455-467 CE Reign of Skandagupta

16.14. Summary

• The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh and may have been of
vaishya origin. In about 275 CE, they came to power on the ruins of the Kushana empire.
• Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Chandragupta I was the first important king of the
Gupta dynasty. He started the Gupta era in 319-20 CE, which marked the date of his accession.

Samudragupta (335-380 CE)

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta I's son and successor Samudragupta.
He performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice, perhaps for the first time after the one conducted by
Pushyamitra Shunga centuries back. He also issued gold and silver coins with the legend 'restorer of
the Aswamedha'.
• Allahabad Pillar Inscription, engraved on an Asokan pillar describes the personality and achievements
of Samudragupta. It is written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It was composed as a Kavya
by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta. If we believe the Allahabad inscription, Samudragupta
was never defeated. Due to his bravery and military skill, British historians called him the "Napoleon of
India." However, since Samudragupta came first, Napoleon should have been called the "Samudra-
gupta of France."

Chandragupta II (380-412 CE)

• Chandragupta II extended his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
• Chandragupta II defeated Rudrasimha III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap and conquered western
Malwa and Gujarat. He assumed the title Sakari, meaning, 'destroyer of Sakas'. He also adopted the
title of Vikramaditya,

355
• The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was full of learned people. Navaratna (nine gems or nine lumi-
naries) include: Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Varahmihira, Dhanavantri, Araruchi, Ghatakarna, Kshapranak,
Velabhatt, Shanku.
• Fa Xian visited India during the Chandragupta II’s reign for around nine years, probably 400-410 CE. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Kumaragupta I (c. 415-455 CE)

• After Chandragupta II came his son Kumaragupta I (Shakraditya) (c. 415-455 CE). His reign was marked
by general peace and prosperity. He founded Nalanda University. Towards the end of his reign, the
Hunas from Central Asia attempted to invade India through the Hindukush mountains.

Skandagupta (c. 455-467 CE)

• Kumaragupta's son Skandagupta was the one who really faced the Hun invasion. He spent most of his
time battling them, as they wreaked havoc while sweeping down and across northern India. He fought
successfully against the Hunas and saved the empire.

Gupta Administration
• Monarchy was the form of government during the Gupta period. The kingship was hereditary but the
succession to kingship was not based on the practice of primogeniture. Instead the dying King selected
the best fitted prince amongst his sons.
• The Guptas followed a more decentralized and feudal model. The king maintained a standing army,
supported by troops from feudatories. The judicial system was far more developed under the Guptas
than in earlier times.
• Samantas were given land grants. Samantas sustained themselves through local resources, including
land revenue. They paid homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could
become kings when there was a weakening of central authority, while weak rulers could be reduced to
subordinates.

Social and Economic Life

• Compared to the earlier period, there was a decline in long-distance trade during the Gupta period.

Social Life

• The caste system was rigid.

• The social position of Shudras improved during the Gupta period due to changes in their economic
status.
• Untouchables increased in number, especially the chandalas. Their disabilities so glaring that it at-
tracted the attention of the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian.
• The status and role of women during this period was marked by limited freedoms and increased pa-
triarchal control.

356
Religion
• Resurgence of Hinduism: The Gupta period marked a great resurgence of Hinduism, which regained
prominence after centuries of Buddhist dominance under the Mauryas and Kushanas. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism centred around the worship of Vishnu or Bhagavat. It overshadowed
Mahayana Buddhism by Gupta times.
 Shaivism centred around the worship of Shiva.
• The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects.
 Buddhism no longer received royal patronage.
 Jainism was also popular, particularly in the western and southern India (Karnataka).
Art and Architecture
• The Gupta period is often regarded as a Golden Age of Indian Culture due to remarkable achievements
in art, science, and literature. In Gupta times, architecture flourished with the construction of Hindu,
Buddhist, and Jain temples.

Buddhist Art in Gupta Period

• Bronze image of the Buddha, Sultanganj (Bihar).

• The Mahabodhi temple of Buddha in Bodhgaya.
• Ajanta paintings depicting various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and the previous Buddhas.
• The paintings of Bagh caves .

Hindu temple architecture

• The Guptas were supporters of Brahmanism. The earliest temples having a small square room (garbha-
griha) with images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods were built during this period.
 The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh near Jhansi in Uttar Pradesh depicts Vishnu's ten avatars.
 The terracotta-and-brick temple in Bhitargaon near Kanpur is one of the oldest remaining terra-
cotta Hindu shrine with a roof and a high Sikhara.
 A temple at Aihole (Karnataka) is dedicated to the worship of Durga. The Varaha sculpture in the
Durga temple depicts the Varaha or boar avatar of Vishnu rescuing the earth goddess.
 The depiction of Vishnu as Varaha (boar-headed incarnation) in Udayagiri Caves (Madhya Pradesh)

Literature
• For thousands of years, Indians preserved their vast religious and cultural knowledge through oral
tradition, passing texts unchanged across generations by listening and repeating. These texts were
finally written down during the Gupta period.
 The epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana compiled during the gupta period.
 The earlier puranas were compiled in Gupta times.

357
 Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicon) was compiled by Amarasimha.
 Abhijnana Shakuntalam was most famous play of Kalidasa.
 Aryabhata, a great mathematician and astronomer wrote books, Aryabhatiyam and Surya Sidhant. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems.
 Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine) was authored by Vagbhata.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 17. The Reign of Harsha

• In the sixth century CE, the decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder
and disunity in North India, which again split up into several kingdoms.
 In certain regions, new kingdoms emerged. Example: The Hunas established their supremacy over
Kashmir, Punjab and western India from about 500 CE onwards.
 In other areas, the dynasties which had earlier accepted Gupta suzerainty now declared their inde-
pendence. For example, the Maitrakas of Saurashtra, the Maukharis of Kanauj, the Pushyabhutis of
Thaneswar, and the Gaudas under Shashanka.
• Among the several dynasties that were emerging, the Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar (Kurukshetra district,
Haryana) was the most important. Harshavardhana, the most famous ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty,
extended his authority over all other feudatories and established a larger kingdom in north India in the
seventh century CE.

17.1. The Emergence of New Dynasties in Post-Gupta India

• By the seventh century, there were big landlords or warrior chiefs in different regions of the subconti-
nent. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates or samantas. They were expected to
bring gifts for their kings or overlords, be present at their courts and provide them with military support.
• As samantas gained power and wealth, they declared themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-man-

358
daleshvara (the great lord of a "circle" or region) and so on. Sometimes, they asserted their independence
from their overlords.
• The important feudatories of the Guptas, which became regional kingdoms of north India in the post- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Gupta period, include:
 The Maukharis of Kanauj: The Maukharis established their independent rule over Kanauj in the mid-
sixth century CE. Yajnavarman was the founder of Maukharis. Grihavarman, the famous Maukhari
ruler, married Rajyashree, the sister of Harsha. After his death, Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal) took
Kanauj, but his rule was short-lived, and Harsha soon replaced him.
 The Maitrakas of Saurashtra (Fifth to Eighth century CE): With the decline of the Gupta empire, in
the fifth century CE, the Maitrakas established their rule in Saurashtra (Gujarat) with Valabhi as their
capital. Bhattarka was the founder of the dynasty. Dhruvasena II was the most important ruler of
 the Maitrakas. He was defeated by Harsha and became his vassal (subordinate ruler). The Maitrakas
continued to rule until the middle of the eighth century, when Arab attacks weakened their power.
 Later Guptas of Magadha: The Later Guptas had no connection with the Gupta main line. They
were eventually ousted from Magadha by the Maukharis of Kanauj.

[UPSC CSE 2021] From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early
seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India?
1. The Guptas of Magadha
2. The Paramaras of Malwa
3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1, 2 and 5
b) 1, 3, 4 and 6
c) 2, 3 and 4
d) 5 and 6
Ans: 1, 3, 4 and 6

17.2. Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar (500 – 647 CE)

• Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas. After the Hunas invasions, they assumed independ-
ence. Pushyabhuti, a Shaivite ruler, was the founder of the Pushyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty, which was
based around Thaneswar (Haryana).
• Prabhakaravardhana (580 - 605 CE) was the first important king who actually laid the foundation of the
Pushyabhuti dynasty. His capital was Thaneswar (Haryana). He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and

359
Paramabhattaraka.
• After Prabhakaravardhana's death, his elder son Rajyavardhana (605 - 606 CE) became ruler. Rajya-
vardhana faced problems right from the time of his accession. His sister, Rajyashree, married Grihavar- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
man, the Maukhari ruler of Kanauj. Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa, allied with Shashanka, the ruler of
Gauda (ruler of Bengal) and killed Grihavarman. Immediately on hearing this news, Rajyavardhana
marched against Devagupta and killed him. However, before he could return to his capital, he was killed
by Shashanka, who now occupied Kannauj and imprisoned Rajyashree.
• After the death of Rajyavardhana, Harsha (606 - 647 CE) became the ruler of Thaneswar in 606 CE and
started the Harsha era. His first responsibility was to rescue his sister and avenge the killings of his
brother and brother-in-law (Grihavarman).
• In the meantime, Rajyashree escaped into forests and was about to immolate herself (burn herself by
throwing into the fire). Harsha, with the help of forest chiefs like Vyaghra-ketu, Bhukampa and Nirghata
and the ascetic teacher Divakamitra, rescued his sister. He drove out Shashanka from Kanauj, unified the
region and later shifted his capital to Kanauj.

Decline of Pataliputra and the Rise of Kanauj

• By the seventh century, Pataliputra declined, and Kanauj rose to prominence due to shifting economic
and military factors.
• Pataliputra’s power came from trade, commerce, and toll collection, supported by rivers. However, as
trade declined and money became scarce, the state shifted to land grants for paying officials and sol-
diers. This reduced Pataliputra’s importance, as economic and administrative power moved away from
commercial centers.
• During this time, military camps (skandhavaras) and strategically located places gained significance, and
Kanauj, located in the Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh, emerged as an important city.
• Kanauj became a center of political power because:
1. Unlike Pataliputra, which was located on a plain and harder to fortify, Kanauj was situated on an
elevated area, making it easier to fortify.
2. Kanauj’s central location in the doab allowed rulers to control both eastern and western regions
efficiently, using land and water routes for troop movement.

Harsha's Military Conquests

• Harsha vs Shashanka: Shashanka of Gauda, ruler of Bengal, was a devout Shaiva known for cutting
down the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya. After the death of Grihavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kanauj, he took
Kanauj, but Harsha drove him out and made Kanauj his capital. After Shashanka’s death, towards the
end of his reign, Harsha conquered both Magadha and Bengal (Shashanka’s empire).
• Harsha vs Other rulers: Harsha fought against the rulers of Sindh, Gujarat (Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi),

360
Kashmir and Odisha. All rulers submitted to Harsha.
• Harsha vs Pulakesin II: The most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Cha-
lukya ruler Pulakesin II. Pulakesin II defeated the Harsha and stopped the southward march of Harsha
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
on the Narmada River. This was the only defeat of Harsha in his life. After defeating the Harsha, Pu-
lakesin II assumed the title Paramesvara.
 Both the accounts of Hiuen Tsang and the Aihole inscriptions of Pulakesin II provide the details of this
campaign. Both confirm the victory of Pulakesin II.
• Thus, Harsha established his hold over the whole of north India, excluding Kashmir.
 The regions modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control.
 The peripheral states such as Kashmir, Sindh, Valabhi and Kamarupa (roughly present day state of
Assam) acknowledged his sovereignty.
• According to some scholars, Harsha's empire extended from Kamarupa to Kashmir and from the Hima-
layas to the Vindhyas. He was referred to as the lord of North India or Sakalottarapathanath by Hiuen
Tsang.
• Harsha is often called the last great Hindu emperor of India, but this is not true. He was neither a staunch
Hindu nor the ruler of the entire country. In his early years, he was a devout Shaiva, but later, under the
influence of Hiuen Tsang, he embraced Mahayana Buddhism. His direct rule was limited to North India
(excluding Kashmir), though his influence extended far beyond his core territories.

361
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

[UPSC CSE 2003] Emperor Harsha’s Southward march was stopped on the Narmada River
by
a) Pulakeshin-I
b) Pulakeshin-II
 c) Vikramaditya-I
d) Vikramaditya-II
Ans: Pulakesin II

Sources for the Study of Harsha

Literary Sources
• The chief literary sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his times include Harshacharita and Hsuan
Tsang's Account and the dramas written by Harsha.

Harshacharita

• Harshacharita is a biography of Harsha in Sanskrit, written by Banabhatta, the court poet of Harsha. It
was not a complete biography. It covers only a part of Harsha’s life and his achievements. This gives us
the genealogy of Harsha, his campaign against Shashanka and ends with his becoming king.

Hsuan Tsang's Account

• Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (Hiuen Tsang) travelled across India from 630 – 645 CE in search of Buddhist
manuscripts and teachings. Hiuen Tsang was the royal guest of Harsha. He spent a lot of time at Harsha's
court and left a detailed account of what he saw.
• Hsuan Tsang's account throws light on the economic and social life as well as the religious sects of the
period. His account is much richer and more reliable than that of Fa Xian (Fa Hien).

Dramas Written by Harsha

• The dramas written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika, also provide useful
information about Harsha and his reign. The Ratnavali and Priyadarshika deal with love and court in-
trigues, whereas Nagananda refers to the charity and magnanimity of Harsha.

Epigraphical Sources
Apart from the literary sources, the following epigraphic records also give us information about Harsha

362
•
and his reign.
 Madhuban copper plate inscription (Uttar Pradesh): The inscription is written in Sanskrit using the
Brahmi script. It records the land grants to Brahmanas and traces the genealogy of Harsha up to four PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

generations.
 Sonpat inscription (Haryana)
 Banskhera Copper Plate inscription (Uttar Pradesh): It provides information about the administra-
tion and economy of Harsha. It contains the signature of Harsha.
 Aihole inscription of Pulkesin II: Aihole inscription is a sanskrit poem written in Sanskrit in praise
of Chalukya ruler Pulkeshin-II (Prashasti). It was composed by Ravikirti, a Jain follower and court
poet of Pulkeshin-II. It mentions the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin II. There is an interesting play of
 words in the poem. Harsha means happiness. The poet says that after this defeat, Harsha was no
longer Harsha!

[UPSC CAPF 2022] Which one of the following books was authored by Harshavardhana?
a) Harshacharita
b) Kadambari
c) Ratnavali
d) Gitagovinda
Answer: Ratnavali

Administration Under Harsha

• Decentralisation: Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did, except that his
administration had become more feudal and decentralised.
• Military Strength: Harsha had 100,000 horses and 60,000 elephants, much more than the Mauryas, who
had 30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants. Harsha possessed a larger army because every feudatory con-
tributed to it.
• Land Grants: Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state. In
addition, Harsha started the practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land. This might
be the reason we do not have too many coins issued by Harsha.
• Law and Order: Law and order was not well maintained
 Roads were unsafe due to robbery. Hsuan Tsang, about whom special care may have been taken by
the government, was robbed of his belongings.
 Severe punishments were inflicted for crimes. Ordeals by fire, water, and poison were the instru-
ments used to determine the innocence or guilt of a person.
 Robbery was considered to be a second treason for which the right hand of the robber was ampu-
tated. However, it seems that under the influence of Buddhism, the severity of punishment was miti-

363
gated, and criminals were imprisoned for life.

Society and Economy under Harsha

• Both Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times of Harsha. The fourfold division of PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
the society – Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras - was prevalent.
1. The Brahmanas were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the
kings.
2. The Kshatriyas were the ruling class.
3. The Vysyas were mainly traders.
4. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Shudras practiced agriculture, which is significant. The earlier texts
represent them as serving the three higher varnas.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 364
• Hiuen Tsang wrote about the untouchables, such as scavengers, executioners, etc. They lived outside
the villages and took garlic and onion. They announced their entry into the town by shouting loudly so
that people might keep away from them.
• The position of women was not satisfactory. The remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly
among the higher castes. The system of dowry had also become common. The practice of sati was also
prevalent.
• Land tax remained one-sixth of the produce, but additional taxes like grazing and pond taxes were im-
posed. Trade and commerce declined during this period, as seen in the reduced number of trade cen-
ters, fewer coins, and less active merchant guilds. Hiuen Tsang noted that traders had to pay duties at
ferries and barrier stations.

[UPSC CSE 2013] The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India rec-
orded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the
following statements is/are correct?
1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
2. Regarding punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water, and poison were the instruments used
to determine the innocence or guilt of a person.
3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 2 and 3 only

Religion

365
• In his early life, Harsha was a devout Shaiva, but later, under the influence of Hiuen Tsang, he became
a Mahayana Buddhist.

Kanauj Assembly PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Harsha convened a grand assembly at Kanauj to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang and publi-
cise the doctrines of Mahayana.
• The Assembly was attended by Hiuen Tsang, twenty rulers, including the Kamarupa ruler Bhaskaravarman
and several thousand priests belonging to different sects.
• The discussion in the conference was initiated by Hiuen Tsang, who explained the values of the Mahayana
doctrine and established its superiority over others. He challenged the audience to refute his arguments.
But none came forward for five days, and then his theological rivals conspired to take his life.
• Suddenly, violence broke out, and there was also an attempt on the life of Harsha. It was brought under
control, and the guilty were punished. On the final day of the Assembly, Hiuen Tsang was honoured with
costly presents.

Prayag Assembly
• Harsha followed a tolerant religious policy. Once in five years, he convened a gathering of represent-
atives of all religions and honoured them with gifts and costly presents.
• One such assembly, which was attended and mentioned by Hiuen Tsang, was held at Prayag at the con-
fluence of the river Ganga and the Yamuna. Some scholars considered this as the first Kumbha Mela
that was written about.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha generously donated his wealth to all religious sects. He was so lavish
that he emptied the treasury and even gave away his own clothes and jewels.

Cultural Progress
• The art and architecture of Harsha’s period are very few and mostly followed the Gupta style. The brick
temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur (Chhattisgarh) is assigned to the period of Harsha.
• Harsha erected thousands of stupas and established travellers' rests all over his kingdom. He also erected
monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists. Harsha patronised the Nalanda University with his liberal
endowments.
• Harsha encouraged arts and literature. His court was adorned with scholars, including Banabhatta, who
wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Other literary figures in Harsha’s court were Matanga Divakara,
Mayur (author of Mayur Shataka and Surya Shataka and Barthrihari (poet, philosopher and grammarian).
• Harsha himself authored three plays - Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda. He also played Veena.

17.3. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

366
580 CE Prabhakaravardhana became the ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
606 CE Harsha became the ruler of Thaneswar and started the Harsha era.
630 – 645 CE Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (Hiuen Tsang) travelled across India.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
17.4. Summary

• In the sixth century CE, the decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder
and disunity in North India, which again split up into several kingdoms. The important feudatories of
the Guptas, which became regional kingdoms of north India in the post-Gupta period, include the
following:
 Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar
 The Maukharis of Kanauj
  The Maitrakas of Saurashtra
 Later Guptas of Magadha

Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar (500 – 647 CE)

• Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas. After the Hunas invasions, they assumed independ-
ence.
• Pushyabhuti: The founder of the Pushyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty.
• Prabhakaravardhana (580 - 605 CE): The first important king who actually laid the foundation of the
Pushyabhuti dynasty.
• Harsha (606 - 647 CE): The most famous ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. He became the ruler of
Thaneswar in 606 CE and started the Harsha era.

Literary Sources

1. Harshacharita is a biography of Harsha in Sanskrit, written by Banabhatta, the court poet of Harsha.
2. Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (Hiuen Tsang) was the royal guest of Harsha. He spent a lot of time at
Harsha's court and left a detailed account of what he saw.
3. The dramas written by Harsha, namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika, provide helpful infor-
mation about Harsha and his reign.

Harsha's Military Conquests

• Harsha vs Shashanka: Harsha drove out Shashanka from Kanauj and made Kanauj his capital. After
Shashanka’s death, towards the end of his reign, Harsha conquered both Magadha and Bengal
(Shashanka’s empire).
• Harsha vs Other rulers: Harsha fought against the rulers of Sindh, Gujarat (Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi),
Kashmir and Odisha. All rulers submitted to Harsha.
• Harsha vs Pulakesin II: Pulakesin II defeated the Harsha and stopped the southward march of Harsha
on the Narmada River. This was the only defeat of Harsha in his life.

367
Administration Under Harsha

• Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did, except that his administration had
become more feudal and decentralised. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Harsha possessed a larger army because every feudatory contributed to it.

• Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered to the state. In addition,
Harsha started the practice of rewarding and paying officers with land grants.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 18. South Indian Kingdoms

• By the sixth century CE, the decline of the Gupta Empire led to political fragmentation in North India,
breaking it into several smaller kingdoms. However, around the same time, many large and powerful
kingdoms emerged in Deccan and South India. Among these, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas
of Kanchi (Tondaimandalam), and the Pandyas of Madurai were the three dominant powers.
• From the sixth to the eighth century CE, the history of peninsular India was marked by a prolonged
struggle for supremacy between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Pandyas,
who were in control of the Madurai and Tirunelveli districts of Tamil Nadu, remained a lesser force in this
conflict.

368
• In the eighth century CE, the Chalukyas of Badami fell to the Rashtrakutas, while the Pallavas were
eventually overthrown by the Cholas in the ninth century CE.
• The Cholas became prominent in the ninth century. They defeated the Pallavas of Kanchi, ending their PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
rule and weakened the Pandyas. During this period, the Chola rulers were constantly at war with the
Rashtrakutas and Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. These relentless conflicts eventually weakened both the
Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, leading to their downfall.
 In the twelfth century, the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani were gradually overtaken by their former
subordinates.
 In the thirteenth century, the Pandyas experienced a brief revival. They defeated the last Chola ruler,
bringing the Chola Empire to an end.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 369
• After the destruction of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Cholas, their place was taken by four
kingdoms - Hoysalas and Pandyas in the south and Yadavas and Kakatiyas in Deccan. Unfortunately,
these local kingdoms weakened themselves by continually fighting against each other, sacking the towns
and not even sparing the temples. Ultimately, they were destroyed by the sultans of Delhi at the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century.

Divine Origins and Legitimacy of Southern Dynasties

• Southern dynasties claimed divine origins and performed rituals like the Ashvamedha yagna to gain le-
gitimacy.
1. The Chalukyas claimed to be descended from Brahma or Manu or Moon.
2. The Pallavas claimed origin from Brahma himself.
3. The Pandyas claimed to be descended from the moon god (chandravanshi).
4. The Cholas proclaimed themselves from the sun god (suryavanshi).

18.1. Chalukyas (Sixth to Twelfth century CE)

• The Chalukyas were originally feudatories of the Kadambas, who ruled the northern Karnataka from
the fourth to the sixth century CE. They declared their independence from Kadambas and ruled over large
parts of Deccan, centred through three distinct but closely related and independent Chalukya dynasties
from the sixth century to the twelfth century CE.
1. Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)
2. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
3. Western Chalukyas of Kalyani

18.2. Chalukyas of Badami (Sixth to Eighth Century CE: 543 – 757 CE)

• Pulakesin I (543–566 CE), a petty chieftain of Pattadakal (Karnataka), declared independence from the
Kadmabas and founded the Chalukya dynasty in 543 CE. He fortified Vatapi (present-day Batami) and

370
made it his capital. He conquered the Western Ghats and the region between the Krishna and Tunga-
bhadra rivers, establishing Chalukya rule in the Raichur doab.
 Some scholar consider Vijaysimha as the founder of Chalukyas of Badami. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Pulakesin I was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I (c. 566 to 597 CE), who expanded Chalukya rule to the
Konkan coast.

Pulakesin II (c. 610 – 642 CE)

• Pulakesin II (c. 610 to 642 CE), the most powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty, expanded the empire
to parts of Malwa, southern Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• The Persian king Khusru II exchanged embassies with Pulakesin II. Chinese traveler Xuan Zang also visited
his kingdom and praised his rule.
• The Aihole inscription issued by Pulakesin II gives the details of his reign. This inscription is a prashasti
composed by his court poet, Ravikirti, in Sanskrit. This inscription tells us about the ancestors of Pulke-
shin-II, who are traced back through four generations from father to son. Pulakeshin evidently got the
kingdom from his uncle.

Military Conquests of Pulakesin II

• Pulakesin II defeated the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
Durvinita, the Ganga ruler, accepted his overlordship and gave his daughter in marriage to Pulakesin II.
• Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhana on the Narmada River and checked his advance towards the Dec-
can. After the battle, Harshavardhana signed a treaty recognising the Narmada River as the southern
border of his kingdom.
• Around 610 CE, Pulakeshin II conquered the area between the Krishna and the Godavari, which came to
be known as the province of Vengi. Here, he made his brother, Kubja Vishnuvardhana, the governor
and set up a new branch, the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.

Conflict between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas

• In his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakeshin II defeated the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman
(600 - 630 CE). He almost reached the Pallava capital, but the Pallavas purchased peace by ceding their
northern provinces to him.
• Pulakeshin's second invasion of the Pallava territory ended in failure. In 642 CE, the Pallava king Nara-
simhavarman (630 - 668 CE) occupied the Vatapi and killed Pulakesin II. After this, Narasimhavarman
assumed the title of Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi.

Contemporaries of Pulakesin II (610 - 642)

• The following rulers were contemporaries of Pilakesin II:

1. Harshavardhana (606 - 647 CE): Ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty
2. Mahendravarman (600 - 630 CE): Ruler of the Pallava dynasty

371
3. Narasimhavarman (630 - 668 CE): Ruler of the Pallava dynasty

Successors of Pulkesin II
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Pulakesin II was succeeded by his son, Vikramaditya. He defeated the pallavas and consolidated the
Chalukya kingdom, leading to the prosporous years for the Chalukyas, in which they built many temples.
• Towards the end of the seventh century CE, there was a lull in this conflict, which was again resumed in
the first half of the eighth century CE. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733 - 745 CE) is said to have
overrun Kanchi three times.
• In 740, he completely routed the Pallavas. His victory ended the Pallava supremacy in the far south, alt-
hough Pallavas continued for more than a century afterwards.
• However, the Chalukyas could not enjoy the fruits of their victory over the Pallavas for long. Their dynasty
came to an end when the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga defeated the last Chalukyan king, Kirtivarman
II, in 757 CE.
King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Pulakesin I 543 to 566 CE Founder
Kirtivarman I 566 to 597 CE
Pulakesin II 610 to 642 CE • Most powerful ruler of Chalukya dynasty
• Defeated Harshavardhana (606 - 647 CE), ruler of Pushyabhuti
dynasty
• Defeated the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman (600 - 630 CE)
• Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman (630 - 668 CE) defeated him
Kirtivarman II 743 – 757 CE • Last ruler of Chalukyas of Badami
• Defeated by Dantidurga, Rashtrakuta king.

Social Life under Chalukyas

• The Chalukyas of Badami were Brahmanical Hindus. They gave importance to Vedic rites and rituals.
Pulakesin I performed the ashvamedha sacrifice. They built number of temples in honour of Vishnu,
Shiva and other gods. They also gave land grants to Brahmanas.
• However, the Chalukyas of Badami gave respect to other religions. Jainism was steadily on the path of
progress in this region. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II who composed the Aihole inscription, was
a Jain. Buddhism was declining during this time.
• The Chalukyas of Badami also encouraged Kannada literature in the sixth century CE.

18.3. Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Seventh to Twelfth Century CE: 616 – 1189 CE)

• Pulakeshin II conquered the area between the Krishna and the Godavari, known as Vengi. Here, in 616 CE,
he appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as viceroy and started a new branch, the eastern Cha-

372
lukyas of Vengi.
• After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas declared themselves independent and ruled until
the twelfth century CE. They engaged in war and peace with the Pallavas, the Rashtrakutas, the Western PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Chalukyas and the Cholas.
• After the fall of the Chalukyas of Badami, they accepted the overlordship of the Rashtrakutas. From
1002 to 1189 CE, they ruled as feudatories of Imperial Cholas.

Rise of the Andhra Identity

• For five centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were constantly at war with the Pallavas, Rashtrakutas,
Western Chalukyas, and Cholas. Yet, despite this turmoil, the region developed a distinct ‘Andhra’ identity,
marked by the flourishing of Telugu language, culture, and literature. The Eastern Chalukyas actively
 promoted Telugu literature, with Nannaya Bhatta’s Andhra Mahabharatam, composed in the court of
Rajaraja Narendra in the 11th century CE, being one of the earliest notable works.

18.4. Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (Tenth to Twelfth Century CE: 973 – 1189 CE)

• They were the descendants of Badami Chalukyas. After the Chalukyas of Badami were defeated by
Dantidurga in the eighth century CE, they accepted the overlordship of the Rashtrakutas. They revived in
973 CE, when Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas, overthrew Rashtrakuta rule. They shifted their
capital to Kalyani.
• For the next two centuries, the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani were involved in constant war with the
Cholas of Thanjavur and their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
• Vikramaditya VI (1076 - 1126 CE) was the most famous ruler of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. During
his reign, a large area between the Narmada River in the north and the Kaveri River in the south came
under their control.
• Someshvara IV, the last ruler of the Western Chalukya dynasty, ruled until 1189 CE. After his reign, the
Western Chalukyas were gradually overtaken by their former subordinates—the Hoysalas, Kakatiyas, and
Yadavas.

Literature
• The Manasollasa, also known as Abhilashitartha Chintamani, is an early 12th-century Sanskrit text com-
posed by the Kalyani Chalukya king Someshvara III. It is an encyclopaedic work covering topics such as
polity, governance, ethics, economics, astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, veterinary medicine, horticulture,
perfumes, food, architecture, games, painting, poetry, dance and music. The text is a valuable source of
socio-cultural information on 11th and 12th-century India.
• Vijnaneshwara, a scholar in the court of King Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya, wrote
Mitakshara, a legal commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smriti, best known for its theory of inheritance by
birth.

373
• Bilhana, an 11th century Kashmiri poet, wrote Vikramankadevacharita in Sanskrit. It describes the life of
King Vikramaditya VI of the Chalukya dynasty.

18.5. The Rashtrakutas (Eighth to Tenth Century CE: 757 – 973 CE) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Initially, Rashtrakutas were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Badami. In 757 CE, Dantidurga, an official
in the Chalukya court, defeated the last Chalukyan king, Kirtivarman II and declared his independence.
He soon dominated the entire area of northern Maharashtra and set up the capital at Manyakhet or
Malkhed (in the Kalaburagi district, Karnataka).
• The heart of the Rashtrakuta empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra
Pradesh.
  Once Dantidurga overthrew his Chalukya overlord, he performed the hiranya-garbha ritual with the
help of Brahmanas. This ritual was believed to lead to the “rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even
if he was not one by birth.
• In the eighth century CE, the Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the Deccan. For the next two
centuries (eighth to tenth century):
 Rashtrakutas fought constantly against the south Indian kingdoms, such as the eastern Chalukyas of
Vengi, the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Cholas.
 Rashtrakutas engaged in a tripartite struggle (three-way struggle) for Kannauj with the Palas of East
(Bengal) and the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Malwa.
 At their peak, the Rashtrakutas empire stretched from the Ganga-Yamuna doab in the north to Kanya-
kumari in the south, which was the largest in contemporary India.
• Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle, Krishna I, who defeated the Gangas and the Eastern Chalukyas
of Vengi. He also built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailashanatha temple at Ellora.
• Dhruva (780 — 793 CE) defeated both the Gurjara-Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dhar-
mapala, who were contending for supremacy in North India and pressed as far as the Doab. Since then,
the two sacred rivers, Ganga and Yamuna, began to appear on the Rastrakuta banner.
• Govinda III (c. 793 - 814 CE) and Amoghavarsha I (c. 814-878 CE) were the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers.
• Govinda III defeated the Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II of Kanauj and Pala emperor Dharmapala and
conquered Kanauj. He also defeated the Pallavas and Eastern Chalukyas and received gifts of submission
from Sri Lanka.

Amoghavarsha I
• Amoghavarsha I ruled the Rashtrakuta dynasty for 64 years (c. 814 – 878 CE). He was a follower of
Jainism, and his reign was known for cultural development.
• Amoghavarsha patronised many scholars, including Mahaviracharya, Jinasena (teacher of Amoghavar-
sha), Virasena, Shakatayan and Sri Vijaya.

374
• Amoghavarsha I was an author and wrote the famous Kannada work Kavirajamarga, the earliest available
Kannada book on poetics. He was also a great builder and built the Rashtrakuta capital, Malkhed (Man-
yakheta), aiming to surpass the grandeur of Indra’s city. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The Arab traveller Suleiman called Amoghavarsha I, one of the four great kings of the world.

Successors of Amoghavarsha I
• Among the successors of Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III (934 - 963 CE) was famous for his expeditions. He
marched against the Cholas, defeated the Chola king, Prantaka I, in 949 CE in the Battle of Takkolam and
annexed the northern part of the Chola empire. He went as far as Rameswaram and occupied it for some
time. He built several temples in the conquered territories, including the Krishneswara temple at Rame-
swaram. After his death, the power of the Rashtrakutas declined.
  The Battle of Takkolam was fought between a contingent of troops led by Rajaditya, crown prince of
the Chola king Parantaka I and another led by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III at Takkolam Tamil Nadu.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

End of the Rashtrakuta Empire

• The Rashtrakuta dynasty came to a sudden end.
 In 972 CE, during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, the Malwa King Siyaka Harsha, a feudatory of
the Rashtrakutas, attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta. This seriously undermined the
reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall.
  In 973 CE, Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta, declared himself independent and established
the Western Chalukya Dynasty.
• The last Rashtrakuta king, Indra IV, committed Sallekhana (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks)
at Shravanabelagola.

[UPSC CSE 2006] Who among the following laid the foundations of the Rashtrakuta Empire?
a) Amoghvarsha I
b) Dantidurga
c) Dhruva
d) Krishna I
Ans: Dantidurga

[Practice Question] Who out of the following performed a ritual called 'Hiranya-Garbha'?
a) Mayur Sharman
b) Harish Chandra
c) Danti Durga
d) Harsha
Ans: Danti Durga
King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Dantidurga • Founder
• Defeated the last Chalukyan king, Kirtivarman II
Govinda III 793 - 814 CE • Defeated the Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II of Kanauj (795–833)
and Pala emperor Dharmapala (770–810 CE)
• Conquered Kanauj.
Amoghavarsha I 814 - 878 CE Pala ruler Devapala (810 - 850 CE) defeated him.
Krishna III 934 - 963 CE • Defeated the Chola king, Prantaka I in the Battle of Takkolam.

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Literature
• The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning. Though Kannada and Sanskrit literature made
great progress during their reign, we find many Prakrit and Apabhramsa poets in their court. Jain liter- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

ature flourished during their reign.

• The famous Rashtrakuta king, Amoghavarsha I, was the author of Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious
work in Sanskrit and Kavirajamarga, the earliest available Kannada book on poetics. However, some
scholars argue that Prashnottara Ratnamalik may have been written by Adi Shankara or by Vimalacharya.
• Jinasena was a Jain monk of the Digambara tradition. He is popular for his work on Jain texts like the
Adipurana (on the life of Rishabhanatha) and Mahapurana. He also composed Parsvabhudaya, a biog-
raphy of Parsva in verses.
• The great Indian mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote Ganita-sara-samgraha.
• The three gems of ancient Kannada literature (Kavi Ratnatrayas) – Adikavi Pampa, Kavichakravarthi
Ponna and Kavichakravarti Ranna – were patronised by Rashtrkuta King Krishna III and Western Chalukya
King Tailapa and Satyashraya.
• Adikavi Pampa, a Jain poet, wrote Adi Purana in the champu style, which is a Kannada version of the
Sanskrit work by Jinasena. He also wrote Vikramarjuna Vijaya, his version of the Mahabharata in Kannada.
This work differs from the original Mahabharata in several aspects.
• Ponna, a court poet of the Rashtrakuta dynasty ruler, Krishna III, wrote Shantipurana in Kannada to honor
the 16th Jain Tirthankara, Shantinatha.

Society
• Under the Rashtrakutas, there was harmony among various religions. The Hindu sects of Vaishnavism
and Shaivism flourished during the period of Rashtrakutas. However, they did not affect the progress
of Jainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers. Almost one-third of the population of
the Deccan were Jains. There were some prosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur
and Dharwar.

[UPSC NDA I 2016] Consider the following statements about Rashtrakuta kings:
1. They were ardent patrons of Shaivism and did not support other forms of religion.
2. They promoted only Sanskrit scholars and gave them large grants.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Neither 1 nor 2

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18.6. The Pallavas (Third to Ninth Century CE)

• The Sangam period declined by the late third century CE. Between 300 to 600 CE, the Chola, Chera, and PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Pandya kingdoms disappeared, and the Kalabhras took over. By the sixth century CE, the Pallavas in
northern Tamil Nadu and the Pandyas in the south drove out the Kalabhras and established their rule.
• The Pallavas were originally feudatories of the Satavahanas. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they be-
came independent and ruled northern Tamil Nadu and Kerala from the third to the ninth century CE. The
Cholas defeated them in the late ninth century CE, ending their rule.
• Though the Pallavas emerged in the third century CE, they became powerful under Simhavishnu in the
sixth century CE. Simhavishnu defeated the Kalabhras and established Pallava rule in Tondaimandalam,
between the Pennar and Vellar rivers, with Kanchipuram as the capital.
Conflict with the Chalukyas
Mahendravarman I (600 - 630 CE)
• Simhavishnu’s successor, Mahendravarman I, strengthened the Pallavas. The long-drawn Pallava–Cha-
lukya Conflict began during his reign. Both Pallavas and Chalukya tried to establish supremacy over the
land between the Krishna and the Tungabhadra. Pulakesin II defeated Mahendravarman and captured
the northern part of Pallavas.
• Initially a Jain, Mahendravarman later embraced Shaivism under the influence of the Shaiva saint
Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He built a Shiva temple at Tiruvadi.

Narasimhavarman (630 - 668 CE)

• Narasimhavarman (630-668 CE), son of Mahendravarman, defeated and killed Pulakesin II and occupied
Vatapi (Badami). He assumed the title 'Vatapikonda', the 'conqueror of Vatapi'.
• Narasimhavarman defeated the Cholas, Cheras, Kalabhras, and Pandyas. He also sent naval expeditions
to Sri Lanka to help his friend, King Manavarma, regain his throne.
• Narasimhavarman was known as Mamalla (great wrestler). He built the port city of Mamallapuram (mod-
ern Mahabalipuram).

Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (c. 700 – 728)

• Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha was a great military strategist. His reign was comparatively free from
any political disturbance. He exchanged ambassadors with China.
• Rajasimha was a great patron of art and literature. The Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasan-
atha temple at Kanchipuram were built during his reign. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin adorned
his court.

Relations with the Kadambas and the Gangas of Talakkad

The Kadambas

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• The early Pallavas came into conflict with the Kadambas, who ruled the northern Karnataka and Konkan
from the fourth to sixth century CE.
• Mayurasharman, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty, went to Kanchi for education but was expelled. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Angered by this, he set up camp in a forest and defeated the Pallavas, possibly with the help of local
tribes. Later, the Pallavas acknowledged his power, formally giving Mayurasharman the royal insignia.
Mayurasharman is said to have performed eighteen Ashvamedhas or horse sacrifices and granted nu-
merous villages to Brahmanas.

Western Ganga dynasty

• The Gangas of Talakkad (Mysore) set up their rule in southern Karnataka around the fourth century.
Their kingdom lay between that of the Pallavas in the east and of the Kadambas in the west. They are
 called Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore in order to demarcate them from the Eastern Gangas, who
ruled in Kalinga from the fifth century onwards.
• The Western Gangas were important contemporaries of the Pallavas. Most of the time, they were the
feudatories of the Pallavas. Their earliest capital was located at Kolar, which may have helped the rise of
this dynasty because of its gold mines. Later, they shifted their capital to Talakkad on the banks of the
Kaveri River in the modern Mysore district.
King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Mahendravarman I 600 - 630 CE Defeated by Western Chalukya ruler, Pulakesin II
Narasimhavarman 630 - 668 CE Narasimhavarman defeated Pulakesin II
Aparajita 880 – 897/903 CE Chola king Aditya I defeated him

Decline of the Pallavas

• The Pallava rule ended in the early tenth century CE when Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava
ruler, Aparajita, and seized Kanchi in 903 CE.
 Some historians believe that Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler, Aparajita, and seized
Kanchi in 897 CE.

Literature
• The Pallava king Mahendravarman I wrote two Sanskrit plays, Mattavilasa Prahasana and Bhagavada-
jjuka. Mattavilasa Prahasana is a satire that pokes fun at the peculiar aspects of the Saivite sects, Bud-
dhists, and Jainism.
• Bharavi, a 6th century Indian poet, is known for his epic poem Kiratarjuniya, one of the important works
of the Pallava era. It describes the combat between Arjuna and Lord Shiva.
• Dandin, a Sanskrit scholar at the Pallava court, is known for his Sanskrit work, Dashakumaracharita and
Kavyadarsha.

18.7. Imperial Cholas

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• The ancient Sangam Cholas belonged to one of the three powerful dynasties that ruled South India during
the Sangam age (third century BCE to third century CE). After the Sangam period until about the ninth PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
century CE, there are no records about the Cholas.
• In the ninth century CE, Cholas became prominent and established an empire comprising the major
portion of South India. During this period, the Cholas developed a powerful navy and conquered Sri Lanka
and the Maldives. Hence, historians refer to them as Imperial Cholas. It is also not clear how ancient
Sangam Cholas were related to Imperial Cholas or later Cholas or medieval Cholas.

The Rise of Chola Empire (Ninth to thirteenth century CE: 850 – 1279 CE)
• Vijayalaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas in Uraiyur, conquered the Kaveri Delta from Muttaraiyar. He
captured Thanjavur (Tanjore) in 850 CE and established the Chola kingdom. Vijayalaya accepted the over-
lordship of Pallavas.
• Vijayalaya’s son, Aditya I (c. 871 - 907 CE), expanded the kingdom by defeating both Pallavas and Pan-
dyas. He defeated the last Pallava king, Aparajita, annexed their territory and put an end to the Pallava
kingdom. He also weakened the Pandyas.
• Parantaka I (c. 907 - 953 CE) set the tone for the expansion of the territory and broadened the base of its
governance. He conquered the Pandya capital of Madurai but was defeated by Krishna III, the Rash-
trakuta ruler, in 949 CE. This defeat was a serious setback to the Cholas, but they rapidly recovered after
the death of Krishna III in 965 and the downfall of the Rashtrakuta empire.
• Rajaraja Chola or Rajaraja I ( c. 985 - 1014 CE) and his son Rajendra Chola or Rajendra I (1012- 1044 CE)
were the greatest Chola rulers.

Rajaraja Chola (c. 985 - 1014 CE)

• Rajaraja Chola defeated the Cheras, Pandyas and Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. He also annexed the
northwestern parts of the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka.
• Rajaraja Chola invaded Vengi to support Saktivarman I, an Eastern Chalukya prince, against local rivals.
In 1002 CE, Saktivarman was restored to the throne under the overlordship of the Cholas.
• Rajaraja Chola led naval expeditions and defeated the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V and conquered the
northern part of Sri Lanka. He also conquered the Maldives.

Rajendra Chola (1012- 1044 CE)

• Rajaraja Chola appointed his son, Rajendra Chola, as his heir while he was still alive in 1012. They ruled
the Chola kingdom together for two years.
• Rajendra Chola continued his father's policy of aggressive conquests and expansion. He led the expedi-
tion up to the Godavari River and sent a victorious expedition to north India. The Chola army crossed
the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers on its way. To commemorate this successful north-Indian

380
campaign, Rajendra founded the capital near the mouth of the Kaveri river and called it Gangaikon-
dacholapuram. He also constructed the famous Shiva temple in that city.
• Rajendra Chola also conquered southern Sri Lanka, effectively bringing the entire island under Chola PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

rule during his reign.

• Rajendra Chola led the naval expedition against the Sri Vijaya empire of Southeast Asia. The empire
was led by the Sailendra dynasty and extended over the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the neigh-
bouring islands. The expeditions led to the conquest of Kadaram and a number of other places in the
Malay peninsula and Sumatra.
• Rajendra Chola assumed the titles, such as:
 Mudikonda Cholan (the crowned Chola)
  Gangaikonda Cholam (Chola who conquered the Ganga)
 Kadaramkondan (conqueror of Kadaram)
 Pandita Cholan (scholarly Cholan)

Brihadeshwara and Rajarajeswara Temples

• Rajaraja I and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu temples at
various places. The most famous of these were:
 The Brihadeshwara (or Rajarajeswara) temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja Chola (completed in 1010)
 The Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra Chola.
Both temples were devoted to lord Shiva.

The End of Chola Rule

• The Chola dynasty was paramount in South India from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. By the end
of the twelfth century, local chiefs (Hoysalas, Kakatiyas and Yadavas) began to grow in prominence,
which weakened the once mighty empire, the Cholas.
• In 1279, Pandyan King Maravarman Kulasekara defeated the last Chola king, Rajendra Chola III and
ended the Chola dynasty. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south
and the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas in the Deccan.
King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Vijayalaya 850 CE Founder
Aditya I 871 - 907 CE Defeated the last Pallava king, Aparajita and ended the Pallava rule
Parantaka I 907 - 953 CE Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III (934 - 963 CE) defeated him
Rajaraja Chola 985 - 1014 CE • Defeated the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V and conquered the
northern part of Sri Lanka
• Conquered the Maldives
• Invaded Vengi to support Saktivarman I, an Eastern Chalukya

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prince, against local rivals
Rajendra Chola 1012- 1044 CE • Conquered the southern Sri Lanka

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Led the naval expedition against the Sri Vijaya empire of South-
east Asia
• Sent victorious expedition to north India

Types of land
• Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land:
 Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas.
 Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
 Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.
  Shalabhoga: Land for the maintenance of a school.
 Devadana and Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.

The Administration of the Cholas

Central Chola Government

• The king was at the top of the administration. He was assisted by a council of ministers.
• The Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three
kings), araiyar (chief), etc., as markers of respect and entrusted them with important offices of the state
at the centre.

Military Administration

• The Cholas maintained a well-organised, large army consisting of elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy.
Three conventional divisions - elephants, cavalry, and infantry were called the three limbs of the army.
The Cholas also paid special attention to their navy.

Revenue Administration

• Land revenue, tolls on trade, taxes on professions, and income from the plunder of the neighbouring
territories constituted important parts of royal revenue.
 Some of the Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the government's
share of the land revenue.
 Trade and commerce flourished in the Chola empire. The Chola rulers built a network of royal roads
which were useful for trade as well as for the movement of the army.
• The main items of government expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation
tanks and canals. The Cholas also paid attention to irrigation. The river Kaveri and other rivers were used
for the purpose. Many tanks for irrigation were built.

Land Revenue System

The assessment and collection of revenue were managed by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu,

382
•
sabha, and nagaram. Sometimes, local chieftains collected and forwarded the revenue to the central
administration.
• Inscriptions mention several terms related to taxes and obligations imposed on cultivators: PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Eccoru: Obligation of villagers to provide food for state officials.

 Nettal: Compulsory labour
 Muttaiyal or Vetti or Kudimai: Obligation of villagers to provide labour services.
 Kadamai: The land revenue collected in kind
 Antarayam: A rural tax collected in cash.

Provinces
• The Chola empire was divided into mandalams or provinces. Each mandalam was divided into valanadus
and nadus. In each nadu, there were a number of autonomous villages.
• Sometimes, princes of the royal family were appointed governors of provinces. Officials were generally
paid by giving them assignments of revenue-bearing lands.

Local Self-government

• The Cholas encouraged the local self-government in the villages all over their empire. The local assem-
blies during the Chola empire included sabha, ur and nagaram.
 Sabha: It was an assembly of Brahmin landowners. It looked after the affairs of Brahmadeya.
 Sabha was the Brahamana assembly in Brahmadeya (land gifted to Brahmanas) villages (Agra-
harams). Membership was governed by specific criteria, including property ownership, family an-
tecedents, learning, and good conduct.
 Most of the land in Brahmadeya villages was rent-free. These villages enjoyed a large measure
of autonomy. The Sabha managed the affairs of the village through sub-committees, which looked
after the assessment and collection of land revenue, maintenance of law and order, administration
of justice, irrigation, agricultural operations, making roads, local temples, etc.
 Ur: The ur was a village assembly (peasant settlements) found in settlements where the landown-
ers were not Brahmins.
 The urar, who were landholders in the village, acted as spokesmen in the ur. The urar were en-
trusted with performing several administrative functions such as collection of revenue, mainte-
nance of law and order, dispensing justice and obeying the king's orders.
 Nagaram: Nagaram was an organisation of merchants or traders (commercial centres). It occasion-
ally performed administrative functions in towns.
 The nagaram had a corporate body of merchants, whose members were known as the nagarattar.
The nagarattar managed, owned, and collected revenue from the nagarahkani land.
 Nadu: Nadu was a grouping of several urs (villages or peasant settlements) excluding Brahmadeyas.

383
Members of the nadu assembly were known as the nattar.
 The nadu was the basic revenue unit, with the nattar handling land assessment, tax collection,

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

and irrigation management. They also donated land to temples. They were custodians of gifts
made by others.
 Rich peasants of the Vellala caste exercised considerable control over the affairs of the nadu
under the supervision of the central Chola government.

Nadu: The Basic Revenue Unit

• The nadu was the basic revenue unit under the Cholas. It organised and controlled agricultural produc-
tion and redistribution in non-Brahmadeya villages. However, taniyurs were separate administrative
units independent of nadus in which they were located.
  Important brahmadeyas were given Taniyur status. These were separate villages and considered
independent entities within the nadus. They also controlled several non-Brahmadeya villages with
temples around the Brahmadeya.
 Certain nagarams were also given taniyur status. These nagarams were considered independent en-
tities and free of the jurisdiction of the nadu.

Ur: The Basic Unit of Rural Society

• The term ur refers to the village assemblies or the villages themselves. These were non-brahmadeya
villages, also known as Vellanvagai villages. The ur was the basic unit of rural society.
• The Vellanvagai villages include agricultural fields, pasture land, drinking water sources, and habitation
areas. The habitation area includes:
1. ur-nattam or ur-irukkai: The residential quarter of the landowning farmers
2. kammanacheri: The residential quarter of artisans,
3. Paraicheri: The residential quarter of agricultural labourers.
• In the Brahmadeya villages (land granted to Brahamanas), individual ownership prevailed, and two dis-
tinct classes, Brahamana landowners and non-Brahamana cultivators, existed. In the non-Brahmadeya
villages, generally, landholding was common, and landholders were themselves cultivators.
• In villages, a hierarchy existed:
 The paraiyar were socially and spatially segregated and considered as ritually impure.
 The vellalar were the cultivating class, divided into landowning farmers (kaniyudaiyar) and tenant
farmers (ulukudi).

18.8. South Indian Kingdoms After the Twelfth Century

• After the decline of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani in the twelfth century and the Cholas in the thir-
teenth century, the Deccan and South India were divided into four major kingdoms at the beginning of
the fourteenth century:

384
1. The Yadavas of Devagiri (Western Deccan or present-day Maharashtra)
2. The Kakatiyas of Warangal (eastern part of present-day Telengana)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

3. The Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (present-day Karnataka)
4. The Pandyas of Madurai (southern Tamil Nadu)
• These dynasties were soon destroyed by the invasion of the Delhi Sultanate in the fourteenth century.

The Pandyas (Third century BCE to fourteenth century CE)

• The Pandya dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in Indian history, spanning from the San-
gam Age to the fourteenth century CE.

Early Rule and Decline (Sangam Age – third Century CE)

• The Pandyas ruled from Madurai, controlling southern and southeastern Tamil Nadu. Their decline began
in the third century CE due to Kalabhra invasions.

Revival and Conflicts (Sixth – Ninth Century CE)

• Pandyan King Kadunkon and his son Arikesari Maravarman drove out the Kalabhras in the sixth century
CE and re-established Pandya rule. From the sixth to ninth centuries CE, the Pandyas fought against the
Chalukyas of Badami, Rashtrakutas of Deccan, and Pallavas of Kanchi. During this time, the Cholas were
still minor rulers.

Chola Domination (Ninth – Twelfth Century CE)

• In the ninth century CE, the Cholas became dominant, defeated the Pallavas, and turned against the
Pandyas. Chola king Parantaka I defeated Pandya King Rajasimha II in 920 CE, forcing him to flee to Sri
Lanka. The Cholas established control over Pandya territory and ruled through Chola governors, known
as Chola Pandyas.

Brief Pandya Revival and End (Thirteenth – Fourteenth Century CE)

• In the late twelfth century, as Chola rule weakened, Pandya chieftains regained independence.
• In the late thirteenth century, Maravarman Kulasekara defeated the last Chola ruler, leading to a brief
revival of Pandya power. However, this did not last long as the internal crisis in the Pandya kingdom
coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India, and they were soon replaced by the Madurai Sultanate
in the fourteenth century.

Internal Crisis of Pandyas, Khalji Invasion, and the Rise of Madurai Sultanate
• Maravarman Kulasekharan ruled from 1268 to 1312. In 1302, he appointed his elder son, Jatavarman
Sundara Pandyan III, as co-regent, angering his younger son, Vira Pandyan, who later killed him. A civil
war followed, and Vira Pandyan emerged victorious. Sundara Pandyan fled to Delhi, seeking Alauddin
Khalji’s support, which led to Malik Kafur’s invasion.

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• Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji, raided the Pandya Kingdom of Ma-
durai. During the raid, civilians were massacred and temples were destroyed. Due to the raids by the
Delhi Sultanate army, Pandas lost most of their accumulated wealth.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan kingdom came to be divided among a number of the main
rulers in the Pandya’s family. In Madurai, a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came to be
established and continued until 1335 CE when the Muslim Governor of Madurai Jalaluddin Ahsan khan
declared independence from the Sultanate of Delhi and established Madurai Sultanate.

The Yadavas (c. 1187 - 1317)

• The Yadavas (Seuna or Sevuna) of Devagiri was a medieval Indian dynasty ruled from its capital Devagiri
(present-day Daulatabad, in the Sambhajinagar district, Maharashtra).
• Initially, Yadavas ruled as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. By the end of the
twelfth century, as the Chalukya power declined, the Yadava king Bhillama V declared independence.
• In the thirteenth century, the dynasty reached its height under King Singhana and ruled over an area
stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south, in the western
part of the Deccan region. Its territory included present-day Maharashtra, northern Karnataka and parts
of Madhya Pradesh.
• In 1307, Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji sent a large army commanded by Malik Kafur in 1307 to
capture Devagiri fort. Malik Kafur overran the kingdom and took Ramachandra a prisoner to Delhi. How-
ever, Ramachandra was released after a period of six months and was allowed to rule his kingdom as a
vassal under the Sultanate army. Finally, the kingdom was annexed by the Khalji sultanate in 1317.

Deogiri Fort or Daulatabad Fort

• Deogiri Fort is a fortified citadel in Daulatabad village near Sambhajinagar (formerly Aurangabad), Ma-
harashtra. It was built around 1187 CE by Bhillama V, the first Yadava monarch. It was also the capital of
the Yadavas.
• In 1327, Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate renamed it Daulatabad and shifted his imperial
capital but later returned to Delhi.
• In 1499, Daulatabad became part of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, which used it as its secondary capital.

The Kakatiyas (c. 1110 - 1326 CE)

• The Kakatiya dynasty was a Telugu dynasty ruled from Warangal from the 12th and 14th centuries. They
ruled over much of the present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh and parts of eastern Karnataka,
northern Tamil Nadu, and southern Odisha.
• The Telugu Kakatiyas were initially subordinate to the Western Chalukyas. The Kakatiya ruler, Prola II (c.
1110 - 1158 CE), declared independence and started the sovereign Kakatiya Dynasty.
• Ganapathi Deva (r. 1199-1262 CE) was the greatest Kakatiya ruler. He brought the entire Telugu region
under his rule. He was succeeded by his daughter, Rudramma Devi (c. 1262-89 CE), who was one of the

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few women rulers of India. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant who visited India around 1289–1293, made
note of Rudrama Devi's rule.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Rani Rudramma Devi was succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudra. In 1309, he was defeated by Malik
Kafur but managed to save the kingdom by agreeing to pay an annual tribute to Delhi.
• In 1320, the Khalji dynasty was replaced by the Tughluq dynasty in Delhi. Taking advantage of this,
Prataparudra asserted his independence. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son, who defeated the Kakatiyas.
After the end of the Kakatiya dynasty, new kingdoms emerged, which finally united under the Musunuri
Nayakas.

Marco Polo
• Marco Polo was an Italian traveller. He visited Motupalli, a seaport in Andhra Pradesh, during the Kaka-
tiya Dynasty ruled by Rani Rudrama Devi around 1292 CE. He also visited the Pandya kingdom.

Ramappa Temple
• Ramappa Temple, also known as the Kakatiya Rudreshwara temple, is a Kakatiya-style Hindu temple
dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, located in Palampet, Telangana. It is named after its architect,
Ramappa.
• The temple was constructed in 1213 CE by Recharla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva
(1199 – 1262 CE).
• In July 2021, Ramappa Temple was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Hoysalas (12th to 14th Century CE)

• The Hoysala Kingdom was a Medieval Kingdom that ruled most of present-day Karnataka, parts of Ta-
milnadu and southwestern Telangana between the twelfth and the fourteenth centuries CE.
• Originally, the Kannada Hoysalas were feudatories of the Western Chalukyas. In 1108, Vishnuvardhana
became a ruler and started asserting his independence by fighting his overlord, Vikramaditya VI (Western
Chalukyas of Kalyani) and the Chola Empire. Vishnuvardhana's grandson Veera Ballala II became the ruler
in 1173 and formally declared his independence.
• In the early part of the 14th century, Alauddin Khalji sent a large army commanded by Malik Kafur to
control southern India. In 1310, the last ruler of Hoysala, Vira Ballala III, surrendered all his treasures to
the Delhi forces after the siege of Dwarasamudra.
• In 1343 CE, Vira Ballala III was captured and killed while fighting the independent sultanate of Madurai.
The sovereign territories of the Hoysala Kingdom were merged with the areas administered by Harihara
I in the Tungabhadra River region.

Literature
• Hoysala literature was mainly in Kannada and Sanskrit. Kannada literature focused on Jain, Veerashaiva,

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and to a lesser extent that of the Vaishnava traditions.

Famous Epics in the Kannada Language Patronosed by Hoysala Rulers

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Author Epic Faith
Nagachandra Mallinathapurana Jainism
Ramachandracharitapurana
Janna Yashodharacharite Jainism
Hastimalla Purvapurana Jainism
Raghavanka Harishchandrakavya Secular
Raghavanka Siddharamapurana Shaivism
 Somanathacharite
Viresvara Charita
Harihara Girijakalyana Shaivism

The Story Behind Bengaluru’s Name

• According to legend, during a hunting expedition, Hoysala King Veera Ballala II lost his way in the forest.
Weary and hungry, he was offered a meal of boiled beans by an elderly woman. Grateful for her kindness,
the king named the place Benda-Kalu-Ooru, meaning “town of boiled beans.” Over time, this name
evolved into Bengaluru.

[UPSC CSE 2023] Consider the following dynasties:

1. Hoysala
2. Gahadavala
3. Kakatiya
4. Yadavas

How many of the above dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) Only three
d) None
Ans: None

18.9. South Indian Kingdoms: Politics, Society, and Culture

Administration in Southern Kingdoms

• Hereditary monarchies continued, though either sons or brothers could inherit the kingdom. The king
was at the top of the administration. He was assisted by a council of ministers.

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• There were many big landlords or warrior chiefs who were feudatories. They attended the king’s court,
paid tribute, and provided military support. However, when central power weakened, they often asserted
independence. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• At the district and village levels, administration remained largely autonomous, ensuring stability despite
shifting dynasties. The Ur, Sabha, and Nagaram village assemblies formed the backbone of local gov-
ernance.

Village Assemblies in Southern Kingdoms

• After the Sangam Age, three main types of villages existed in South India: Ur, Sabha, and Nagaram.
1. Ur: These were typical villages inhabited by peasants, who likely held their land in common. The
village headman was responsible for tax collection and payment.
 2. Sabha: These were Brahamadeya (those granted to the brahmanas) or Agrahara villages, where Brah-
mins owned land individually but managed their affairs collectively.
3. Nagaram: These villages were dominated by traders and merchants. Such settlements arose likely
due to the decline of urban trade, which led merchants to settle in rural areas.

Maritime Trade and Economic Prosperity

• During this period, Deccan and South India actively engaged in sea trade with China, Southeast Asia,
and the Middle East. Key exports included amber, camphor, precious stones, ivory, ebony, paper, sandal-
wood, perfumes, drugs, spices, and cotton textiles, while horses were a major import from Arab traders.
• The Coromandel Coast and Malabar were key centers for India’s trade with Southeast Asia, facilitating
cultural and economic exchanges.
• Under the Rashtrakutas, the economy flourished, with thriving commerce between the Deccan and the
Arab world. The Rashtrakuta rulers encouraged trade by maintaining friendly relations with Arab mer-
chants, further strengthening India's economic and commercial networks.
• The Chola ruler Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I invaded Sri Lanka not just for territorial expansion but
also to bring the trade with Southeast Asian countries under their control.

Land Grants and Rural Expansion

• In tribal areas, the Brahmanas were granted land, which was exempt from taxes and forced labour to
the state. This led to the expansion of agriculture in new areas and the spread of advanced agricultural
practices among the local peasantry. Initially, some grants were inscribed on stone in Prakrit, but most
were later recorded on copper plates in Sanskrit.
• The Western Gangas primarily granted land to the Jainas, while the Kadambas also supported the Jainas
but favoured the Brahmanas more. The Pallavas, however, extensively granted tax-free villages mainly to
the Brahmanas.
• Land grants could be either made to a single brahmana (ekabhoga-Brahmadeya) or to a group of

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Brahmanas (gana-bhoga) or for the maintenance of a Brahmanical educational institution (Vidyasthana
and Ghatika).
The temple, which either came up along with the Brahmadeyas or independently in such settlements, was
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
significant in the agrarian integration. Ghatika emerged as a Brahmanical educational institution (col-
lege) attached to the temples.

Irrigation
• The agrarian economy expanded during the early medieval period due to various factors, such as land
grants, land reclamation, the spread of irrigation techniques, and an expansion in the range of crops.
• An irrigation system was established in the form of tanks, canals, wells, and sluices. Many irrigation
projects were initiated by rulers but were managed by local bodies, especially the Sabhas (assemblies of
 Brahmadeyas) or Mahajanas. These assemblies played a crucial role in ensuring the upkeep and mainte-
nance of irrigation works.
• To manage irrigation efficiently, a tank maintenance committee called Erivariya was established. A
specific type of land known as Eripatti was set aside for this purpose.
 Erivariya: Committee responsible for maintaining irrigation tanks.
 Eripatti: Land whose revenue was reserved for the maintenance of the village tank.
• During the Chola period, an Araghatta ( Persian water wheel or water lifting device) was used for irrigation.

[UPSC CSE 2016] With reference to the economic history of India, the term 'Araghatta' re-
fers to:
a) Bonded labour
b) Land grants made to military officers
c) Waterwheel used in the irrigation of land
d) Wasteland converted to cultivated land
Ans: Waterwheel used in the irrigation of land

[UPSC CSE 2016] In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs:
Term: Description
1. Eripatti: Land, revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank
2. Taniyurs: Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
3. Ghatikas: Colleges generally attached to the temples
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3 only
d) 1 and 3 only
Ans: 1 and 3 only

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Social Structure
• During this period, many princes asserted Kshatriya status through sacrificial rituals. Priests legitimised PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
their rule by creating respectable genealogies, linking them to ancient solar and lunar dynasties. This
helped new rulers gain wider acceptance. In return, the priestly class benefited immensely, as sacrifices
and land grants significantly increased their wealth and influence.
• The brahmanas, therefore, emerged as an important class at the expense of the peasantry, from whom
they collected their dues directly and also received as gifts a good portion of the taxes collected by the
king from his subjects.
• Below the princes and priests came the peasantry, which was divided into numerous peasant castes.
If the peasant and artisan castes failed to produce and render services and payments, it was looked upon
 as a departure from the established dharma or norm. Such a situation was described as the age of Kali. It
was the duty of the king to put an end to such a state of affairs and restore peace and order which worked
in favour of chiefs and priests. The title dharma-maharaja, therefore, was adopted by the Vakataka, Pal-
lava, Kadamba and Western Ganga kings.
• A class of women known as Devadasis (female servants of God) emerged, dedicating their lives to temple
service and the deity. They remained unmarried and were closely associated with temple rituals, music,
and dance.

Science and Technology

Mahaviracharya
• Mahaviracharya was a 9th-century Indian Jain mathematician possibly born in Mysore, in India. He was
patronised by the Rashtrakuta emperor Amoghavarsha.
• Mahaviracharya was the first Indian who separated astrology from mathematics. He authored Ganita Sara
Sangrah, which is the earliest Indian text entirely devoted to mathematics.

Bhaskaracharya
• Bhaskaracharya (Bhaskara II) was a 12th-century Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was born near
Bijjada Bida (in modern day Bijapur district), Karnataka. He was head of an astronomical observatory at
Ujjain.
• Bhaskaracharya is known for his work, Siddhanta Shiromani, an astronomical and mathematical treatise
in Sanskrit. It is divided into four parts:
1. Lilavati: Arithmetic
2. Bijaganita: Algebra
3. Grahaganita: Planetary mathematics
4. Goladhyaya: Sphere and astronomy

18.10. Religion

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Bhakti movement
• In the early medieval period in south India, there was a revival of Hinduism among the masses, with PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
new devotional songs and literature in local regional languages.
• The period from the seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of a new religious movement, the
Bhakti movement, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).
• The Nayanars and Alvars travelled from place to place, composed poems in praise of their gods and set
them to music. They preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. During their travels,
they identified certain shrines as the abodes of their deities. Later, large temples were built at these sites,
turning them into pilgrimage centres. Their songs became part of temple rituals, along with the worship
of their images.
• The Nayanars and Alvars came from all castes, including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulai-
yar and the Panars.
• The Bhakti movement, which emphasised emotional devotion rather than rituals, began in Tamil Nadu
in the seventh century. It gradually spread across southern India, inspiring devotional songs in various
regional languages.
• Historians of religion often classify Bhakti traditions into two broad categories:
1. Saguna (with attributes): Saguna Bhakti involves the worship of deities such as Shiva, Vishnu
(including his avatars), and various forms of the goddess (Devi), often conceptualised in anthropo-
morphic (human-like) forms.
2. Nirguna (without attributes): Nirguna Bhakti focuses on the worship of an abstract form of god
(a formless, abstract divine presence).

Attitude Towards Lower Castes and Women

• Different traditions of the Bhakti movement accommodated and acknowledged women and the lower
castes. Many Bhakti saints and devotees were women or belonged to lower castes, including those con-
sidered untouchables.
 Andal was a woman Alvar and one of the 12 Vaishnava Alvars from South India. She composed
songs in praise of Vishnu, and her songs are included in the Nalayira Divyaprabandham.
 Karaikkal Ammaiyar was a woman Nayanar. She adopted the path of extreme asceticism in order
to attain her goal. Her compositions were preserved within the Nayanar tradition.
• Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants.
 Some historians suggest that the Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the
caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. To some
extent this is supported by the fact that bhaktas came from various backgrounds, including Brahmanas,
artisans, cultivators, and even those considered “untouchable.”

Opposition to Buddhists and Jainas

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• The Nayanars and Alvars were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas. Their one of the major
themes in Tamil bhakti hymns is the opposition to Buddhism and Jainism. This hostility might be due to
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competition between members of other religious traditions for royal patronage.

Influence on Literature
• With the rise of the Bhakti movement, many ideas of the Tamil bhaktas (especially the Vaishnavas) were
incorporated within the Sanskritic tradition. The Bhagavata Purana, composed in the 10th century in
South India, is one such example. The Bhagavata Purana is based on Vishnu and his ten avatars, especially
Krishna.

Compilations of Devotional Literature

• By the tenth century CE, the compositions of the 12 Alvars, who came from divergent backgrounds,
were compiled in an anthology known as the Nalayira Divyaprabandham ("Four Thousand Sacred Com-
positions"). Among these 12 Alvars, Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar
were best known.
• By the tenth century CE, the compositions (songs) of the 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste
backgrounds such as potters, "untouchable" workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs,
were compiled in two sets: Tevaram and Tiruvacakam. The poems of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar
form the Tevaram.

Manikkavacakar

• Manikkavacakar was a Nayanar saint and poet of the ninth century CE.
• Manikkavacakar wrote Thiruvasagam, a book of Shaiva hymns. He is revered as one of the Nalvar ("group
of four" in Tamil), a set of four prominent Tamil saints alongside Appar, Sundarar and Sambandar. The
other three contributed to the first seven volumes (Tevaram) of the twelve-volume Saivite work Tirumurai.

Relations with the State

• The new traditions of the Bhakti movement (Shaivism and Vaishnavism) received occasional royal pat-
ronage. As people embraced different Bhakti traditions, rulers sought their support by supporting it.
• Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making land
grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. Some of the most magnificent Shiva temples were
built under the patronage of Chola rulers. This was also the period when some of the most spectacular
representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were produced.

[UPSC CDS 2023] Which one of the following pairs denoting various forms of 'Bhakti' is not
correctly matched?
a) Saguna: Belief in Gods with attributes
b) Nirguna: Belief in Gods without attributes

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c) Alvars: Believed in devotion of Shakti
d) Nayanars: Believed in devotion of Shiva

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Answer: Option C

Philosophy and Bhakti

• In the medieval period, along with the Bhakti movement, three prominent philosophers, Adi Shankara-
charya, Ramanujacharya, and Sri Madhvacharya, made Hinduism popular among the masses.

Adi Shankaracharya
• Adi Shankaracharya was born in Kerala in the 8th century. He was an advocate of Advaita Vedanta phi-
losophy (non-dualism) or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul (atman) and the Supreme
 God (ultimate reality or Brahman). He taught that Brahman, the only or ultimate reality, was formless and
without any attributes.
• Adi Shankaracharya considered the world around us to be an illusion or maya and preached renunciation
of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the true nature of Brahman and attain
salvation.
• Adi Shankaracharya established the four major Hindu monasteries, called mathas, in the four corners
of Indian. These are:
1. Jyotir Matha at Badrinath, Uttarakhand (north)
2. Govardhana Matha at Puri, Odisha (east)
3. Dwarka Sharada Peetham at Dwarka, Gujarat (west)
4. Shringeri Sharada Peetham at Shringeri, Karnataka(south)

Sri Ramanujacharya
• Sri Ramanujacharya, born in Tamil Nadu in the 11th century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars.
• Ramanujacharya propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul, even
when united with the Supreme God, remained distinct. His doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of
bhakti, which subsequently developed in north India.
• According to Ramanujacharya, the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to
Vishnu. Vishnu, in His grace, helps the devotee to attain the bliss of union with Him. He converted the
Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana from Jainism to Vaishnavism.

Sri Madhvacharya
• Sri Madhvacharya, who lived in 13th century Karnataka, was the chief proponent of the Dvaita school of
Vedanta (Dualism). According to him, the ultimate reality (Brahman) and the individual soul (atman) are
independent and distinct.
• According to Sri Madhvacharya, renunciation, devotion and direct cognition of the Lord through medi-
tation lead to the attainment of salvation

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• Sri Madhvacharya established many matths around Udupi.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

[UPSC CSE 2022] The world's second tallest statue in sitting pose of Ramanuja was inaugu-
rated by the Prime Minister of India at Hyderabad recently. Which one of the following
statements correctly represents the teachings of Ramanuja?
a) The best means of salvation was devotion.
b) Vedas are eternal, self-existent and wholly authoritative.
c) Logical arguments were essential means for the highest bliss.
d) Salvation was to be obtained through meditation.
Ans: Option A
 [UPSC CSE 2004] Which one of the following sequences indicates the correct chronological
order?
a) Shankaracharya-Ramanuja-Chaitanya
b) Ramanuja-Shankaracharya-Chaitanya
c) Ramanuja-Chaitanya-Shankaracharya
d) Shankaracharya-Chaitanya-Ramanuja
Ans: Shankaracharya-Ramanuja-Chaitanya

Temple Architecture
• The rise of the Bhakti movement was accompanied by extensive temple construction by kings. As peo-
ple embraced different Bhakti traditions, rulers sought their support by building temples. Between the
10th and 12th centuries, the Chola and Pandya kings built grand temples around many shrines visited by
saint-poets, further strengthening the connection between Bhakti and temple worship.
• We have little information on how early temples were maintained. However, after the eighth century, land
grants to temples became common in South India, often recorded on temple walls. These temples were
likely built and maintained using taxes collected by kings from the common people. In Karnataka, some
temples under the Chalukyas were even funded by Jaina traders. While common people primarily wor-
shipped village gods with offerings like paddy and toddy, they may have also contributed to larger tem-
ples to gain social status and fulfill religious desires.
Ruler Dynasty Temple
Mahendravarman I Pallava Rock-cut temples
Narasimhavarman I Pallava Panchapandava Rathas (Five Monolithic Temples)
Rajasimha Pallava The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi
The Shore temple at Mamallapuram
Rajaraja Chola Chola Brihadeeswarar or Rajarajeswara Temple, Thanjavur
Rajendra Chola Chola Gangaikondacholapuram Temple

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Queen Lohamahadevi Chalukya Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal
Krishna I Rashtrakuta Monolithic Kailasanath Temple
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Temple Architecture Under the Pallavas
• Temple architecture in South India began under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman I and reached its
zenith under the Cholas.
• During the Pallvas reign, temple architecture gradually evolved from rock-cut temples to structural
temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be classified into four stages:
1. Rock-cut Temples: Mahendravarman I is credited with the introduction of rock-cut temples in the
Pallava territory. Mahendravarman’s rock-cut temples are usually the mandapa type with a pillared
hall.
 2. Monolithic Rathas: During the second stage, mandapas were divided into monolithic rathas. This
stage of Pallava temple architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at
Mamallapuram. Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monumerits.
3. Structural Temples: During this stage, structural temples were built instead of rock-cut temples.
This stage is represented by the structural temples built by Rajasimha. These include:
 The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi
 The Shore temple at Mamallapuram
4. Structural temples by Later Pallavas: The last stage of the Pallava temple architecture is represented
by structural temples built by the later Pallavas. The temples are smaller in size but are almost
similar to the Dravidian style of temple architecture.

Mamallapuram

• The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of monuments in Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu.

It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984. The site has many monuments, including the
descent of the ganga, panchapandava rathas and the Shore Temple.

The Rock Reliefs

• Rock reliefs are another important class of masterly creations created during Mamalla’s reign. There are
four such reliefs at Mamallapuram; the most noteworthy among them are the Descent of the Ganga
(Bhagirata’s Penance or Arjuna’s Penance) and Govardhanadhari.
• The Descent of the Ganga (Arjuna's Penance) is a giant open-air rock relief sculpture carved on two
monolithic rock boulders in Mamallapuram. It depicts the descent of the Ganges from the heavens to
earth. It was created during the reign of Narasimhavarman I.

Panchapandava Rathas (Five Monolithic Temples)

• Panchapandava Rathas are five monolithic temples. They are called "rathas" (chariots) because they
resemble temple processional chariots.

396
• Panchapandava Rathas comprises Dharmaraja Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha
and Draupadi. Among them, Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest. It is a three-storied, chariot-like structure
with a square base.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Shore Temple
• The Shore Temple, one of the earliest examples of structural temples in South India, was constructed
during the reign of Rajasimha (CE 700-728) at Mamallapuram (present-day Mahabalipuram).
• The temple comprises three shrines, two of Shiva, one facing east and the other west, and a middle one
of Vishnu, who is shown as Anantashayana. This is unusual because temples generally have a single main
shrine and not three areas of worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this,
and different shrines may have been added at different times, modified perhaps with the change of pa-
trons.
Chola Temple Architecture: The Zenith of Dravidian Style
• The Dravidian style of temple architecture reached its peak under the Cholas, who constructed grand
temples, primarily dedicated to Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.
1. Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur: Built by Rajaraja Chola, this Shiva temple, also known as Rajara-
jeswara, is the largest and tallest surviving Indian temple.
 The temple is dedicated to Shiva and features one of India's largest monolithic linga sculptures. The
second floor depicts Shiva as Tripurantaka, the destroyer of three cities.
2. Gangaikondacholapuram Temple: Constructed by Rajendra Chola.
3. The Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram and the Kampahareswarar (Sharabeshwarar) Temple at Tribhu-
vanam, both in Tanjore District, are examples of later Chola temples.
• Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of bronze images was the most distinctive. Chola
bronze images are considered amongst the finest in the world. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing
Siva are master pieces.

Bronze Sculpture

• The craft of bronze image-making reached its peak in South India during the medieval period. While
bronze images were modelled and cast during the Pallava Period in the eighth and ninth centuries, the
Chola period (10th–12th century) saw the creation of the most exquisite bronze sculptures, particularly in
Tamil Nadu. The widowed Chola queen, Sembiyan Maha Devi, was a key patron of bronze artistry in the
10th century.
• Ardhaparyanka Asana: The bronze image of Shiva seated in ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dan-
gling) is a notable example of the Pallava Period. The right hand is in the achamana mudra gesture,
suggesting that he is about to drink poison.
• Nataraja (Dancing Shiva): The Nataraja (Dancing Shiva) icon was fully developed during during the
Chola Period. Other variations during this period include:
 Kalyanasundara Murti: The Kalyanasundara Murti (ceremony of marriage) portrays Shiva accepting

397
Parvati’s hand with a bashful expression and taking a step forward.
 Ardhanarisvara Murti: This symbolises the union of Shiva and Parvati in a single image.

[UPSC CDS I 2016] Which one of the following was a temple built by the Chola Kings? PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

a) Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjavur

b) Meenakshi Temple, Madurai
c) Srirangam Temple, Thiruchirapalli
d) Durga Temple, Aihole
Answer: Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjavur
 [UPSC CDS II 2016] What form of Shiva is most prominent in the Brihadeshvara Temple built
by the Chola dynasty?
a) Harihara
b) Bhairava
c) Rudra
d) Tripurantaka
Answer: Tripurantaka

[Practice Question] The Rath temples of Mahabalipuram were constructed by

a) Narsingh Varman I
b) Samundra Gupta
c) Rajendra First
d) Kulotung
Ans: Narsingh Varman I

Chalukya Temple Architecture

• The Badami Chalukyas developed the Vesara style of temple architecture in Deccan which reached its
culmination under Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas. Early Chalukyan temples were rock-cut caves, while later
ones were structural temples. The Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole is likely the earliest example.
• Chalukya temples are divided into two:
1. Excavated cave temples
2. Structural temples
• Badami is known for both structural and excavated cave temples, while Pattadakal and Aihole are pop-
ular for structural temples.

Badami Cave Temples

There are four cave temples (caves) in Badami. The construction of the cave temples is completed by

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•
Mangalesha, brother of Kiritavarman I.
• Out of the four cave temples, two (cave II and cave III) are dedicated to Vishnu and one each to Shiva
(cave I) and to the Jaina tirthankaras (cave IV). The largest cave is Cave 3, featuring Vishnu as Ananta PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

seated on coiled serpent, Varaha with Bhudevi, Harihara and Narasimha in standing posture.

Aihole

• About seventy temples are located in Aihole. The most important are:
1. Ladh Khan temple: This seems to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except
that it is constructed out of stone.
 2. Durga temple: It is unique having an even earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is reminiscent of
Buddhist chaitya halls and is surrounded by a veranda of a later kind, with a shikhara that is stylistically
like a nagara one.
3. Huchimalligudi temple
4. Jain temple at Meguti.

Pattadakal

• Virupaksha (Lokesvara) and Papnath temples built at Pattadakal were dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• The Virupaksha temple was built at the order of queen Lohamahadevi to commemorate the conquest
of Kanchipuram by her husband Vikramaditya II. It was built in the Dravidian style.

[Practice Question] The Virupaksha temple at Hampi is dedicated to

a) Lord Ganesha
b) Lord Brahma
c) Lord Shiva
d) Lord Vishnu
Ans: Lord Shiva

Rashtrakuta Temple Architecture

• The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta caves in Maharashtra.
• The rock-cut Monolithic Kailasanath Temple (Cave 16) at Ellora was built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna
I. It is the largest single monolithic excavation in the world.
• The sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in Elephanta caves. The most important sculpture
is 7-metre-tall Sadashiva (Trimurti or three-faced Lord Shiva) on the entrance to Cave 1. It represents
three aspects of Shiva: the Creator, the Preserver, and the Destroyer. The carvings at Elephanta indicates
the images of shiva in different forms - Trimurti (three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (Lord of dance),
Ardhnareshwara, Gangadhara and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga).

399
 Elephanta is an island near Mumbai, Maharashtra.
• There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Ellora and those in Elephanta. They might have been
carved by the same craftsmen. The most important cave in Elephanta is the great Cave 1. On plan it PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
almost resembles the Dumar Lena (Cave 29) of Ellora.

Ellora caves (Verul Leni)

• The Ellora caves (Verul Leni) are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, located in Charanadri Hills,
Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (Aurangabad), Maharashtra. The caves are datable from c. 6th – 7th century
CE to 11th – 12th century CE.
• In total, there are nearly 100 caves in the hill range out of which 34 caves are famous, out of which
Caves 1 to 12 are Buddhist; Caves 13 to 29 are Brahmanical and Caves 30 to 34 are Jaina. Two more
 groups of caves are noticed on the Elaganga and on an upper terrace, namely, the Ganesh Leni and
Jogeshwari Leni.
• Most of these religious sites likely received royal patronage, though inscriptional evidence is scarce.
The only confirmed inscriptions mention Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga, who supported Cave 15, and
Krishna I, who built the grand Kailasa temple.
• The excavations at Ellora started before the Rashtrakutas. Caves 1 to 10 and Cave 21 (Ramesvara) were
constructed by Kalachuris of Mahismati and Chalukyas of Badami.

[UPSC CSE 2016] What is/are common to the two historical places known as Ajanta and
Mahabalipuram?
1. Both were built in the same period.
2. Both belong to the same religious denomination.
3. Both have rock-cut monuments.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) None of the statements given above is correct
Ans: 3 only

[UPSC CDS I 2016] Which one of the following is the common element between the
Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora and the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram?
a) Both are examples of Nagara architecture
b) Both are carved out from solid rocks
c) Both are Gupta period temples
d) Both were built under the patronage of Pallava Kings

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Answer: Both are carved out from solid rocks

[UPSC CSE 2013] With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
following statements:
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India.
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 3 only
 d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 3 only

The Virashaiva Tradition: A Response to the Bhakti Movement and Temple Worship
• The Tamil Bhakti movement strengthened temple worship, which later led to a reaction that is best
represented by the Virashaiva movement, which was started by Basavanna and his companions like
Allama Prabhu, and Akkamahadevi in the 12th-century in Karnataka.
• Basavanna (1106-68) was a Brahmana minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler. His followers were known
as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats wearers of the linga).
• The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas
about caste and the treatment of women. They were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship.
They also questioned the theory of rebirth. The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved
in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows. These won them
followers amongst those who were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order.
• Lingayats worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a small linga in a silver case
on a loop strung over the left shoulder. Those who are revered include the jangama or wandering monks.
• Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world.
Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dharmashastras.
Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.

18.11. Important Dynasties and Their Founders

Dynasty Founder
Pushyabhutis Pushyabhuti
Maitrakas of Saurashtra Bhattarka
Maukharis of Kanauj Yajnavarman
Kingdom of Gaud Shashanka

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Palas Gopala I
Sena dynasty of Bengal Vijayasena
Pratiharas Nagabhata I PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Chalukyas of Badami Pulakesin I (Some scholar consider Vijaysimha as founder)

Rashtrakutas Dantidurga
Western Chalukyas of Kalyani Tailapa II
Yadavas of Devagiri king Bhillama V
Hoysalas Vishnuvardhana
Kakatiyas Prola II
18.12. Summary

Chalukyas of Badami (Sixth to Eighth Century CE: 543 – 757 CE)

King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Pulakesin I 543 to 566 CE Founder
Kirtivarman I 566 to 597 CE
Pulakesin II 610 to 642 CE • Most powerful ruler of Chalukya dynasty.
• The Aihole inscription gives the details of his reign.
• Defeated Harshavardhana (606 - 647 CE), ruler of Pushyabhuti
dynasty and the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman (600 - 630 CE).
• Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman (630 - 668 CE) defeated him.
• The Persian king Khusru II exchanged embassies with him.
• Chinese traveler Xuan Zang also visited his kingdom and praised
his rule.
Vikramaditya II 733 - 745 CE • Overrun Kanchi three times and ended the Pallava supremacy in
the far south.
• To commemorate the conquest of Kanchipuram by Vikramaditya
II, the queen Lohamahadevi built the Virupaksha temple.
Kirtivarman II 743 – 757 CE Last ruler of Chalukyas of Badami
Defeated by Dantidurga, Rashtrakuta king.

The Rashtrakutas (Eighth to Tenth Century CE: 757 – 973 CE)

King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Dantidurga • Founder
• Defeated the last Chalukyan king, Kirtivarman II
Performed the hiranya-garbha ritual

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•
Govinda III 793 - 814 CE • Defeated the Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II of Kanauj (795–833)
and Pala emperor Dharmapala (770–810 CE)
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Conquered Kanauj.
Amoghavarsha I 814 - 878 CE • Pala ruler Devapala (810 - 850 CE) defeated him.
• The Arab traveller Suleiman called Amoghavarsha I, one of the
four great kings of the world.
• His reign was known for cultural development. Jain literature
flourished during their reign.
 • He wrote Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit
and Kavirajamarga, the earliest available Kannada book on poet-
ics.
Krishna III 934 - 963 CE • Defeated the Chola king, Prantaka I in the Battle of Takkolam.
• He went as far as Rameswaram and occupied it
Indra IV • Last Rashtrakuta king
• Committed Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola

The Pallavas (Third to Ninth Century CE)

King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Mahendravarman I 600 - 630 CE • Pallava–Chalukya Conflict began during his reign.
• Defeated by Western Chalukya ruler, Pulakesin II
• Built rock-cut temples
Narasimhavarman 630 - 668 CE • Narasimhavarman defeated Pulakesin II
• Assumed the title Vatapikonda.
• Known as Mamalla (great wrestler) and built the port city
of Mamallapuram.
• Built Panchapandava Rathas (Five Monolithic Temples)
Rajasimha 700 – 728 CE • The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi
• The Shore temple at Mamallapuram
Aparajita 880 – 897/903 CE Chola king Aditya I defeated him

Imperial Cholas (Ninth to Thirteenth Century CE: 850 – 1279 CE)

King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Vijayalaya 850 CE Founder
Aditya I 871 - 907 CE Defeated the last Pallava king, Aparajita and ended the Pallava rule

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Parantaka I 907 - 953 CE Set the tone for expansion of the territory and conquered the Pan-
dya capital Madurai
Defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III (934 - 963 CE) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Rajaraja Chola 985 - 1014 CE • Defeated the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V and conquered the
northern part of Sri Lanka
• Conquered the Maldives
• Invaded Vengi to support Saktivarman I, an Eastern Chalukya
prince, against local rivals
• Built the Brihadeeswarar or Rajarajeswara temple at Tanjore
Rajendra Chola 1012- 1044 CE • Conquered the southern Sri Lanka
 • Led the naval expedition against the Sri Vijaya empire of
Southeast Asia
• Sent victorious expedition to north India
• Built the Shiva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 19. Medieval Northern India

19.1. Tripartite Struggle

• By the seventh century CE, Kanauj had risen to prominence as a major political centre in North India.
Emperor Harsha shifted his capital from Thanesar to Kanauj. However, after his death, the city faced a
prolonged power vacuum.
• Nearly a century later, Yashovarman (c. 725 – 752 CE) emerged as Kanauj’s ruler and established the
Varman dynasty (c. 725 – 770 CE). However, his successors were weak, and the last Varman ruler, Bhoja,
was eventually defeated by Vajrayudha, who founded the Ayudha dynasty (late 8th – early 9th century).
• During this period, Kanauj became the focal point of a prolonged struggle among three powerful dynas-
ties:
1. The Palas of Bengal from the east
2. The Gurjara-Pratiharas of Malwa from the west
3. The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta from the south
• While each of these powers briefly occupied Kanauj at different times, none could maintain control over
it for long, resulting in a continuous power struggle known as the Tripartite Struggle (three-way strug-

405
gle).
• Of the three, the Rashtrakuta Empire lasted the longest. It was not only the most powerful empire of
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
the time, but it also acted as a bridge between north and south India in economic as well as cultural
matters.

Ayudha Dynasty of Kanauj

• The Ayudha dynasty, founded by Vajrayudha, replaced the Varmans and ruled Kanauj from the late
8th to early 9th century.
• Vajrayudha was succeeded by his son, Vajrayudha in 783. He was defeated by the powerful Rashtrakuta
king Dhruva Dharavarsha, and the powerful king of the Palas, Dharmapala. Instead of annexing his
 territory, Dharmapala he appointed Indrayudha's brother, Chakrayudha, as the king of Kannauj, but as
his vassal.
• During Chakrayudha’s reign, the dynasty functioned as a client state of Pala ruler Dharmapala of Ben-
gal. However, the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III invaded and defeated both Chakrayudha and his over-
lord Dharmapala, plunging the region into chaos. Seizing this opportunity, Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-
Pratihara ruler, invaded Kaanauj, defeated Chakrayudha, and made Kannauj his capital, marking the
end of the Ayudha dynasty.

The Palas (Eighth to Twelfth Century CE: 750 - 1150 CE)

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Shashanka, the Gauda ruler of Bengal who is considered the first prominent king of Bengal, ruled
Bengal (West Bengal, Bangladesh and Bihar) in the early seventh century. After the fall of the Gauda
kingdom, there was no central authority, which led to recurring wars between petty chieftains. Finally, in
750 CE, local chieftains met and decided on a “Kshatriya chief ” named Gopala to be their ruler.
• Though Gopala did not have royal antecedents, he succeeded in acquiring a kingdom because of his
ability. Gopala’s political authority was soon recognised by several independent chiefs.
• Gopala’s original kingdom was in Vanga or East Bengal. He unified Bengal under his control and even
brought Magadha (Bihar) under his control.

Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE)

• Gopala I was succeeded by his son Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE), who made the Pala kingdom a force to
reckon with.
• Dharmapala's reign was marked by a tripartite struggle between the Palas, the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakutas for the control of Kanauj and north India.
• The Pratihara ruler Vatsraja advanced upon Gaud (Bengal), but he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler,
Dhruva, and was forced to seek refuge in the deserts of Rajasthan. Dhruva then returned to the Deccan.
This left the field free for Dharmapala, who occupied Kanauj and held a grand darbar, which was attended
by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, etc. The rulers of the Punjab, Rajaputana, Malwa and
Berar accepted his suzerainty. However, Dharmapala could not consolidate his power in north India. The
Pratihara power was revived under Nagabhatta II. Dharmapala was defeated near Mongyr or Moongher
(modern-day Munger, Bihar).
• Bihar and modern-day east Uttar Pradesh remained a bone of contention between the Palas and the
Pratiharas. However, Bihar, along with Bengal, remained under the control of the Palas for most of the
time.
• Dharmapala was a great patron of Buddhism. He founded the Vikaramasila monastery in the Bhagalpur
district in Bihar, which developed into Vikramshila University, a great centre of Buddhist learning and

407
culture. Atisha, a great Indian monk, served as its abbot before being invited by the Tibetans to spread
Vajrayana Buddhism, which remains influential in Tibet.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Dharmapala established the Somapura Buddhist Monastery in present-day Bangladesh. Tibetan
sources also credit him with founding Odantapuri Monastery in Bihar, but some historians believe it
was built by Gopala or Devapala instead.
• Dharmapala also revived Nalanda University, which continued to flourish as the chief seat of Buddhist
learning even during the Pala reign.

[Practice Question] Who founded the Vikramshila University?

a) Dharmapala
b) Devpala
 c) Gopal
d) Mahendrapala
Ans: Dharmapala

Devapala (810 - 850 CE)

• Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala (810 - 850 CE). He extended his control over Pragjyotish-
pur (Assam) and parts of Orissa. He also brought modern Nepal under Pala suzerainty. He took tribute
from kingdoms ranging from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas.
• Devapala defeated Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler, by allying with all the states that regarded the
Rashtrakutas as their common enemy.
• Devapala was also a great patron of Buddhism. He granted five villages to Balaputradeva, the king of
the Sailendra dynasty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), to maintain a monastery built by him at Nalanda.

End of the Pala Empire

• The Pala Empire dominated eastern India, covering Bihar, West Bengal, and Bangladesh, from the mid-8th
to the mid-9th century CE. Although its power began to decline by the late 9th century, the weakened
dynasty persisted until 1150 CE.
• Finally, Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty expelled the last Pala ruler, Madanapala (1130 – 1150 CE), and
established Sena rule in Bengal. However, the Senas themselves were soon overthrown by the Muslim
armies of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.
King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Gopala I 750 CE Founder
Dharmapala 770 – 810 CE • Rashtrakuta king, Dhruva (780 – 793) and Govinda III (793 - 814 CE)
defeated him.
• Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II (795 – 833) defeated him.
• Founded the Vikaramasila University in Bihar

408
• Revived the Nalanda University
Devapala 810 - 850 CE • Devapala defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha (814 – 878)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Granted five villages to Balaputradeva, the king of the Sailendra dyn-
asty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), to maintain a monastery built by him
at Nalanda.
Madanapala 1130 – 1150 CE Last Pala ruler

Economy and Cultural Progress

Profitable Trade

• Apart from earning revenue from agriculture, Palas also derived income from profitable trade with
Southeast Asia.
• The port of Tamralipti in Bengal was a key hub for commerce. This thriving trade brought prosperity to
the Pala Empire, leading to an influx of gold and silver into Bengal.

Buddhism: Link between Eastern India and South-East Asia

• The Palas had close trade contacts and cultural links with Southeast Asia. The powerful Sailendra dyn-
asty, which was Buddhist in faith and ruled over Malaya, Java, Sumatra and the neighbouring islands, sent
many embassies to the Pala court and sought permission to build a monastery at Nalanda. The dynasty
also requested that the Pala ruler, Devapala, endow five villages for its upkeep. The request was granted
and bears testimony to the close relations between the two.

Cultural Contact with Tibet

• The Pala rulers had close cultural relations with Tibet. They introduced a new form of tantric Buddhism,
called Vajrayana, there. The noted Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and Dipankara (called Atisha), were
invited to Tibet. As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramsila
to study.

Arab and Tibetan Accounts of the Pala Empire

• Arab merchant Sulaiman, who visited India in the middle of the ninth century, wrote an account of Palas.
He calls the Pala Kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma, short for Dharmapala) and says that the Pala ruler was
at war with his neighbours, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more numerous
than his adversaries.
• He tells us that it was customary for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants and
that 10,000-15,000 men in his army were employed 'in fulling and washing clothes'. Even if these figures
may be exaggerated, we can assume that the Palas had a large military force at their disposal. But we do
not know whether they had a large standing army or whether their forces consisted largely of feudal
levies.
• Information about the Palas is also provided by Tibetan chronicles. According to these, the Pala rulers

409
were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion. The Nalanda University was revived by Dhar-
mapala, and 200 villages were set apart for meeting its expenses. He also founded the Vikramasila Uni-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

versity, which became second only to Nalanda in fame. It was located on the top of a hill, on the banks
of the Ganga in Magadha, amidst pleasant surroundings. The Palas built many viharas in which a large
number of Buddhist monks lived.

Salamba Dynasty of Assam

• Assam (then called Kamarupa or Pragjyotisha) was briefly under Pala rule before becoming independ-
ent under Harjavarman of the Salamba dynasty (800–1000 CE). Their capital was Haruppeshvara on
the banks of the Lauhitya (now Brahmaputra).
• Copper plate and rock inscriptions from rulers Harjaravarman, Vanamala Varmadeva, and Balavarman
III provide insights into their polity. These rulers adopted imperial titles like Parameshavara, Para-
mabhattaraka, and Maharajadhiraja.

Odisha
• In the late 6th century, the Shailodbhavas established their rule in Kongoda (modern Puri and Ganjam
districts). Initially vassals of Shashanka, they later became independent. By the 8th century, as the Shail-
odbhavas declined, the Gangas of Shvetaka, migrants from Karnataka, rose to power in north Ganjam.
• The Gangas of Kalinganagara (a separate Ganga branch) settled in Odisha in the late 5th century,
controlling the Vamsadhara and Nagavali valleys. They claimed to have unified Kalinga through military
conquests.
• In north Odisha, the Bhauma-Karas ruled from the 8th to 10th centuries. In the 10th century, the Soma-
vamshis of Dakshina-Kosala expanded their empire to include much of northern and central Odisha.
• Eastern Gangas ruled much of the modern region of Odisha in three different phases.
1. Early Eastern Gangas (493–1076)
2. Imperial Eastern Gangas (1076–1436)
3. Khemundi Gangas (1436–1947)

Anantavarman Chodaganga (1076 – 1150 CE)

• Anantavarman Chodaganga was the founder of the Imperial Eastern Ganga dynasty. He is believed to
have ruled from the Ganges River in the north to the Godavari River in the south. In the early 12th
century, he overthrew the Somavamshis in lower Odisha.
• In 1076 CE, Anantavarman assumed the title of Trikalingadhipathi, ruler of the three Kalingas: Kalinga
proper (south), Utkala (north), and Koshala (west). Thus, he was the first to rule all three divisions of
Kalinga.
• Anantavarman was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He built the great Jagannath
Temple at Puri using the Nagara style.

410
• The Gangas may have benefited from an alliance with the Cholas, as Anantavarman's mother and one
of his queens were Chola princesses. However, this did not prevent conflicts—Chola king Kulottunga I
launched two military campaigns against Kalinga. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

King Narashimhadev I (1238 - 64 CE)

• Narasimhadeva I invaded southern Bengal in 1243, defeated its Muslim ruler of the Delhi Sultanate and
captured the capital (Gauda). He built the Sun Temple (Black Pagoda) at Konark to celebrate this victory.
The entire temple was conceived as a chariot of the Sun God with a set of spokes and elaborate carv-
ings.

The Pratiharas (730 - 1036 CE)

• The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara-Pratihars, probably because they originated from Gurjatara or
south-western Rajasthan. They ruled over Malwa, Rajputana and Gujarat.
• Initially, Pratiharas were probably local officials but were able to carve out a series of principalities in
central and eastern Rajasthan.
• The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was founded by Harichandra near Jodhpur in Rajputana after the decline
of the Gupta Empire. Over time, other Gurjara families, likely related, established small principalities in
nearby regions. In the 8th century, the dynasty gained prominence when Nagabhata I successfully re-
sisted the Arab invasion. His lineage became the dominant Pratihara branch, overshadowing other
branches.
 The Arabs were decisively defeated by the Chalukya rulers of Gujarat in 738 and ceased to be a real
danger.
• Nagabhata I founded the imperial Pratihara dynasty in Ujjain in the eighth century CE. He ruled from
730 to 760 CE and extended his control over present-day Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Vatsaraja (780 - 800 CE)

• Vatsraja, a grand-nephew of Nagabhata I, was an Emperor of the Pratihara dynasty from 780 to 800 CE.
During his reign, Pratiharas were involved in the tripartite struggle to control Kannauj.
• Vatsaraja defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala (770–810 CE) and became the first Pratihara ruler to achieve
victories in Kanauj and Bengal. His conquests marked the rise of the Imperial Pratiharas. However, he was
later defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva (780–793 CE).

Nagabhata II (795 – 833 CE)

• Nagabhata II defeated Chakrayudh (ruler of Kanauj, Dharmapala's vassal) and moved into Kanauj. He
was involved in conflicts with other contemporary rulers, such as the Palas and Rashtrakutas. He defeated
the Pala ruler Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE). However, he lost Malwa and Gujarat after being defeated by
Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III (793–814).

411
 The efforts of the early Pratihara rulers to extend their control over the upper Ganga valley and Malwa
were defeated by the Rashtrakuta rulers Dhruva and Govinda III. In 790 and again in 806-07, the
Rashtrakutas defeated the Pratiharas and then withdrew to the Deccan, leaving the field free for the
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Palas. Perhaps the main interest of the Rashtrakutas was the domination of Malwa and Gujarat.

Mihir Bhoja (836 – 882 CE)

• Mihir Bhoja, the grandson of Nagabhata II, was the real founder of the Pratihara Empire and the greatest
ruler of the dynasty. He ruled the kingdom from 836 to 882 CE. Bhoja was initially defeated by the Palas,
Rashtrakutas, and Kalachuris but later regained his power.
• Bhoja recovered Kanauj, which remained the capital of the Pratihara empire for almost a century. He
tried to extend his sway in the east, but he was defeated and checkmated by the Pala ruler, Devapala. He
 then turned towards central India and the Deccan and Gujarat. This led to a revival of the struggle with
the Rashtrakutas. Following the death of Devapala and the weakening of the Pala empire, Bhoja also
extended his empire in the east.
• According to the Barah copper plate inscription, Bhoja's territories extended to the western side of the
river Sutlej. Arab travellers tell us that the Pratihara rulers had the best cavalry in India. The import of
horses from Central Asia and Arabia was an important item of India's trade at that time.
• Mihir Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of 'Adivaraha', which has been found inscribed
in some of his coins.

Decline of the Pratihara Empire

• During the time of Mahipala (913 - 944 CE), between 915 and 918, the Rashtrakuta king, Indra III, attacked
Kanauj and devastated the city. This weakened the Pratihara Empire, and Gujarat probably passed into
the hands of the Rashtrakutas. The loss of Gujarat, which was the hub of overseas trade and the main
outlet for north Indian goods to West Asian countries, was another blow to the Pratiharas.
• Another Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III, invaded north India in about 963 and defeated the Pratihara ruler.
This was followed by the rapid dissolution of the Pratihara empire.

[Practice Question] Which among the following Rashtrakuta King defeated Pratihara ruler
Nagabhatta-II?
a) Dhruva
b) Govind-III
c) Indra-III
d) Krishna-III
Ans: Govind-III

Cultural Development
• The Pratiharas were patrons of learning and literature. The great Sanskrit poet and dramatist, Rajshekhar,

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lived at the court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja.
• During the eighth and ninth centuries, many Indian scholars went with embassies to the court of the
caliph at Baghdad. These scholars introduced Indian sciences, especially mathematics, algebra and med- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
icine to the Arab world. We do not know the names of the Indian kings who sent these embassies. The
Pratiharas were well-known for their hostility to the Arab rulers of Sindh. Despite this, it seems that the
movement of scholars and goods between India and West Asia continued even during this period.

Rajshekhar

• Rajshekhar was a Sanskrit poet who lived in the court of Mahendrapala I. He also described himself as a
guru of Mahendrapala I in some of his works.
• Rajshekhar's famous Sanskrit dramas include Viddhasalabhanjika, Balabharata, Karpuramanjari and
Balaramayana. He is also known for Kavyamimsa, a practical guide for poets.

Al-Masudi on the Pratiharas

• Arab traveller Al-Masudi, a native of Baghdad who visited Gujarat in 915-16, testifies to the great power
and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire. He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara king-
dom al-Juzr (a corrupt form of Gurjara) and the king Bhoja King Baura.
• Al Masudi says that the empire of Juzr had 1,80,000 villages, cities and rural areas and was about 2000
km in length and 2000 km in breadth. The king's army had four divisions, each consisting of 7,00,000 to
9,00,000 men: 'With the army of the north, he fights against the ruler of Multan and other Muslims who
align themselves with him. The army of the south fought against the Rashtrakutas and that of the east
against the Palas. He had only 2000 elephants trained for war, but the best cavalry of any king in the
country.
King (Ruler) Reign (Rule) Important Points
Nagabhata I Founder of Imperial Pratihara Empire
Vatsaraja 780 - 800 CE Defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala (770–810 CE)
Defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva (780–793 CE)
Nagabhata II 795 – 833 CE Defeated the Pala ruler, Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE)
Defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III (793–814)
Mihir Bhoja 836 - 882 CE Greatest ruler of Gurjara-Pratihara

The Rashtrakutas
• While the Palas and the Pratiharas were ruling over north India, the Deccan was being ruled by the Rash-
trakutas.
• Rashtrakutas engaged in the tripartite struggle for Kannauj and the Gangetic plain with the Palas of
Bengal and the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa. They also engaged with the Pratiharas for the overlordship

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of Gujarat and Malwa. Although their raids did not result in the extension of the Rashtrakuta empire to
the Ganga Valley, they brought rich plunder and added to the fame of the Rashtrakutas.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The Rashtrakutas also fought constantly against the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (in modern Andhra Pra-
desh) and in the south against the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.
We have already covered the Rashtrakutas in the chapter “South Indian Kingdoms”

[UPSC CSE 2020] Consider the following events in the history of India:
1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman - I
3. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
 What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
a) 2-1-4-3
b) 3-1-4-2
c) 2-4-1-3
d) 3-4-1-2
Ans: 2-4-1-3

19.2. The Rajput States

• From the seventh century onwards, a new type of warrior called the Rajputs appeared in north India
and dominated till the Muslim conquest in the twelfth century.
• The origin of Rajputs is shrouded in mystery, with scholars holding differing opinions. The term Rajaputra
emerged only in the 12th century, being used for specific clans and as a collective term for various groups.
There are several theories about the origin of Rajputs.
• Rajputs emerged from diverse backgrounds, including:
 Government Officers: Many were officials who were granted villages as payment instead of cash.
 Defeated Rajas and Nobles: Some were rulers who lost their kingdoms but retained control over
limited territories.
 Local Chiefs and Military Adventurers: Some rose to power by carving out their own domains with
the support of armed followers.
 Tribal or Clan Leaders: Some were leaders of warrior clans who established authority in their regions.
• Their status varied—some were village chiefs, others controlled multiple villages, and a few ruled entire
regions.
• Many historians believe the Rajputs descended from a mix of local Kshatriya rulers and foreign in-
vaders like the Shakas and Kushans.
• Many different Rajput clans settled across north India.
 Tomars of Delhi: Tomars ruled Haryana from their capital, Dhillika (Delhi).

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 Chauhans of Ajmer: Initially, the Chauhans ruled over Rajasthan. Once they were established, they
gradually extended their empire towards Gujarat and Punjab. Later, Vigraharaj IV conquered Delhi
(from Tomars) and annexed it to the Chauhan territory. Therefore, the Chauhans faced the onslaught PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

of the Muslims under Muhammad of Ghori.

 Gahadavalas (Gadhawal or Rathore) of Kanauj: Bengal remained under the control of the Palas
and, later, under the Senas. The Gahadavalas of Kanauj gradually squeezed the Palas out of Bihar and
made Banaras a second capital.
• Rajput society was built around clans, each claiming descent from a common ancestor, real or mythical.
They claimed they originated from:
 The Sun (Suryavanshi Rajputs)
  The Moon (Chandravanshi Rajputs): Chandellas
 The Fire (Agnivanshi Rajputs): The Agnikula (fire-born) myth suggests that four Rajput clans —
Pratiharas, Chaulukyas (Solankis), Paramaras, and Chahamanas (Chauhans)— emerged from a sacrifi-
cial fire performed by sage Vasishtha on Mount Abu.
• Attachment to land, family and honour (Maan) was a characteristic of the Rajputs.
• The Rajputs treated war as a sport. They constantly fought for dominance, expanding their power and
influence. The continuous warfare among the various Rajput states weakened them. Their lack of political
foresight and constant rivalries prevented any combined opposition to the Muslim invaders.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Kingdom Rule Capital Founder
Tomars of Delhi 8th to 12th century Dhillika (Delhi) -
Chauhans (Chahamanas) 7th to 12th century Ajmer, Delhi Vasudeva
of Ajmer
Gahadavalas (Gadhawal or 11th to 12th century Kanauj, Benaras Chandradeva
Rathore) of Kanauj
Paramaras (Pawar) 9th to 14th century Dhar Upendra
 of Malwa [Important ruler: Bhoja]
Chandelas of Bundelkhand 831 - 1315 Nannuka
(Jejakabhukti) (Important rulers: Vakpati,
Jayashakti and Vijayashakti)
Kalachuris of Chedi 850 – 1211 CE Tripuri Kokkala -I
Solankis (Chalukyas) 940 to 1244 CE Anahilavada Mularaja I
of Gujarat (Patan)
Pratiharas 730 – 1036 CE Avanti, Kanauj Nagabhatta -I
• With the decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas in the 10th century, their feudatory chiefs asserted independ-
ence, forming distinct Rajput clans. The Chaulukyas, Chandellas, Chahmanas, Gahadawalas, Kalachuris,
and Guhilas, who were once Pratihara vassals, emerged as independent rulers in their respective regions.

Chahamanas of Shakambhari (7th to 12th Century CE)

• The Chahamanas had several branches:
1. The oldest ruled in Lata until the mid-8th century.
2. Another, founded by Lakshmana, ruled from Naddula in south Marwar.
3. A third was established by Vasudeva in the early 7th century, with its capital at Shakambhari (modern
Sambhar near Jaipur).
• The Chahamanas of Shakambhari, or the Chauhans of Sambhar, ruled over present-day Rajasthan from
their capital, Shakambhari (modern-day Sambhar near Jaipur). Later, they shifted their capital to Ajmer;
hence, they are known as the Chauhans of Ajmer.
• The Chahamanas were originally Pratihara subordinates. Vasudeva founded the dynasty in the early 7th
century, and in the 10th century, they gained independence under King Simharaja (c. 944 - 971 CE).
• Ajayaraja II (c. 1110 - 1135) expanded the Chahamana kingdom by capturing the Paramara territory. He
defeated the Paramaras and conquered the territory up to Ujjain. He founded the city Ajayameru (Ajmer).

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Vigraharaja IV (c. 1150 – 1164 CE)
• Vigraharaja IV was one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty. He captured Delhi from the Tomaras but

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

allowed them to rule as feudatories. His kingdom included major parts of present-day Rajasthan, Haryana,
and Delhi and possibly some parts of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
• Vigraharaja shifted the capital from Shakambhari (modern-day Sambhar) to Ajayameru (Ajmer). In Aj-
mer, he commissioned several buildings, including a Sanskrit centre of learning that was later converted
into the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque. Harakeli Nataka, a Sanskrit-language drama written by him, is
inscribed on inscriptions discovered at the mosque site.

Prithviraj Chauhan (c. 1177 - 1192 CE)

• Prithviraj Chauhan, or Rai Pithora (Prithviraj III), was one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty. He de-
feated the Chandella ruler Paramardi, the Chaulukya ruler Bhima II and the Gahadavala ruler Jaichandra.
• Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori in the First Battle of Tarain in 1991 CE. However, the following
year, Ghori defeated him in the Second Battle of Tarain. Initially, Prithviraj was captured and reinstated
as the ruler of Ajmer under Ghurid suzerainty. However, he was later executed on charges of conspiracy,
and his son, Govindaraja IV, was installed as a vassal ruler.
• In 1192 CE, Prithviraj’s younger brother, Hariraja, recaptured part of his ancestral kingdom from Go-
vindaraja IV. However, he was later defeated by the Ghurid general Aibak.

Guhila Dynasty of Mewar

• The Guhilas of Medapata or the Guhilas of Mewar were a Rajput dynasty that ruled the Kingdom of
Mewar in the present-day Rajasthan. The Guhila kings initially ruled as Gurjara-Pratihara feudatories.
Their capitals included Nagahrada (Nagda) and Aghata (Ahar). For this reason, they are also known as
the Nagda-Ahar branch of the Guhilas.
• The Guhilas assumed sovereignty after the decline of the Pratiharas in the 10th century. During the 10th-
13th centuries, they were involved in military conflicts with several of their neighbours, including the
Delhi Sultanate.
• In 1303, Raja Ratan Singh Rawal was the last Guhilot king to rule, and Rani Padmini staged the first
Jauhar in Chittor.

Tomara kingdom (8th to 12th Century CE)

• The Tomaras were feudatories of Pratiharas. They ruled the Hariyana (Haryana) from their capital, Dhil-
lika (Delhi), from the 8th to the 12th century CE. The Tomars continued to rule Haryana until the mid-12th
century, when the Chahamana king, Vigraharaja IV, defeated them.
• The Tomaras were involved in conflicts with their neighbours, the Chahamanas of Shakambhari and,
later on, the Gahadavala dynasty. A 13th-century inscription states that the Tomaras ruled Haryana before

417
the Chahamanas and the Shakas (Turks or Delhi Sultans).
• Anangpal II was one of the most famous Tomara kings. He built Delhi (according to the 11th century
inscription on an iron pillar at Mehrauli). He built the citadel of Lal Kot in the Mehrauli area and a tank
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
known as the Anang Tal.
• The Tomaras were displaced by the Chahamanas of Shakambhari in the 12th century, who captured their
capital, Delhi. However, in 1192 CE, the Chahamanas were themselves overthrown by the Ghurid ruler
Muhammad Ghori.

Gahadavalas of Kanauj (11th to 13th Century CE)

• Following the decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Middle Ganga Valley experienced instability, which
was ended when King Chandradeva established the Gahadavala dynasty in c. CE 1089.
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• From Kanauj, the Gahadawalas ruled over the major portions of the Gangetic doab from 1089 to 1194
CE. They gradually squeezed the Palas out of Bihar and made Banaras a second capital.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The Gahadawalas had a bitter struggle and enmity with the Chahamanas.
• Govindachandra (c. 1114 - 1155 CE), the grandson of Chandradeva, was the most powerful ruler of his
dynasty. The kingdom reached its zenith under his reign.
 As a prince, he defeated the Ghaznavids and the Palas.
 As a sovereign, he defeated the Kalachuris of Tripuri and annexed some of their territories.
• Jaichandra (c. 1170 - 1194 CE), the grandson of Govindachandra, was the last great ruler of the Gahada-
wala dynasty. In 1194, he was defeated by the Ghurid army under Qutbuddin Aibak, which effectively
ended the dynasty's imperial power.
• The kingdom completely ceased to exist when Jayachandra's successors were defeated by the Delhi Sul-
tanate Mamluk dynasty ruler Iltutmish.
• After the sacking of Kanauj by Muhammad of Ghor in 1194 and its subsequent capture by the Delhi
Sultanate in the early 13th century, some survivors of the Gahadavala dynasty, led by Jaichandra's son and
grandson Siyaji (Shiv Ji), fled west to the Marwar region of Rajasthan. They founded the Rathore clan
and ruled the state of Marwar (Jodhpur state).

Kanauj: A Struggle for Supremacy

• Maukharis of Kanauj: During the decline of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, the Maukharis of Kanauj,
originally Gupta vassals, established independent rule in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with Kanauj as their
capital.
• Harsha’s Rule: After Shashanka of Gauda killed the Maukhari ruler, Grihavarman, he occupied Kanauj.
King Harsha expelled Shashanka and made Kanauj his capital.
• Post-Harsha Power Struggle: After Harsha's death, Kanauj saw a power vacuum. Around 725 CE, Yash-
ovarman founded the Varman dynasty, which was later replaced by the Ayudha dynasty.
• Tripartite Struggle: From the 8th to 10th centuries, Kanauj became the centre of conflict among the Gur-
jara-Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas. After the initial struggle, the Gurjara Pratiharas succeeded in
retaining Kanauj.
• Gahadavala Rule: Following the decline of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Kanauj experienced instability until
Chandradeva of the Gahadavala dynasty restored order in 1089 CE.
• Turkish Rule: In 1194, Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichandra of the Gahadavala dynasty in the Battle
of Chandawar, bringing Kanauj under Turkish rule.

Chandellas of Bundelkahnd
• The Chandellas, one of the feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, trace their descent to a mythical ancestor
named Chandratreya, born of the moon. The dynasty was founded by Nannuka in the 9th century CE.
The Chandellas ruled Jejakabhukti (modern Bundelkahnd) from its capital, Kharjjuravahaka (Khaju-

419
•
raho). They were involved in conflicts with the Pratiharas, the Palas and the Kalachuris.
• The Chandella kingdom expanded under early rulers like Jayashakti and Vijayashakti. Jayashakti, also
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
called Jejjaka or Jeja, inspired the name Jejabhukti for the Chandella territory.
• The expansion continued under Harsha (900 - 925 CE) and Yashovarman (925 - 950 CE). Yashovarman
defeated the Somavamshis, Kambojas, and Palas but acknowledged Pala ruler Devapala’s overlordship.
He captured the Kalanjar fortress. His reign marked the rise of Chandella art and architecture. He also
built the famous Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.
• As the Pratiharas declined, the Chandellas asserted their independence. Dhanga (c. 950 - 999 CE), the
first independent Chandella ruler, assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. Several Khajuraho temples, in-
cluding Vishvanatha temple, were built during his reign.
• The Chandellas' power declined due to the rise of the Delhi Sultanate and local dynasties like the Bun-
delas, Baghelas, and Khangars. A minor branch of the Chandellas reportedly ruled Kalanjar until its ruler
was killed by Sher Shah Suri’s army in 1545 CE.

The Kalachuris of Chedi (845 - 1211 CE)

• South of the Chandella kingdom was the Kalachuri principality of Chedi. The Kalachuris of Chedi (also
known as Chedis or Kalachuris of Chedi or Tripuri) ruled from their capital, Tripuri, now a village (Tewar)
near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh.

Kokalla I (845 - 885 CE)

• The dynasty was founded by Kokalla I in 845 CE. He defeated the Pratihara emperor Bhoja I and the
Rashtrakuta king Krishna II. After the defeat of Krishna II, the Rashtrakutas started having matrimonial
relations with the Kalachuris. Thus, Kokalla I, through his military skills and successes, was able to increase
the prestige of the Kalachuris.
• Kokalla I was succeeded by his eldest son, Shankaragana. After him, Balaharsh and then Yuvaraja I came
to power.

Yuvaraja I (915 - 945 CE)

• During Yuvaraja I’s reign, he was defeated by Rashtrakuta King Krishna III and lost his territory. However,
Krishna III could not hold onto it for long, and Yuvaraja I regained it.
• Rajshekhar, a Sanskrit poet who lived in the court of Mahendrapala I and his son Mahipala, was also
closely associated with the court of Kalachuris. His drama, the Viddhashalabhanjika, was staged in the
court of Yuvaraja to celebrate the victory against the Rashtrakutas.
• After Yuvaraja I, Laksmanaraja, Yuvaraja II, and Kokalla II ruled the Kalachuris.

Gangeyadeva (c. 1015 – 1041 CE)

• Gangeyadeva was the greatest Kalachuri king. He pursued an expansionist policy, and the Kalachuris

420
became an important political power during his reign.
• Gangeyadeva took the title Vikramaditya. Due to his great victories, he assumed the title Trikalingadhipati
(Lord of Trikalinga).
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
End of the Kalachuris
• After Gangeyadeva, several Kalachuri rulers succeeded him. During their reign, the Kalachuris faced re-
peated attacks from the Chalukyas of Deccan, the Paramaras of Malwa, and the Chandelas of Bundel-
khand. These invasions weakened the dynasty, leading to its decline. The Kalachuri rule finally ended in
1211 CE with Vijayasimha as their last ruler.

Paramaras of Malwa
• The Paramaras of Malwa, a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas, were founded by Upendra in the 9th century.
Their kingdom bordered the Kalachuris, with Dhara (present-day Dhar, Madhya Pradesh) as their capital.
• It is believed that Upendra was appointed ruler of the Deccan by Govinda III after his successful Malwa
campaign. The Paramaras temporarily lost Malwa to the Pratiharas but regained power in the mid-10th
century under Vairasimha II and Siyaka II (Harsha).
• Around 972 CE, Siyaka defeated the Rashtrakuta army at Kalighatta on the Narmada and chased them to
their capital, Manyakheta. He broke away from Rashtrakuta rule, making the Paramaras a sovereign
power.
• King Bhoja (c. 1010 - 1055 СЕ) was the most celebrated ruler of the Paramara dynasty. During his reign,
the dynasty reached its zenith. It is believed that Bhoja sent an army to support the Hindu Shahi ruler
Anandapala's fight against the Ghaznavids. Bhoja was a renowned scholar. He authored several books:
 Samarangana Sutradhara: A treatise on civil engineering or architecture
 Champu-Ramayana: A re-telling of the Ramayana in a mixture of prose and poetry,
 Sringara Prakasa: A set of Sanskrit poetry
• Mahalakadeva, the last known Paramara king, was defeated and killed by the forces of Alauddin Khalji of
Delhi in 1305 CE. However, epigraphic evidence suggests that the Paramara rule continued for a few years
after his death.

Chalukyas of Gujarat
• Around 950 CE, the Chalukyas of Gujarat (Solanki Rajputs), feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, ruled
Gujarat and Kathiawad.
• The Chaulukyas of Gujarat were distinct from the Chalukyas of southern India and had three branches:
1. The oldest branch, based in Mattamayura (Central India), included rulers like Simhavarman, Sadhanva,
and Avanivarman.
2. The second branch was founded by Mularaja I, who established his capital at Anahilapataka or Ana-
hilavada (modern Patan).

421
3. The third branch, founded by Barappa in Lata, had its political centre at Bhrigukachchha (Broach) in
southern Gujarat.

Mularaja I (c. 940 - 955 CE) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Mularaja I of Anahilapataka led military campaigns in Saurashtra, Kutch, and against the Abhiras. How-
ever, his power declined due to invasions by the Chahamanas and the Chaulukyas of Lata.
• After a defeat by the Paramaras, he sought refuge with Rashtrakuta king Dhavala but later regained his
kingdom. His successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers.

Bhima I (c. 1022 – 1064 CE)

• Bhima I (Bhimadeva I) was a Chaulukya king who ruled parts of present-day Gujarat from 1022 to 1064
CE.
• During his reign, Mahmud of Ghazni invaded the kingdom and raided the Somnath temple in 1025
CE. Bhima left his capital and took shelter in Kanthkot during this invasion, but after Mahmud's departure,
he recovered his power and retained his ancestral territories.
• Bhima I built the Modhera Sun Temple and the earliest of the Dilwara Temples. The Vimal Vasahi temple
(of the five Dilwara temples), dedicated to Jain lord Rishabha, was built by Vimalsha, a minister of Bhima
I, in c. 1031 CE. His queen, Udayamati, constructed Rani Ki Vav (queen's step well), which has been listed
as one of India’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2014.

Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala

• The kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of Jayasimha Siddharaja (c. 1092 - 1142 CE) and Ku-
marapala (c. 1142 - 1171 CE).
• Hemachandra Suri, Jain Acharya of the Shvetambara sect, was a court scholar of Jayasimha Siddharaja
and Kumarapala.
• Kumarapala rebuilt the Somnath temple in excellent stone and studded it with jewels. He replaced a
decaying wooden temple.

End of the Dynasty

• The Vaghela dynasty of Dholka usurped power from the Chaulukya dynasty in 1244 CE. They were the
last Hindu dynasty to rule Gujarat before the Muslim conquest of the region. In 1299, Alauddin Khalji's
army ransacked Gujarat, weakening the dynasty. It ultimately ended in 1304 when Khalji sent a second
expedition.

[UPSC NDA I 2018] Which of the following clans are included in the Agnikula Rajputs?
1. Pratiharas
2. Chaulukyas
3. Paramaras
4. Chahamanas

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Select the correct answer from the code given below:
a) 1 and 3 only
b) 1, 3 and 4 only PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
d) 2 and 4 only
Answer: 1, 2, 3 and 4

[UPSC CSE 2022] Consider the following pairs:

King: Dynasty
1. Nannuka: Chandela
2. Jayashakti: Paramara
 3. Nagabhata II: Gurjara-Pratihara
4. Bhoja: Rashtrakuta

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

a) Only one pair
b) Only two pairs
c) Only three pairs
d) All four pairs
Ans: Only two pairs

[Practice Question] The great Jain Scholar Hemchandra adorned the court of:
a) Amoghavarsha
b) Kumarapala
c) Jaysimha Siddharaja
d) Vidhyadhara
Ans: Kumarapala

19.3. Kashmir and the North-West

Kashmir
• Kalhana (c. 12th century) was a Kashmiri Brahmana and the author of Rajatarangini (River of Kings), a
historical chronicle of Kashmir. Written in Sanskrit between 1148 and 1149 CE, Rajatarangini remains a
crucial source for the history of Kashmir and North-West India.
• Kashmir was ruled by the Karkota, Utopala, and two Lohar dynasties.

Kurkota Dynasty
• The Kurkota dynasty was founded by Durlabhavardhana in the 7th century, during the lifetime of the
Pushyabhuti king, Harshavardhana. During his reign, Huen Tsang visited Kashmir.

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Lalitaditya (697 - 733 CE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Lalitaditya or Muktapida was the most powerful king of the Kurkota dynasty. He led a successful military
campaign against the Tibetans, Turks and Arabs. He also defeated Yashovarman of Kanauj.
• Kalhana describes Lalitaditya as a "world conqueror," attributing miraculous powers and vast conquests
across India and Central Asia to him. While his claims are considered exaggerated, Lalitaditya is still re-
garded as the most powerful king of the Karkota dynasty.
• Lalitaditya commissioned several shrines in Kashmir, including the now-ruined Martand Sun Temple (the
oldest known sun temple in India). He also established several towns, including a new capital at Parihasa-
pura.
Vajraditya (734 - 741 CE)

• The reign of King Vajraditya (734 - 741 CE) was marked by frequent Arab raids into Kashmir.

Jayapida (745 - 776 CE)

• Jayapida led a three-year-long expedition against the eastern countries and claimed to have defeated
five chieftains of Gauda. He also defeated the ruler of Kanauj while returning from the campaign.
• The Karkota dynasty came to an end in 855 CE.

Utpala Dynasty
• Avanti Varman ascended the throne of Kashmir in 855, establishing the Utpala dynasty.

Avanti Varman (855 - 883 CE)

• Avantivarman appointed Suyya, an engineer and architect, as his prime minister. His reign is known for
major irrigation works.
 During his reign, the embankments were constructed to prevent landslides, dams were built, and the
lakes that caused floods were drained.
 He took steps to prevent the flood waters of the Mahapadma (Wular) lake from damaging crops.
 Suyya also carried out the desilting of the Jhelum River and even marginally diverted its course.

Shankaravarman (885–902 CE)

• Shankaravarman, the successor of Avanti Varman, led a successful military campaign against Gujarat and
Punjab.

Emergence of Tantrins, Ekangas and Damaras

• In the history of Kashmir, the 10th century saw the emergence of Tantrins (a body of foot soldiers),
Ekangas (a body of royal bodyguards), and Damaras (landed chiefs).
• They played an important role as kingmakers in the politics of that time. They made and unmade the
rulers. For example - Queen Sugandha used the Ekangas against the Tantrins effectively. However, she

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could not subordinate the Tantrins, who deposed her in 914 CE.

Women Rulers of Kashmir

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Kalhana’s Rajatarangini mentions three women rulers: Yashovati of the Gonanda dynasty, Sugandha of
the Utpala dynasty, and Didda of the Yashaskara dynasty.

Queen Didda (958 - 1003 CE)

• Didda exercised political power for almost 50 years. This included:

 The period of her husband Kshemagupta's reign.
 The period when she was regent for her minor son Abhimanyu.
 The period when she ruled Kashmir in her own right.
• Queen Didda chose Sangramaraja, the son of her brother, as her successor, diverting the succession to
her maternal family and thus starting the Lohara dynasty.

Hindu Shahi Dynasty in the North-west

• In the early 9th century, the Turkish Shahi dynasty ruled the Kabul valley and Gandhara area. In the second
half of the 9th century, Kallar, a Brahmana minister of King Lagaturman, overthrew the king and estab-
lished the Hindu Shahi dynasty.
• Kallar could not maintain his control over the Kabul valley for long. In 870 CE, he was defeated by Ya'qub
ibn al-Layth, the founder of the recently formed Saffarid dynasty, and forced to move his capital from
Kabul to Udabhanda (present-day Und village in Rawalpindi district).

Jayapala (c. 964 - 1001 CE)

• Jayapala consolidated the kingdom and made himself the master of the Punjab plain.
• In 986–987, Jayapala advanced toward Ghazni and clashed with the forces of Sabuktigin (ruler of Ghazni)
at Ghuzak. After days of indecisive fighting, the battle turned against the Shahis, forcing Jayapala to seek
a peace treaty.
• In 1001, when Mahmud of Ghazni defeated Jayapala, he immolated himself in disgrace.

Anandapal (c. 1001 - 1010 CE)

• Anandapal ascended to the throne in 1001 CE.
• In 1006 CE, Mahmud requested Anandapala to consent to the passage of his troops via his territories to
reach Daud, the ruler of Multan. Anandapala declined the request and even went to the extent of sta-
tioning troops on the banks of the Indus to prevent Mahmud's crossing. Due to his resistance against
Mahumd of Ghazni, some historians compare him with King Porus, who opposed Alexander.
• In 1008-09 CE, Mahmud defeated Anandapala in the Battle of Waihind (Battle of Chach). In 1010, Anan-
dapala signed a peace treaty with Mahmud.

End of the Dynasty

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• Bhimapala, the last emperor of the Hindu Shahi dynasty, ascended to the throne in 1022 CE and continued
to rule until 1026 CE.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The repeated invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century led to its end. Finally, it was absorbed
by the Ghaznavid Empire.

19.4. North Indian Kingdoms: Politics, Society, and Culture

Administration
• During the post-Gupta era, the administration became more feudal and decentralised, with many petty
rulers governing different regions. Rulers, especially the Gurjara-Pratiharas in Rajasthan and Gujarat, built
many water systems like tanks and stepwells, enabling the cultivation of dry lands.
• Armies were large and mainly composed of foot soldiers, horsemen, and elephant troops. Persian and
Arabic texts mention the vast army of Dharmapala.

Social Structure
• Society was highly stratified, with rigid social rules. Brahmans gained power through land grants and
key administrative roles. The practice of sati became more common, especially among Rajputs.
• The Kayasthas, originally a caste of scribes handling records and accounts, rose to prominence as im-
portant officials.

Trade and Economy

• During the post-Gupta era, cities like Thanesar, Kannauj, and Varanasi prospered as important cultural
and trade centres.
• Trade links with China, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East remained active and Arab merchants came
to dominate sea routes to India's west. Many of the Western Indian traders were Jains. They used their
riches to build magnificent Jain temples, such as those at Mount Abu and Girnar.
• The Indian economy was highly advanced, with a well-developed banking system that included instru-
ments like hundis, which functioned as bills of exchange for secure money transfers and credit.

Decline and Revival of Trade

Decline of Trade

• Between the 7th and 10th centuries, trade and commerce in northern India declined, leading to stagna-
tion and the decay of towns. The fall of the Roman and Sassanid empires disrupted trade, reducing the
inflow of gold and silver. The scarcity of new gold coins reflects this decline.
• The decline in trade and commerce is also reflected in the thinking of the period. In some of the
Dharamshastras, which were written during this period, a ban is put on foreign travel, claiming that
travel across the salt seas was polluting. However, these bans were not strictly followed, as Indian
merchants, scholars, physicians, and artisans are known to have visited Baghdad and other Muslim cities.

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The restrictions may have been intended mainly for Brahmins or aimed at limiting exposure to Islamic (in
the West) and Buddhist (in the East) influences, which could challenge orthodox beliefs.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Revival of Trade

• With the rise of a powerful Arab empire, trade gradually revived, particularly benefiting Malwa and
Gujarat. With the decline of the Roman Empire, China became the main focus of Indian Ocean trade,
importing large quantities of spices from India and Southeast Asia. The Pala port of Tamralipti in Bengal
was a major hub for trade with China and Southeast Asia.
• India exported sandalwood, spices, camphor, ivory, and textiles to China while importing silk and porce-
lain. It also re-exported ivory and glassware, which came from Africa and West Asia.
• India and Southeast Asia served as key staging centres for trade between China and West Asia/Africa,
as direct voyages were rare due to seasonal monsoon winds. Ships halted at Indian and Southeast Asian
ports, waiting for favourable winds. This maritime tradition, along with flourishing shipbuilding industries
in Gujarat and South India, made India a crucial link in global trade.
• Thus, while India's trade with the western regions, Southeast Asia, and China grew steadily, South India,
Bengal, and Gujarat led this commerce. This played a crucial role in their wealth and prosperity.

Banking and Bills of Exchange (Hundis) in Medieval India

• The growth of trade and commerce increased the demand for money and credit. To meet this need,
moneylenders and bankers — sarrafs, mahajans, and sahukars — expanded their loanable capital by re-
investing profits and accepting deposits from individuals, merchant groups, and state officials who had
cash to put out on interest. A key financial instrument was the hundi, a form of bill of exchange. It was
a written document promising payment of a specified sum at a particular place, either immediately
or after a set period.
• There were two main types of Hundi:
1. Darshani Hundi: Payable on sight
2. Miyadi Hundi: Redeemable after a fixed period.
• Two types of hundis based on their uses were popular in medieval India:
1. Hundi as an instrument of money transfer: To transfer the money. Merchants could deposit
money with a banker in one city and receive payment in another, avoiding the risk of carrying cash.
2. Hundi as an instrument of credit: To borrow the money.

Religion
• During the post-Gupta era, Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism coexisted, though Buddhism and Jainism
declined as Hinduism resurged. Vishnu and Shiva became the most widely worshipped deities, and
devotional sects of Krishna emerged. Texts like the Bhagavata Purana narrated his childhood stories,
while Jayadeva's Gita Govinda popularised Radha as his divine companion, making Krishna a personal

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deity for devotees.
• Most rulers after Harsha were staunch Hindus, except the Palas, who patronised Vajrayana Buddhism.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Palas supported major Buddhist centres like Nalanda, Vikramshila and Somapura Mahavihara, attract-
ing scholars from China, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. During this time, Buddhist monasteries also thrived in
Sanchi, Amaravati, Kashmir, Ladakh, and Nepal.
• During this period, Jainism became concentrated in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Even now, these
areas have a good number of Jainas who are mainly engaged in trade and commerce.

Literature
• This was the last great age of Sanskrit literature, with many notable scholars and poets contributing to
drama, poetry, history, and philosophy.

Bhavabhuti
• Bhavabhuti was an 8th-century Sanskrit scholar and playwright who lived at the court of Yashovarman
of Kannauj. He is renowned for his plays and poetry, which are considered on par with Kalidasa's works.
• His notable plays include:
1. Uttararamacharita: For this play, he is known as the Poet of Karuna Rasa
2. Malati Madhava

Kshemendra
• Kshemendra (c. 990 – 1070 CE) was an 11th-century Sanskrit polymath - poet, satirist, philosopher,
historian and dramatist from Kashmir. He was born a Shaiva but later became a Vaishnava. He studied
and wrote about both Vaishnavism and Buddhism.
• He composed plays, descriptive poems and a satirical novel. His well-known works include Dasav-
ataracharita (ten incarnations of Vishnu), Kalavilasa, Samayamatrika, Desopadesa, and Narmamala.

Jayadeva
• Jayadeva was a Sanskrit poet who lived during the 12th century. He is most known for his epic poem
Gita Govinda, which focuses on the love of Radha and Krishna. Gita Govinda is considered an important
text in the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.

Hemachandra
• Hemachandra was a 12th century Gujarati Shvetambara Jain acharya. He wrote plays, Sanskrit and Pra-
krit grammars, and texts on science, mathematics and logic.
• His notable work includes:
1. Trishashti Shalaka Purusha-charitra: A Sanskrit epic poem describing the lives of 63 Jain saints

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2. Parisishta Parvan: This book is an appendix to the Trishashtisalaka Purusha Charita and provides
additional information about Jaina teachers.
3. Kumarapalacharita: This tells the story of king Kumarapala (the Solanki king of Gujarat), while sim-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
ultaneously illustrating rules of grammar.

Kalhana
• Kalhana (c. 12th century) wrote the Rajatarangini in 1148-49 CE, a Sanskrit historical chronicle of Kash-
mir. It traces Kashmir's political history from ancient (and even mythical) times and provides intriguing
insights into the lives of common people.

[UPSC CSE 2021] With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla and
Kshemeshvara were famous
 a) Jain monks
b) playwrights
c) temple architects
d) philosophers
Ans: playwrights

[Practice question] Consider the following pairs:

Dynasty: Founder
1. Rashtrakuta: Dantidurga
2. Gahadavalas: Chandradeva
3. Chauhans of Ajmer: Vasudeva
4. Pratiharas: Nagabhatta -I

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

a) Only one pair
b) Only two pairs
c) Only three pairs
d) All four pairs
Ans: All four pairs

19.5. Summary

• By the seventh century CE, Kanauj had risen to prominence as a major political centre in North India.
During this period, Kanauj became the focal point of a prolonged struggle among three powerful dyn-
asties:
1. The Palas of Bengal from the east
2. The Gurjara-Pratiharas of Malwa from the west
3. The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta from the south

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Tripartitle Struggle
The Palas PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Gopala: Founder
• Dharmapala: Rashtrakuta King Dhruva (780 – 793) and Govinda III (793 - 814 CE) and Pratihara King
Nagabhata II (795 – 833) defeated him.
• Devapala: He defeated the Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha (814 – 878)

The Pratiharas

• Nagabhata I: Founder
• Nagabhata II: Defeated the Pala ruler, Dharmapala (770 – 810 CE). Defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler
Govinda III (793–814).

The Rashtrakutas

• Dantidurga: Founder
• Govinda III: Defeated the Pratihara emperor Nagabhata II of Kanauj (795–833) and Pala emperor Dhar-
mapala (770–810 CE)
• Amoghavarsha I: Pala ruler Devapala (810 - 850 CE) defeated him.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 20. The Age of Conflict

20.1. Rise of Islam

• The rise of Islam in the 7th century under Prophet Muhammad united the Arab tribes into a powerful
empire. By the time of his death in 632 CE, most of the Arabian Peninsula was under his leadership.
• After the death of Prophet Muhammad, the Arabs, led by Caliphs, expanded their rule and spread Islam.
The Caliphate (Khilafat) was established, with the Caliph (Khalifa) serving as both the religious and po-
litical leader.
• Abu Bakr was chosen as the first Caliph, marking the beginning of the Rashidun Caliphate. Under the
early Caliphs, the Islamic empire expanded rapidly, covering Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, North Africa,
and parts of Spain. The Rashidun Caliphate was later succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, followed by
the Abbasid Caliphate.
Caliphate Rule
Rashidun Caliphate 632 – 661 CE
Umayyad Caliphate 661 – 750 CE

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Abbasid Caliphate 750 – 1517 CE
Ottoman Caliphate 1517 - 1924
Note: Turkish leader Mustafa Kamal Pasha abolished the Caliphate or Khilafat (the institution of the Caliph PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
(Khalifa) in 1924.

20.2. Early Muslim Invasions

Muhammad bin Qasim's Conquest of Sindh (712 CE): First Muslim Invasion
• By the 8th century, the Arabs had reached the borders of Sindh, which was ruled by the Hindu king Dahir.
In 712 CE, Muhammad bin Qasim, an Arab military commander under the Umayyad Caliphate, defeated
Dahir, killed him, and conquered Sindh. The region remained under Arab rule but could not expand
 further into India due to the powerful Pratihara Kingdom in western India. As a result, Muslim expansion
into India stalled for the next 300 years.

432
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Although the conquest of Sindh did not lead to further conquests immediately, it played a key role in
spreading Indian culture abroad. Many Arab travellers visited Sindh, facilitating the exchange of
knowledge. Indian advancements in medicine and astronomy reached distant lands through the Arabs,
 and Indian numerals, in their Arabic form, eventually made their way to Europe. As part of the Arab Em-
pire, Sindh became a gateway for the transfer of Indian knowledge to the wider world.
 Futuh al-Buldan, a 9th century Arabic text by Al-Biladuri, also has a dedicated chapter on the Sindh
conquest.
 Muruj-ul-zehab or Muruj adh-Dhahab (Meadows of Gold) is a historical work written by Al-Masudi
in the 10th century CE. It covers the history, culture, and geography from the beginning of the world
(starting with Adam and Eve) to the late Abbasid era. It also contains descriptions of Indian society,
religions, and maritime activities.
 Chachnama or fatahnama, a 13th-century Persian text written by Ali Kufi, is the primary source on the
Arab conquest of Sindh.

Rise of Independent Turkish States

• By the late 9th century, the Abbasid Caliphate began to decline. As the power of the central government
declined, provincial governors or Turkish governors (Islamized Turks, who initially served as palace
guards and mercenaries) started assuming independent status, and the caliph became only a ritual au-
thority. Over time, these rulers adopted the title of Amir (Commander) and later Sultan (Ruler), marking
the rise of independent Turkish states.
• One of the major kingdoms that emerged from the broken Arab empire was the Samanid kingdom, which
also splintered, leading to several independent states. Alp-Tegin, a Turkic slave who had served the Sa-
manids as their governor in Khurasan, seized the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan and established
an independent kingdom. As the Samanid rule collapsed, the Ghaznavids emerged as a dominant power.

Samanid Empire (819 - 999 CE)

• The Samanid Empire was a Persianate Muslim empire from 819 to 999 CE. It was centered in Khora-
san and Transoxiana. (In general, it covers present-day northeastern Iran and parts of Central Asia.)
• The Samanid dynasty was the first native dynasty to arise in Iran after the Muslim Arab conquest.

433
 Khorasan: A historical region that roughly corresponds to northeastern Iran, northwestern Afghan-
istan, eastern Turkmenistan, eastern Uzbekistan, and portions of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
 Transoxiana: A historical region in the lower Central Asia roughly corresponding to southern Ka-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
zakhstan, southern Kyrgyzstan, eastern Uzbekistan, western Tajikistan, and parts of Turkmenistan.

Mahmud of Ghazni’s Invasion: First Turkic Invasions of India

Ghaznavid Empire (977 - 1186 CE)
• Alp-Tegin was the commander-in-chief of the Samanid army in Khorasan. After a failed power struggle
in the Samanid court, he crossed the Hindu Kush mountains, captured Ghazni (in present-day Afghani-
stan), and established his own principality in 962 CE; however, it was still under Samanid authority.
 434
• Alp-Tegin was succeeded by his son, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, in 963 CE. Later, the successive rulers of the
Ghaznavid Dynasty expanded their influence and declared independence from the Samanid Kingdom.
• Sabuktigin, who ruled the Ghazni from 977 to 997, was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty. The PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Ghaznavid Empire reached its zenith under Mahmud (998 - 1030 CE), who expanded the empire to in-
clude northwestern India and most of Iran.
• The Ghaznavid Empire ended in 1186 when Muhammad Ghori defeated Khusru Malik, the last Sultan of
the Ghaznavid Empire.

Mahmud of Ghazni (998 - 1030 CE)

• Mahmud, a Turkic slave, became the ruler of Ghazni in Afghanistan in 998 CE. He ruled for 32 years from
998 - 1030 CE and extended control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the northwestern part of the
 Indian subcontinent. At that time, North India was divided into several Hindu states, with the Hindu Shahi
kingdom controlling Punjab to Kabul.
• Mahmud conducted 17 raids into India, first targeting the Hindu Shahi rulers and then temples.
 In 1001, Mahmud defeated the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala, who later immolated himself in disgrace.
His successor, Anandapala, was also defeated in the Battle of Waihind (1008-09) at Waihind (near
Peshawar), the Hindushahi capital. After this, Mahmud advanced beyond Punjab into the Indo-Gan-
getic plains.
 Mahmud also fought against the Muslim rulers of Multan (present day Punjab, Pakistan), who be-
longed to a Shi'a Muslim sect that Mahmud bitterly opposed.
 In the subsequent raids into India, Mahmud targeted Hindu temples that were depositories of vast
treasures. These raids aimed to plunder the rich temples and cities to fund his campaigns in Central
Asia and prevent Indian rulers from uniting against him. His most daring attacks were on Kanauj
(1018) and the Somnath temple in Gujarat (1025).
• Mahmud never attempted to annex Indian territories permanently. He died in Ghazni in 1030.
• Mahmud carried out his raids without much resistance because North India lacked a strong, unified
state. The Rajputs were divided into small, scattered kingdoms and fought among themselves instead of
uniting against a common enemy.
 Although Mahmud was an independent ruler, for political reasons, he gave nominal allegiance to the
Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. In return, the caliph, acknowledged his accession by sending him a robe of
investiture and by conferring on him the title Yamini-ud-Daulah ('Right-hand of the Empire'). Hence,
Mahmud’s dynasty is also called the Yamini dynasty.

Consequences of Invasions
 Mahmud's conquest of Punjab and Multan reshaped North India’s political landscape. The Turks had
breached the chain of mountains defending India in the northwest, making future invasions easier.
 Mahmud's raids drained India's resources and deprived India of her manpower.

435
 Mahmud destroyed the Hindu Shahi kingdom, which served as a protective barrier against foreign
invasions, leaving India's northwestern frontiers vulnerable to future invasions.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Changing Power Dynamics
• Though the inclusion of Punjab and Afghanistan in Ghazni's kingdom made the subsequent Muslim con-
quests of India comparatively easy, Ghaznavids could not extend their conquests into India for the next
150 years due to changing political conditions in Central Asia and India.
 Central Asia: After Mahmud’s death, the mighty Seljuk Empire emerged, controlling Syria, Iran, and
Transoxiana. They clashed with the Ghaznavids over Khurasan, and in a decisive battle, Mahmud’s son
Masud was defeated and forced to flee to Lahore. This reduced the Ghaznavid Empire to just Ghazni
and Punjab.
  India: Though Ghaznavids continued raids into the Gangetic plains and Rajputana, they were no
longer a major threat. Meanwhile, new kingdoms in North India emerged, capable of resisting future
invasions.

[Practice Question] The first Muslim invaders of India were

a) The Ghaznavids
b) The Ghurids
c) The Arabs
d) None of the above
Answer: The Arabs

[Practice Question] Who among the following was the founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty?
a) Alptigin
b) Mahmud
c) Sebuktigin
d) Ismail
Answer: Subuktigin

[Practice Question] Consider the following statements:

1. Assertion (A): Mahmud Ghazni invaded India seventeen times.
2. Reason (R): He wanted to establish a permanent Muslim Empire in India.
Select the correct answer from the given codes:
a) Both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
c) Statement (A) is true, but (R) is false
d) Statement (A) is false, but (R) is true
Answer: (A) is true, but (R) is false.

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20.3. Rise of the Ghurids and the Establishment of Turkish Rule in India

• After Mahmud of Ghazni’s death in 1030 CE, the Ghaznavid dynasty was weakened by constant succes- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
sion struggles among his descendants. During this period, two new powers emerged — the Khwarizmi
Empire in Iran and the Ghurid Empire in Ghur (northwest Afghanistan).
• The Ghurids, originally vassals of the Ghaznavids, gained independence after Mahmud’s death. Their
power grew under Sultan Alauddin, who earned the title "Jahan-Soz" (World Burner) for destroying
Ghazni in the mid-12th century to avenge his mistreatment of his brothers by the rulers of Ghazni. By
1173, Muizzuddin Muhammad (Muhammad Ghori) took control of Ghazni. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni,
who focused on plundering, Ghori aimed to establish permanent rule in India.
• Muhammad Ghori’s first Indian expedition in 1175 CE led to the conquest of Multan and then Sindh by
subsequent expeditions. In 1178, he attempted to invade Gujarat but was defeated by Raja Bhimdev II
(Chalukya/Solanki dynasty) in the Battle of Kayadara in 1178-79, near Mount Abu. Now, Muhammad re-
alised the necessity of creating a suitable base in the Punjab before venturing upon the conquest of India.
Accordingly, in 1186 CE, he attacked Punjab (the last bastion of Ghaznavids), captured it from Khusru
Malik (the last Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire) and annexed it to his dominions.

Conflict with Prithviraj Chauhan

• Meanwhile, North India was witnessing the rise of the Chauhans of Ajmer, who had expanded their
influence into Delhi after defeating the Tomars. The expansion of the Chauhan power towards the Pun-
jab under Prithviraj brought them into conflict with Ghori.
• In 1191, Ghori attacked the strategic fortress of Tabarhinda (modern-day Bathinda in Punjab), triggering
a confrontation with Prithviraj Chauhan. Realising their grave situation, the Hindu princes of north India
formed a confederacy under the command of Prithviraj Chauhan.
• In the First Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj defeated and wounded Ghori, who barely escaped with his life.
Ghori was wounded, but a loyal horseman carried him to safety. Prithviraj underestimated the potential
danger of the enemy. He did not make any effort to oust the Ghurids from the Punjab. He failed to
consolidate his position, believing this battle to be a frontier fight, and did not expect the Ghurids to
make regular attacks.
• Determined to avenge his defeat, Ghori returned in 1192 with a well-trained army of 1,20,000 men. Prith-
viraj appealed to the northern Indian rajas for support, and many sent contingents. However, Jaichandra,
the ruler of Kanauj, refused to help due to his longstanding rivalry with Prithviraj.
• Despite commanding a vast force of 300,000 troops and 300 war elephants, Prithviraj Chauhan was de-
feated in the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE). The Rajput army lacked coordination, while the Turkish
cavalry overwhelmed them with its superior speed, organisation, and archery.

Aftermath of the Battle

437
• Initially, Prithviraj was captured and reinstated as the ruler of Ajmer under Ghurid suzerainty. However,
he was later executed on charges of conspiracy, and his son Govindaraja IV was installed as a vassal ruler.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 In 1192 CE, Prithviraj’s younger brother, Hariraja, recaptured part of his ancestral kingdom from Go-
vindaraja IV. However, he was later defeated by the Ghurid general Qutbuddin Aibak.
 After a rebellion, the Turks annexed Ajmer, forcing Govindaraja IV to move to Ranthambore, where
he established a new and powerful Chauhan kingdom.
• Initially, Delhi was restored to its Tomar ruler, but this policy was soon reversed, and the Turks took direct
control of Delhi, making it their base for further expansion into the Ganga Valley.

Chauhans of Ranthambore
• Govindaraja IV established the Chauhan branch of Ranthambore. He acknowledged Ghurid suzerainty
and ruled Ranthambore as a vassal state. In the Battle of Ranthambore in 1299, Hammira-deva Raja de-
feated Allauddin Khilji's army, led by Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan. In 1301, Allauddin Khilji invaded the
kingdom and ended the rule of the dynasty.

Expansion into the Ganga Valley

• After the Second Battle of Tarain, Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni, leaving the affairs in India in
the hands of one of his trusted slaves, Qutbuddin Aibak.
• In 1194, Muhammad Ghori returned to India and launched another campaign, defeating Jaichandra, the
Gahadavala ruler of Kanauj, in the Battle of Chandawar. His forces then plundered Banaras, destroying
many temples. By the end of his campaigns, Turkish control extended over large parts of North India,
including the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Thus, the battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundations of the
Turkish rule in north India.
• Between 1192 and 1206, the Turks expanded their rule over the Ganga-Jamuna Doab and the surrounding
regions, eventually conquering Bihar and Bengal as well.

[Practice Question] In which battle Muhammad Ghori defeated Jayachandra

a) Battle of Tarain
b) Battle of Tarain
c) Battle of Chandawar
d) Battle of Kannauj
Answer: Battle of Chandawar

Foundation of the Delhi Sultanate

• Muhammad Ghori led his last campaign in India in 1206. On his way back to Ghazni, he was assassinated
near Jhelum by a member of a rival Muslim sect. After his death, his general, Qutbuddin Aibak, declared
himself Sultan with his capital at Lahore and started the Delhi Sultanate (1206 – 1526), which would

438
shape Indian history for centuries to come.

Reasons for the Defeat of North Indian States

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Lack of Unity: The Rajput rulers were divided and often engaged in internal conflicts, preventing a united
front against external invasions.
 Military Weakness: Indian armies relied heavily on elephants, whereas the Turks had superior cavalry,
better mobility, and advanced warfare tactics.
 Outdated Warfare Tactics: Hindu states followed traditional military methods, while the Turks em-
ployed better organisation, disciplined troops, and skilled leadership.
 Religious Zeal and Motivation: The Turks were driven by both religious zeal and the prospect of plun-
dering India's vast wealth, giving them a strong psychological advantage.
 Rigid Social Structure: In Hindu society, warfare was largely restricted to the Kshatriya class, whereas
the Turks had a more flexible and inclusive military system.
 Defensive Strategy: Hindu rulers mostly fought defensively, which placed them at a disadvantage against
the aggressive and fast-moving Turkish forces.

20.4. Notable Scholars

Al-Biruni (973 - 1048 CE)

• Al-Beruni, a mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and historian, came to India along with Mahmud
of Ghazni. He learned Sanskrit and studied religious and philosophical texts.

The Journey from Khwarizm to Punjab

• Al-Biruni was born in 973 CE in Khwarizm (modern Uzbekistan). He was a multilingual scholar fluent in
Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. Although he didn’t know Greek, he was familiar with Greek
philosophical works through Arabic translations.
• In 1017, when Sultan Mahmud invaded Khwarizm, Al-Biruni was taken to Ghazni along with other schol-
ars. He arrived in Ghazni as a hostage but gradually developed a liking for the city, where he spent the
rest of his life.
• In Ghazni, Al-Biruni developed a deep interest in India. This was influenced by earlier Arabic translations
of Sanskrit texts on astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. With Punjab becoming part of the Ghaznavid
Empire, Al-Biruni interacted with Brahmana scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying Indian religious and
philosophical texts.

Kitab-ul-Hind

• Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind was written in Arabic and is a detailed account of India. It is divided into 80
chapters on religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life,
weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology.
Generally, Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning with a question, following

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•
this up with a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other
cultures. Some present-day scholars have argued that this almost geometric structure, remarkable for its
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
precision and predictability, owed much to his mathematical orientation.

Translating Texts

• Al-Biruni's expertise in several languages allowed him to compare languages and translate texts. He trans-
lated several Sanskrit works into Arabic, including Patanjali's work on grammar. He also translated the
Yogasutras of Patanjali into Arabic, entitled Ketāb Bātanjal.
• Al-Biruni, for his Brahmana friends, translated the works of Euclid (a Greek mathematician) into Sanskrit.
He transmitted Aryabhata’s magnum opus, Aryabattiyam (the thesis that Earth’s rotation around its axis
creates day and night), to the West.
• Thus, Al-Biruni was the inter-civilizational connection between India and the rest of the world.

Al-Biruni’s Observations on Sanskrit

• Al-Biruni found Sanskrit challenging to learn and compared its complexity to Arabic. He noted that San-
skrit had a vast vocabulary, with multiple words for the same concept and some words carrying different
meanings, requiring additional qualifiers for clarity.

Al-Biruni's Description of the Caste System

• Al-Biruni relied heavily on Brahmanical texts such as the Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, works of Patan-
jali, and Manusmriti to understand Indian society. His observations on the caste system were shaped by
these texts, which presented caste from a Brahmanical perspective. However, in real life, the system was
not quite as rigid.
• To explain caste, Al-Biruni compared it to Persia’s social structure, which had four groups:
1. Knights and princes
2. Monks, fire-priests, and lawyers
3. Physicians, astronomers, and scientists
4. Peasants and artisans
• By drawing this parallel, he showed that social divisions were not unique to India.
• At the same time, Al-Biruni noted that unlike the caste-based divisions in India, Islam emphasised equal-
ity, where all men were considered equal, differing only in their level of piety. Despite accepting the
Brahmanical view of the caste system, Al-Biruni rejected the idea of pollution. l-Biruni considered the
concept of social pollution, intrinsic to the caste system, contrary to the laws of nature.

Al-Beruni's Work

 Kitab-ul-Hind (Tarikh-Al-Hind): Written in Arabic, a detailed account of Indian culture.

 Qanun-e-Masudi: A Collection of astronomical knowledge from various sources. Also known as "The
Mas'udi Canon."

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 Kitab-fi-Tahqiq: A book on Indian Science
 Jawahar-fil-Jawahir: A book on mineralogy

Firdausi PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Firdausi was the poet laureate in the court of Mahmud of Ghazni. He was the author of Shah Namah
(The Book of Kings). It is an epic poem written in Persian, chronicling the history of Persian kings from
mythical times to the fall of the Sassanid Empire.

Al Utbi
• Al Utbi (Abu Nasr-al-utbi) was the court historian of Mahmud of Ghazni. He wrote Tarikh Yamini or
Kitabu-l-Yamini, in Arabic, which covers the reign of the first sultan of Ghazni, Amir Sabaktagin, and his
son, Mahmud.
[Practice Question] Who was the author of ‘Shahnama'?
a) Utbi
b) Al-Beruni
c) Firdausi
d) Barani
Answer: Firdausi

[Practice Question] Which of the following scholar/s was/were associated with the court of
Mahmud of Ghazni?
1. Al-Biruni
2. Firdausi
3. Al-Utbi
Options:
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1 and 3 only
c) 1 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 1, 2 and 3

20.5. Timeline

Timeline Key Events

712 CE Muhammad bin Qasim's conquest of Sindh
1001 CE Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala
1008-09 CE Mahmud of Ghazni defeated Anandapala in the Battle of Waihind
1025 CE Mahmud of Ghazni’ attack on Somnath temple in Gujarat

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1175 CE Muhammad Ghori’s first Indian expedition
1191 CE First Battle of Tarain

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

1192 CE Second Battle of Tarain

20.6. Summary

First Muslim Invasion

• By the 8th century, the Arabs had reached the borders of Sindh, which was ruled by the Hindu king
Dahir. In 712 CE, Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Dahir, killed him, and conquered Sindh.

First Turkic Invasions of India

• Mahmud, a Turkic slave, became the ruler of Ghazni in Afghanistan in 998 CE. He ruled for 32 years
from 998 to 1030 CE. He conducted 17 raids into India, first targeting the Hindu Shahi rulers and then
temples. His most daring attacks were on Kanauj (1018) and the Somnath temple in Gujarat (1025).

Establishment of Turkish Rule in India

• Muhammad Ghori’s first Indian expedition in 1175 led to the conquest of Multan. In 1186, he attacked
Punjab (the last bastion of Ghaznavids), captured it from Khusru Malik (the last Sultan of the Ghaznavid
Empire) and annexed it to his dominions.
• In 1191, Ghori attacked the strategic fortress of Tabarhinda, triggering a confrontation with Prithviraj
Chauhan. In the First Battle of Tarain, he was defeated by Prithiviraj Chauhan. However, in 1192, in the
Second Battle of Tarain, he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan and took control of Delhi.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 21. The Delhi Sultanate

• After the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori returned to his capital at Ghazni, leaving
India under the control of his trusted Turkish slave, Qutbuddin Aibak. Ghori visited India only occasion-
ally after that.
• Between 1192 and 1206, Aibak expanded Turko-Afghan rule, conquering the Ganga valley and parts of
Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Bengal. He was assisted by Bhaktiyar Khalji, a Turkish general from Af-
ghanistan, who played a key role in the conquest of Bihar and Bengal. Khalji also burned numerous Bud-
dhist viharas in the region and destroyed the famous Nalanda University in Bihar.
• Following Muhammad Ghori’s death in 1206, Qutbuddin Aibak declared himself Sultan, marking the be-
ginning of the Delhi Sultanate.
• For nearly a century after its establishment, the Delhi Sultanate struggled to maintain power due to
foreign invasions, internal conflicts among Turkish nobles, and continuous resistance from Rajput rulers
trying to reclaim their territories. The Turkish rulers successfully overcame these difficulties, and by the
end of the century, they were in a position to extend their rule over Malwa and Gujarat and penetrate
the Deccan and south India. Their rule in India brought significant changes in administration, society, and
cultural life in India.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206 - 1526 CE)

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Important Ruler Rule
Slave Dynasty (1206 -1290 CE)
Qutbuddin Aibak 1206 – 1210 CE PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Aram Baksh 1210 – 1211 CE
Iltutmish 1211 – 1236 CE
Raziya 1236 – 1240 CE
Bahram Shah 1240 – 1242 CE
Masud Shah 1242 – 1246 CE
Nasiruddin Mahmud 1246 – 1266 CE
Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266 – 1287 CE
 Qaikabad 1287 – 1290 CE
Khalji Dynasty (1290 – 1320 CE)
Jalaluddin Khalji 1290 -1296 CE
Alauddin Khalji 1296 – 1316 CE
Shihabuddin Omar 1316
Mubarak Khan 1316 – 1320 CE
Khusrau Khan 1320 CE
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414 CE)
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 1320 – 1325 CE
Muhammad bin Tughlaq 1325 – 1351 CE
Firuz Shah Tughlaq 1351 – 1388 CE
Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah II 1394 - 1413 CE
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 – 1451 CE)
Khizr Khan 1414 -1421 CE
Mubarak Shah 1421 - 1434 CE
Muhammad Shah 1434 - 1445 CE
Alam Shah 1445 – 1451 CE
Lodi Dynasty (1451 – 1526 CE)
Buhlul Lodi 1451 – 1489 CE
Sikandar Lodi 1451 – 1517 CE
Ibrahim Lodi 1517 – 1526 CE

21.1. Sources for the Study of the Delhi Sultanate

• Inscriptions, coins, architecture and tawarikh provide a lot of information about the Delhi Sultanate.

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Tarikh
• Tarikh (plural: Tawarikh) refers to historical chronicles or records written during the Delhi Sultanate
period. The court historians often wrote these texts in hopes of rich rewards to glorify the rulers. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Since Persian was the official language of the Delhi Sultanate, most Tawarikh were composed in this
language.
• Key Points about the Authors of Tawarikh:
 The authors of Tawarikh were typically learned men — secretaries, administrators, poets, and courti-
ers — who not only recounted events but also advised rulers on governance, emphasising the im-
portance of a just rule.
 They lived in cities like Delhi and hardly in villages.
 These historians often wrote their histories with the expectation of rich rewards.
  They advocated for preserving an “ideal” social order based on birthright and gender distinctions,
reinforcing hierarchical norms.
• to note that their ideas did not reflect the views of the entire society.
Author Work / Book About
Ibn Battuta Rihla Written in Arabic
Accounts of social and cultural life in the Indian sub-
continent in the fourteenth century.
Minhaj-i-Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Written in Persian
History of Islamic world upto 1260
Amir Khusrau Mifta Ul Futuh Written in Persian
(Victories of Jalal-ud-din Written in honor of Jalaluddin Khilji
Khalji)
Khaliq-e-bari
Khazain Ul Futuh Written in Persian
(Victories of Allauddin Khalji)
Tughlaq Nama Written in Persian
History of Tughlaq dynasty, especially the rise of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Nuh-Siphir
Hasht Bihisht
Shirin Khusrau
Multa-ul-Anwar
Ayina-i-Sikandari
Khamsah
Laila Majnu

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ashiqa
Ziauddin Barani Fatawa-i-Jahandari
Tarikha-i-Firoz Shahi History of the Delhi Sultanate up to Firuz Shah Tu- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
ghlaq’s reign
Shams-i-Siraj Tarikh i Firuz Shahi An authentic account of Feroz Shah's reign.
Afif
Firoz Shah Fatwah-i-Firoz Shahi Account of Firoz Shah's reign. Ordinance of Firuz
Shah Tughlaq are given.
Ghulam Yahya Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi Written in Persian during the reign of Sayyid ruler
Bin Ahmad Mubarak Shah
 Muhammad Tarikh-i-Firishtah A general history of Muslim Rule in India with partic-
Qasim Hindu ular reference to the Deccan states, comes down to
Shah (Firishtah) the close of the reign of Akbar.
Firdausi Shah Namah
Hasan Nizami Taj-ul-Maathir
Ali bin Hamid Chach Namah
Kufi
Bhukhari Lubab-ul-Alab
Note: The book, Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, is in two parts. The first part was written by Zia-d din Barani during the
reign of Mohammad Bin Tughlaq and the second by Shams-i-Siraj Afif during the reign of Firoz Shah Tughalq,
both originally in Persian.

21.2. Slave Dynasty (1206 -1290 CE)

• Qutbuddin Aibak was a Turkish slave purchased by Sultan Muhammad Ghori at Ghazni. Impressed with
his ability and loyalty, the Sultan made him the governor of the conquered provinces in India after the
battle of Tarain.
• After the murder of Muhammad Ghori in 1206, Qutbuddin Aibak, a Turkish slave, declared his independ-
ence, severed all connections with the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as
the Delhi Sultanate. He assumed the title of Sultan and made Lahore his capital.
• The Slave dynasty was also called the Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk was the Quranic term for slave. This
dynasty ruled Delhi from 1206 to 1290 CE.
• Muslim writers call Aibak Lakh Baksh, or the giver of lakhs because he gave liberal donations to them.
Aibak patronized the great scholars like Hasan-un-Nizami, author of 'Taj-ul-Massir' and Fakhr-i-Muddabir,
author of 'Adab-al-harb-wa- shuja (Adab-al-Mulk).
• Qutbuddin Aibak was the first ruler in India who levied the Jizya tax on Non-Muslim citizens.

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• In 1199, Aibak began the construction of Qutub Minar in honour of the famous Sufi Saint Khwaja Qut-
buddin Bakthiyar. He also constructed two mosques, Quwwat-ul-Islam at Delhi and Adhai Din Ka Jho-
pra at Ajmer.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Aibak's rule lasted for four years and ended in 1210 when Aibak died from injuries that occured while
playing chaugan (a game akin to polo).

Iltutmish (1211 – 1236 CE)

• In 1210, Aibak was succeeded by his son Aram Baksh, who ruled for eight months. In 1211, Shams-ud-
din Iltutmish, the slave and son-in-law of Qutbuddin Aibak, defeated Aram Baksh and ascended the
throne of Delhi. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• Iltutmish is also known as the slave of a slave because he was a slave of Qutbuddin Aibak, who was himself
a slave of Muhammad of Ghori.
• Iltutmish is regarded as the real consolidator of the Turkish conquests in north India or the real founder
of the Delhi Sultanate. During his long reign of 25 years, Iltutmish:
 Marched against Bengal and Bihar and reasserted his control over them.
 Annexed Sind and Multan to the Delhi Sultanate.
 Suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthampur, Jalor, Ajmir and Gwalior.
 Saved India from the wrath of Chengiz Khan
• During this time, Chengiz Khan, the leader of the Mongols, started invading Central Asia. He defeated
Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the ruler of Kwarizam. Mangabarni sought asylum from Iltutmish, but Iltutmish
refused in order to save his empire from the onslaught of the Mongols. Fortunately for Iltutmish, Chengiz
Khan returned home without entering India. Had he supported Jalaluddin, the Mongols would have over-
run India with ease.
• In 1229 CE, Iltutmish obtained a "Letter of Investiture" from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, Al-Mustansir
Billah, to legitimise his rule and gain recognition as a legitimate sovereign.
• Iltutmish introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital), the two basic coins of the Sultan-
ate period. The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.
• Iltutmish created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders called the Chahalgani or
the forty (forty powerful nobles).
• Iltutmish started the Iqta system in India. Under this system, officials were assigned lands instead of being
paid for their services.
• Iltutmish was devout and funded many mosques. He patronised many scholars, such as Minhaj-i-Siraj
(author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri) and Taj-ud-din. He also completed the construction of Qutub Minar, which
Qutbuddin Aibak had started.
• The tomb of Iltutmish, near the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, was built by Iltutmish himself in 1235 CE. He
also constructed a large reservoir called the Hauz-i-Sultani (the King's Reservoir), just outside Dehli-i-

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Kuhna.

Bandagan: Special military slaves

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, preferred appointing Bandagan (the Persian word for special
slave purchased for military services) as governors instead of aristocrats or landed chieftains. These slaves
were trained for important political roles and remained loyal to the Sultan, making them more reliable.

[UPSC CSE 2021] Consider the following statements:

1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive
Khwarezm prince.
 2. It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the
Indus.
3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the
coast of Kerala.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 3 only
d) 2 and 3 only
Answer: 1 only

Raziya Sultan (1236 – 1240 CE)

• During his last year, Iltutmish was worried over the problem of succession. He considered none of his
surviving sons to be worthy of the throne. Finally, he nominated his daughter, Raziya, to the throne and
induced the nobles and the theologians (ulama) to agree to the nomination.
• The Turkish nobles, or the Chahalgani, were unwilling to accept a female ruler and wanted a puppet
they could control. Therefore, despite Iltutmish nominating his daughter Raziya as his successor, the Qazi
of Delhi and Wazir (Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi) placed Ruknuddin Firuz (son of Iltutmish) on the throne.
• When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin marched to suppress that revolt. Using this oppor-
tunity, Raziya, with the support of the Amirs of Delhi, seized the throne and became the first and only
female ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Razia discarded female apparel and started holding court with her face unveiled (gave up purdah). She
appeared in the court in male attire, wearing a Kuva (coat) and Kulah (cap). She even hunted and led the
army in war. Turkish nobles did not like all this.
• Raziya's attempt to create a party of nobles loyal to her and to raise a non-Turk to high office led to
opposition. When she appointed an Abyssinian noble, Yaqut Khan, as Master of the Royal Horses (Amir-

448
i-akhur), the Turkish nobles accused her of violating feminine modesty and being too friendly to Yaqut
Khan.
• In 1238–1239, the governor of Lahore rebelled against Razia. Razia personally led an expedition against PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Lahore and compelled the governor to submit.

• Upon arriving in Delhi in 1240, Razia Sultana learned that Malik Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda, had
rebelled against her in Tabarhinda. Unaware that other nobles in Delhi had joined Altunia in conspiring
against her, Razia marched towards Tabarhinda. At Tabarhinda, the rebel forces killed her loyalist, Yaqut
Khan, and imprisoned her. However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him, she
proceeded to Delhi. But she was defeated and killed by bandits.
• Thus, Raziya's rule marked the beginning of a struggle for power between the monarchy and the Turkish
chiefs or the forty or the chalisa or the chahalgani.
• The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the Turkish chiefs. In the next six years, Bahram
Shah and Masud Shah (the puppets of nobles) ruled Delhi. There ensued a struggle for supremacy be-
tween the Sultans and the nobles.
• In 1246, Turkish chief Ulugh Khan, also known as Ghiyasuddin Balban, succeeded in putting Nasiruddin
Mahmud, a grandson of Iltutmish, as Sultan. Balban served as Naib or regent to Sultan Nasiruddin
Mahmud (1246 – 1266 CE). He also strengthened his position by marrying his daughter to the Sultan.
Nasiruddin was a ruler in name only for 20 years until his death in 1266 CE, when Balban officially took
the crown.

What Minhaj-i Siraj Thought About Raziya

• Minhaj-i Siraj recognised that Raziya was more able and qualified than all her brothers. But he was not
comfortable with having a queen as ruler.
• Minhaj-i Siraj thought that the queen's rule went against the ideal social order created by God, in
which women were supposed to be subordinate to men. He therefore asked: "In the register of God's
creation, since her account did not fall under the column of men, how did she gain from all of her excellent
qualities?"

Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266 – 1287 CE)

• In 1266, Nasiruddin Mahmud died without issues, and Balban ascended the throne and began an era of
strong, centralised government.
• Balban stood forth as the champion of the Turkish nobility. He introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz
to impress the nobles. He refused to grant important government posts to anyone who did not belong
to a noble family. This led to the exclusion of Indian Muslims from all positions of power and authority.
• Balban's experience as the regent made him understand the problems of the Delhi Sultanate. He knew
that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty. Hence, while claiming to act as

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a champion of the Turkish nobility, he did not share power with anyone. He appointed spies to monitor
the activities of the nobles. To break the power of the chahalgani (the Turkish nobles), he spared only the
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
most obedient nobles and eliminated all others by fair or foul means.
• Balban was convinced that only by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy could he face
the internal and external dangers. Hence, he constantly sought to increase the prestige and power of the
monarchy.
 Balban declared that the Sultan was God's shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace. He
took up the title Zil-i-Ilahi (God's shadow).
 Balban introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as sijda (prostration before the
monarch) and paibos (kissing the Sultan's feet) to prove his superiority over the nobles.
• Instead of expanding his kingdom, Balban paid more attention to restoring law and order. He organised
a strong centralised army, both to deal with internal disturbances and to repel the Mongols who had
entrenched themselves in the Punjab and posed a serious danger to the Delhi Sultanate. He established
a separate military department (diwan-i-arz) and pensioned off those soldiers and troopers who were no
longer fit for service.
• Balban administered justice with extreme impartiality to win the public's confidence. The law and order
situation around Delhi and the doab had deteriorated. The Mewatis often plundered the outskirts of
Delhi. Balban took severe action against them and prevented such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly
pursued and put to death. As a result, the roads became safe for travel.
• Balban maintained a magnificent court to impress the people with the strength of his government and
awe them. He was surrounded by a large force of bodyguards with drawn swords whenever he went out.
He refused to laugh and joke in court and even gave up drinking wine so no one would see him in a non-
serious mood.
• In 1279, Tughril Khan, the most loved slave of Balban and the governor of Bengal, revolted against Balban.
It was suppressed, and he was beheaded. In the northwest, the Mongols reappeared, and Balban sent his
most loving son, Prince Mahmud, against them. But the prince was killed in the battle. These two in-
stances were a moral blow to the Sultan.
• Balban died in 1286. He was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. He enhanced
the power of the monarchy. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasions.
• When Balban died, one of his grandsons, Qaikabad (Kaiquabad), was made the Sultan of Delhi.
• The Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Balban in Mehrauli, Delhi, is considered the first structure to have a true dome
and an arch.

[UPSC CSE 1993] Who among the following introduced the famous Persian festival 'Navroz'
in India?
a) Balban

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b) Iltutmish
c) Firuj Tughluq

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

d) Alauddin Khalji
Answer: Balban

21.3. Khalji Dynasty (1290 – 1320 CE)

• After the death of Balban in 1286, there was again confusion in Delhi for some time. Balban's chosen
successor, Prince Mahmud, had died earlier in a battle with the Mongols. His second son, Bughra Khan,
preferred to rule over Bengal and Bihar, although the nobles at Delhi invited him to assume the throne.
Hence, Balban's grandson, Qaikabad, was installed in Delhi.
• After ruling for four years, in 1290, Qaikabad was overthrown by the 70-year-old Turko-Afghan noble
Jalaluddin Khilji, who then established the Khilji dynasty.

Non-Turkish Resentment and Rise of the Khaljis

• There had been a lot of resentment and opposition at the attempt of the Turkish nobles to monopolise
high offices. Many non-Turks, such as the Khaljis, had come to India during the Ghurid invasion. How-
ever, they had never received sufficient recognition in Delhi and had to move to Bengal and Bihar for
an opportunity for advancement. Balban's policy of excluding non-Turks from positions of power and
authority dissatisfied many people. In the course of time, many Indian Muslims had been admitted to
the nobility. They were also dissatisfied at being denied high officers.
• For these reasons, a group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin Khalji, who had been the warden of the
marches in the northwest and had fought many successful engagements against the Mongols, over-
threw the incompetent successors of Balban in 1290. The non-Turkish sections in the nobility welcomed
the Khalji rebellion.
• The Khaljis were of a mixed Turkish-Afghan origin and did not exclude the Turks from high offices, but
the rise of the Khaljis to power ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices.

Jalaluddin Khalji (1290 -1296 CE)

• Jalaluddin was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to clearly put forward the view that the state should
be based on the willing support of the governed and that since the large majority of the people in India
were Hindus, the state in India could not be truly Islamic.
• Jalaluddin was generous and lenient. He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban's rule.
 Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban, was allowed to remain the governor of Kara. When Chhajju re-
volted, it was suppressed, but he was pardoned.
 When the thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe warning.
However, his leniency was misunderstood as weakness.
• In 1292, when Malik Chhajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by his nephew and son-in-

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law, Alauddin Khalji.
• In 1292 CE, Alauddin Khalji, raided the city of Bhilsa (Vidisha) in Malwa, plundering its Hindu temples and
gaining significant wealth. After this, he was given the iqta of Awadh, in addition to that of Kara. He was PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
also appointed as Arizi-i-Mumalik (minister of War).
• In 1296, Alauddin Khalji (the governor of Kara) took an expedition to Devagiri and returned to Kara.
During the reception there, Alauddin Khalji treacherously murdered his uncle and father-in-law, Jalaluddin
Khalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.

Alauddin Khalji (1296 – 1316 CE)

• In 1296, Alauddin Khalji came to the throne by treacherously murdering his uncle and father-in-law,
Jalaluddin Khalji.
• After murdering his uncle, Alauddin won over most of the nobles and soldiers to his side by lavish use of
gold. Those who still opposed his accession were punished severely. Later, most of the nobles who had
defected to him by the lure of gold were either killed or dismissed, and their properties confiscated.
• After coming to power, Alauddin Khalji executed many of his family members. He also suppressed rebel-
lions within his court to maintain absolute authority. To justify eliminating his own relatives who could
challenge his throne, he used the phrase 'Kingship knows no kinship.'
• Alauddin Khalji patronised poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. He also built the Alai Darwaza (the
entrance of Qutub Minar), Alai Minar, Jamait Khana mosque and constructed a new capital at Siri.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Alauddin Khalji’s Military Campaigns Against the Mongols

• Alauddin Khalji faced six Mongol invasions during his reign. The first two were successfully repelled.
However, during the third invasion, the Mongol commander, Khwaja, advanced up to Delhi but was
prevented from entering the city. The next three invasions were also crushed with severe retaliation, re-
sulting in the deaths of thousands of Mongols.
• Alauddin fortified the northwestern frontier to strengthen the empire's defence and appointed Ghazi
Malik as the Warden of the Marches to safeguard the borders.

Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji

• The new phase of expansion to extend the rule of the Delhi Sultanate over Malwa and Gujarat and to
penetrate into the Deccan and south India was initiated by Alauddin Khalji and reached the climax
during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Gujarat (1299–1300)

• In 1299, Alauddin Khalji sent his two noted generals, Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan, to capture Gujarat.
The king and his daughter escaped while the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. It was here that Malik
Kafur was captured and taken to Delhi. He was presented to Alauddin and soon became Malik Naib -
military commander. Later, Malik Kafur led the invasions of south India.
• An enormous booty was collected by sacking the chief cities of Gujarat, which had many big buildings
and temples. The famous temple of Somnath, which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century, was also
plundered and sacked.

Rajasthan

Ranthambhor (1301)
• After the conquest of Gujarat, Alauddin despatched an army commanded by one of his reputed generals
against Ranthambhor, but Hamirdeva repulsed it with losses. Finally, in 1301, Alauddin marched against
Ranthampur, and after a three-month siege, it fell.
• The fearful jauhar ceremony took place. This was a custom where, when a besieged Rajput fort was about

453
to fall, all the noblewomen would commit jauhar or self-immolation (throwing themselves into a big
fire) to avoid being enslaved, and all the men would wear saffron clothes and fight to the death.

Chittor (1303) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• After Ranthambhor, Alauddin turned his attention towards Chittor. The siege lasted for several months.
In 1303, Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort. Raja Ratan Singh and his soldiers fought valiantly but submit-
ted. The Rajput women, including Rani Padmini, performed jauhar.
 A popular legend is that Alauddin attacked Chittor because he coveted Padmini, the beautiful queen
of Ratan Singh. However, many modern historians do not accept this legend as it was mentioned for
the first time more than a hundred years later.
• Almost all the other major states in Rajasthan were forced to submit. However, Alauddin did not try to
establish direct administration over the Rajput states. The Rajput rulers were allowed to rule but had to
pay regular tribute and obey the orders of the sultan.

Deccan and South India

• In 1307, Alauddin Khalji sent a large army commanded by Malik Kafur against Rai Ramachandra, the
ruler of Devagiri. Malik Kafur overran the kingdom and took Ramachandra a prisoner to Delhi. However,
Ramachandra was released after six months and was allowed to rule his kingdom as a vassal under the
Sultanate army. A gift of one lakh tankas was given to Ramachandra, along with a golden coloured canopy
which was a symbol of rulership. He was also given a district of Gujarat. One of his daughters was married
to Alauddin. The alliance with Rai Ramachandra was to prove to be of great value to Alauddin in his
further aggrandisement in the Deccan.
• In late 1309, Malik Kafur led an expedition to the Kakatiya capital Warangal and defeated the Pratapa-
rudradeva, the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal in the Telengana region in January 1310. Kafur allowed him to
rule when he surrendered all his treasures and elephants and promised to pay an annual tribute.
• In 1310-11, Malik Kafur led an expedition to the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra, which resulted in the
Hoysala king, Veera Ballala III, surrendering all his treasures and agreeing to pay an annual tribute to
the Delhi Sultanate.
• Then Malik Kafur set out for Madurai. Though heavy rains and floods obstructed Kafur’s progress, he
continued his southward journey, plundering and ravaging the temple cities of Chidambaram and
Srirangam and the Pandyan capital, Madurai. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with an enormous booty in
1311 but without defeating the Tamil army.

Reforms and Experiments of Alauddin Khalji

Regulations to Control Nobles

• Alauddin was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles, inter-marriages between noble fami-

454
lies, inefficient spy-system and drinking liquor were the basic reasons for the rebellions. Therefore, he
framed regulations and passed four ordinances to prevent the nobles from conspiring against him.
1. Alauddin confiscated the properties of the nobles.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
2. Nobles were forbidden to hold social gatherings or festivities or to form marriage alliances without
the permission of the sultan.
3. The public sale of liquor and drugs was stopped (to discourage festive parties).
4. The intelligence system was reorganised, and all the secret activities of the nobles were immediately
reported to the Sultan.
• By such harsh measures, his reign was free from rebellions, and no further rebellions took place during
his lifetime.

Market Control and Agrarian Policy of Alauddin

• Alauddin's measures to control the markets was one of the great wonders of the world. As the salary fixed
by Alauddin to the soldiers was low, controlling the market was necessary.
• Regulations were issued to fix the cost of all commodities. A separate department, Diwan-i-Riyasat,
was established under Naib-i-Riyasat to implement the economic regulations issued by the Sultan and
control the markets and prices.
• Even during the famine, the same price was maintained. For this purpose, Alauddin set up three markets
in Delhi:
1. Mandi: Market for foodgrains
2. Sarai adl: Market for cloth and groceries
3. Market for horses, slaves and cattle
• Each market was controlled by a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi (shahna), who maintained a register
of the merchants and strictly controlled the shopkeepers and the prices.
• To ensure a regular supply of cheap foodgrains, he declared that:
 The land revenue in the doab region would be paid directly to the state in cash, i.e., the villages in
the area would not be assigned in iqta to anyone.
 The land revenue was raised to half of the produce.
• By raising the state demand and generally obliging the peasants to pay it in cash, the peasants were
forced to sell their foodgrains at a low price to banjaras, who were to carry them to the towns and to sell
them at prices fixed by the state.
• To ensure that there was no hoarding, all the banjaras were registered, and their agents and their families
were held collectively responsible for any violations. As a further check, the state itself set up warehouses
and stocked them with foodgrains, which were released whenever there was a famine or a threat of a
shortfall in supply.
• There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of
these markets.

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Army

• Alauddin Khalji maintained a large permanent standing army and paid them in cash from the royal treas-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

ury. He was the first Sultan of Delhi Sultanate to pay soldiers in cash.
• A strict review of the army was carried out from time to time to ensure maximum efficiency. He also
introduced the dagh (branding of horses) system and prepared huliya or Chehra (descriptive list of sol-
diers).

Land Revenue

• Alauddin Khalji took important steps in the administration of land revenue. He brought the assessment
and collection of land revenue under direct state control, eliminating the taxation rights of local chieftains,
who were also required to pay taxes.
• Alauddin was the first Sultan of Delhi to order land measurement. Land revenue was collected in cash so
that soldiers could be paid in cash.
• The state demanded revenue based on the estimated yield per Biswa (20th part of Bigha).
• There were three types of taxes:
1. KharaJ: On the cultivation. It was about 50 per cent of the peasant's produce
2. Charai: On cattle
3. Gharai: On houses

Political Turmoil After Alauddin Khalji

• After Alauddin Khalji died in 1316, Malik Kafur raised Shihabuddin, a minor son of Alauddin, to the throne,
declared himself regent and imprisoned or blinded his other sons. Soon after this, Kafur was killed by the
palace guards.
• After the death of Malik Kafur, Mubarak Khan (another son of Alauddin Khalji) became the regent of
Shihabuddin and subsequently dethroned him to become the Sultan. Mubarak Khan was assassinated by
Khusrau Khan, who succeeded him but ruled only for 75 days,
• Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under
the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.

Expansion of the Delhi Sultanate After Alauddin Khalji

• Mubarak Khan annexed the Devagiri kingdom and installed a muslim governor there.
• Mubarak Khan raided Warangal and compelled the ruler to cede one of his districts and pay an annual
tribute of forty gold bricks.
• Khusrau Khan made a plundering raid into Mabar and sacked the rich city of Masulipatnam. However, no
conquests were made in the area.

[UPSC CSE 2022] With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements:
1. The first Mongol invasion of India happened during the reign of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.

456
2. During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji, one Mongol assault marched up to Delhi and besieged the
city.
3. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq temporarily lost portions of north-west of his kingdom to Mongols. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3
d) 3 only
Answer: 2 only

Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE)

• Amir Khusrau was an Indo-Persian Sufi singer, musician, poet, and scholar who lived during the Delhi
Sultanate period. He was primarily associated with the court of Alauddin Khalji but also served at least
five Sultans — Muiz ud din Qaiqabad, Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah, and
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Khusrau is credited with developing Hindavi, a precursor to modern Hindi and Urdu, and played a key
role in shaping Indian classical music. Alauddin Khilji gave him the title Tuti-i-Hind (Parrot of India).
• Khusrau was a devoted disciple of the Chishti saint Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya. He passed away in 1325.

21.4. Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 – 1414 CE)

• In 1320, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq deposed Khusrau Khan and established a new dynasty which ruled till 1412.
• The Tughlaqs provided three competent rulers:
1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 1325 CE)
2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325 - 1351)
3. Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351 - 1388)
• The expansion to extend the rule of the Delhi Sultanate in the Deccan and South, which Alauddin Khalji
started, continued during Ghiyasuddin's reign and reached the climax during the reign of Muhammad
bin Tughlaq. Ghiyasuddin and Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled over an empire which comprised almost
the entire country. The empire of Firuz was smaller, but even then, it was almost as large as that ruled
over by Alauddin Khalji.
• After the death of Firuz, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated, and north India was divided into a series of
small states. Although the Tughlaqs continued to rule till 1414, the invasion of Delhi by Timur in 1398
may be said to mark the end of the Tughlaq empire.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 1325 CE)

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ascended the throne in 1320. In 1321, he started the construction of Tughlaqabad
Fort.

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• In 1320, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Jauna Khan or Ulugh Khan (Muhammad bin Tughlaq) to
fight against Warangal. He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty. In 1323, Jauna Khan
defeated the Kakatiyan army and ended the Kakatiya dynasty. This was followed by the conquest of PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Mabar (Madura), which was also annexed. Muhammad bin Tughlaq then raided Orissa and returned to
Delhi with rich plunder. Thus, by 1324, the territories of the Delhi Sultanate reached up to Madurai.
• In 1324, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq turned his attention towards Bengal. After victory, he placed Nasiruddin
on the throne of West Bengal as a vassal state, and East Bengal was annexed. On his way back to Delhi,
he fought and defeated the Raja of Tirhut (north Bihar) and annexed his territory.
• Ghiyasuddin's reign lasted for less than five years. He died when a platform collapsed, probably arranged
by his son, Ulugh Khan and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325 - 1351)
• Muhammad Tughlaq's reign began under unfortunate circumstances. Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was
returning to Delhi after a successful campaign in Bengal. To welcome him, Muhammad Tughlaq ordered
a wooden pavilion to be built hastily for the reception. During the parade of captured elephants, the
structure collapsed, resulting in the Sultan's death. This incident sparked rumours that Muhammad Tu-
ghlaq had orchestrated his father's death. Others believed it was a divine curse linked to the famous Delhi
saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, whom Ghiyasuddin had previously threatened to punish.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious
and philosophical education. He was very tolerant in religious matters. He conversed not only with the
Muslim mystics but also with the Hindu yogis and Jain saints such as Jinaprabha Suri. He did not accept
religious beliefs as a matter of faith. He gave high offices to people based on merit, irrespective of whether
they belonged to noble families ог not.
• Historians cannot agree whether Mohammad bin Tughlaq was a genius or a mad one. Contemporary
writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to give a correct picture about his personality.
While he introduced innovative ideas and reforms, many of his experiments failed due to hasty and im-
patient implementations.

Transfer of Capital from Delhi to Deogir

• Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to make Deogir / Devagiri (Daulatabad) his second capital to control
South India directly.
• In 1327, he made extensive preparations for transferring the royal household and the ulemas and Sufis
from Delhi to Devagiri, which was renamed as Daulatabad (in Maharashtra). When they resisted, the Sul-
tan enforced his orders ruthlessly and caused great hardship to the population of Delhi.
• The distance between these two places was more than 1500 kilometres. Though Muhammad Tughlaq
had built a road from Delhi to Daulatabad and set up rest houses on the way to help the travellers, many
people died during the rigorous journey in the summer.

458
• After two years, the Sultan realised that as he could not control the south from Delhi, he could not control
north India from Daulatabad, and he abandoned Daulatabad and asked them to return to Delhi.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Token Currency
• In 1329-30, Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a token currency. There was a shortage of silver
throughout the world in the fourteenth century. Moreover, Qublai Khan of China had already successfully
experimented with a token currency. Similarly, Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued a bronze coin with the
same value as the silver tanka.
• However, he could not prevent the forging of new coins, and many goldsmiths forged the token coins
on a large scale, which devalued the currency, and soon, the new coins were not accepted in the markets.
 Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq decided to withdraw the token currency and promised to exchange silver
pieces for bronze coins. Many people exchanged the new coins, but the treasury became empty.

Planned Khurasan Expedition

• In the early years of Muhammad Tughlaq's reign, he defeated Mongols who had reached up to Meerut.
Confident of his strength, Muhammad Tughluq planned to occupy Khurasan and Iraq. He, therefore,
raised a large standing army. However, the plan was later abandoned, and the army was disbanded.
Meanwhile, the situation in Central Asia changed rapidly. In due course, Timur united the entire area
under his control and posed a fresh threat to India.

Qarachil expedition
• This expedition was launched in the Kumaon hills in the Himalayas to control the entry of horses from
the Chinese side (not to conquer China). After some success, the armies went too far into the inhospitable
region of the Himalayas and suffered a disaster. From an army of 10,000, only 10 persons returned.

Taxation in Doab and Peasant Revolts

• The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate to the far south and the east created administrative and financial
problems. Muhammad bin Tughlaq kept a large army, which was also expensive.
• To overcome financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the farmers
of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna rivers) to half of the produce. Although the state's share
remained the same as in the time of Alauddin, it was fixed arbitrarily and not based on actual produce.
Prices were also fixed artificially to convert the produce into money. A severe famine was also ravaging
that region at that time. It resulted in serious peasant revolts. Peasants fled the villages, and Muhammad
Tughlaq took harsh measures to capture and punish them.

Agricultural Reforms
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq showed a keen interest in agriculture. He undertook many measures to improve

459
agriculture. He set up a separate department for agriculture called diwan-i-amir-i-kohi.
• The area was divided into development blocs headed by an official whose job was to extend cultivation
by giving loans (takkavi loans) to the cultivators to buy seed and to expand cultivation, and to induce
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
them to cultivate superior crops. The scheme failed mainly because the men chosen for the purpose
proved to be inexperienced and dishonest and misappropriated the money for their own use. The large
sums of money advanced for the project could not be recovered.

Rebellions and Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate

• The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign witnessed a series of rebellions by nobles and provincial
governors due to several factors:
 Diverse Nobility: The nobility comprised diverse and divided groups, preventing any sense of unity
or loyalty towards the Sultan.
  Vast Empire: The extensive territorial spread of the empire created ample opportunities for ambitious
governors to rebel and establish independent authority.
 Harsh Governance: Muhammad Tughlaq's impulsive nature and his practice of imposing severe pun-
ishments on those suspected of disloyalty further fueled discontent.
• Rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors:
1. Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, the then viceroy of Madurai, declared independence from the Delhi Sultan-
ate and established the Madurai Sultanate in 1335.
2. The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 CE by Harihar and Bukka.
3. Bengal and Warangal declared independence in 1338.
4. Deccan broke away, leading to the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1347.
5. The governors of Oudh, Multan and Sindh revolted against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Thus, the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, while marking the zenith of the Delhi Sultanate, also saw the
beginning of its disintegration and the start of the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

End of the Reign

• In 1351, Muhammad bin Tughlaq died while campaigning in Sindh. His cousin, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, suc-
ceeded him.
• Muhammad Tughlaq was deeply unpopular due to his harsh policies and erratic decisions. Historian
Baduani remarked that "the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the Sultan" upon his
death.
Alauddin Khalji Muhammad Tughlaq
Delhi was attacked twice by the Mongol Army, in The Sultanate was attacked by the Mongol army in
1299/1300 and 1302-1303. As a defensive meas- 1329 CE. The Mongol army was defeated. Muham-
ure, Alauddin Khalji raised a large standing army. mad Tughlaq planned to attack Transoxiana and
hence, raised a large standing army.
Alauddin constructed a new garrison town named Dehli-i Kuhna was emptied of its residents and the

460
Siri for his soldiers. soldiers garrisoned there.
To sustain his army, Khalji imposed a 50% tax on Produce from the same area was collected as tax to
the produce from lands between the Ganga and Ya- feed the army. To fund his large army, Tughluq also PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
muna (doab). imposed additional taxes. This coincided with fam-
ine in the area.
The soldiers were paid in cash rather than iqtas. As Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers cash sal-
salary was low, Alauddin controlled the prices of aries. But instead of controlling prices, he used a
goods in the market. "token" currency.
Alauddin's administrative measures were quite suc- Muhammad Tughluq's administrative measures
cessful, and chroniclers praised his reign for its were a failure. His campaign into Kashmir was a
 cheap prices and efficient supplies of goods in the disaster. He then gave up his plans to invade
market. He successfully withstood the threat of Transoxiana and disbanded his large army. Mean-
Mongol invasions. while, his administrative measures created compli-
cations. The shifting of people to Daulatabad was
resented. The raising of taxes and famine in the
Ganga-Yamuna belt led to widespread rebellion.
And finally, the "token" currency had to be recalled.

Ibn Battuta
• Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller, lived in India from 1333 to 1347 CE during the reign of Muhammad
bin Tughlaq.
• Having heard of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reputation as a generous patron of arts and letters, Ibn Battuta
arrived in Sind in 1333. Drawn by this, he set off for Delhi.
• Impressed by Ibn Battuta’s scholarship, the Sultan appointed him as the qazi (judge) of Delhi. He held
this position for several years until he fell out of favor and was imprisoned. Once the misunderstanding
was resolved, Ibn Battuta was reinstated and, in 1342, was sent to China as the Sultan’s envoy to the
Mongol ruler.
• Ibn Battuta’s book of travels, Rihla, written in Arabic, provides valuable insights into the social and cultural
life of the Indian subcontinent during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign. He also left an account of Vijaya-
nagara ruler Harihara I’s reign in his account. His account is often compared with that of Marco Polo, an
Italian traveller who visited the Pandya kingdom in the late 13th century.

[UPSC CSE 1999] The king was freed from his people and they from their king.' On whose
death did Badayuni comment this?
a) Alauddin Khalji
b) Balban
c) Iltutmish

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d) Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq
Answer: Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351 - 1388)
• After the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq in 1351, powerful nobles and theologians placed Firoz Tu-
ghlaq on the throne. Firoz appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert, as wazir (prime
minister), who helped the Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during
this period.
• After his accession, Firoz's immediate challenge was preventing the disintegration of the Delhi Sultan-
ate. Therefore, he tried to safeguard his authority over north India (areas which could be easily adminis-
trated from the centre) and did not attempt to reassert his authority over south India and the Deccan.
• Firoz led two expeditions to Bengal, but they were not successful. Bengal became free from the control
of the Delhi Sultanate. He led a campaign against Jajnagar (modern Orissa). He desecrated the temples
there and gathered a rich plunder but made no attempt to annex Orissa. Firoz also led a campaign against
Kangra in the Punjab hills and Thatta in Sindh. Thus, Firuz was by no means a distinguished military leader.
• Firuz developed royal factories called karkhanas, where thousands of slaves were employed. He patron-
ised scholars like Barani and Afif.
• Firuz revived the Iqtadari system and assigned the land instead of paying the soldiers in cash.

Administrative Reforms
• The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was a period of peace and of quiet development. It was notable for his ad-
ministration.
• Firuz adopted a policy of trying to appease the nobles and the theologians.

To Appease the Nobles

• Firuz assured the nobles of hereditary succession to their properties, including his iqta. Hence, the iqta
system was not only revived but also made hereditary. He decreed that whenever a noble died, his son
should be allowed to succeed to his position, including his iqta, and if he had no son, his son-in-law and,
in his absence, his slave.
• This pleased the nobles and was a major factor for the absence of rebellions by the nobles during his
reign, with the minor exception of one in Gujarat and in Thatta.
• However, in the long run, the policy of making offices and iqta hereditary was bound to be harmful. It
reduced the chance of competent men being recruited into the service.

To Appease the Ulemas

• Firuz tried to win over the theologians by proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and that the state
under him was truly Islamic. He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration.
He tried to ban practices which the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic. Thus:

462
 He prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at the graves of saints.
 He persecuted many Muslim sects which were considered heretical by the theologians.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 He publicly burnt a Brahman for preaching to the people, including Muslims, on the ground that it
was against the sharia.
• It was during the time of Firuz that jizyah became a separate tax and was strictly imposed on non-
Muslims. Earlier, it was a part of land revenue. Firuz refused to exempt the Brahmans from the payment
of jizyah since this was not provided in Sharia. Only women, children, the disabled and the indigent who
had no means of livelihood were exempt from it.
• As the ulemas guided Firuz, he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He treated Hindus as
second-grade citizens, imposed Jiziya and destroyed many temples. In this respect, he was the precursor
of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb.
Development
• Firuz was keenly interested in the economic improvement of the country. He set up a large public works
department which looked after his building programme.
• Firuz was the first Sultan to impose an irrigation tax. However, he repaired and dug many canals and
wells. The longest canal was about 200 kilometres, which took off from the river Sutlej to Hansi. Another
canal was between Yamuna and Hissar. These and other canals were meant for irrigation and water to the
new towns he developed.
• Firuz built 300 new towns, including Firozabad (modern day Firoz Shah Kotla) near the Red Fort in Delhi
and 1200 gardens near Delhi. Jor Bagh and Karol Bagh were his favourite gardens.
• Firuz was interested in ancient Indian history and architecture.
 He repaired old monuments like the Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar.
 Two Ashokan pillars, one from Topra (Haryana) and one from Meerut (U. P.), were transferred to Delhi.
 Many Sanskrit religious works were translated from Sanskrit into Persian. Many books on music, med-
icine and mathematics were also translated from Sanskrit into Persian during his reign.

Humanitarian Measures
• Firuz took several humanitarian measures.
 He banned inhuman punishments such as the amputation (cutting) of hands and feet, ears and noses,
pouring molten lead into the throat, driving iron nails into hand and feet, etc.
 He set up a new department, Diwan-i-Khairat, to take care of orphans and widows.
 He set up a new department, Diwan-i-Bandagan, for the welfare of slaves.
 He started employment bureaus and ordered the kotwals to make lists of unemployed persons.
 He set up hospitals for free treatment of the poor.

End of the Reign

• When Firoz died in 1388, the struggle for power between the Sultan and the nobles started again. The

463
local zamindars and rajas took advantage of the situation to assume independence. Firoz's successors
also faced the rebellion of the slaves created by Firoz.
Firoz's successors were weak and could not control the ambitious nobles and the rajas. Perhaps the major
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
reason for this was the reforms of Firuz, which had made the nobility too strong and the army inefficient.
• In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate disintegrated further. Many provinces, like Malwa and Gujarat,
declared their independence, and the sultan of Delhi was confined virtually to a small area surrounding
Delhi.
• Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah II was the last sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate.

Timur's Invasion
• Timur's invasion in 1398 further weakened the already declining Delhi Sultanate.
• In 1398, Timur, who was a Turk but could claim a blood relationship with Changez, started his campaign
towards the Indian subcontinent. He invaded the north Indian subcontinent by crossing the Indus
River on September 30, 1398.
• With no strong opposition, Timur plundered Delhi for three days, killing thousands and looting immense
wealth. His primary motive was to seize the riches accumulated by the Delhi Sultans over two centuries.
This devastating attack delivered a fatal blow to the Tughlaq dynasty, marking the end of strong central
authority in Delhi, though the dynasty lingered until 1414 CE.

Timur
• Timur, the founder of the Timurid dynasty, was born in 1336 in Kesh (modern-day Shahrisabz, Uzbeki-
stan).
• The Timurid conquests and invasions began in the 1360s (the seventh decade of the 14th century) when
Timur gained control over the Chagatai Khanate, a Mongol successor state in Central Asia. Over the next
four decades, Timur launched a series of aggressive military campaigns across West Asia, Central Asia,
South Asia, and parts of Eastern Europe.

21.5. Sayyid Dynasty (1414 – 1451 CE)

• Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured Delhi
and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414. The Sayyids were also known as Kulah-Daran (cap-wearers)
because they wore a pointed cap (kulah).
• The Sayyid dynasty had four sultans ruling up to 1451. The early Sayyid Sultans paid tribute to Timur’s
son. Khizr Khan died in 1421 and was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.
• Muhammad Shah, who succeeded Mubarak Shah, was always busy fighting against conspirators and
gradually lost control over his nobles. Muhammad Shah died in 1445 and was succeeded by his son Alam
Shah (1445 – 1451 CE), the weakest of the Sayyid princes. Alam Shah Sayyid was persuaded to gift his
throne to Bahlul Khan Lodi and retire.

464
 Sayyids’ rule is marked for the composing of Tarikh-i- Mubarak Shahi by Yahiya bin Ahmad Sirhindi.
• By the end of the rule of the Sayyid Dynasty, the empire was confined mainly to the city of Delhi.

[UPSC CSE 2022] With reference to Indian history, who of the following were known as PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
"Kulah- Daran"?
a) Arab merchants
b) Qalandars
c) Persian calligraphists
d) Sayyids
Ans: Sayyids
21.6. Lodi Dynasty (1451 – 1526 CE)

• The Lodis were tribal Afghans. They considered a king to be more a 'first among equals' than a supreme
ruler.
• Buhlul Lodi, who succeeded the Sayyid Dynasty, was the first Afghan ruler, while his predecessors were
all Turks. He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.
• Sikandar Lodi defeated Bengal rulers and Rajput Chiefs and extended his empire from the Punjab to Bihar.
He was a good administrator. He founded Agra and shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra. He laid roads
and provided irrigation facilities. He also funded public buildings like the Moth Ki Masjid and the royal
tombs of the Lodi Gardens.
• However, Sikandar Lodi was a bigot. He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions
on the Hindus. He broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Nagar Kot and ordered the
temples of Mathura to be destroyed.
• Sikandar Lodi was a patron of learning and scholarship. He wrote Persian poetry under the pen name
Gulrukhi.
• Ibrahim Lodi, who succeeded Sikandar Lodi, was known for his arrogance. He openly insulted his nobles
in court and harshly punished those who opposed him. One such noble, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor
of Punjab, felt deeply humiliated and invited Babur to invade India. Responding to the invitation, Babur
marched against Delhi, defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526) and estab-
lished the Mughal Empire.
• Due to financial constraints, the Lodis funded tombs and mosques rather than grand structures. A key
architectural innovation of this period was the double dome, which featured a hollow inner dome beneath
the outer one. A notable mosque from this era is the Moth ki Masjid, built by Sikandar Lodi’s minister
during his reign.

[UPSC CSE 2006] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Af-
ghan rulers to the throne of Delhi?

465
a) Sikander Shah - Ibrahim Lodhi - Bahlol Khan Lodhi
b) Sikander Shah - Bahlol Khan Lodhi - Ibrahim Lodhi
c) Bahlol Khan Lodhi - Sikander Shah - Ibrahim Lodhi PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

d) Bahlol Khan Lodhi - Ibrahim Lodhi - Sikander Shah

Ans: Bahlol Khan Lodhi-Sikander Shah- Ibrahim Lodhi

21.7. Architecture under Delhi Sultanate

• The architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was distinct from the Indian style. The Turks introduced
arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets, and decorations using the Arabic script. They also added colour
to their buildings using marble and red and yellow sandstone.
• Two technological and stylistic developments are noticeable from the twelfth century.
1. The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches.
This architectural form was called arcuate.
2. Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction. This was very high-quality cement, which,
when mixed with stone chips, hardened into concrete. This made the construction of large structures
easier and faster.

Qutbuddin Aibak
• In 1199, Qutbuddin Aibak constructed Qutub Minar. He also built two mosques, Quwwat-ul-Islam at
Delhi and Adhai Din Ka Jhopra at Ajmer.

Qutub Minar

• In 1199, Qutbuddin Aibak began the construction of Qutub Minar in honour of the famous Sufi Saint
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar. Over the years, it was damaged by lightning and earthquakes and re-
paired by Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughluq, Firuz Shah Tughluq and Ibrahim Lodi.
• The Qutb Minar is five storeys high, and it was built by three Sultans:
1. Qutbuddin Aybak: Constructed the first floor.
2. Iltutmish: Completed the next three storeys.
3. Firuz Shah Tughluq: Added a fifth storey.
• Later, Alauddin Khalji added an entrance to the Qutb Minar called Alai Darwaza. The dome of this arch
was built on scientific lines.
• Generally, minarets were high towers near mosques to announce the five daily prayers to the public.
While minarets in Persia and Afghanistan used brick and tile, the Qutub Minar used local red and pink
sandstone with intricately carved bands of Quranic inscriptions.

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

• Quwwat-ul-Islam ('Glory of Islam'), the first mosque in Delhi, was commissioned by Qutbuddin Aibak.

466
It was built from the remains of the 27 Hindu and Jain temples. Later, it was partly expanded by Iltutmish,
which was soon collapsed in the next few decades.

Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• After Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain, the invaders sacked
Ajmer and destroyed the temples. Qutbuddin Aibak ordered the commission of the mosque, which was
completed in 1199. Later, Iltutmish commissioned the mosque’s iconic screen wall, featuring seven cor-
belled arches.
• The mosque used the spoils of Hindu temples to construct its pillared halls, and it was probably built
on the remains of the Sanskrit college, which was built in 1153 by the Chauhan emperor Visaladeva.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 467
• According to legend, the name of the mosque, Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra, which means ‘the hut of two and
a half days,’ comes from Qutbuddin’s order to build it in just 60 hours. However, this is likely untrue.
• Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra is the second oldest completed mosque in North India after Delhi's Quwwat al-
Islam mosque. South India has much older mosques, as Islam arrived there through Arab traders as early
as the 7th century.

Iltutmish
• The tomb of Iltutmish, near the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, was built by Iltutmish himself in 1235 CE, a
year before his death. Its original dome collapsed long ago and was later repaired by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
(1351–88), but it fell again. The presence of squinches confirms that the tomb once had a dome.
• Iltutmish constructed a large reservoir called the Hauz-i-Sultani (the King's Reservoir), just outside Dehli-
i-Kuhna. He won universal respect for making precious water available by constructing this reservoir.

Balban
• The Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Balban in Mehrauli, Delhi, is considered the first structure to have a true
dome and an arch.

Alauddin Khilji
• Under the Khaljis, Indo-Islamic architecture depicted a distinct influence of the Seljuq (Central Asian)
architectural traditions, such as the construction of a true dome with recessed arches.
• Alauddin Khilji built Siri Fort, Alai Darwaza and Alai Minar. He also built a large water tank or reservoir,
Hauz Khas, to supply water to the newly built fort and city of Siri. It was initially known as Hauz-i-Alai
after Khilji.

Alai Darwaza and Alai Minar

• Alauddin Khilji planned to expand the Quwwat-ul-Islam and build four gateways. However, he died in
1316 CE after completing only one, the Alai Darwaza (on the south of the original mosque), in 1311 CE.
Alauddin also wanted to build a minaret twice the height of the Qutb Minar. However, it remained un-

468
•
finished, and the incomplete structure is known as the Alai Minar.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

The Lodi Dynasty
• Due to financial constraints, the Lodis funded mosques and tombs of Lodi Gardens rather than grand
structures. A key architectural innovation of this period was the double dome, which featured a hollow
inner dome beneath the outer one. A notable mosque from this era is the Moth ki Masjid, built by Sikan-
dar Lodi’s minister during his reign.
• Sikandar Lodi founded Agra and shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra.

The Masjid
• In Arabic, a mosque is called a masjid, literally a place where Muslims prostrate in reverence to Allah. In
a congregational mosque, Muslims read their prayers (namaz) together.
• The members of the congregation choose the most respected, learned male as their leader (imam) for
the rituals of prayer. He also delivers the sermon (khutba) during the Friday prayer. During prayer, Mus-
lims stand facing Mecca. In India, this is to the west. This is called the qibla.
• The Delhi Sultans built several mosques in cities all over the subcontinent. These demonstrated their
claims to be protectors of Islam and Muslims.
1. Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was built by Qutbuddin Aibak
2. Begumpuri mosque was built in the reign of Muhammad Tughluq.
3. Moth ki Masjid was built during Sikandar Lodi’s reign by his minister.
Ruler or Dynasty Architecture
Qutbuddin Aibak Qutub Minar, Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque Adhai Din Ka Jhopra mosques.
Iltutmish Iltutmish tomb, Hauz-i-Sultani (the King's Reservoir)
Alauddin Khilji Siri Fort, Alai Darwaza and Alai Minar.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Tughluqabad Fort
Sikandar Lodi Moth ki Masjid was built by Sikandar Lodi’s minister

New capitals established by Delhi Sultans

Ruler New Capital Important Points
Iltutmish Dehli-i-Kuhna Shifter the capital from Lahore to Dehli-i-Kuhna
(Delhi)
Alauddin Khalji Siri Built as a fortified city (Siri) to counter Mongol invasions.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Tughlaqabad
Muhammad bin Tughlaq Jahanpanah and • When Muhammad bin Tughlaq built Jahanpanah,
Daulatabad Dehli-i-Kuhna became part of it.

469
• He shifted his capital to Daulatabad (1327) but later
returned to Delhi.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq Firozabad
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Sikandar Lodi Agra Founded Agra and established it as a secondary capital

Seven Cities of Delhi

City Built by
Lal Kot / Qila Rai Pithaura Anangpal II
Siri Alauddin Khalji
Tughlaqabad Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Jahanpanah Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Firozabad Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Dinpanah Humayun
Shahjahanabad Shah Jahan

21.8. Summary

Important Ruler Key Points

Slave Dynasty Qutbuddin Aibak • A Turkish slave purchased by Sultan Muhammad Ghori at
(1206 -1290 CE) (1206 – 1210 CE) Ghazni.
• Founded the Slave dynasty in 1206 CE.
• The construction of Qutub Minar began.
• Constructed Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque at Delhi.
Aram Baksh
(1210 – 1211 CE)
Iltutmish • The real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
(1211 – 1236 CE) • Created a new class of ruling elite called Chahalgani.
• Introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital)
• Patronised Minhaj-i-Siraj
• Completed the construction of Qutub Minar
Raziya • First and only woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate
(1236 – 1240 CE) • The beginning of a struggle for power between the monar-
chy and the Turkish nobles
Ghiyasuddin Balban • A Turkish noble, ascended to the Delhi throne in 1266
(1266 – 1287 CE) • Declared that the Sultan was God's shadow on earth
• Took up the title Zil-i-Ilahi (God's shadow).
• Introduced sijda (prostration before the monarch) and pai-

470
bos (kissing the Sultan's feet)
Khalji Dynasty Jalaluddin Khalji • Founder of the Khilji dynasty

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

(1290 – 1320 CE) (1290 -1296 CE)
Alauddin Khalji • Started a new phase of expansion and sent an expedition
(1296 – 1316 CE) aginst the ruler of Gujarat (1299–1300), Ranthambhor
(1301), Chittor (1303), Devagiri, Warangal and Hoysala.
• Patronised poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.
• Built the Alai Darwaza (the entrance of Qutub Minar) and
constructed a new capital at Siri.
• Took measures to control the market
Tughlaq Dynasty Ghiyasuddin Tu- • Founder of the Tughlaq dynasty
(1320 – 1414 CE) ghlaq
(1320 – 1325 CE)
Muhammad • Transfer of Capital from Delhi to Deogir
bin Tughlaq • Introduction of the token Currency
(1325 – 1351 CE) • Introduced agricultural reforms and set up a separate de-
partment for agriculture called diwan-i-amir-i-kohi.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq • Appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert,
(1351 – 1388 CE) as wazir (prime minister)
• First Sultan to impose an irrigation tax.
• Two Ashokan pillars, one from Topra (Haryana) and one
from Meerut (U. P.), were transferred to Delhi.
• Repaired old monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar.
• Set up a new department, Diwan-i-Khairat, to take care of
orphans and widows.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

471
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 22. The Delhi Sultanate: Administration, Society, and Economy

• The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state. The Sultans were keen to emphasise the Muslim character of
the state and to follow the Holy Law (sharia) as far as possible.

22.1. The Sultan

• Many Turkish sultans in India declared themselves 'lieutenant of the faithful', i.e., of the Abbasid caliph
at Baghdad and included his name in the khutba in the Friday prayers. However, it did not mean that the
caliph became the legal ruler. The caliph had only a moral position. By proclaiming his supreme position,
the sultans at Delhi were only proclaiming that they were a part of the Islamic world.
• The Sultan was a supreme authority, and the office of the Sultan was the most important in the admin-
istrative system.
• The sultan was the supreme political, military, and legal authority.
 He was responsible for the state's administration, safety and security, maintaining law and justice and
dispensation of justice.

472
 He was the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He also acted as a court of appeal from the
judges.

Symbolic Authority of the Caliph PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Theoretically, no Muslim ruler could establish an independent state without the Caliph’s approval, as it
would risk losing legitimacy among Muslims. However, this approval was merely a formality and often
ignored in practice.
• The Delhi Sultans acknowledged the Caliph symbolically - they accepted robes of honour, titles, and
letters of investiture, inscribed the Caliph’s name on coins, and mentioned him in Friday prayers — cre-
ating a nominal link with the Islamic world. Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained
 Mansur (letter of investiture) from the Caliph. However, in reality, this was just a way to justify the power
already seized.

Succession to the Throne

• There was no clear law of succession, and all the sons of the ruler had the right to succeed him, not
necessarily the eldest one. Hence, military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.
• Some rulers did try to nominate one of their sons as the successor. Iltutmish even nominated a daughter
in preference to his sons. But it was for the nobles to accept such a nomination. However, military supe-
riority remained the main factor in matters of succession.
• As they did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, where the eldest son succeeded his father, some-
times there was instability, vicious murders, conspiracy, etc. with every change of Sultan.

22.2. Central Administration

• The sultan was assisted by several departments and officials chosen by him. The number, powers and
functions of the officials varied from time to time.
• There were many officials to look after the royal household.
 The wakil-i-dar looked after the entire household and disbursed salaries to the Sultan's personal staff.
 The amir-i-hajib functioned as the master of ceremonies at the court. All petitions to the Sultan were
submitted through the latter.
• The post of Naib was the most powerful one. The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan
and exercised general control over all the departments. Next to him was Wazir, who was heading the
finance department called Diwan-i-Wizarat.
Department Head Key Points
Diwan-i-Wizarat Wazir or Prime Minis- Wazir was the most important person in the
(Department of Finance) ter central administration and usually very close
to the sultan.

473
Diwan-i-Ariz Ariz-i-Mumalik First time as a separate military depart-
(Military Department) ment under Balban
Diwan-i-Risalat Chief Sadr Deals with grants for the construction and PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
(Department of Religious Affairs) maintenance of mosques, tombs and mad-
rasas, stipends to deserving scholars, etc.
Diwan-i-Insha Dabir-i-Mumalik Deals with all the correspondence, formal or
(Department of Correspond- confidential, between the ruler and the sover-
ence) eigns of other states.
(Department of Justice) Chief Qazi
Diwan-i-Mustakharaj Founded by Alauddin Khalji
 (Department of Arrears)
Diwan-i-Riyasat Rais-i-Mumalik Founded by Alauddin Khalji
(Department of Commerce)
Diwan-i-amir-i-Kohi Founded by Muhammad bin Tughlaq
(Department of Agriculture)
Diwan-i-Khairat Founded by Firuz Tughlaq to take care of or-
(Department of Charity) phans and widows
Diwan-i-Bandgan Founded by Firuz Tughlaq
Diwan-i-Isthiaq Founded by Firuz Tughlaq
(Department of Pensions)

The Wizarat (Finance)

• As the head of the diwan-i wizarat, the wazir was the most important figure in the central administration.
The wizarat organised revenue collection, exercised control over expenditure, kept accounts, disbursed
salaries and allotted revenue assignments (iqta) at the Sultan's order.
• Several officials helped the wizarat, such as the mushrif-i mumalik or the accountant-general and the
mustaufi-i mumalik or the auditor-general. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji, the diwan-i mustakhraj
was made responsible for the collection of arrears of revenue.

The Diwan-i Arz

• The diwan-i arz, or military department, was headed by the ariz-i mumalik. He was responsible for the
administration of military affairs.
• Ariz-i Mumalik was not the commander-in-chief of the army. The Sultan himself was the commander-in-
chief of the army. He inspected the troops maintained by the iqta-holders.
• During the reign of Alauddin Khalji:
 The standing army was the largest.

474
 Soldiers were paid in cash.
 The Dagh (branding of horses) and Huliya or Chehra (descriptive list of soldiers) systes were intro-
duced so that horses of poor quality were not brought by the amirs or iqta-holders to the muster.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Slaves and Karkhanas

• Slaves were an important feature of the royal household. Thousands of slaves were employed in the royal
factories called karkhanas. The karkhanas manufactured articles for Imperial household as well as for
military purposes.

Judicial Administration

• The Sultan headed the judiciary and was the final court of appeal in both civil and criminal matters.
• Next to him was the qazi-ul mumalik (or qazi-ul quzzat), the chief judge of the Sultanate. The chief qazi
headed the legal system and heard appeals from the lower courts.
• In civil matters:
1. Muslims were governed by Muslim law (sharia) dispensed by Qazis.
2. The Hindus were governed by their own personal laws dispensed by panchayats in the villages and
caste leaders.
• Criminal law was based on regulations framed by the rulers.

22.3. Provincial Administration

• The Sultans directly controlled very few cities. In other parts, he appointed military commanders as
governors of territories. These lands were called iqta, and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti or wali.
These lands later became provinces or subas.
• Initially, muqtis were almost independent. Their duty was to lead military campaigns and maintain law
and order in their iqtas.
• Muqtis collected the revenues of their assignments. From these revenues:
 They paid their soldiers
 They paid a fixed sum to the royal treasury
 Keep the balance as salary (not fixed: Depends on revenue collected)
• As the central government became stronger and gained experience, it began to control the muqtis more
closely. It started to ascertain the actual income and to fix the salaries of the soldiers and the muqti in
cash. The muqti was now required to remit the balance of the income to the centre after meeting the
expenditure.
• These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and
Muhammad Tughluq. The state appointed accountants to check the amount of revenue collected by
the muqtis. Care was taken that the muqti collected only the taxes prescribed by the state and kept the
required number of soldiers.

475
• Firuz Tughlaq relaxed these harsh conditions towards the end of the Sultanate.

Key features of the Iqta system

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Not hereditary: The grant of iqta did not imply a right to the land, nor was it hereditary. However, the
holders of iqta tended to acquire hereditary rights in Feroz Tughluq's reign.
• Transferable: The muqtis were rotated every 3-4 years to prevent them from establishing independent
power.
• Effective control: The system ensured strong central authority, as muqtis were not given permanent
holdings, limiting their autonomy. However, many iqtadars became powerful and broke away to form
independent kingdoms.
  Iqta is an Arabic word, and the institution was in force in the early Islamic world as a form of reward
for services to the state. It was used in the Caliphate administration to finance operations and pay civil
and military officers. In India, this system was started by Iltutmish.

Administrative Division
• The Iqtas (provinces or subas) were headed by iqtadar or muqti or wali.
1. The Iqtas were divided into shiqs, headed by shiqdar.
2. The shiqs were divided into pargana, headed by amil and chaudhri.
3. Each pargana comprises many villages (100 to 84).
4. The village remained the basic unit of the administration, headed by a muqaddam and khot. The village
accountant was called patwari.
Administrative Unit Head
Iqta (province or suba) Iqtadar or Muqti or Wali.
Shiq Shiqdar
Pargana Amil and Chaudhri
Village Muqaddam and Khot

Politics of Loyalty
• The early Delhi Sultans, especially Iltutmish, preferred appointing Bandagan (the Persian word for special
slave purchased for military services) as governors instead of aristocrats or landed chieftains. These slaves
were trained for important political roles and remained loyal to the Sultan, making them more reliable.
• The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued this practice but also promoted people of humble origins, often their
clients, to high positions like generals and governors. While this system ensured loyalty to individual
rulers, it also caused political instability.
• Slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and patrons but not to their heirs. New Sultans had their
own servants, so the accession of a new monarch often saw conflict between the old and new nobility.

476
Additionally, Persian historians (tawarikh writers) criticised the Sultans for appointing men of "low birth"
to powerful positions, which offended the traditional elites.

22.4. Economy PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue ad-
ministration. The lands were classified into three categories:
1. Iqta land: Lands were assigned to officials as iqtas instead of being paid for their services.
2. Khalisa land: Land under the direct control of the Sultan, and the revenues collected were spent to
maintain the royal court and household.
3. Inam land: Land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
• The peasantry paid one-third of their produce as land revenue and sometimes even one-half of the pro-
duce. They also paid other taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living. Frequent famines made their
lives more miserable.

Revenue Officials
• Initially, there were three groups of rural aristocracy – khot, muqaddam, and chaudhuri - who collected
land revenue (kharaj) from the peasants on behalf of the state and deposited the same with the officials
of the diwan-i nizarat. Chaudhuri was likely a higher-ranking officer who oversaw multiple villages (par-
gana) but might not have been directly involved in revenue collection.
• Alauddin Khalji ended this system by taking direct control of revenue assessment and collection. He
cancelled the rights of the local chieftains to levy taxes and made them pay taxes instead. His adminis-
trators measured the land and maintained detailed records. To manage this system, officials such as Um-
mal (amil), Mutasarrif, Mushrif, Muhassilan, and Navisindagan were appointed, each responsible for tasks
like record-keeping, ensuring payments, and curbing corruption.

[UPSC CSE 2019] Consider the following statements:

1. In the revenue administration of Delhi Sultanate, the in-charge of revenue collection was known as
'Amil'.
2. The Iqta system of Sultans of Delhi was an ancient indigenous institution.
3. The office of 'Mir Bakshi' came into existence during the reign of Khalji Sultans of Delhi.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 1 and 2 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: 1 only

477
22.5. Social Life

Social Hierarchy and Exclusivity in Muslim Society PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into ethnic and racial groups. Turks
were on the top of society, followed by Persians and other muslims such as Afghans. Natives converted
Indian Muslims were at the bottom.
• The Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims developed exclusivity and rarely married each other.
• Initially, the Turkish nobles tried to monopolise the high offices of state, denying a share to the Tajiks,
Afghans and other non-Turkish immigrants. The nobility acquired a broader base only under the Tu-
ghlaqs.
Opportunities in Sultanate Society
• A noble birth remained a very important qualification for high office. The vast majority of the Muslims as
well as the Hindus had, therefore, little opportunity for occupying high offices of state.
• The Muslims in the towns had a better chance of being enrolled in the armies and getting state em-
ployment.
• The Hindus dominated trade, lower level of administration and constituted the rural aristocracy.

Jizyah: The Tax on Non-Muslims

• The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people - those who accepted the Muslim rule and
agreed to pay the tax called jizyah. Hence, they were forced to pay a tax called Jizyah.
• Jizyah was a tax in place of military service. It was collected based on one’s financial status. Women,
children, the poor, and Brahmans were initially exempted from it. However, Sultan Firuz Tughlaq later
imposed Jizyah on Brahmans as well.
• Initially, Jizyah was collected along with land revenue, making it hard to distinguish between the two
since most cultivators were Hindus. Firuz Tughlaq later made Jizyah a separate tax. He levied it on the
Brahman also.
• Sometimes, the theologians who were in charge of collecting the tax tried to use it to humiliate and
harass the Hindus. However, Jizyah by itself could not be a means to force the Hindus to convert to Islam.
In general, medieval states were not based on the idea of equality but on the notion of privileges.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 23. Vijayanagara and Bahmani Kingdoms

479
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate in the South and Deccan, which began during the reign of Alauddin
Khalji, reached its zenith under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, who conquered most of South India and
 appointed his own governors to rule there. However, this control was short-lived, and soon after, the
kingdoms started declaring their independence. Eventually, these regions reorganised into two major
empires: the Bahmani Sultanate in the north and the Vijayanagar Empire in the south.
• From the mid-fourteenth century, the Bahmani Kingdom and the Vijayanagar Empire dominated the
Deccan and the South. This dominance ended with the disintegration of the Bahmani Empire towards the
end of the fifteenth century, followed by the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire more than fifty years later,
after its defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565.

23.1. Vijayanagara Empire

• In 1336, Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara kingdom. Four dynasties ruled it for more than
three hundred years:
Dynasty Reign Founder
Sangama dynasty 1336 – 1485 CE Harihara I
Saluva dynasty 1485 – 1505 CE Saluva Narasimha
Tuluva dynasty 1505 – 1570 CE Veer Narsimha
Aravidu dynasty 1570 – 1646 CE Tirumala Devaraya

1. The Sangama dynasty (1336–1485)

2. The Saluva dynasty (1485–1505)
3. The Tuluva dynasty (1505–1570)
4. The Aravidu dynasty (1570–1646)

Foreign Travellers
Foreign Traveller Key Points
Nicolo de Conti Italian trader
Visited Vijayanagara in 1420 during the reign of Deva Raya I (1404 - 1422 CE)

480
Abdur Razzaq An ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia.
Visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Deva Raya II (1425 - 1446 CE)
Afanasii Nikitin A merchant from Russia PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Visited Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century [during the reign of Muhammad Shah III
(Bahmani Ruler)]
Duarte Barbosa Portuguese traveller
Visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 29)
Domingo Paes Portuguese trader
Visited Vijayanagara around 1520 during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 29)
Fernao Nuniz Portuguese horse trader
 Visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya (1529-42)

Harihara and Bukkaraya

• In 1336, two brothers, Hakka (Harihara) and Bukka (Bukkaraya), who belonged to a family of five brothers,
founded the Vijayanagara Empire.
• According to legend, Harihara and Bukka were once feudatories of the Kakatiyas of Warangal and later
served as ministers in the Kampili kingdom (in present-day Karnataka). When Muhammad Tughlaq de-
feated Kampili, the two were captured and converted to Islam. However, at the initiative of their guru,
Vidyaranya, they later returned to Hinduism. They then declared their independence and founded the
city of Vijayanagara as their new capital on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra River.
• The rulers ruled the Vijayanagara Empire in the name of Virupaksha, a form of Shiva and the guardian
deity of the kingdom. Harihara undertook to rule the new kingdom as the agent of a Virupaksha to whom
all the land south of the river Krishna was supposed to belong.

Vijayanagara
• Vijayanagara, or the “City of Victory,” was the name of both a city and an empire. In 1565, the city
was sacked and subsequently deserted.
• Today, it is known as Hampi, a name derived from the local mother goddess, Pampadevi.
• The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin
Mackenzie.

Colin Mackenzie
• Born in 1754, Colin Mackenzie was a renowned engineer, surveyor, and cartographer. In 1815, he was
appointed as the first Surveyor General of India, a position he held until he died in 1821.
• Harihara was crowned in 1136 CE and ruled the kingdom till 1356 CE. Bukkaraya succeeded his brother
to the throne of Vijayanagara in 1356 CE and ruled till 1377 CE. Bukkaraya also established diplomatic
ties with China to expand trade. His military campaigns were mentioned in a Sanskrit poem, Madhura

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Vijayam, by Ganga Devi.
• Initially, Harihara had to contend with both the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and the sultan of Madurai.
 Hoysala Kingdom: In 1343 CE, the sultan of Madurai defeated and killed the Hoysala ruler, Vira Ballala PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
III. The dissolution of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their tiny princi-
pality. By 1346, the Hoysala kingdom became a part of the Vijayanagara Empire.
 Madurai: In 1378, Bukkaraya's son, Kumara Kampana, defeated the sultan of Madurai. As a result,
the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of South India up to Rameswaram. A Sanskrit poem,
Madhura Vijayam, by Ganga Devi, describes the military campaign of Kumar Kampana.
• The Vijayanagara kings had to contend with:
 On their northern frontier:
 1. The Bahmani Sultanate of the Deccan
2. The Gajapati rulers of Orissa
 On the eastern sea coast:
1. Reddis on the upper reaches of the Krishna-Godavari delta
2. The rulers of Warangal in the lower reaches of the Krishna-Godavari delta
 The Bahmani Kingdom or the Bahmani Sultanate was the first independent Muslim sultanate of the
Deccan. It was founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman, a Tughlaq governor.
• Vijayanagar frequently engaged in conflicts with the Bahmani Sultanate to its north, experiencing both
victories and defeats. The interests of both clashed in three separate and distinct areas:
1. Raichur Doab (the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra): Due to its wealth and
economic resources
2. Krishna Godavari Delta: Due to fertile river valley and lucrative overseas trade because of many ports
3. Maratha Region: Due to the highly fertile region of Konkan and the port of Goa. Good quality horses
were not bred in India. Hence, the import of horses from Iran and Iraq through the Goa port was
important to the southern states.

Harihara II (1377 - 1404 CE)

• During the reign of Harihara II (1377 - 1404 CE), the Bahmani and Warangal kingdoms formed an alliance.
This prevented Harihara II from overrunning the Tungabhadra doab or stemming the Bahmani offensive
in the area.

Deva Raya I (1404 - 1422 CE)

• Harihara II was succeeded by Deva Raya I (1404 - 1422 CE). During his reign, there was a renewed fight
for the Tungabhadra doab. He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah (1397 - 1422 CE) and paid
ten lakhs of huns, pearls and elephants as an indemnity. As a part of a peace treaty, he agreed to marry
his daughter to the sultan, ceding to him in dowry Bankapur in the doab to obviate all future disputes.

482
• However, this marriage could not bring peace. The question of the Krishna-Godavari basin led to a re-
newed conflict between Vijayinagara, the Bahmani kingdom and Orissa. Following a confusion in the

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Reddi kingdom, Deva Raya entered into an alliance with Warangal. He defeated Firuz Shah and annexed
the entire Reddi territory up to the mouth of the Krishna River.
• Deva Raya I did not neglect the arts of peace. He constructed a dam across the Tungabhadra so that he
could bring the canals into the city to relieve the shortage of water. It also irrigated the neighbouring
fields, for we are told that the canals increased his revenues by 350,000 pardaos. He also built a dam on
the river Haridra for irrigation purposes.
• Nicolo de Conti, an Italian trader, visited Vijayanagara in 1420 during the reign of Deva Raya I.
 [UPSC CSE 2023] Who among the following rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire constructed
a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometers long
from the river to the capital city?
a) Devaraya I
b) Mallikarjuna
c) Vira Vijaya
d) Virupaksha
Answer: Devaraya I

Deva Raya II (1425 - 1446 CE)

• Deva Raya II, the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty, ascended the throne in 1425. He was an able
administrator, warrior, and scholar.
• Deva Raya II strengthened his army by adopting features of the armies of the Delhi Sultanate. However,
he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani Sultans.
• Noting the Bahmani army’s advantage in sturdy horses and mounted archers, he enlisted 2,000 Muslim
cavalrymen, granted them jagirs, and instructed his Hindu soldiers to learn archery from them. According
to Ferishta, Deva Raya II's forces included 60,000 Hindus well skilled in archery, 80,000 cavalry, and
200,000 infantry (though these numbers may be exaggerated).
• Fernao Nuniz from Portugal, who visited Vijayanagara in the sixteenth century, tells us that Deva Raya II
received tributes from the kings of Quilon, Sri Lanka, Pulicat, Pegu and Tenasserim (in Burma and Ma-
laya).

Patronage of Literature and Arts

• Deva Raya II authored literary works in Kannada (Sobagina Sone and Amaruka) and Sanskrit (Mahanataka
Sudhanidhi). He supported
 Kannada poets like Chamarasa and Kumara Vyasa.

483
 Sanskrit poet Gunda Dimdima
 Telugu poet Srinatha, granting him the title Kavisarvabhauma ("Emperor of Poets").

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Deva Raya II also encouraged secular literature and supported the Kerala mathematician Parameshvara,
a key figure in the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.

Abdur Razzaq on the Vijayanagara Empire

• Under a series of capable rulers, Vijayanagara emerged as the most powerful and wealthy state in the
south during the first half of the fifteenth century.
• Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia, who visited Vijayanagara in the reign of Deva
Raya II, gives a glowing account of the empire, saying: This latter prince has in his dominions three hun-
dred ports, each of which is equal to Calicut, and on terra firma his territories comprise a space of three
 months journey… The country is, for the most part, well-cultivated and very fertile. The troops amount in
number to eleven lakhs.

End of the Sangama Dynasty

• There was confusion in the Vijayanagara Empire after the death of Deva Raya II in 1446 CE. With no fixed
rule of succession, civil wars broke out among rival claimants, and several feudatories declared independ-
ence.
• The successors of Deva Raya II were weak, and soon, the Sangama dynasty came to an end. The next
dynasty, the Saluva dynasty, founded by Saluva Narasimha, reigned only for a brief period. (1485 - 1505
CE). Ultimately, a new dynasty, the Tuluva dynasty, was founded by Veer Narsimha in 1505. Krishna Deva
Raya (1509-30) was the greatest figure of this dynasty.
 Veer Narasimha Raya, the elder half-brother of Krishnadevaraya, founded the Tuluva dynasty in 1505.
He ruled the empire till 1509. In 1505, he gave permission to the Portuguese governor Francisco De
Almeida to build the factory at Anjediva.

Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 29)

• Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 29), the greatest of all the Vijayanagara rulers, belonged to the Tuluva
dynasty. His rule was characterised by expansion and consolidation.
• Krishna Deva re-established internal law and order and dealt with the old rivals of Vijayanagara, such as
the successor states of the Bahmani kingdom and the state of Orissa. He also contended with the Portu-
guese, whose power was slowly growing.
1. Successor states of the Bahmani kingdom: The Muslim armies were defeated, and the land be-
tween the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired. Severe defeats were
inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur.
2. Orissa: The rulers of Orissa were subdued. He compelled the ruler of Orissa to restore all the terri-
tories up to the river Krishna to Vijayanagara.

484
 Krishna Deva Raya marched against the Gajapatis and captured Udayagiri. As Gajapati ruler
Prataparudra fled to Kondaveedu, Krishna Deva Raya attacked, captured the hill fort, and erected

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

the Jaya sthambha (victory pillar) there. He also built a Vijaya Mahal (House of Victory) palace at
Vijayanagara to commemorate his victory.
3. Portuguese: Krishna Deva Raya maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. Portuguese gov-
ernor Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva Raya. In 1510, Krishna Deva Raya permitted
the Portuguese to build the factory at Bhatkal on the Arabian Sea coast in Karnataka.
 Krishna Deva Raya also established a monopoly on Portuguese horses. The Portuguese even of-
fered to buy the neutrality of the Raya by promising him assistance in recovering Goa from Bijapur
and giving him a monopoly in the supply of horses.
Art and Literature
• Krishna Deva Raya was a great patron of art and literature. He was known as Andhra Bhoja and Andhra
Pitamaha. He extended his patronage to Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets alike. Telugu literature reached
its peak under his reign.
• Krishna Deva Raya had eight major scholars at his court, called the ashta diggaja, including Allasani Ped-
dana and Tenali Ramakrishna.
 Allasani Peddana was a prominent Telugu poet. His famous works include Manu Charitramu and Hari-
kathaasaaramu.
 Tenali Ramakrishna was a Telugu poet, scholar, and advisor in the court of Sri Krishna Deva Raya. His
literary contributions include the notable work Panduranga Mahatmyam, which is regarded as one of
the five great Telugu Kavyas.
• Krishna Deva Raya was a gifted scholar of Telugu and Sanskrit. He composed the Telugu poem Amukta-
malyada and the Sanskrit dramas Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
• Krishna Deva was also a great builder. He built a new town near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram, after
his mother. He dug an enormous tank for irrigation purposes.

Religion
• The Vijayanagara rulers are considered great protectors of Hinduism. Under their patronage, many tem-
ples, schools and maths were built. In this period, temples became very elaborate in structure and organ-
isation.
• During this period, temple architecture evolved with several new additions:
 Massive Gopurams (Royal Gateways): Earlier, gopurams were only on the front side of temples. Now,
they were built on all sides and became much taller than the central shrine towers, symbolising the
temple’s grandeur.
 Multiple Mandapas (Pavilions): Instead of a single mandapa, temples now had multiple pavilions. The
central mandap came to be known as kalyana mandapa.

485
 Long Pillared Corridors around the shrine.
• Though a Vaishnavaite, Krishnadeva Raya respected all religions. He is credited with building some fine
temples, such as the Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar and adding impres- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
sive gopurams to many important South Indian temples.
• Krishna Deva Raya also repaired many temples. Krishnadeva Raya built the hall in front of the main shrine
of Virupaksha temple to mark his accession. He also constructed the eastern gopuram.

Domingo Paes on Krishna Deva Raya

• Domingo Paes, a Portuguese trader who visited the Vijayanagara around 1520 and spent many years at
Krishna Deva's court, has given a glowing account of his personality. Paes describes the king’s unusual
morning routine — reportedly, Krishnadevaraya drank half a litre of sesame oil each morning before
 exercising with heavy weights and a sword. He would then spar with a court wrestler, followed by a session
of horse riding. After this intense routine, the king would bathe, pray, and finally begin his day’s official
duties.

[UPSC CSE 2024] Who of the following rulers of medieval India gave permission to the Por-
tuguese to build a fort at Bhatkal?
a) Krishnadevaraya
b) Narasimha Saluva
c) Muhammad Shah III
d) Yusuf Adil Shah
Answer: Krishnadevaraya

[UPSC CSE 2019] Building 'Kalyaana Mandapas' was a notable feature in the temple con-
struction in the kingdom of
a) Chalukya
b) Chandela
c) Rashtrakuta
d) Vijayanagara
Answer: Vijayanagara

End of an Empire
• After the death of Krishna Deva Raya, Achyuta Deva Raya (1529 - 42), the younger half-brother of Krishna
Deva Raya and Venkata (1542 CE) succeeded the throne. In 1543, Sadashiva Raya ascended the throne
and reigned till 1567. But the real power lay in the hands of a Rama Raya and his two brothers.
• Ramaraya (1543 – 65 CE) cleverly played off the sultanates against each other. However, in 1565, the
combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta
(Battle of Rakshasa Tangadi or Battle of Bannihatti). Rama Raya was captured and executed.

486
• Following the battle, the city of Vijayanagar was destroyed, looted and left in ruins. This battle was gen-
erally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

under the Aravidu dynasty, which ruled from Penukonda and later from Chandragiri for about another
century.
• Tirumala Deva Raya was the founder of the Aravidu dynasty, who shifted the capital from Vijayanagara
to Penukonda. Sri Ranga III was the last ruler of this dynasty, who ruled from 1642 to 1646 CE.

Fernao Nuniz
• Fernao Nuniz, a Portuguese horse trader, visited the Vijayanagar during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya.
He tells us the following things:
  Deva Raya II: Deva Raya II received tributes from the kings of Quilon, Sri Lanka, Pulicat, Pegu and
Tenasserim (in Burma and Malaya).
 Market (bazaar): "mutton, pork, venison, partridges, hares, doves, quail and all kinds of birds, spar-
rows, rats and cats and lizards" as being sold in the market of Bisnaga (Vijayanagara).
 Women: The women in the Vijayanagara Empire were experts in Wrestling, Astrology, Accounting
and Soothsaying.

[UPSC CSE 2021] According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the women in the Vijayanagara
Empire were experts in which of the following areas?
1. Wrestling
2. Astrology
3. Accounting
4. Soothsaying

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 1, 3 and 4 only
c) 2 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: 1, 2, 3 and 4

[UPSC CSE 2004] Consider the following statements:

1. Narasimha Saluva ended the Sangama dynasty and seized the throne for himself and started the
Saluva dynasty.
2. Vira Narasimha deposed the last Saluva ruler and seized the throne for himself.
3. Vira Narasimha was succeeded by his younger brother, Krishna Deva Raya.
4. Krishana Deva Raya was succeeded by his half-brother, Achyuta Raya.

487
Which of the following statements given above are correct?
a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 2, 3 and 4 only PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
c) 1 and 4 only
d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Ans: 1, 2, 3 and 4

Administration
• The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well-organized. The king (Raya) enjoyed absolute
authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was assisted by a council of ministers. He was
also the highest court of appeal.
• There was no fixed rule of succession. Hence, many times, civil wars broke out among rival claimants.
• The Empire was divided into administrative units called Mandalams (province), Nadu (district), sthala
(sub-district) and grama (Village). The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
• During the Vijayanagar period, due to the growth of hereditary nayakships, the Chola traditions of local
institutions lost some of their autonomy.

Rayas and Nayakas

• The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. Many features
of this system were likely derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They
collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area. Out of the collected
revenue:
1. They sent tribute to the king annually.
2. They retained part of the revenue for personal use, maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and
elephants and maintaining temples and irrigation works.
• The amara-nayakas personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty. Their con-
tingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force.
• Kings occasionally asserted their control over amara-nayakas by transferring them from one place to
another. However, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms.

Ayagar System
• The Ayagar system was a village administration system prevalent in South India, particularly during the
Vijayanagar period. It involved a group of village functionaries (Ayagars) responsible for various admin-
istrative, revenue, and service-related tasks in a village.
• The ayagars were village functionaries consisting of:
1. Headmen (Reddy, Gauda, Maniyam)
2. Accountants (Karnam, Senabhova)

488
3. Watchmen (Talaiyari)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Judicial Administration
• In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed.

The Army
• The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and
elephants. High-breed Horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers of the army
were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted land in lieu of their services.

Economy
• Historians do not agree about the economic condition of the peasantry under the Vijayanagara rule be-
cause most of the travellers had little knowledge about village life and, thus, spoke of it in very general
terms.
• Agriculture remained the primary occupation, and the rulers actively promoted its growth by improving
irrigation facilities.
• Land revenue was generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce. According to an inscription, the rates of
taxes were as follows:
 One-third of the produce of kuruvai (a type of rice) during winter
 One-fourth of sesame, ragi, horsegram, etc
 One-sixth of millet and other crops cultivated on dry land
• Thus, the rate varied according to the type of crops, soil, method of irrigation, etc.
• Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs, customs collected at the ports,
and taxes on various professions were other government income sources.
• The government's expenditure includes the king's personal expenses, the charities given by him, and
military expenditure.

Trade and Commerce

• The Vijayanagara Empire had a thriving economy with numerous industries organised into guilds. Metal
workers and other craftsmen flourished during this period. Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and
Anantapur district.
• Vijayanagar was a major trade centre, with inland, coastal, and overseas trade boosting prosperity. Key
seaports on the Malabar Coast, especially Cannanore, facilitated maritime trade.
 Major trade partners: Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Portugal (west), and Burma, the Malay Peninsula,
China (east).
 Exports: Cotton and silk textiles, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, sugar.
 Imports: Horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk, velvet clothes.

489
• In addition to the land tax, there were various other taxes, such as property tax, tax on the sale of pro-
duce, professional taxes, military contribution (in times of distress), tax on marriage, etc. Grazing and

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

house taxes were also imposed. Besides, sthaladayam, margadayam and manudadayam were three major
transit dues.

Currency

• The Vijayanagara rulers issued many gold, silver and copper coins. These are
1. Gold coins: Pagoda, Fanam, Varaha and Pratapa
2. Silver coins: Taras
3. Copper coins: Jittals
 [UPSC CSE 2022] In medieval India, the term "Fanam" referred to:
a) Clothing
b) Coins
c) Ornaments
d) Weapons
Ans: Coins

[UPSC CSE 2016] Regarding the taxation system of Krishna Deva, the ruler of Vijayanagar,
consider the following statements:
1. The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.
2. Private owners of workshops paid an industries tax.

Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: Both 1 and 2

23.2. Bahmani Sultanate

• In 1347 CE, Alauddin Hasan Bahman, a Tughlaq governor, founded the Bahmani Sultanate in Daulata-
bad (Maharashtra). Later, the capital was shifted to Gulbarga in Karnataka.
• Alauddin Hasan was succeeded by his son, Muhammad Shah, who ruled from 1358 - 1375 CE. He gave
the Bahmani kingdom its true shape, with conquests and changes to the government and army. He in-
vited Arabs, Turks, and Persians to settle at the Deccan court.

Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397 to 1422 CE)

490
• After the death of Muhammad Shah, there was political instability until the arrival of Firuz Shah Bahmani,
the eighth sultan ruling from 1397 to 1422 CE.
• Firuz Shah was a learned king, fond of the natural sciences, such as botany, geometry, and logic. He was PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

a good calligraphist and a poet. According to Ferishta, he was well-versed in Persian, Arabic, Turkish,
Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. He had many wives in his harem from various countries and regions, and
he used to converse with each in their language.
• Firuz Shah Bahmani encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built an observatory near Daulatabad.
He paid much attention to the principal ports of his kingdom. Chaul and Dabhol attracted trading ships
from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea and brought luxury goods from all over the world.
• The most remarkable step taken by Firuz Shah Bahmani was the induction of Hindus in the administra-
tion on a large scale. It is said that from his time, the Deccani Brahmans became dominant in the admin-
istration, particularly in the revenue administration. The Deccani Hindus also provided a balance against
the influx of foreigners.
• Firuz Shah Bahmani was determined to make the Deccan the cultural centre of India. The decline of the
Delhi Sultanate helped him, for many learned people migrated from Delhi to the Deccan. The king also
encouraged learned men from Iran and Iraq to come to his kingdom.

Ahmad Shah I
• After ruling for 25 years, Firuz Shah Bahmani was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother, Ahmad
Shah I, who is called a saint (wali) because of his association with the famous sufi saint, Gesu Daraz.
• Ahmad Shah continued the struggle to dominate the eastern seaboard in south India. He defeated Vija-
yanagar and extracted a rich tribute from them. He also crushed the Warangals.
• As the Warangals supported Vijayanagara in two previous battles in which the Bahmani sultan had been
defeated, Ahmad Shah invaded Warangal, killed its ruler, annexed most of its territories. Later, he
moved the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar to strengthen control over the new regions.

Mahmud Gawan
• Muhammad Shah III was the sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate from 1463 to 1482. During his time,
Mahmud Gawan, a Persian noble, became a prime minister and nominated the affairs of the state for
the next 20 years.
• During the prime ministership of Mahmud Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom gradually expanded and
reached its height of power and territorial limits.
• Mahmud Gawan also carried out many internal reforms. He divided the kingdom into eight provinces or
tarafs. Each taraf was governed by a tarafdar. The salaries and obligations of each noble were fixed. The
salary could be paid in cash or by assigning a jagir. In every province, a tract of land (khalisa) was set

491
apart for the expenses of the sultan. Efforts were made to measure the land and to fix the amount to be
paid by the cultivator to the state.
In 1481, Muhammad Shah III, misled by Gawan's rivals, ordered the execution of the 70-year-old Mahmud
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
Gawan in open court. Soon, various governors declared their independence, and by 1526, the Bahmani
kingdom disintegrated into five independent sultanates:
1. Imad Shahi of Berar (1490 - 1574 CE): Founded by Imad-ul-Mulk. It was annexed by Ahmadnagar
in 1574.
2. Nizam Shahi of Ahmadnagar (1490 - 1633 CE): Founded by Malik Ahmad. It was annexed by the
Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1633.
3. Adil Shahi of Bijapur (1490 - 1686 CE): Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. It was annexed by the Mughal
emperor Aurangzeb in 1686.
 4. Qutb Shahi of Golconda (1518 - 1687): Founded by Quli Qutb Shah (Quli Qutb Shah). It was an-
nexed by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1687.
5. Barid Shahi of Bidar (1526 - 1619): Founded by Ali Barid. It was annexed by Bijapur in 1619.

23.3. Timeline

Timeline Key events

1336 CE Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire
1347 CE Alauddin Hasan Bahman, a Tughlaq governor, founded the Bahmani Sultanate
1378 CE Kumara Kampana defeated the sultan of Madurai
1490 CE Emergence of the Sultanates of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Berar (1490)
1509 CE Krishna Deva Raya became the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire
1565 CE Battle of Talaikotta

23.4. Summary

Vijayanagara Empire
Harihara • By 1346, the Hoysala kingdom became a part of the Vijayanagara Empire.
(1136 - 1356 CE)
Harihara II • In 1378, Bukkaraya's son, Kumara Kampana, defeated the sultan of Madurai.
(1377 - 1404 CE)
Deva Raya I • He was defeated by the Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah and subsequently married his
(1404 - 1422 CE) daughter to him.
• Nicolo de Conti, an Italian trader, visited Vijayanagara in 1420
Deva Raya II • Received tributes from the kings of Quilon, Sri Lanka, Pulicat, Pegu and
(1425 - 1446 CE) Tenasserim (in Burma and Malaya).
• Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia, visited Vijayanagara in

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the reign of Deva Raya II
Krishna Deva Raya • The greatest of all the Vijayanagara rulers
(1509 - 29) • Known as Andhra Bhoja and Andhra Pitamaha. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• He had eight major scholars at his court, called the ashta diggaja.
• Composed the Telugu poem Amuktamalyada and the Sanskrit dramas Jambavati
Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
• Domingo Paes, a Portuguese trader, spent many years at Krishna Deva's court,
• The Muslim armies were defeated, and the land between the Tungabhadra and
Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was acquired.
• The rulers of Orissa were subdued.
 • Established a monopoly on Portuguese horses
Bahmani Sultanate
Alauddin Hasan • Founded the Bahmani Sultanate in 1347 CE
Bahman
Muhammad Shah • Gave the Bahmani kingdom its true shape, with conquests and changes to the
(1358 - 1375 CE) government and army.
Firuz Shah Bahmani • Well-versed in Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Telugu, Kannada and Marathi.
(1397 to 1422 CE) • Encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built an observatory near Daulatabad
Ahmad Shah I • Defeated Vijayanagar and extracted a rich tribute from them.
• He crushed the Warangals.
Mahmud Gawan • A prime minister during the reign of Muhammad Shah III
• The Bahmani kingdom gradually expanded and reached its height of power and
territorial limits.
• Killed by Muhammad Shah III in 1481 CE
• Carried out many internal reforms

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 24. The Mughal Empire

• Babur (Zahiruddin Muhammad), the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a descendant of two of the most
famous warriors of Asia, Timur from his father's side and Genghis Khan through his mother. He estab-
lished the Mughal empire in 1526 after he defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Thus, a new
epoch and an empire in India began, lasting for nearly three centuries, from 1526 to 1857. The six major
rulers of this dynasty were Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• The empire declined after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. The empire formally ended a century and a
half later, when power passed to the British crown after the revolt of 1857.

The Naming of the Mughal Dynasty

• The term Mughal comes from Mongol, but the rulers of this dynasty called themselves Timurids, as they
descended from the Turkish ruler Timur on their father’s side.
• The Mughals were Chagatai Turks, tracing descent from Chagatai, the second son of Mongol ruler Gen-
ghis Khan. Turkish was their mother tongue. Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was related to Genghis Khan

494
through his mother and spoke Turkish but looked down on the Mongols, calling them barbaric hordes.
• In the sixteenth century, Europeans began calling them Mughals, a term that has been widely used ever
since. Even the name Mowgli, the young hero of Rudyard Kipling’s Jungle Book, comes from this word. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

24.1. Babur (1526 – 1530 CE)

Central Asia and Babur

• After the disintegration of the Mongol empire in the fourteenth century, Timur united Iran and Turan
(Central Asia) under one rule. His empire included regions from the Volga to the Indus, including Asia
Minor (modern Turkey), Iran, Trans-Oxiana (part of the Central Asia), Afghanistan and a part of the Punjab.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 495
• After Timur's death in 1405, his grandson Shahrukh Mirza maintained much of the empire, with Samar-
qand and Herat flourishing as cultural hubs.
• By the late 15th century, the Timurid Empire weakened mainly due to internal conflicts arising from the
Timurid practice of dividing the empire among multiple heirs, leading to constant struggles between rival
principalities. This allowed two rising powers to emerge: the Uzbeks (Sunni Muslims) in Trans-Oxiana
and Safavids (Shia Muslims) in Iran. Meanwhile, the Ottomans were expanding westward.
• This led to the emergence of three dynasties for supremacy in Central Asia in the sixteenth century:
1. The Uzbeks (Turkic ethnic group)
2. The Safavids (the members of the dynasty that ruled Iran patronising Shia Islam)
3. The Ottomans (Turkish people practising Sunni Islam)
• In 1494, after the death of his father, Babur became ruler of Farghana (in Uzbekistan) at age 12. He twice
captured Samarqand but lost it to Uzbek chief Shaibani Khan. After losing Samarqand, Babur moved to
Kabul in 1504 and spent 14 years trying to reclaim his homeland. In 1510, Shah Ismail, the shah of Iran,
defeated Shaibani Khan, and Babur briefly regained Samarqand with Iranian support but was soon ousted
again. With Trans-Oxiana firmly under Uzbek control, Babur turned his attention to India.
• The political situation in northwest India favoured Babur's entry. After Sikandar Lodi's death in 1517, his
successor Ibrahim Lodi's attempts to centralise power alarmed both Afghan chiefs and Rajputs. Hence,
there was discontent among the Afghans, the Rajputs and Sultan Ibrahim Lodi.

Conquest of India
• In 1518-19, Babur conquered Bhira (Punjab) but faced hostility from Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of
Punjab. When Babur returned to Kabul, Daulat Khan occupied Bhira and expelled Babur's agents posted
there.
• In 1520-21, Babur crossed the Indus again and swiftly captured Bhira and Sialkot, the key gateways to
Hindustan. Lahore also surrendered. However, a revolt at Qandhar forced Babur to return. After a year-
and-a-half-long siege, he recaptured Qandhar and then refocused on his Indian campaign.

496
• Around this time, Babur received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodi, led by his son Dilawar Khan, invit-
ing him to invade India and overthrow the unpopular Ibrahim Lodi. A similar invitation likely came from
Rana Sanga (King of Mewar) and Alam Khan (Uncle of Ibrahim Lodi). Convinced of the opportunity, Babur PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
advanced.
• In 1525, while at Peshawar, Babur learned that Daulat Khan had switched sides. Babur defeated Daulat
Khan and became the master of Punjab.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)

• Babur's clash with Ibrahim Lodi was inevitable, and Babur prepared for it by marching towards Delhi.
Ibrahim Lodi met Babur at Panipat. On 21 April 1526, in the first Battle of Panipat, Babur defeated the
 formidable forces of Ibrahim Lodi with a numerically inferior army. Babur won this battle with the help
of the strategic positioning of his forces and the effective use of artillery and cavalry.
• Babur employed the Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare, also known as the Tulguma system, to encircle
Ibrahim Lodhi's army from both flanks. His central cavalry launched a coordinated attack with arrows and
gunfire under the guidance of expert Ottoman gunners Ustad Ali and Mustafa. Trenches and barricades
provided strong defensive support against the enemy’s advance.
• The battle of Panipat is regarded as one of the decisive battles of Indian history. It shattered the Lodi
dynasty and gave Babur control of Delhi and Agra. Babar declared himself ruler and started the Mughal
Empire in India.
• However, Babur’s position remained fragile, and to consolidate his hold on this area, he had to wage two
hard-fought battles, one against Rana Sanga of Mewar and the other against the eastern Afghans.
From this perspective, the Battle of Panipat was not as politically decisive as often claimed. Its true signif-
icance lies in the fact that it opened a new phase in the struggle for domination in north India.

Battle of Khanwa (1527)

• Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior. He had a strong influence over Rajasthan and Malwa.
Babur selected Khanwa, near Agra, as a favourable site for this inevitable encounter.
• The ferocious march of Rana Sanga with a formidable force confronted the forces of Babur. With strategic
positioning of forces and effective use of artillery, Babur defeated Rana Sanga’s forces. Despite Sanga's
superior numbers, Babur's artillery and flanking tactics secured his victory. Sanga escaped but was later
poisoned by his nobles, ending his dream of a united Rajasthan extending up to Agra.
• During this battle, Rana Sanga's early victories demoralised Babur's troops. To boost their morale, Babur
declared the war a jihad. Babur assumed the title of Ghazi after the victory.
• The battle of Khanwa secured Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region. Babur strengthened his position
further by conquering forts like Gwalior and Dholpur and annexing parts of Alwar.
• In 1528, Babur defeated Medini Rai at Chanderi (Rajput ruler of Malwa), where Rajput defenders died

497
fighting, and their women performed jauhar. This victory ensured Babur’s supremacy over the Malwa
region.

Battle of Ghagra (1529) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Sultan Ibrahim Lodi’s brother Mahmud Lodi and Sultan Nusrat Shah, son-in-law of Ibrahim Lodi, con-
spired against Babur. Realising the danger, Babur marched against them. He faced the combined forces
of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal at the crossing of the river Ghagra in Bihar.
• Babur forced the Bengal and Afghan armies to retreat but couldn't secure a decisive victory. Due to illness
and concerns in Central Asia, he made peace, claiming suzerainty over Bihar while leaving it under
Afghan chiefs. He also signed a treaty with Nusrat Shah of Bengal before returning to Agra. Shortly af-
terwards, Babur died near Lahore while on his way to Kabul.
Architecture and Literature
• Babur introduced the chahar bagh (char bagh), a Persian-style garden layout divided into four symmet-
rical sections by artificial water channels. From Akbar’s reign onward, the tradition of the chahar bagh
flourished, with Jahangir and Shah Jahan building some of the most exquisite examples in Kashmir, Agra,
and Delhi.
• Babur ordered the construction of the two mosques, the Kabuli Bagh Mosque in Panipat and the Sam-
bhat Mosque in Rohilkhand.
• Babur wrote his poetry and memoir, Tuzuk-i-Babri, in Turkish. Tuzuk-i-Babri was translated from Turkish
into the Persian Babur Nama by Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan during the reign of Akbar.
 Babri Masjid: A mosque in Ayodhya was built in 1528 by Mir Baqi, a commander of the Mughal
emperor Babur.

Significance of Babur’s Advent into India

• Strategic Impact: For the first time since the downfall of the Kushana empire, Kabul and Qandhar were
integrated with north India. This gave his successors security from external invasions for almost 200 years.
• Political Transformation: Babur’s victories over the Lodis and Rajputs destroyed the regional balance of
power, paving the way for an all-India Mughal empire. He also revived the prestige of the Crown, weak-
ening Afghan ideas of tribal equality.
• Military Innovations: Although gunpowder was known in India earlier, Babur showed what a skilled
combination of artillery and cavalry could achieve. His victories led to rapid popularisation of gunpowder
and artillery in India.
• Personal Leadership: A courageous leader, Babur shared hardships with his soldiers, earning their loyalty.
Though he was a patron of culture and a tolerant ruler, he could also be ruthless, as seen in his war tactics.
• Cultural Contributions: Babur was a scholar of Persian and Arabic. He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi
(Baburnama), in the Turki language.
Legacy: Babur’s rule set the foundation for the Mughal Empire, emphasising strong central authority,

498
•
military prowess, religious tolerance, and cultural refinement.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

[UPSC CSE 2003] Alam Khan, one of those who invited Babur to invade India was:
a) An uncle of Ibrahim Lodi and a pretender to the throne of Delhi
b) A cousin of Ibrahim Lodi who was ill-treated and expelled from the country
c) The father of Dilawar Khan to whom cruel treatment was meted out by Ibrahim Lodi
d) A high official in Punjab province who was very much discontented with Ibrahim Lodi's treatment
to his tribe
Ans: Option A

[Practice Question] Who built the Babri mosque, which was established in Ayodhya?
 a) Babur
b) Humayun
c) Nizam-ul-Mulk
d) Mir Baqi
Ans: Mir Baqi

[Practice Question] The ruler of Mewar, who was defeated in the Battle of Khanwa by Babur
in 1527, was
a) Rana Pratap
b) Man Singh
c) Sawai Uday Singh
d) Rana Sanga
Ans: Rana Sanga

24.2. Humayun (1530 – 1540 CE, 1555 – 1556)

• Humayun, the eldest son of Babur, succeeded Babur in December 1530 at the young age of 23. He was
not a soldier like his father. He inherited several problems left behind by Babur:
 The administration was still unstable
 Finances were weak
 The Afghans remained a serious threat, hoping to drive the Mughals out of India.
• Humayun promised his father on the eve of his death that he would treat his brothers kindly. Humayun
divided the empire among his brothers:
 Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar
 Askari was given Sambhal
 Hindal was given Alwar and Mewat
 Maham Begum: Mother of Humayun.

499
 Gulrukh Begum: Mother of Kamran and Askari
 Dildar Begam: Mother of Hindal

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• When Humayun ascended the throne at Agra, he had to deal with:
1. His younger brother, Kamran
2. Afghans stationed in the east (Sher Khan, the Afghan ruler of Bihar)
3. Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat
• Kamran: Humayun gave Kabul and Qandhar to Kamran. However, Kamran was unsatisfied with these
regions and seized Lahore and Multan. Humayun did not want to start a civil war and formally granted
Punjab and Multan to Kamran.
• Afghans: The growth of Afghan power in the regions around Bihar and Uttar Pradesh under the leader-
ship of Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) made Humayun initiate action. Defeating the Afghans at Daurah
 (Devara) in 1532, Humayun besieged the powerful fort of Chunar. After four months, Humayun, believing
the word of Sher Shah that he would be loyal to the Mughals, withdrew the siege.
 When Humayun was fighting the Afghans in the east, he heard that the Bahadur Shah of Gujarat had
conquered Malwa and Rajasthan. Hence, he was anxious to return to Agra and concluded an agree-
ment with Sher Khan, granting him full control over the land east of Banaras and a fort in lieu of his
loyalty.
• During the next year and a half, Humayun spent his time building a new city in Delhi, Dinpanah, while
his enemies were strengthening themselves.
• Bahadur Shah: Realising the growing threat from Bahadur Shah, who had annexed Rajasthan and pro-
vided refuge to all anti-Mughal elements, Humayun marched against him. Bahadur Shah did not dare
face the Mughals and fled to Gujarat. Humayun captured Gujarat and Malwa and left them under the
control of his brother Askari. But soon, Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat and Malwa from Askari.
 The Gujarat campaign was not a complete failure. While it did not add to the Mughal territories, it
permanently destroyed the threat posed to the Mughals by Bahadur Shah. Soon after, Bahadur
Shah was assassinated by the Portuguese aboard a ship. This ended whatever danger remained from
the side of Gujarat.

Battle of Chausa (1539)

• When Humayun was deeply engrossed in the affairs of Bahadur Shah, Sher Khan had strengthened him-
self by defeating the ruler of Bengal. Sher Khan captured the fort of Rohtas and Bengal.
• In 1539, Humayun marched to Bengal to confront Sher Khan. When Humayun reached Gaur or Gauda,
he received information on the rebellion of his younger brother, Hindal, who assumed the crown himself
at Agra. Humayun proceeded to Agra to quell the rebellion.
• Despite the rumblings of discontent in the nobility, the rainy season, and the constant harrying attacks
of the Afghans, Humayun managed to get his army back to Chausa near Buxar without any severe loss.
When Humayun reached Chausa, there was a full-fledged battle.

500
• Sher Khan won the Battle of Chausa (1539) due to his superior political and military skills. Humayun
suffered a defeat and had to flee for his life by swimming across the Ganga.

Battle of Kanauj (1540) PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Humayun, who had arrived at Agra after the Battle of Chausa, assembled his army with the support of his
brothers Askari and Hindal to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter took place at Kanauj.
• The army hastily assembled by Humayun at Agra was no match against Sher Khan, who defeated Hu-
mayun and became the ruler of Delhi.

Architecture and Literature

Dinpanah
• Humayun built a new city in Delhi, Dinpanah. He also built the Jamali mosque and the mosque of Isa
Khan in Delhi.

Humayun’s Tomb
• The tomb of Humayun was built by his widow, Biga Begum (Hajji Begum), in 1569-70, 14 years after his
death. The architect was Mirak Mirza Ghiyath.
• The tomb of Humayun was the first grand Mughal tomb. It featured a central towering dome and a tall
gateway (pishtaq), both of which became key elements in Mughal structures.
• The tomb was placed at the centre of a vast chahar bagh (four-part garden) and followed the hasht
bihisht ("eight paradises") design, with a central hall surrounded by eight rooms. It was constructed pri-
marily of red sandstone, with white marble details adding elegance.

Humayun Nama
• Humayun Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum, the daughter of Babur, Humayun's sister and Akbar's
aunt.
 Gulbadan could write fluently in Turkish and Persian. When Akbar commissioned Abu'l Fazl to write a
history of his reign, he requested his aunt to record her memoirs of earlier times under Babur and
Humayun for Abu'l Fazl to draw upon.

24.3. Sher Shah (1540 – 1555 CE)

• After defeating Humayun in the Battle of Kanauj in 1540, Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi. When
he ascended the throne, he was called Sher Shah and started the Sur Dynasty (1540 - 55).
• Born in the family of a Jagirdar and named Farid, Sher Shah was a son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of
Sasaram, Bihar (Jaunpur). Sher Shah received the title of Sher Khan after killing a tiger (sher in Hindi). He
acquired sound administrative experience by looking after the affairs of his father's jagir.
• Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar. Following the death of Ibrahim Lodi, he emerged as one of
the most important Afghan sardars.

501
• As a ruler, Sher Shah ruled the mightiest empire in north India since the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
His empire extended from Bengal to the Indus, excluding Kashmir. In the west, he conquered Malwa and
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
almost the entire Rajasthan.
• His last campaign was against Kalinjar (Uttar Pradesh), a strong fort that was the key to Bundelkhand.
During the siege, a gun burst and severely injured Sher Shah. He died (1545) after he heard that the fort
had been captured.
• Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son, Islam Shah, who ruled till 1553. His death at a young age
led to a civil war among his successors. This provided Humayun the opportunity he had been seeking to
recover his empire in India. In two hotly contested battles in 1555, he defeated the Afghans and recovered
Delhi and Agra.
Administration
• Centralised Administration: Sher Shah continued the central machinery of administration which had
been developed during the Sultanate period. He was assisted by ministers. The four important ministers
were:
1. Diwan-i-Wizarat (Wazir): Minister in charge of Revenue and Finance
2. Diwan-i-Ariz: Minister in charge of the Army
3. Diwan-i-Rasalat: Foreign Minister
4. Diwan-i-Insha: Minister for Communications
• Law and Order: Sher Shah dealt sternly with robbers and dacoits and with zamindars who refused to pay
land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government.
• Sher Shah recruited many Hindus in the army and the government. He also imposed the law impartially,
regardless of faith.
Administrative Unit head
Iqta (provinces) Haqim and Amin
Shiq or Sarkar shiqdar-i-shqdaran or faujdar and a munsif-i-munsifan.

Pargana munsif or amil

Grama (village) amil and muqaddam
1. The Empire was divided into a number of provinces (Iqta) placed under Haqim and Amin.
2. Each province was divided into a number of shiqs or sarkars placed under the charge of the shiqdar-i-
shqdaran or faujdar and a munsif-imunsifan.
3. Each sarkar consisted of several parganas. The pargana was under the charge of the shiqdar, who looked
after law and order and general administration, and the munsif or amil, who looked after the collection
of land revenue.
4. Several villages (grama) comprised a pargana. Each village was placed under amil and muqaddam.

502
Army
• Sher Shah set up a strong army to administer his vast empire. Every soldier had his descriptive roll
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
(chehra) recorded, and his horse was branded with an imperial sign so that horses of inferior quality could
not be substituted. Sher Shah seems to have borrowed this system, known as the dagh (branding) system,
from the military reforms of Alauddin Khalji.
• Sher Shah divided the army into the Sawaras, the Elephants, and the Footman. His personal royal force
was known as Royal Khalsa Khail.

Justice
• Sher Shah placed considerable emphasis on justice. He did not spare oppressors whether they were
high nobles, men of his own tribe or near relations. Qazis were appointed at different places for justice,
 but, as before, the village panchayats and zamindars also dealt with civil and criminal cases at the local
level.
• However, a big step forward in dispensing justice was taken by Sher Shah's son and successor, Islam
Shah. Islam Shah codified the laws, thus doing away with the necessity of depending on a special set of
people who could interpret Islamic law.

Land Revenue System

• The land revenue administration was well-organized under Sher Shah. The land survey was carefully
done. All cultivable lands were classified into three classes - good, middle and bad. The state's share was
one-third of the average produce, paid in cash or crop.
• The produce of the land was no longer to be based on guesswork or by dividing the crops in the fields
or on the threshing floor. Sher Shah insisted on the measurement of the sown land. A crop rate (called
ray) was drawn up, laying down the state's share of the different types of crops.
• The areas sown, the type of crops cultivated, and the amount each peasant had to pay was written down
on a paper called a patta, and each peasant was informed of it. No one was allowed to charge the peas-
ants for anything extra. To guard against famine and other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two
and a half seers per bigha was also levied.
• The peasants were given two types of documents:
1. Patta: The amount to be paid by the peasant
2. Qabuliyat: Deed of agreement

Trade and Commerce

• Sher Shah paid great attention to fostering trade and commerce and improving communications in his
kingdom. He restored the Grand Trunk Road from the river Indus in the west to Sonargaon in Bengal.
He also built four important highways:
1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur

503
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• For the convenience of travellers, Sher Shah built a sarai (Rest house) at a distance of every two kos
(about eight km) on these roads. The sarai was a fortified lodging where travellers could pass the night
and also keep their goods in safe custody. Separate lodgings for Hindus and Muslims were provided in
these sarais. Many of the sarais developed into market towns (qasbas) to which peasants flocked to sell
their produce. The sarais were also used as stages for the news service or dak-chowki.
• To encourage trade, he simplified trade imposts, customs duty for goods were paid only at two places -
the point of entry and the point of sale.

Safety
• Sher Shah directed his governors and amils to treat merchants and travellers well in every way and not
harm them. Sher Shah made the local village headmen (muqaddams) and zamindars responsible for
any loss a merchant suffered on the roads.
• If the goods were stolen, the muqaddams and the zamindars had to produce them or point out the
haunts of the thieves or highway robbers, failing which they had to undergo the punishment meant for
thieves and robbers. The same law was applied in cases of murders on the roads. It was a barbarous law
to make the innocent responsible for the wicked, but it seems to have been effective.

Currency
• The currency reforms of Sher Shah also facilitated trade. He struck fine gold, silver and copper coins of
uniform standard instead of the earlier debased coins of mixed metal.
1. Mohur: A gold coin (169 grains: 11.53 grams)
2. Rupiya: A silver coin (178 grains: 11.6 grams)
3. Dam: A copper coin
[1 Rupiya = 64 Dam]
• His silver Rupiya (Rupee) was so well executed that it remained a standard coin for centuries after him.
It was the precursor of modern Rupee.

Art and Literature

• Sher Shah was also a great builder. The tomb which he built for himself at Sasaram during his lifetime is
regarded as one of the masterpieces of architecture. It is considered as a culmination of the earlier style
of architecture and a starting point for the new style which developed later.
• Sher Shah also built a new city on the bank of the Yamuna near Delhi. The only survivors of this are the
Old Fort (Purana Qila) and the fine mosque within it.
• Sher Shah also patronised the learned men. Some of the finest works in Hindi, such as the Padmavat of
Malik Muhammad Jaisi, were completed during his reign. Abbas Khan Sarwani, a famous historian,
wrote the Tarikh-i-Shershahi during his reign.

504
Humayun’s Return from Exile
• After his defeat at the Battle of Kanauj (1540), Humayun became a prince without a kingdom. He wan- PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
dered about in Sindh and its neighbouring regions for the next two and a half years, hatching various
schemes to regain his kingdom.
• On his way to Sindh, Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum and spent over two years in Sindh. During
this time, Akbar was born in 1542 at Amarkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad.
• Later, Humayun took shelter at the court of the Iranian king and, with his help, recaptured Qandhar
and Kabul in 1545. When Humayun fled to Iran, young Akbar was captured by his uncle, Kamran. He
treated the child well on the whole. Akbar was reunited with his parents after the capture of Qandhar.
• In 1555, as the Sur dynasty weakened, Humayun defeated the Afghans and reclaimed the Mughal
throne. In the battle of Sirhind, Humayun's forces defeated Sher Shah, occupied Delhi and re-established
the Mughal Empire in India.
• Tragically, just six months later, Humayun died from a fall down his library’s staircase, leaving thirteen-
year-old Akbar to inherit the throne.

24.4. Akbar (1556 – 1605 CE)

• In 1556, after the death of Humayun, Akbar (Jalaluddin), one of the greatest Mughal emperors, succeeded
to the throne at the young age of 13.
• At the time of Akbar's ascension, the Afghans and Rajputs were still powerful and posed a great chal-
lenge. However, Akbar had a guardian and protector in Bairam Khan, a loyal and favourite officer of
Humayun. Now, Bairam Khan became the regent (Wazir) of the kingdom with the title of Khan-i-Khanan.
• Meanwhile, Afghans were preparing their army to expel the Mughals. Afghans regrouped their army
under the commander-in-chief, Hemu, the Hindu general of the displaced Afghan king Adil Shah, the
successor of Sher Shah.
• Hemu first took Gwalior, expelling the Mughal governor. Then, he marched on Agra and captured it
without any resistance. Then, in a well-contested battle, Hemu defeated the Mughals near Delhi and
occupied the city.
• In November 1556, Akbar marched towards Delhi to meet the forces of Hemu. Bairam Khan represented
the Akbar in the Second Battle of Panipat on 5 November 1556. Hemu was almost at the point of victory.
But an arrow pierced his eye, and he became unconscious. His army fled, and the Mughals emerged
victorious.
• Akbar’s capital was at Agra in the beginning. Later, he built a new city at Fatehpur Sikri.

Akbar and Bairam Khan

• During the first five years of Akbar's reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent. He consolidated the

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Mughal empire, which expanded from Kabul to Jaunpur, including Gwalior and Ajmer.
• Bairam Khan had offended many powerful persons while he held supreme power. Many nobles com-
plained about his arrogance. Akbar, enraged by his behaviour, issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
This led to Bairam Khan's revolt, which was ably dealt with by Akbar.
• Finally, Bairam Khan was forced to submit. Akbar received him cordially and gave him the option of serv-
ing at the court or anywhere outside it or retiring to Mecca. Bairam Khan chose to go to Mecca. However,
on his way, he was assassinated by an Afghan who bore him a personal grudge.
• Bairam's wife (Salima) and a young child were brought to Akbar at Agra. Akbar married Bairam Khan's
young wife, who was his cousin. He brought up Bairam's child as his own son. This child later became
famous as Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, one of the luminaries of Akbar’s court.
 Akbar’s contemporaries
• The ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
• The Safavid ruler of Iran, Shah Abbas (1588-1629)
• The Russian ruler, Czar Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Ivan the Terrible) (1530-1584)

Expansion of the Mughal Empire

• Jalaluddin Akbar (1556 - 1605) was the greatest of all the Mughal emperors. He not only expanded but
also consolidated his empire, making it the largest, strongest and richest kingdom of his time.
• Akbar succeeded in extending the frontiers of the empire to the Hindukush mountains and checked the
expansionist designs of the Uzbeks of Turan (Central Asia) and the Safavids of Iran.

Gawaliar and Jaunpur (1559 - 1560)

• Akbar sent the first expedition to capture Gawaliar and Jaunpur in 1559-60. After a brief war, Ram Shah
surrendered the Gawaliar fort. Khan Zaman was sent to Jaunpur, which was ruled by Afghans, who were
easily defeated and annexed to the Mughal Empire.

Malwa (1561)
• Malwa in central India was ruled by Baz Bahadur. Adham Khan and others led the expedition against
Malwa. Baz Bahadur was defeated and fled towards Burhanpur. After wandering for a few years, Baz
Bahadur surrendered to Akbar and was enrolled as Mughal Mansabdar.

kingdom of GarhKatanga (Gondwana) (1564)

• The kingdom of Garh-Katanga (Gondwana) included the Narmada valley and the northern portions of
present Madhya Pradesh. It included a number of Gond and Rajput principalities. It was the most powerful
kingdom set up by the Gonds. The Mughals conquered this after defeating Rani Durgavati, regent of
her son, Bir Narayan.
• Despite the odds, in typical Rajput spirit, Rani Durgavati chose to fight rather than surrender. She led

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her ill-equipped army against the powerful Mughal forces and fought bravely. Wounded in battle, she
chose death over surrender and stabbed herself in the heart. Her son, Bir Narayan, died defending
Chauragarh, where the fortress performed jauhar. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Chittor (Mewar) (1568)

• Akbar sought Rajput allies to strengthen his empire. His policy included matrimonial alliances with Rajput
families and granting them high positions in the Mughal court. However, he did not hesitate to confront
those who resisted his rule.
• Akbar realised that without conquering Chittor, he could not induce the other Rajput rulers to accept his
suzerainty. After six months of siege, Chittor fell. On the advice of his nobles, Rana Udai Singh had retired
to the hills, leaving the famous warriors Jaimal and Patta in charge of the fort. Chittor committed Jauhar,
 and a large number of soldiers died in the war. Later, Udai Singh's son, Maharana Pratap, carried on the
struggle.
• In honour of the gallant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar ordered that two stone statues of these warriors, seated
on elephants, be erected outside the chief gate of the Agra fort.

Ranthambhor (1569)
• The fall of Chittor was followed by the conquest of Ranthambhor reputed to be the most powerful
fortress in Rajasthan. The Mughals conquered this from Surjan Hada. Jodhpur had been conquered ear-
lier. As a result of these victories, most of the Rajput rajas, including those of Bikaner and Jaisalmer,
submitted to Akbar. Only Mewar continued to resist.

Gujarat
• In 1572, Akbar advanced to Ahmedabad. Muzaffar Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, surrendered without a fight.
Akbar then turned his attention to the Mirzas, who held Broach, Baroda and Surat.
• At Cambay, Akbar saw the sea for the first time and rode on it in a boat. A group of Portuguese merchants
also came and met him for the first time. The Portuguese dominated the Indian seas by this time and had
the ambition of establishing an empire in India. Akbar's conquest of Gujarat frustrated these designs.
• Akbar built the Bulanda Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate his victory over Gujarat.

Bengal-Bihar (1574-76)
• After Gujarat, Akbar turned his attention to Bengal. The Afghans had continued to dominate Bengal and
Bihar. They had also overrun Orissa and killed its ruler.
• Internal fights among the Afghans and the declaration of independence by Daud Khan Karrani, the
new ruler, gave Akbar the excuse to intervene and fight. In a stiff battle in Bihar in 1576, Daud Khan was
defeated and executed on the spot. Thus, it ended the last Afghan kingdom in northern India. It also
brought to an end the first phase of Akbar's expansion of the empire.

Mewar (1576)

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• Although most of the rulers of Rajasthan submitted to Akbar, Mewar continued to resist. In the Battle
of Haldighati on June 18, 1576, Maharana Pratap of Mewar was defeated by the Mughal army led by
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Man Singh I of Amber. However, Pratap escaped and continued his resistance. His horse, Chetak, though
badly injured, carried him to safety before collapsing. Chetak's bravery became legendary.
• Following the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbar's suzerainty.
• Maharana Pratap's defiance of the mighty Mughal empire, almost alone and unaided by the other Rajput
states, constitutes a glorious saga of Rajput valour and the spirit of sacrifice for cherished principles.

Kabul (1581)
• Akbar’s half-brother, Mirza Hakim, who ruled Kabul, supported the rebellion of Bengal and Bihar against
Akbar and contemplated invading the Punjab at an opportune moment to provide assistance.
• Akbar defeated Mirza Hakim of Kabul with the help of Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das. Since Mirza
Hakim refused to accept Akbar's suzerainty or to come to pay personal allegiance to him, and the Indian
nobles and soldiers were becoming restive, Akbar handed over Kabul to his sister before returning to
India. later, Raja Man Singh was appointed governor of Kabul, and Kabul was handed over to him as jagir.
• The handing over of a kingdom to a woman was symbolic of Akbar's broad-mindedness and liberalism.

Threat of Uzbeks
• During this time, Abdullah Khan Uzbek, the hereditary enemy of the Mughals, had been gradually gath-
ering strength in Central Asia. In 1584, he overran Badakhshan which had been ruled by the Timurids.
Kabul appeared to be next on the list.
• In order to block all roads to the Uzbeks, he sent expeditions against Kashmir (1586), and against Balu-
chistan. The whole of Kashmir, including Ladakh, came under Mughal domination and a daughter of the
chief of Baltistan was married to young Salim.
• Expeditions were also sent to clear the Khyber Pass which had been blocked by rebellious tribesmen. In
an expedition against them, Raja Birbal, the favourite of Akbar, lost his life. But the Afghan tribesmen
were gradually forced to submit.
• The conquest of Kashmir from Yusuf Khan and Yakub Khan (1586) and Sindh from Jani Beg Mirza (1591)
consolidated the empire in the northwest.
• Akbar stayed at Lahore till 1598, when the death of Abdullah Uzbek finally removed the threat from the
side of the Uzbeks.
• After settling the affairs of the northwest, Akbar turned his attention towards the affairs of eastern and
western India and the Deccan.

Deccan
• Akbar’s forces had occupied the Khandesh region in 1591.
• In 1596, Berar was acquired from Chand Bibi, who, as the regent of her nephew Muzaffar Shah, the
Nizam Shahi ruler of Ahmednagar, valiantly defended Ahmednagar against the Mughal forces of Akbar.

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• By 1600, parts of Ahmed Nagar had fallen into the hands of Mughal forces.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Akbar’s Religious Policy
• Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious policy, which was based on the principles
of tolerance, inclusiveness, and cultural integration.
• Various factors were responsible for his religious ideas, such as his early contacts with the Sufi saints and
his marriage with Rajput women.
 Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax (1563) and Jizya tax (1564) on non-Muslims.
 Akbar allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
  In 1575, Akbar ordered the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital,
Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and
Zoroastrianism.
 In 1582, Akbar promulgated a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It
contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new
faith.
 Akbar abolished the practice of sati by Hindu widows.
 Akbar celebrated Hindu (Dussehra and Holi) and Parsi festivals and wore the sacred Parsi kushti
thread. Influenced by Jain saint Hiravijaya Suri, he gave up hunting and meat.
• Akbar’s policy aimed to foster unity in his diverse empire, earning him the title ‘Akbar the Great’.

Sulh-i-kul
• Akbar's interaction with people of different faiths made him realise that religious scholars who empha-
sised ritual and dogma were often bigots. Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst his
subjects. This eventually led Akbar to the idea of sulh-i-kul or “universal peace". This idea of tolerance
did not discriminate between people of different religions in his realm. Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing
a vision of governance around this idea of sulh-i kul.
• Jahangir and Shah Jahan followed this principle of governance (sulh-i-kul).

Rajput Policy
• Akbar's conciliatory Rajput policy included matrimonial alliances with Rajput princely families and
giving Rajput nobles high positions in the Mughal court.
 Akbar had married Harkha Bhai (also called Jodha Bai in popular accounts), the daughter of Raja Bhar
Mal (also known as Bihari Mal) of Amber. He also married the Rajput princesses of Bikaner and
Jaisalmer.
 Prince Salim, who was born of Harkha Bhai, married the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.

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 Raja Man Singh, son of Bhagwan Das, became the trusted general of Akbar.
• The tolerant religious policy of Akbar ensured the cultural and emotional integration of the people.
Even before Akbar, many Muslim kings had married Rajput princesses. But Akbar, with his broadminded
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
nature, was instrumental in these matrimonial alliances, becoming a synthesising force between two dif-
ferent cultures as he maintained close relations with the families.
• Akbar's Rajput policy secured the services of great warriors and administrators for the empire.
 Todar Mal, an expert in revenue affairs, rose to the position of Diwan.
 Birbal was a favourite companion of Akbar.

Mewar and Marwar

• Mewar and Marwar were the two Rajput kingdoms that defied the Mughal Empire.
  After the death of Rana Udai Singh, his son, Rana Pratap Singh, refused to acknowledge Akbar’s su-
zerainty and fought the Mughals until his death in 1597. The Battle of Haldighati in 1576 was the last
pitched battle between the Mughal forces and Rana Pratap Singh.
 In Marwar (Jodhpur), the ruler Chandra Sen, son of Maldeo Rathore, resisted the Mughals till his death
in 1581, though his brothers fought on the side of the Mughals.

Art and Architecture

Literature
Akbar Nama and Ain-i Akbari

• Akbar ordered one of his close friends and courtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of his reign. Abul Fazl
wrote a three-volume history of Akbar’s reign, titled Akbar Nama in Persian.
• Beginning in 1589, Abul Fazl worked on the Akbar Nama for thirteen years (1589 - 1602), repeatedly
revising the draft. The final draft was completed after five revisions. The chronicle is based on various
sources, including actual records of events (waqai), official documents and oral testimonies of knowl-
edgeable persons.
• The Akbar Nama is divided into three books: the first two are chronicles, and the third is the Ain-i Akbari.
1. The first volume contains the history of mankind from Adam to one celestial cycle of Akbar's life (30
years).
2. The second volume closes in the forty-sixth regnal year (1601) of Akbar.
3. The third volume is the Ain-i Akbari.

Ain-i Akbari

• The Ain-i Akbari (Ain) was organised as a compendium of imperial regulations and a gazetteer of the
empire.
• The Ain deals with Akbar’s administration, household, army, revenues and geography of his empire. It
also provides rich details about the traditions and culture of the people living in India. The most interest-

510
ing aspect of the Ain-i Akbari is its rich statistical details about things as diverse as crops, yields, prices,
wages and revenues.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Along with a description of the various departments of Akbar's government and elaborate descriptions
of the various provinces (subas) of the empire, the Ain gives us intricate quantitative information about
those provinces.
• Thus, the Ain-i-Akbari serves as a valuable source of information on the Mughal Empire during Akbar’s
reign. However, it reflects the empire from the perspective of the central authority, offering a top-down
view of society.

Five Books
• The Ain comprises five books (daftars), of which the first three books describe the administration.
1. The first book, manzil-abadi, concerns the imperial household and its maintenance.
2. The second book, sipah-abadi, covers the military and civil administration and the establishment of
servants. This book includes notices and short biographical sketches of imperial officials (mansabdars),
learned men, poets and artists.
3. The third book, mulk-abadi, deals with the fiscal side of the empire and provides rich quantitative
information on revenue rates, followed by the "Account of the Twelve Provinces". This section has detailed
statistical information, which includes the geographic, topographic and economic profile of all subas
and their administrative and fiscal divisions (sarkars, parganas and mahals), total measured area, and
assessed revenue (jama). It also gives a fascinating, detailed and highly complex view of agrarian society
in northern India.
4. The fourth and fifth books deal with the religious, literary and cultural traditions of the people of India
and also contain a collection of Akbar's "auspicious sayings".

Reliability and Limitations

• While the Ain-i-Akbari was officially commissioned to help Akbar govern his empire, it was more than
just a collection of official records. Abu'l Fazl revised the manuscript five times, ensuring accuracy by
verifying oral testimonies and minimising transcription errors by writing numbers in words.
• However, historians note some limitations. There are minor arithmetic errors, likely due to slips in calcu-
lation or transcription. Additionally, data collection was uneven across provinces—for example, caste de-
tails of zamindars are missing for Bengal and Orissa. Fiscal data is rich, but information on prices and
wages is primarily from Agra, making it less representative of the entire empire.

Translations of Ain-i-Akbari
• Several scholars have translated the Ain-i-Akbari. Henry Blochmann edited it, and the Asiatic Society of
Bengal (Kolkata) published it in the Bibliotheca Indica series. The English translation was done in three
volumes: Volume 1 by Henry Blochmann (1873) and Volumes 2 and 3 by H.S. Jarrett (1891, 1894).

Persian Language and Sanskrit Translations in Akbar’s Court

511
• Persian became the main language of the Mughal court under Akbar. Though the Mughals were of Turk-
ish origin, Akbar promoted Persian due to cultural ties with Iran and the influx of Iranian and Central Asian
migrants. Persian became the language of power, spoken by the king, the elite, and the administration, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
making it essential for officials and clerks.
• During the reign of Akbar:
 Akbar Nama was written in Persian by Abul Fazl.
 Tuzuk-i-Babri was translated from Turkish into the Persian Babur Nama by Abdul Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan.
• In 1574, Akbar started a Maktab Khana or "House of Translation" in his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri.
Mostly, Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian. However, Persian translations of some Arabic and
Turkish texts were also carried out.
• During his reign, many Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian, including:
 The Mahabharata was translated into Persian as the Razmnama (Book of Wars) by scholars like Faizi,
Badauni, and Brahmin experts. Naqib Khan made overall supervision and divided the chapters be-
tween various scholars, namely, Haji Sultan Thanesari, Mulla Shiri, Badauni, and Faizi.
 Ramayana was translated into Persian by Mulla Abdul Qadir Badauni.
 Atharvaveda was translated into Persian by Haji Ibrahim Sarhindi
 Lilavati, a Sanskrit mathematical text of Bhaskaracharya, was translated into Persian by Faizi.
 The Yogavashishtha was translated into Persian as an appendix to the Ramayana by Nizamuddin
Panipati.
 Rajataringini was translated into Persian by Maulana Shah Mohammad Shahabadi.
 Singhasan Battisi was translated by Badauni as Nama-i-Khirad Afza, telling stories of Raja
Vikramaditya’s wisdom.
 Harivamsa, a genealogy of Hari (or Krishna), was translated into Persian by Mulla Shri.
 Abdul Qadir Badauni also wrote a Persian book, Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh. This three-volume work
covers the general history of Muslims in India from Ghaznavid's reign until the fortieth regnal year of
Mughal Emperor Akbar.
 Later, Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavad Gita into Persian.

Navaratna
• Akbar's Court was adorned with nine scholars called Navaratna or nine jewels. These Navaratna include
Birbal (administrator), Tansen (Musician), Abdur Rahim Khanekhana (poet), Abul Fazl (scholar), Faizi
(scholar and brother of Abul Fazl), Todarmal (Finance Minister), Bhagwandas (Mansabdar), Man Singh
(Mansabdar), Mulla Do Pyaja.

Birbal: Akbar’s Trusted Minister

• Birbal, originally Maheshdas from Kalpi (Uttar Pradesh), was a Brahmin who became one of Akbar’s
trusted ministers. He met Akbar at the time of his coronation and remained in his court for life.

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• A talented musician, poet, and storyteller, Birbal was given the title Kavi Rai and held a high-ranking
mansab in the Mughal administration.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Abul Fazl

• Abul Fazl joined the Akbar's court at the age of 12. He was widely read in Arabic, Persian, Greek philosophy
and Sufism. He wrote the Akbar Nama in Persian.
• Abul Fazl was a forceful debater and independent thinker who consistently opposed the views of the
conservative ulama. These qualities impressed Akbar, who found Abu'l Fazl ideally suited as an adviser
and spokesperson for his policies. One major objective of the emperor was to free the state from the
control of religious orthodoxy. In his role as court historian, Abu'l Fazl both shaped and articulated the
ideas associated with Akbar's reign.
• In 1602, Abu'l Fazl fell victim to a conspiracy hatched by Prince Salim and was murdered by his accomplice,
Bir Singh Bundela.

Jesuits at the Mughal court

• Following the discovery of a direct sea route to India at the end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese
merchants established a network of trading stations in coastal cities. The Portuguese king was also inter-
ested in propagating Christianity with the help of the missionaries of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits).
The Christian missions to India during the sixteenth century were part of this process of trade and empire-
building.
• Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to Goa to invite Jesuit priests. The first
Jesuit mission reached the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years. It was
led by Father Rudolf Acquaviva and included Father Antony Monserrate and translator Francisco Hen-
riques. The Jesuits spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama. Two more
missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore in 1591 and 1595.
• The high respect shown by Akbar towards the members of the Jesuit mission impressed them deeply.
They interpreted the emperor's open interest in the doctrines of Christianity as a sign of his acceptance
of their faith. This can be understood in the light of the prevailing climate of religious intolerance in
Western Europe. Monserrate remarked that "the king cared little that in allowing everyone to follow his
religion, he was in reality violating all".

Architecture
• Akbar's reign was famous for the use of red sandstone in the construction of buildings. Akbar built:
 Agra Fort (Construction started during his reign)
 Fatehpur Sikri city near Agra
 Bulanda Darwaza: to commemorate his victory over Gujarat
 Ibadat Khana: To discuss the religious views of different scholars
 Maktab Khana: To translate the texts

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 Salim Chisti's tomb
 Jodha Bai's Palace
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
[UPSC CSE 2022] Yogavasistha" was translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati during
the reign of:
a) Akbar
b) Humayun
c) Shahjahan
d) Aurangzeb
Ans: Akbar
 [UPSC CSE 2014] Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri was
a) The mosque for the use of royal family.
b) Akbar's private chamber prayer.
c) The hall in which Akbar held discussions with scholars of various religions.
d) The room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs
Ans: Option D

Administration Under the Akbar

• Under the Mughals, the administration was highly centralised.

Central Administration
The Emperor

• The emperor was the supreme authority in the Mughal administration. All officials held their positions
at his discretion, with their appointment, promotion, or removal depending entirely on his will.

Wazir

• The institution of wizarat can be traced back to the Abbasid Caliphs. Under the Delhi Sultans, the wazir
was the most important person in the central administration and enjoyed civil and military powers.
However, under Balban, his powers were reduced when the Sultan bifurcated the military powers under
Diwan-i-Ariz.
• The position of the Wazir was revived under the early Mughals. Babur's Wazir Nizamuddin Muhammad
Khalifa enjoyed both civil and military powers.
• Akbar took away Wazir's financial powers and entrusted them to the Diwani kul or Chief Diwan. Sepa-
ration of finance gave a jolt to the Wazir's power. However, the Wazir continued to enjoy the highest
place in the Mughal bureaucratic hierarchy despite reducing his powers.

Diwani Kul

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• Akbar made chief diwan (diwani kul) responsible for revenue and finances. His primary duty was to
supervise the imperial treasury and check all accounts.
• He inspected all transactions and payments in all departments. He maintained direct contact with the PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

provincial diwans, whose functioning was under his vigil. His seal and signatures were necessary to vali-
date all official papers involving revenue. The entire revenue collection and expenditure machinery of the
Empire was under his charge. No fresh order of appointment or promotion could be affected without his
seal. To check the diwan's power, the Mughal Emperor asked the diwan to submit a daily report on state
finances.

Mir Bakhshi

• The mir-i-arz of Delhi Sultanate changed its nomenclature to mir bakhshi under the Mughals.
• All appointment orders of mansabdars and their salary papers were endorsed and passed by mir bakh-
shi. The new entrants seeking service were presented before the Emperor by the Mir Bakhshi. He stood
in open court on the right of the emperor and presented all candidates for appointment or promotion.
His office prepared orders bearing his seal and signature as well as those of the emperor.
• Mir bakhshi personally supervised the branding of the horses (dagh) and checked the muster roll
(chehra) of the soldiers. Based on his verification, the salary amount was certified.
• The mir bakhshi supervised the corps of court writers (waqia nawis) who recorded all applications and
documents presented to the court and all imperial orders (farman).
• Mir Bakhshi dealt directly with provincial bakhshis. He was assisted by other bakhshis at the central level.

Mir Saman

• The mir saman was the officer in charge of the royal karkhanas. He was responsible for purchasing all
kinds of articles and their storage for the royal household. He was also responsible for supervising the
manufacture of different articles, whether weapons of war or luxury articles. He was directly under the
emperor, but to sanction money and audit accounts, he was to contact the diwan.

Sadr-us Sudur and Chief Qazi

• The sadr-us sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical department. His chief duty was to protect the laws
of the Shariat. He was also connected with the distribution of charities - both cash and land grants.
• Initially, he was also the head of the judicial department (chief qazi) and supervised the appointment
of qazis and muftis. However, under Aurangzeb, the post of the chief qazi (qazi-ul quzzat) and the Sadr-
us Sudur got separated. Now, in the capacity of sadr, he supervised the assignment of allowances and
looked after the charitable grants.

Provincial Administration
• In 1580, Akbar divided the Empire into twelve subas or provinces. Later, three more were added. These
provinces were kept under the governors or subadars directly appointed by the emperor.

515
• Among the duties of the subadar, the most important one was to look after the welfare of the people
and the army. He was responsible for maintaining the law and order in the suba.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The division of functions established at the centre was replicated in the provinces (subas) where the
ministers had their corresponding subordinates (diwan, bakhshi and sadr).
 Subadar: The head of the provincial administration was the governor (subadar), who reported di-
rectly to the emperor.
 Diwan: The provincial diwan was appointed by the emperor. He was an independent officer answer-
able to the Centre. He was the head of the revenue department in the suba.
 Bakhshi: The bakhshi was appointed by the imperial court at the recommendation of the mir bakhshi.
He performed the same military functions as his counterpart at the Centre.
Provincial Administration

Administrative Unit Head

Suba (province) Nizam/subedar (governor) and Diwan (revenue officer)
Sarkar Fauzdar (administrative head) and Amal or Amalguzar (Revenue collector)
Pargana (sub-district) Shiqdar (executive officer) and Amil
Grama (villege) Muqaddam (Village head) and Patwari (Accountant)
• The Mughal Empire was divided into a number of Subas (provinces) placed under Nizam/subedar and
Diwan. There were 15 Subas during Akbar's reign, which later increased to 22 under Aurangzeb's reign.
• Each Suba was divided into a number of sarkars placed under the charge of the Fauzdar (administrative
head) and Amal (Revenue collector).
• Each Sarkar was divided into a number of Parganas placed under shiqdar (executive officer) and assisted
by the amils in revenue collection.
 At the level of the pargana (sub-district), there were three semi-hereditary officers: the qanungo
(keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection) and the qazi.
• Several Gramas (villages) comprised a pargana. Each village was placed under a muqadam (head) and
patwari (accountant).

Division of Land
• During this period, the land was also divided into:
1. Khalisah (Crown’s land): The revenue from Khalisah land went to the state treasury.
2. Jagir: It was a piece of land assigned to Mughal officials (Jagirdar). The revenue from Jagir went to
the Jagirdar for their services to the state.
3. Inams: Gifted lands

Land Revenue Administration

• The main source of income available to Mughal rulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry. In most

516
places, peasants paid taxes through the rural elites, that is, the headman or the local chieftain.
• The Mughals used one term, zamindars, to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local headmen
of villages or powerful chieftains. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• In some areas, the zamindars exercised a great deal of power. The exploitation by Mughal administrators
could drive them to rebellion. Sometimes, zamindars and peasants of the same caste allied in rebelling
against Mughal authority. These peasant revolts challenged the stability of the Mughal Empire from the
end of the seventeenth century.
 Jama: Estimated revenue or the revenue after assessment
 Hasil: Actual amount collected

Zabt
• Akbar made some changes to the administration of land revenue.
• Akbar's revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop yields, prices and areas culti-
vated for a 10-year period, 1570- 1580. Based on this data, the tax was fixed on each crop in cash.
• Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual
crops. This revenue system was known as zabt. It was prevalent in those areas where Mughal adminis-
trators could survey the land and keep very careful accounts. This was not possible in provinces such as
Gujarat and Bengal.

Akbar's classification of land for revenue assessment

• Akbar classified land into four types and fixed different amounts of revenue to be paid by each.
1. Polaj: Cultivated annually without being left fallow.
2. Parauti: Temporarily left uncultivated to regain fertility.
3. Chachar: Left fallow for three to four years.
4. Banjar: Uncultivated for five or more years.
• The first two types were further divided into good, middling, and bad. Their average yield was calculated,
and one-third of it was collected as royal revenue.

Mansabdari System
• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari System. The term mansab means a position or rank.
• Akbar could not have expanded his empire and maintained his hold over it without a strong army. For
this purpose, it was necessary for him to organise the nobility as well as his army. Akbar realised both
these objectives through the mansabdari system.
• Under the Mansabdari System, every government officer (civil or military) was assigned a rank. The lowest
rank was 10, and the highest was 5000 for the nobles.
 Princes of the blood received higher mansabs. Towards the end of Akbar's reign, the highest rank a
noble could attain was raised from 5000 to 7000, and two premier nobles of the empire, Mirza Aziz
Koka and Raja Man Singh, were honoured with the rank of 7000 each.

517
• The ranks were divided into two - zat and sawar.
1. Zat: The word zat means personal. It fixed the personal status of a person and also the salary due to
him. The higher the zat, the more prestigious the noble's position in court and the larger his salary.
2. Sawar: The sawar rank indicated the number of horsemen or cavalrymen (sawars) a person was PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

required to maintain.

Key Characteristics

• Mansabdari System was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military respon-
sibilities.
• The salary of a Mansabdar was fixed in cash but was paid either in cash or by assigning him a jagir (an
estate from which he could collect money in lieu of his salary), which was subjected to regular transfers.
The system of assigning jagir (land) in proportion to his salary is also called the Jagirdari system.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary.
• Granting of mansab was a prerogative of the emperor. All appointments, promotions, and dismissals were
directly made by the emperor.

Three Categories of Mansab

• There were three categories in every rank (mansab):

1. First Category: A person who was required to maintain as many sawars as his zat rank
2. Second Category: A person who was required to maintain half or more sawars as his zat rank
3. Third Category: A person who was required to maintain less than half sawars as his zat rank

Nomenclature under the Mansabdari System

 Mansabdars: Persons holding ranks below 500 zat.

 Amirs: Persons holding ranks 500 to below 2500 zat.
 Amir-i-umda or Umda-i- azam: Persons holding ranks 2500 and above zat.
However, the word mansabdar is sometimes used for all the three categories.

Appointment and Promotion of Mansabdars

• The mir bakhshi generally presented the candidates to the Emperor, who recruited them directly. How-
ever, a person wishing to join the service can petition through a noble who presented a tajwiz to the
emperor. The recommendations of the leading nobles and governors of the provinces were also usually
accepted. An elaborate procedure involving the diwan, bakhshi and others followed, after which it went
to the Emperor for confirmation. The farman was then issued under the seal of the wazir. In the case of
promotion, the same procedures were followed.

Jagirdari System
• The Jagirdari System of Mughals modified the Iqta system of Delhi Sultans.
• Under the Jagirdari System, the land (jagir) was assigned to the official in lieu of his salary. However, it
was not land that was assigned, but the income/ revenue from the land was given to the jagirdars. The

518
jagirdar was allowed to collect only authorised revenue in accordance with the Imperial regulations. He
employed his officials who acted on his behalf.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Types of Jagirs

• There were generally four types of revenue assignments:

Tankha Jagirs • Jagirs given in lieu of salaries.
• These were transferable every three or four years
Mashrut Jagirs • Jagirs given to a person on certain conditions
Inam Jagirs • Jagirs, which involved no obligation of service and were independent of rank
Watan jagirs • Jagirs, which were assigned to zamindars
 • Watan jagirs were hereditary and non-transferable
• When a zamindar was made a mansabdar, he was given tankha jagir, apart from his
watan jagir.
• Under Jahangir, some Muslim nobles were given jagirs resembling watan jagir,
called Altamgha jagir.
• Since jagirs were granted in place of a salary for state service, they reverted to the state upon the hold-
er's death. However, jagirs given to zamindars were hereditary, as zamindars had traditional rights over
the produce of the land.

Jagir Crisis and Its Impact on Peasantry

• During Akbar's reign, jagirs were carefully assessed to match the mansabdar's salary. However, by
Aurangzeb's time, this system had deteriorated. The revenue collected from jagirs was often less than the
assigned amount, and the number of mansabdars had significantly increased, causing delays in their
jagir allotment. Due to this shortage, many jagirdars tried to extract as much revenue as possible while
they had a jagir. Aurangzeb was unable to control these developments in the last years of his reign, and
the peasantry, therefore, suffered tremendously.

The Zamindars
• During the Mughal period, zamindars had hereditary rights over the produce of the land. They were
present in every part of the Mughal Empire and held the most significant position in the agrarian structure
of Mughal India.
• During the pre-Mughal period, the word zamindar was used to refer to the chief of a territory. From
Akbar's time onwards, this term was officially used for any person with any hereditary claim to a direct
share in the peasant's produce. However, zamindari did not mean land ownership — it was a claim
on the produce, existing alongside the state's land revenue demands. Yet, zamindari rights could be
bought, sold, inherited, and divided like private property.
• Zamindars acquired their rights through long-standing control over villages. Sometimes, they had settled

519
these villages and distributed land to the peasants. These rights existed before Mughal rule and were not
created by the state.
• Medieval rulers acknowledged zamindari rights but insisted on treating them as government agents for PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
revenue collection. This assists the government in collecting land revenue. In return for their service (khid-
mat), zamindars received 10% of the total revenue, known as nankar (allowance). If the government
collected revenue directly, zamindars would still be entitled to 10% of the revenue as nankar.
• The king, however, could create zamindari in villages where none existed. He could also dislodge a za-
mindar, but this was a right he exercised only in case of sedition or non-payment of revenue.
• The zamindars also held extensive personal lands called milkiyat, meaning property. Milkiyat lands were
cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or servile labour. The zamindars
could sell, bequeath or mortgage these lands at will.
Military Strength of Zamindars

• Most zamindars had fortresses (qilachas) as well as an armed contingent comprising units of cavalry,
artillery and infantry. These troops helped them in the realisation of land revenue and subjugation of the
peasantry.
• According to the Ain-i Akbari, the combined military strength of the zamindars in Mughal India was
384,558 cavalry, 4,277,057 infantry, 1,863 elephants, 4,260 cannons, and 4,500 boats.

Zamindars: Exploiters or Protectors?

• Although zamindars were exploitative, their relationship with the peasantry also involved reciprocity,
paternalism and patronage. Two points support this view.
1. Bhakti saints, who strongly opposed caste and other forms of oppression, did not consider zamin-
dars or moneylenders as oppressors. Instead, they blamed state revenue officials.
2. In many agrarian uprisings in North India in the 17th century, peasants sided with zamindars against
the state.

[UPSC CSE 2021] With reference to medieval India, which one of the following is the correct
sequence in ascending order in terms of size?
a) Paragana-Sarkar-Suba
b) Sarkar-Paragana-Suba
c) Suba-Sarkar-Paragana
d) Paragana-Suba-Sarkar
Ans: Paragana-Sarkar-Suba

[UPSC CSE 2019] With reference to Mughal India, what is/ are the difference/differences
between Jagirdar and Zamindar?
1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars
were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collec-

520
tion.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not heredi-

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

tary.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
Ans: Neither 1 nor 2

24.5. Jahangir (1605 – 1627 CE)

• After the death of Akbar in 1605, his son Salim (son of Jodha Bai), with the title Nur-ud-din Jahangir,
succeeded him. Jahangir succeeded to the throne without any difficulty because his younger brothers
died during the lifetime of Akbar due to excessive drinking.
• However, shortly after Jahangir's succession, his eldest son, Khusrau, rebelled. Khusrau's rebellion proved
to be short-lived. Jahangir defeated him at a battle near Lahore, and soon afterwards, he was captured
and imprisoned. Guru Arjan, the Sikh Guru, was also arrested under the orders of the Mughal Emperor
Jahangir, who accused him of supporting a rebellion under Khusrau Mirza. He was asked to convert him-
self to Islam. When he refused, he was tortured and executed in 1606 CE.
• Captain Hawkins (1615 CE) and Thomas Roe (1615 CE) visited Jahangir's court to secure trading conces-
sions. Sir Thomas Roe successfully obtained an Imperial Farman that allowed them to trade and establish
factories throughout the Mughal Empire.
• In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa, the widow of Sher Afghan, a Persian nobleman of Bengal. Later,
she was given the title Nurjahan (Light of World). Nurjahan exercised great influence over state affairs.
She dominated the royal household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She encouraged
Persian art and culture in the court.
• Jahangir issued silver coins bearing his own titles on one side and on the other, the inscription “struck in
the name of Queen Begum, Nur Jahan.”
• Military campaigns started by Akbar continued during the Jahangir's reign.
1. In 1613, Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to Shah Abbas's court to argue the Mughal case for retain-
ing Qandahar, but the mission failed. In 1622, a Persian army besieged Qandahar. The ill-prepared
Mughal garrison was defeated, and the fortress and the city were surrendered to the Safavids.
2. In 1615, the Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service.
3. In 1616, the Mughal army defeated the combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda with
the help of Maratha sardars.
However, Jahangir's campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar were less successful
• In 1622, Prince Khurram (Shahajahan) rose in revolt. Some historians believe that he rebelled because

521
of Nur Jahan’s intrigues. However, some other historians do not accept this view.
• The immediate reason for the revolt was Jahangir’s order to Shah Jahan to go to Kandahar. This re-
bellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years. After Jahangir's death in 1627, Shah Jahan PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
reached Agra with the support of the nobles and the army. Nur Jahan was given a pension and lived a
retired life till her death eighteen years later.
Title Meaning
Shahenshah King of Kings
Jahangir World-Seizer
Shah Jahan King of the World
Alamgir World-conqueror
Art and Architecture
Architecture
• During Jahangir's reign, architecture took a lesser priority as he devoted more attention to painting
and other art forms.
 Akbar's tomb at Sikandra, a suburb of Agra, was completed by Jahangir (Akbar himself probably
started the construction). It was constructed mainly from a deep red sandstone, enriched with fea-
tures in white marble.
 Jahangir constructed the Moti Masjid at Lahore.
 Nurjahan constructed the tomb of Imad-ud-daulah (her father). It is known for the use of pietra-
dura.

Mughal Miniature Painting

• During the Mughal period, miniature painting flourished as a distinct art form. These are small-sized
paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures were on palm leaves
or wood. Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts.
• The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters who primarily
illustrated manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry. These were generally painted in brilliant
colours and portrayed court scenes, scenes of battle or hunting, and other aspects of social life. They
were often exchanged as gifts and were viewed only by an exclusive few - the emperor and his close
associates.

Evolution of Mughal Miniature Painting: Akbar vs. Jahangir

• Akbar had formalised the Mughal miniature style and set standards, which were further taken to new
heights by his son Jahangir (1605–1627).
• While Akbar’s court paintings emphasised grand political and religious themes, Jahangir’s artistic vision
was more personal, focusing on realism, nature, and intricate details.

522
• Unlike Akbar, who commissioned mass-produced works created by teams of artists, Jahangir preferred
fewer but higher-quality masterpieces, often painted by a single artist. His keen eye for detail led to the
development of a more naturalistic and scientifically accurate painting style. The curiosity and admiration PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
he had for nature, people, and the world around him were reflected in the works he patronised.
• Jahangir employed Aqa Riza, a well-known Iranian painter and his son Abul Hasan to achieve unparal-
leled sophistication in painting. He also employed Nadir ul Asr (Ustad Mansur, a title received from
Jahangir), Bishan Das, Manohar, Govardhan and Manohar.
• Under Jahangir, Muraqqas—albums of individual paintings—became highly popular. These paintings
featured elaborate gold-illuminated margins, often adorned with flora, fauna, and lifelike human figures.
The grand battle scenes, narrative storytelling, and vibrant compositions of Akbar’s era gave way to re-
fined court portraits, aristocratic elegance, and an emphasis on individual character and expression.
Key Differences Between Akbar and Jahangir’s Artistic Patronage

Aspect Akbar Jahangir

Theme Political and religious aspects Nature, realism, aristocracy, and fine details
Production Mass production by teams of artists Fewer, high-quality works by master artists
Popular Large-scale manuscripts and illustrated Individual paintings in albums with gold-illumi-
Works stories nated margins

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri
• Jahangir wrote his memoir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Jahangir Nama) in Persian .
• Jahangir described the Chain of Justice in Jahangir Nama: After my accession, the first order that I gave
was for the fastening up of the Chain of Justice, so that if those engaged in the administration of justice
should delay or practise hypocrisy in the matter of those seeking justice, the oppressed might come to
this chain and shake it so that its noise might attract attention. The chain was made of pure gold, 30 gaz
in length and containing 60 bells.
• Emperor Jahangir wrote in Jahangir Nama that the Banjaras carried grain on their bullocks from dif-
ferent areas and sold it in towns. They also supplied food grain to the Mughal army during military
campaigns. In large armies, up to 100,000 bullocks could be used for transport.

[UPSC CSE 2016] Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illus-
trated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?
a) Humayun
b) Akbar
c) Jahangir
d) Shah Jahan
Ans: Jahangir

The Banjaras

523
• The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads in the Medieval period. Their caravan was called
tanda.
• Sultan Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Peter Mundy, an English trader who visited India in the early 17th century, described the Banjaras as mobile
traders and transporters. He encountered a tanda (caravan) of 14,000 oxen carrying grains like wheat
and rice. These Banjaras carry their household - wives and children- along with them. One tanda consists
of many families. The Banjaras owned their oxen and operated as independent merchants (sometimes
hired by merchants). They bought grain where it was cheap and sold it where it was expensive, sometimes
transporting other goods for profit. A tanda could have 600–700 people, moving 6–7 miles a day, allowing
their oxen to graze freely along the way.
 [UPSC CSE 2016] Banjaras during the medieval period of Indian history were generally:
a) Agriculturists
b) Warriors
c) Weavers
d) Traders
Ans: Traders

24.6. Shah Jahan (1627 – 1658 CE)

• Shah Jahan, a son of Jahangir, ascended the throne in 1627 after Jahangir's death.
• Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and other
ancestral lands. However, his campaigns in the northwest were not successful. The Mughal army lost more
than five thousand lives during the successive invasions between 1639 and 1647.
 In 1638, Shah Jahan annexed Kandahar (conquered by Akbar and lost by Jahangir). However, in 1647,
he lost it to the Safavids.
 In 1647, Shah Jahan sent the army to seize Balkh from the Uzbegs. However, it was unsuccessful.
• Shah Jahan's Deccan policy was more successful:
 In 1632, he defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it.
 In 1636, Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor and accepted his suzerainty.
• A contemporary of Louis XIV of France, Shah Jahan ruled for thirty years. In his reign, the famous Peacock
Throne was made for the King.
• In 1657-1658, there was a conflict over succession among Shah Jahan's four sons. Finally, Aurangzeb
was victorious, and his three brothers, including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah
Jahan and crowned himself as the Mughal emperor. Shah Jahan died as a royal prisoner in January 1666.

Problem of Succession

524
• The Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture, where the eldest son inherited his father's
estate. Instead, they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, or a division
of the inheritance amongst all the sons.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Mughal marriages with the Rajputs
• Jodha Bai: The mother of Jahangir. A Kachhwaha princess and daughter of Raja Bhar Mal, the Rajput
ruler of Amber (modern-day Jaipur).
• Jagat Gosain: The mother of Shah Jahan. A Rathor princess and daughter of Raja Udai Singh, the
Rajput ruler of Marwar (Jodhpur).

Foreign Travellers
• Europeans such as Francois Bernier (a French physician and traveller), Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (a French
gem merchant and traveller), Mandelslo (a German adventurer and traveller), Peter Mundy (an English
Trader), and Manucci (an Italian writer and traveller) visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan and left
detailed accounts of the country.
European Traveller Key Points
Francois Bernier • A French physician, political philosopher and historian.
• He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668, during the reign of Shah
Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• He was closely associated with the Mughal court as a physician to Prince Dara
Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and
scientist with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
Jean-Baptiste Taver- • A French gem merchant and traveller
nier • He travelled to India at least six times during the reign of Shah Jahan and
Aurangzeb.
Mandelslo • A German adventurer and traveller
• He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
Peter Mundy • An English Trader
• He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
• He described the Banjaras.
Manucci • An Italian writer and traveller.
• Came to India during the reign of Shah Jahan. He never returned to Europe
and settled down in India.

Art and Architecture

Architecture
During Shah Jahan’s reign, the different elements of Mughal architecture fused together in a grand, har-

525
•
monious synthesis. His reign witnessed extensive construction activity, especially in Agra and Delhi.
• The chronicler of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan declared that the ruler was the “architect of the work-
shop of empire and religion.” PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Shah Jahan started building the Taj Mahal in 1631, by the side of the Yamuna in Agra. It was built to
immortalise his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1631. Ustad Ahmad Lahori designed the Taj Mahal.
• In 1638, Shahjahan transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi and laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad.
• In 1639, Shah Jahan commissioned the construction of Lal-Qila, or the Red Fort, with Diwan-i-‘ Am (‘Hall
of Public Audience’) and Diwan-i-Khass (‘Hall of Private Audience’) in Shahjahanabad. The ceremonial
halls of public and private audiences were placed within a large courtyard.
 Shah Jahan’s Audience Halls
• Shah Jahan designed his audience halls to resemble a mosque, reinforcing the idea of the emperor as
God's representative on earth. His throne was placed on a pedestal often described as the qibla —
the direction Muslims face in prayer — symbolising his central role in the court.
• In the Red Fort at Delhi, Shah Jahan emphasised the link between royal justice and the imperial court.
Behind his throne, pietra dura inlays depicted the Greek god Orpheus playing the lute, a symbol of
harmony and peace. According to legend, Orpheus’s music could tame wild animals, bringing them
together in unity. Similarly, Shah Jahan's court aimed to represent a just and balanced rule, where all,
regardless of status, were treated equally, fostering harmony in the empire.
• In 1644, Shahjahan commenced his great mosque in Delhi, the Jami Masjid and completed it in 1650.
• Shah Jahan also built Moti Masjid in Agra Fort and Shalimar Bagh in Lahore.

Badshah Nama
• The Padshahnama, or Badshah Nama, is the official chronicle of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan’s reign.
Modelled on the Akbar Nama, it was written in three volumes (daftars), each covering ten lunar years.
• Abdul Hamid Lahori, commissioned by Shah Jahan, authored the first two volumes comprising the first
two decades of the emperor's rule (1627–1647). These were later revised by Sadullah Khan, Shah Jahan's
wazir. Due to old age, Lahori could not complete the third volume, which was then written by historian
Waris.
• During British rule, administrators studied Indian history to understand the subcontinent better. The Asi-
atic Society of Bengal, founded by Sir William Jones in 1784, played a key role in editing, printing, and
translating Indian manuscripts.
• The Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were first published in edited versions in the 19th century. While
Henry Beveridge translated the Akbar Nama into English in the early 20th century, only excerpts of the
Badshah Nama have been translated so far, with the complete text still awaiting translation.

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 During the reign of Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavadgita into Persian.

24.7. Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707 CE)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Aurangzeb (Alamgir - World Conqueror) ascended the throne in 1658 after getting rid of all the compet-
itors for the throne, Dara Shukoh, Shuja and Murad, in a war of succession.
• Aurangzeb inherited a large empire. He also adopted a policy of expansion. During his reign, the Mughal
Empire to its greatest territorial extent, making the Mughal Empire the largest state in Indian history
until the rise of British rule.
• His reign of fifty years falls into two parts:
1. During the first twenty-five years, he resided in the north, chiefly at Delhi, and personally occupied
himself with the affairs of northern India, leaving the Deccan in the hands of his viceroys.
 2. Around 1682, Aurangzeb went to the Deccan and never returned to Delhi, dying disappointed at
Ahmednagar (present-day Ahilyanagar) in 1707.

North India
• In the north, there were three major uprisings against Aurangzeb. The Jats (Mathura district), the Sat-
namis (Haryana region), and the Sikhs rebelled against Aurangzeb.
1. Jat Rebellion (1669): The Jats of the Agra-Delhi region, mostly peasant cultivators, rebelled against the
Mughals over the collection of land revenue. In a stiff battle, the Jats were defeated, and their leader,
Gokla, was captured and executed. However, the movement was not completely crushed, and several
uprisings occurred after this. In one of such uprisings in 1685, the Jats put up stiff resistance, but by 1691,
Rajaram and his successor, Churaman, were compelled to submit. Later, in the eighteenth century, taking
advantage of Mughal civil wars and weakness in the central government, the Jats established a regional
kingdom.
2. The Satnamis Revolt was crushed with the help of local Hindu zamindars.
3. The Sikh Rebellion erupted due to the political intrigues of Ram Rai, a claimant for the position of Sikh
Guru, against the incumbent Guru Tegh Bahadur. This finally ended with the execution of Guru Tegh
Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru. The execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur forced the Sikhs to go back to the
Punjab hills. It also led to the Sikh movement gradually turning into a military brotherhood. Guru Govind
Singh made a major contribution to this sphere. He founded the military brotherhood or the Khalsa
Panth (army of the pure) in 1699.

Northeastern India
• In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663 but rebelled again in the 1680s.
 In 1662, Mir Jumla (governor of Bengal) led a successful expedition against the Ahoms but suffered
heavy losses and died in 1663. In 1664, Shaista Khan (governor of Bengal) captured Sondip and
Chittagong, curbing Arakanese pirates.

527
 However, Mughal control over Assam was short-lived. By 1680, the Ahoms recaptured Kamrupa, end-
ing Mughal rule in the region.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Relation with Rajputs
• The death of Jaswant Singh of Marwar brought about a succession issue. The Rajput queen, Rani Hadi,
wife of Raja Jaswant Singh, resented the move of Aurangzeb to install Indra Singh, a grandnephew of
Jaswant Singh, a titular chief of the state. This led to a revolt with the help of Rathor Rajputs, but it was
effectively put down.
• The Rana of Mewar, Rana Raj Singh, resenting the interference of Aurangzeb in the affairs of Marwar,
rose in revolt, and Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb, supported him. However, the Rana
could not match the Mughal forces and fought guerrilla warfare till his death in 1680. In 1681, Rana Jai
Singh, the new Rana of Mewar, signed a peace treaty with Aurangzeb.
Deccan Policy
• During Shah Jahan's reign, Aurangazeb, as a governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy.
When he became the Mughal emperor, he concentrated on the northwest frontier for the first twenty-
five years.
• At that time, the Maratha ruler, Chhatrapati Sivaji Maharaj, carved out an independent Maratha king-
dom in the territories of north and south Konkan.
• The Marathas under Sivaji Maharaj were a threat to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb sent two of his great generals,
Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, one after the other, to capture Shivaji Maharaj. Jai Singh captured Shivaji
Maharaj and took him to Delhi, but Shivaji Maharaj managed to escape to the Deccan. Shivaji Maharaj,
employing guerrilla tactics, defied the Mughal forces until his death in 1680. After the death of Shivaji
Maharaj, his son, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, continued the rebellion.
• To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangzeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda. Aurangzeb
annexed Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687. From 1698, Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns
in the Deccan against the Marathas.
 In 1681, Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the Marathas and the
Deccan Sultanate.

Religious Policy
• Aurangzeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim. His idea was to transform India into an Islamic state.
He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called Muhtasib.
• Initially, Aurangzeb banned the construction of new Hindu temples and the repair of old temples. Then
he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. He reimposed jiziya and the pilgrim tax.
• Aurangzeb was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram was stopped. His
invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith. He was also against
the Sikhs, and he executed the Guru Tegh Bahadur.
Aurangzeb's religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and the Sikhs into the

528
•
enemies of the Mughal Empire. It also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis
of Mewar. Therefore, Aurangzeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Personality and Character of Aurangzeb
• In his private life, Aurangzeb was industrious and disciplined. He was very simple in food and dress. He
earned money for his personal expenses by copying the Quran and selling those copies. He did not
consume wine. He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages. He was a lover of books.
He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed the Ramzan
fasting.
• Aurangzeb was a staunch and orthodox Sunni Muslim. His narrow-minded and intolerant religious pol-
icy was not successful. His move to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a
 failure. His antagonistic policies toward non-Muslims did not help him rally the Muslims to his side, but
they strengthened the political enemies of the Mughal Empire.
• Aurangzeb’s final years were marked by hardship and loneliness during his Deccan campaign. He died
in Ahmadnagar in 1707 at the age of 88.
• Aurangzeb was buried in an unmarked grave at the dargah of Sheikh Zainuddin in Khuldabad,
Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar district (Formerly Aurangabad), Maharashtra, Maharashtra. He wished for a
simple burial. His grave remained unembellished until British Viceroy Lord Curzon had it ‘beautified.’
In the same complex near the shrine of Sheikh Zainuddin is also buried one of Aurangzeb’s sons, and
later, the first Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I, and his son Nasir Jung.

24.8. Later Mughal Emperors

Bahadur Shah (Shah Alam I) (1707-12)

• On Aurangzeb’s death, his three sons fought among themselves for the throne, and Azam Shah became
the Mughal Emperor for three months. Finally, the 65-year-old Bahadur Shah emerged victorious and
became emperor from 1707-12.
• Bahadur Shah reversed some of the narrow-minded policies and measures adopted by Aurangzeb.
 He adopted a policy of religious tolerance. There was no destruction of temples in his reign.
 He followed a policy of compromise and conciliation with other rulers.
• During his reign, the administration further deteriorated. The position of state finances worsened be-
cause of his reckless grants of jagirs and promotions.
 A jagir was a piece of land assigned to Mughal officials (Jagirdar). The revenue from Jagir went to the
Jagirdar (not the state) for their services to the state.

Policy with Other Rulers

• Rajput: In the beginning, Bahadur Shah tried to gain greater control over the Rajput states but later
adopted a policy of conciliation.

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• Sikh: Bahadur Shah had tried to conciliate the rebellious Sikhs by making peace with Guru Gobind Singh
and giving him a high Mansab (rank). After the Guru’s death, he took strong measures and led a campaign
against the rebel Banda Bahadur. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Guru Gobind Singh (1664-1708)

• Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth and last Guru of the Sikhs. In the late seventeenth century, he laid
the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure).
• After his death, the institution of Guruship came to an end, and the leadership of the Sikhs was passed
to his trusted disciple Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur).
• Maratha: Bahadur Shah’s policy towards the Maratha sardars (chiefs) was a half-hearted conciliation.
  He granted them the Sardeshmukhi (one-tenth of the revenue) of the Deccan but didn’t grant the
Chauth (one-fourth of the revenue).
 He also did not recognise Shahu as the rightful Maratha King. Thus, he let Tara Bai and Shahu
fight for supremacy over the Maratha Kingdom.

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

• After the death of Bahadur Shah in 1712, the Empire plunged into civil war again. During this time, a
new element entered in Mughal politics. Instead of just royal princes, ambitious nobles became the
direct contenders for power. They used princes as tools to seize authority.
• In the civil war following Bahadur Shah's death, Jahandar Shah won because he was supported by Zulfiqar
Khan, the most powerful noble of the time.
• During Jahandar Shah’s reign, the administration was virtually in the hands of Zulfiqar Khan, who had
become his wazir (Prime Minister).

Zulfiqar Khan
• Zulfiqar Khan rapidly reversed Aurangzeb’s policies.
 He abolished the Jizyah.
 He conciliated the Rajput rajas and the Maratha sardars. Only towards Banda Bahadur and the Sikhs
did he continue the old policy of suppression.
• During Zulfiqar Khan’s reign, the administration further deteriorated.
 He tried to improve the finances of the Empire:
 He checked the expansion of the Jagir system.
• He started the Ijarah system of land revenue collection.

Ijarah system

• Under this system, the government contracted with revenue farmers or middlemen to collect the land
revenue. Revenue farmers paid a fixed amount to the government but were allowed to collect as much

530
as they wanted from peasants. In the long run, this system decreased the government's revenue and
increased peasants' oppression.
 The Ijarah System (a lease or contract for paying a fixed amount to the treasury) method of revenue PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
collection was used by Delhi sultans.
 It was abandoned by Sher Shah and Akbar but was revived during Jahangir's reign.
 It was widespread in 17th and 18th century polities and was initially even used by the "Company's"
administrators.

Policy with Maratha Rulers

• In 1711, Daud Khan Panni (deputy governor of Deccan) concluded an agreement with Maratha King
Shahu, and Zulfiqar Khan confirmed the agreement. This agreement gave the Maratha ruler the right to
 collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of Deccan. However, Mughal officials would collect these taxes and
transfer them to the Marathas.

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

• In 1713, Jahandar Shah was defeated by his nephew, Farrukh Siyar. The victory was mainly due to the
support of the Saiyid brothers, Abdullah Khan and Husain Ali Khan Baraha. Abdullah Khan (the elder
brother) was appointed as the Wazir, and Husain Ali Khan (the younger brother) was appointed as the
Mir Bakshi.
 Mir Bakshi (Bakhshi) was the head of the military department in the Mughal period.
• Farrukh Siyar defeated the Banda Bahadur in 1715 and was put to death in 1716. The Saiyid brothers
soon acquired dominant control over the affairs of the state, but Farrukh Siyar wanted to exercise personal
authority. Thus, there was a power struggle between the Farrukh Siyar and Saiyid brothers.
• In the end, in 1719, the Saiyid brothers deposed and killed the emperor with the help of Balaji
Vishwanath (Peshwa). This was the first time in Mughal history that an emperor was killed by a noble.
• In Farrukh Siyar's place, the Saiyid brothers raised two young princes to the throne, who died of con-
sumption. The Saiyid brothers now made the 18-year-old Muhammad Shah the Emperor of India. The
three successors of Farrukh Siyar were mere puppets.

Saiyid Brothers (King Makers) (1713-20)

• Saiyid brothers adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Jizyah was abolished after Farrukh Siyar ac-
ceded to the throne. The Pilgrim tax was abolished in several places. They conciliated with the Rajputs
and the Marathas.
• Administration was further deteriorated and paralysed at all levels. Lawlessness and disorder spread eve-
rywhere. The financial position of the state deteriorated rapidly. As a result, the salaries of the officials
and soldiers could not be paid regularly.

Policy with Maratha Rulers

531
• Saiyid brothers signed an agreement with King Shahu. Shahu was given:
 Swarajya (All the territories that were once part of Shivaji's kingdom).
 Right to collect the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan (Aurangabad, Berar, PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Bidar, Bijapur, Hyderabad and Khandesh).
• In return, Shahu agreed:
 To pay an annual tribute of 10 lakh rupees.
 To support them in the Deccan with 15,000 soldiers.
 To prevent rebellion and plundering in the Deccan.

End of King Makers

• A group of nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk were jealous of the growing powers of the Saiyid brothers
and began to conspire against them. These nobles declared that the Saiyids were following anti-Mughal
and anti-Islamic policies.
• Emperor Muhammad Shah supported these nobles because he wanted to free himself from the control
of the two brothers. In 1720, they assassinated Husain Ali Khan, the younger of the two brothers. Abdullah
Khan tried to fight back but was defeated near Agra.

Muhammad Shah (1719-48)

• At the beginning of Muhammad Shah’s rule:
 The people still respected the Mughal rulers.
 The Mughal army, especially their artillery, was still strong.
 The administration in North India was getting worse but not completely collapsed.
 The Maratha leaders were still confined to the South, and the Rajput rulers were still loyal to the
Mughal dynasty.
• Muhammad Shah was named ‘Rangeela’ due to his luxurious lifestyle. His long rule of nearly thirty years
was the last chance to save the Empire. But he was not the man of the moment. Instead of supporting
able wazirs such as Nizam-ul-Mulk, he fell under the evil influence of corrupt and worthless nobles.
• Nizam-ul-Mulk had become the wazir in 1722 and vigorously attempted to reform the administration. As
Muhammad Shah consistently obstructed his efforts, he gave up his office and established the state of
Hyderabad in the Deccan. His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire.
• With this, the physical break-up of the Mughal Empire had begun. Many strong nobles started creating
their own independent states, such as Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal; however, they still owed loyalty to
the emperor in Delhi.

Ahmad Shah (1748-1754)

• Ahmad Shah Bahadur was the fourteenth Mughal emperor. He inherited a much weakened Mughal state
for six years (1748-54).

532
• Ahmad Shah Bahadur was an ineffective ruler and was strongly influenced by his mother, Udham Bai
(Queen Mother). During his rule, the administration was in the hands of Udham Bai, who ruled the state
with the help of her paramour, Javed Khan. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Ahmad Shah’s administrative weakness led to the rise of the Wazir, Imad-ul-Mulk (1754-60).
• In 1754, Imad-ul-Mulk deposed Ahmad Shah Bahadur and later blinded him and his mother. Ahmad Shah
Bahadur spent the remaining years in prison and died in 1775.

Alamgir II (1754-1759)
• The 55-year-old prince, Aziz-ud-Din, had been in prison since 1714 when his father, emperor Jahandar
Shah, was overthrown by Farrukhsiyar. Imad-ul-Mulk released him from prison and crowned him emperor
with the regnal name Alamgir II.
• Alamgir II had no experience in administration or warfare. He was a puppet Mughal emperor with all
power vested with Imad-ul-Mulk.

Shah Alam II (1759-1806)

• Shah Alam II ascended the throne in 1759. He was a man of some ability and ample courage. But after
the foreign invasions, the empire was beyond redemption.
• In 1764, Shah Alam II joined Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal) and Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Avadh) in
declaring war upon the British East India Company (EIC). The British defeated Shah Alam II at the Battle
of Buxar.

Under the Maratha’s Protection

• According to the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Shah Alam II lived for six years at Allahabad as a pensioner
of the EIC. He left Allahabad in May 1771 and returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Mahadji
Scindia (Maratha Sardar).

Under the Protection of the British

• After the British defeated Daulat Rao Scindia (Maratha) in 1803, Shah Alam II again accepted British
protection. The Mughal emperor no longer possessed the military might to enforce his will, but he com-
manded respect as a dignified member of the House of Timur throughout the country. The nawabs and
subahdars still sought formal sanction from the emperor on their accession. They struck coins and read
the Khutba (Friday sermons) in his name.
• The British, not yet strong enough to claim sovereignty on their own, kept Shah Alam as a puppet till his
death. From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal Emperors were reduced to mere pensioners of foreign rule.

Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)

• Akbar Shah II was the nineteenth Mughal emperor from 1806 to 1837. He had limited real power due to
the growing influence of the British in India through the East India Company (EIC).

533
• During Akbar’s regime in 1835, the EIC discontinued calling itself a subject of the Mughal Emperor and
issuing coins in his name.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• Akbar II sent Ram Mohan Roy as an ambassador to Britain and gave him the title of Raja.
• Akbar II started the Hindu–Muslim unity festival 'Phool Walon Ki Sair'.

Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837-1857)

• Bahadur Shah II (Bahadur Shah Zafar) was the twentieth and last Mughal emperor from 1837 to 1857.
For most of his rule, he remained a pensioner of the East India Company.
• After the outbreak of the revolt of 1857, Bahadur Shah Zafar assumed the leadership of the Uprising as
the Emperor of Hindustan.
• When the Red Fort was captured by the British, Bahadur Shah Zafar was taken as a prisoner. Charged with
rebellion, treason and murder, Bahadur Zafar, along with his family, was transported to Rangoon, where
he died on 7 November 1862.
• With the British declaration of Queen Victoria on November 1, 1858, the Mughal Empire ended.

24.9. Foreign Invasions

Nadir Shah’s Invasion

Nadir Shah
• Nadir Shah founded the Afsharid dynasty of Iran (Persia). He ruled Iran from 1736 to 1747.
• By 1736, Nadir Shah gained control of most of present-day Afghanistan. He was assassinated in 1747 and
was succeeded by Ahmad Shah Durrani as the ruler of Afghanistan.

Invasion
• India’s wealth attracted Nadir Shah. Due to neglected defences on the northwest frontier of India, Nadir
Shah entered Indian territory without opposition in 1738.
• The armies of Nadir Shah and Muhammad Shah met at Karnal (Haryana) on 13 February 1739. Nadir
Shah defeated the Mughal army, captured the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, and plundered the
rich of Delhi. He carried away the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne of Shahjahan.
• Nadir Shah compelled Muhammad Shah to cede all the empire’s provinces west of the river Indus to him.
The loss of Kabul and the areas west of the Indus once again opened the empire to the threat of invasions
from the North-West.

Ahmed Shah Abdali’s invasions

• Ahmed Shah Abdali (Durrani) was one of the ablest generals of Nadir Shah. After the death of Nadir
Shah, Durrani established his rule over Afghanistan.
• Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded and plundered northern India eight times between 1748 and 1767. The

534
Mughals tried to buy peace in 1751-52 by ceding Punjab to him. Abdali captured Delhi in 1757 and left
behind an Afghan caretaker to watch over the Mughal emperor. Before his return, Abdali recognised:
 Alamgir II as the Mughal emperor. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Najib-ud-Daulah (Rohilla Chief), as Mir Bakshi of the empire, was to act as Abdali’s personal ‘supreme
agent’.
• In 1758, Raghunath Rao (Maratha sardar):
 Expelled Najib-ud-Daulah from Delhi
 Captured Punjab.
• In 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali returned to India to take revenge on the Marathas. In 1761, Abdali defeated
the Marathas in the third Battle of Panipat and thus gave a big blow to their ambition of ruling over the
entire country. However, Abdali did not establish a new Afghan kingdom in India.
Effect of invasions
• The foreign invasions caused immense damage to the Mughal Empire in terms of prestige and finance.
• It ruined the empire's finances and the country’s economic life.
• The administration was paralysed. The impoverished nobles began oppressing the peasantry to recover
their lost fortunes.
• By 1761, the Mughal Empire had practically ceased to exist as an all-India Empire. It only remained as the
Kingdom of Delhi.

24.10. Decline of the Mughal Empire

535
During Aurangzeb's rule, the unity and stability of the empire experienced disruptions. However, by his
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
death in 1707:
 The Mughal administration remained efficient.
 The state's finances were better than the later period.
 The Mughal dynasty continued to hold respect within the country.
• After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughal Empire started declining and disintegrating in the first half of the
18th century.
 In 1724, the Wazir, Nizam-ul-Mulk, left his position and founded the state of Hyderabad.
  The physical break-up of the Mughal Empire began, and many strong nobles started creating their
own independent states; however, they still owed loyalty to the emperor in Delhi.
• In the second half of the 18th century, after the third battle of Panipat, the Mughal empire was reduced
to a few square miles around Delhi.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Delhi was occupied by the British and the Mughal Emperor was
reduced to the status of a mere pensioner of a foreign power. Finally, in 1857, Mughal rule was ended.

Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• The Mughal Empire ruled over a big part of India for nearly three centuries (1526-1857), but it was sig-
nificantly weakened by the first half of the 18th century. The decline of the Mughal empire was a long-
drawn-out process influenced by many factors. Some of the factors are:

Strong Rule of Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb was a strong ruler with remarkable ability. However, he lacked the necessary social, economic,
and political insight. The decline of the Mughal Empire started during his reign.

Policy of expansion

• Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy of expansion. He did not accept Maratha’s
demand for regional autonomy, even when it was difficult to rule the country under central political
authority. The administrative inconvenience encouraged local officials to defy central authority and
dream of independence.
• Aurangzeb's successors were not strong rulers to maintain the vast empire and suppress the challenges
posed by regional rulers. Hence, after the Aurangzeb’s death, many regional states emerged.

Campaign Against Maratha

• Aurangzeb's campaign against the Marathas extended over many years. This long campaign:
 Drained the resources of his Empire.

536
 Deteriorated the administration.
 Undermined the prestige of the Empire and its army.
 Led to his absence from northern India for over twenty-five years and the neglect of the northwest
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
frontier.
 Encouraged provincial and local officials to defy central authority.
 Ruined the trade and industry of the Deccan.

Religious Policy

• During the early Mughal rulers, the Mughal state was secular. Its stability was based on:
 The policy of non-interference with the religious beliefs of the people
 Fostering friendly relations between Hindus and Muslims
 Opening the doors of the highest offices of the state to nobles and chiefs from different regions.
• Aurangzeb's religious policy towards the Hindu rulers seriously damaged the stability of the Mughal
Empire.

Wars of succession
• In the absence of any fixed rule of succession, the Mughal dynasty was plagued by a civil war after the
death of a king. This resulted in significant loss of life and property and caused the nobility to transform
into warring factions.
• Many of the local chiefs and officials utilised the conditions to:
 Consolidate their own position.
 Acquire greater autonomy.
 Make their offices hereditary.

Personalities of Later Mughals

• In an autocratic, monarchical system of government, the character and personality of the ruler play a
crucial role.
• After Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperors were not very capable. They were more interested in luxury and
didn't have strong leadership qualities. As a result, they couldn't stop the gradual shifting of political and
economic authority into the hands of provincial governors.

Growing Selfishness of Nobles

• During the later Mughal period, the character of nobility declined. They became ease-loving and fond
of luxury. Their selfishness and lack of devotion to the states led to:
 Corruption in the administration.
 Forming groups and fighting each other to promote self-interest.
 Monopolising the office and making it hereditary: It closed the door of nobility to the able, efficient,
and strong person to rise to the ranks of nobility.

Collapse of Administration and Finance

537
• During the 18th century, the empire experienced a reduction in its territorial boundaries and witnessed
the collapse of its administrative structure. Corruption and bribery, indiscipline and inefficiency, disobe-
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
dience and disloyalty prevailed on a large scale among officials at all levels. Unruly zamindars openly
defied central authority.
• Emperors tried to appease nobles by awarding them jagirs from khalisah lands (crown lands). The reduced
Khalisah land resulted in a decline in the empire's revenue.
• During the 18th century, the Central Government was often on the verge of bankruptcy. The lack of finance
ultimately affected the strength of the military. The weakened military could not curb the ambitious no-
bles and defend the empire from foreign aggression.

Jagirdari Crisis
• Aurangzeb expanded the empire in Deccan. This led to a sudden increase in the number of nobles
(Jagirdars). This increase in the number of jagirdars and shortage of jagir (land assigned to Mughal offi-
cials) led to a crisis in the functioning of the Jagirdari system. The crisis in the Jagirdari system led to
the erosion of the political structure of the empire.

Consequences of the Jagirdari Crisis

 Nobles tried to maximise their jagir income, often at the expense of peasants.
 They attempted to make jagirs hereditary.
 They took Khalisah (crown lands) to cover their expenses, worsening the government's financial crisis.
 They reduced military spending by not maintaining their full quota of troops and thus weakened the
Empire's armed forces.

Agrarian Crisis
• The revenue collection system developed by the Mughals was fundamentally flawed. It harmed the
peasants and destroyed the revenue-paying capacity of the region.
• Because nobles' jagirs could transfer frequently, nobles:
 Didn't see the need for long-term agricultural planning.
 Aimed to extract as much as they could.
• Because of this, peasants had to protest against the exploitation. They did this in various ways.
 In many areas, the peasants left the land to avoid paying taxes.
 Sometimes, their discontent led to uprisings by groups like the Satnamies, Jats, and Sikhs. These re-
volts weakened the stability and strength of the empire.

External Challenges
• A series of foreign invasions gave the final blow to the Mughal Empire. Attacks by Nadir Shah and
Ahmad Shah Abdali:
 Drained the wealth of the Empire.

538
 Ruined its trade and industry in the North.
 Destroyed its military power.

Emergence of British PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• The emergence of the British challenge took away the last hope of the revival of the Mughal Empire.
The British who arrived in India had an advantage because they came from societies with more advanced
economic systems and greater progress in science and technology.
• After the collapse of the Mughal Empire, several independent states emerged in all parts of the Empire.
The Mughal Empire did not survive, but its institutions and traditions continued in the regional states and
British provinces.
24.11. Timeline 1

Mughal Emperor Rule

Babur 1526 – 1530 CE
Humayun 1530 – 1540 CE, 1555 – 1556
Sher Shah 1540 – 1555 CE
Akbar 1556 – 1605 CE
Jahangir 1605 – 1627 CE
Shah Jahan 1627 – 1658 CE
Aurangzeb 1658 – 1707 CE
Bahadur Shah 1707-12
Jahandar Shah 1712-13
Farrukh Siyar 1713-19
Muhammad Shah 1719-48
Ahmad Shah 1748-1754
Alamgir II 1754-1759
Shah Alam II 1759-1806
Akbar Shah II 1806-1837
Bahadur Shah Zafar 1837-1857

24.12. Timeline 2

Timeline Key Event

1526 Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi, the Delhi Sultan, at Panipat and becomes the first Mughal
emperor
1587 Gulbadan Begum begins to write the Humayun Nama

539
1589 Babur's memoir translated into Persian as Babur Nama
1589-1602 Abu'l Fazl works on the Akbar Nama
1605-22 Jahangir writes his memoirs, the Jahangir Nama PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
1639-47 Lahori composes the first two daftars of the Badshah Nama
с. 1650 Muhammad Waris begins to chronicle the third decade of Shah Jahan's reign
1668 Alamgir Nama, a history of the first ten years of Aurangzeb's reign compiled by Mu-
hammmad Kazim
1739 Nadir Shah invades India and sacks Delhi
1761 Ahmad Shah Abdali defeats the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat
1857 The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed by the British and exiled to Rangoon
(present-day Yangon, Myanmar)

24.13. Summary

Rise of the Mughal Empire

• Babur (1526-1530): Founded the empire after defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat
(1526). He consolidated his position through key battles like Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga and
Chanderi (1528) against the Rajputs.
• Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556): Struggled against Afghan rulers like Sher Shah Suri, lost the em-
pire in 1540, and regained it in 1555. Died in 1556.
• Sher Shah Suri (1540-1555): Although not a Mughal, he introduced significant administrative reforms,
including a revenue system, road networks, and the Rupia currency.
• Akbar (1556-1605) consolidated power through military conquests, introduced Sulh-i-Kul (universal
tolerance), and reformed the administration with the Mansabdari and Zabt revenue system.
• Jahangir (1605-1627): Known for his love of art and architecture. His wife, Nur Jahan, played a signif-
icant role in administration.
• Shah Jahan (1627-1658) built architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal but faced internal strife.
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707) expanded the empire to its largest extent but faced Rajput, Maratha, Sikh,
and Deccan resistance, leading to economic and administrative decline.

Decline of the Empire (1707-1857)

• After Aurangzeb’s death, weak rulers like Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah, and Muhammad Shah lost
control.
• Invasions by Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1761) weakened the empire further.
• Battle of Buxar (1764) forced Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II to accept British dominance.
The empire became a symbolic entity under British control until Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed after

540
•
the 1857 Revolt, marking the formal end of Mughal rule.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 25. The Marathas

• In the first half of the 17th century, Nizamshahi and Adilshahi had established their rule in Maharashtra.
Many eminent Maratha sardars flourished under their rule. They held Jahagirs in the remote regions of
the Sahyadris.
• Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent sardar in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After the end of Nizamshahi
rule, he accepted the rank of a Mansabdar in the Adilshahi court.
• Shahajiraje visualised the concept of Swarajya, and Shivaji Maharaj turned it into reality. Shivaji Maharaj
laid the foundation of Swarajya from the Mawal region.

25.1. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, born in 1630 in the hill-fort of Shivneri, founded the Maratha Empire from
the Mawal region of Maharashtra. His coronation in 1674 at Raigad Fort marked the formal establish-
ment of the Maratha Empire.
• The father of the Indian Navy: Shivaji Maharaj, established a strong naval force, recognising the im-
portance of naval supremacy in safeguarding the coastlines. He is known as the "Father of the Indian
Navy"

541
• Guerrilla warfare: Shivaji Maharaj recognised that the Mughal army was much larger and better
equipped than his own, and he needed to find a way to overcome their advantages. He used guerrilla
warfare tactics that involved sudden attacks, ambushes, and hit-and-run raids. This strategy helped his
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
army to take on the Mughals and eventually defeat them.
• Religious Tolerance: Shivaji Maharaj promoted religious tolerance, ensuring the fair treatment of peo-
ple from different faiths within his realm.

Confrontation Against Bijapur

Shivaji Maharaj vs Afzal Khan, 1659
• Realising the danger of the increasing activities of Shivaji Maharaj, the Bijapur court sent their powerful
General Afzalkhan to curb the increasing power of Shivaji Maharaj.
• Shivaji Maharaj had anticipated the intentions of Afzalkhan, who had taken up the challenge of killing
Shivaji Maharaj. He met Afzalkhan at Pratapgad. As expected, Afzalkhan attempted treachery, but Shivaji
Maharaj was well prepared and killed Afzalkhan in self-defence.

Shivaji Maharaj vs Siddi Jauhar

• After Afzalkhan’s defeat, the Bijapur court sent Siddi Jauhar to attack Swarajya. He seized the fort of
Panhala and closed all possibilities of escape for Shivaji Maharaj. In this difficult situation, Shiva Kashid, a
loyal servant of Swarajya, disguised himself as Shivaji Maharaj and made it easy for Shivaji Maharaj to
escape. When Siddi came to know the truth, he killed Shiva Kashid. Thus, Shiva Kashid sacrificed his life
for the cause of Swarajya.
• Bajiprabhu took up the task of blocking Siddhi Masud’s path in Ghodkhind and stopping him in his chase
of Shivaji Maharaj. Bajiprabhu was successful in doing this. He fell dead only after receiving the news of
Shivaji Maharaj reaching Vishalgad safely.

Shivaji Maharaj and the Mughals

Attack on Shaistakhan
• In July 1658, Aurangzeb ascended the throne as the Emperor. He sent his maternal uncle, Shaistakhan,
on an expedition against Shivaji Maharaj. Shaistakhan camped in Lal Mahal in Pune. But Shivaji Maharaj
once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan's military camp, killed his son and wounded Khan.

Attack on Surat and Visit to Agra

• In 1664, Shivaji Maharaj attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and plundered it. Enraged by this,
Aurangzeb sent his powerful sardars, Mirza Raje Jaising and Diler Khan, to defeat Shivaji Maharaj. Pu-
randar was besieged in June 1665. The heroic resistance of Shivaji Maharaj became futile. Shivaji Maharaj
had the wisdom to comprehend the situation and decided to retreat tactically by signing the ‘Treaty of
Purandar’.
According to the treaty:

542
•
 Shivaji Maharaj had to present himself before Aurangzeb at Agra, along with his son Sambhaji
Maharaj.
 Shivaji Maharaj had to surrender many forts to the Mughals. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Aurangzeb acted treacherously and put Shivaji Maharaj under house arrest. Shivaji Maharaj very clev-
erly misled the guards and escaped from Agra.
• Soon after returning, Shivaji Maharaj conquered the forts which were held by Aurangzeb.
• Shivaji Maharaj passed away on 3rd April 1680. His untimely death caused an irreparable loss to Swarajya.

25.2. Maratha Administration

Central Government
• Shivaji Maharaj was not only a great warrior but a good administrator too. He had an advisory council
to assist him in his day-to-day administration. This council of eight ministers was known as Ashta Pra-
dhan. Its functions were advisory. The eight ministers were Mukhya Pradhan or Peshwa or Prime Minister,
Amatya, Sachiv, Mantri, Senapati, Sumant, Nyayadhish and Panditrao.

Revenue Administration
• The revenue administration of Shivaji Maharaj was humane and beneficent to the cultivators. The lands
were carefully surveyed and assessed. The state demand was fixed at 30% of the gross produce to be
payable in cash or kind. Later, the tax was raised to 40%. The amount of money to be paid was fixed. In
times of famine, the government advanced money and grain to the cultivators which were to be paid
back in instalments later.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

• As the revenue collected from the state was insufficient to meet its requirements, Shivaji Maharaj col-
lected two taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, from the adjoining territories of his empire, the Mughal
provinces and the territories of the Sultan of Bijapur.
 Chauth was one-fourth of the revenue of the district conquered by the Marathas.
 Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue that Shivaji Maharaj had collected by virtue of
his position as Sardeshmukh.

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India 544
25.3. Marathas after Shivaji

• After the death of Shivaji Maharaj, Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was coronated as the king of Swa-
rajya. During his reign, a constant conflict continued with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb’s
rebellious son Akbar had established friendly relations with Sambhaji Maharaj.
• Enraged by this, Aurangzeb came down to Deccan along with a huge army and able sardars. For the next
25 years, he camped in Maharashtra and fought against the Marathas. But he could not succeed in de-
stroying the Marathas.
• Aurangzeb killed Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj in a very cruel manner in 1689. Aurangzeb hoped that
the Maratha power would be weakened with Sambhaji Maharaj’s death, but it did not happen.
• After Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, Rajaram Maharaj took over the reins at Raigad. He was succeeded
by his minor son Shivaji II, with his mother Tara Bai as regent. The next ruler was Shahu, in whose reign
the Peshwas rose to power.

25.4. The Peshwas

Period of Peshwa Domination

• Shahu Maharaj (grandson of Shivaji) had been held as a prisoner by Aurangzeb since 1689. He was
released in 1707 following Aurangzeb's death. Shortly after, a civil war broke out between Shahu (Sa-
tara) and his aunt Tara Bai (Kolhapur).
• Balaji Vishwanath (assistant of Shahu) convinced many Sardars that Shahu Maharaj was the real heir of
the Maratha empire and made them join hands with him. Because of the loyal and useful service provided
by Balaji Vishwanath in suppressing Shahu’s enemies, King Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath his
Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan/Chief Minister).
• Initially, the post of Peshwa was not hereditary. When Baji Rao, Balaji Vishwanath's son, became Peshwa
in 1720, the office became hereditary.
• Till Shahu's death in 1749, Peshwa was still under the control of the King. Thereafter, Peshwa virtually

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dislodged the King from sovereign power.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• In 1713, Shahu made Balaji Vishwanath his Peshwa. Balaji Vishwanath and his son, Baji Rao I, made
Peshwa the de facto ruler of the Maratha Empire.
• Balaji Vishwanath took full advantage of the internal conflicts of the Mughal officials to increase Mara-
tha’s power.
 He convinced Zulfiqar Khan to pay the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan.
 He signed a pact with the Saiyid brothers, who gave him:
 The Swarajya (All the territories that were once part of Shivaji's kingdom).
 Right to collect the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan.
  He helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farrukh Siyar.

Assignment of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi

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• For the efficient collection of the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan, Balaji Vishwanath as-
signed separate areas to Maratha sardars.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• Balaji Vishwanath made a division of the collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi between Shahu
(King / Raja) and his sardars. Out of these collections a fixed share was to be paid to the Raja (Sar-
deshmukhi + 34% of Chauth). Thus the Raja became largely dependent on his sardars for his finances.
• This system of assignment of the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi enabled the Peshwa:
 To increase his personal power through patronage.
 To conquer the areas outside their original kingdom by sardars with their own private armies.
• In the long run, this system of assigning Chauth and Sardeshmukhi was a major source of weakness
to the Maratha Empire. Because:
  Maratha sardars kept the greater part of the collection for their expenses.
 Maratha sardars gradually became strong, autonomous, and jealous of central power. If the cen-
tral authority tried to control them too strictly, they were willing to join hands with enemies.

Baji Rao I (1720-40)

• Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720. He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Baji Rao I as Peshwa.
• Baji Rao is considered the greatest of all the Peshwas and “the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics
after Shivaji".

Campaigns of Baji Rao

• Baji Rao waged numerous campaigns against the Mughal Empire.
• Nizam: Baji Rao met Nizam on the battlefield twice, and he defeated the Nizam both times.
1. Nizam’s defeat at Palkhed (1728): Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar granted the Maratha the right
to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi. Nizam was against it. After defeating the Nizam at Palkhed
near Aurangabad in 1728, the Marathas were granted the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
provinces.
2. Battle of Bhopal (1737): Maratha defeated the Mughal forces led by Nizam and got the territory of
Malwa.
• Portuguese: Chimaji Appa (brother of Bajirao) defeated the Portuguese and captured Bassein and
Salsette (the areas around Mumbai).
• By 1740, when Baji Rao died, the Maratha had won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand.
He turned the Maratha state from the Kingdom of Maharashtra into a Maratha empire stretching north
in just twenty years.
• However, Baji Rao failed to lay a firm foundation for an empire. New territories were conquered and
occupied; however, little attention was paid to their administration.
• Unfortunately, Baji Rao was involved in conflict with the Nizam-ul-Mulk. An alliance would have bene-
fited both. British used the rivalry between these two leaders to their advantage.

547
 Learning from the mistakes of Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao himself led military campaigns.
 The Maratha families of Gaekwad, Holkar, Sindhia (Scindia), and Bhonsle became prominent during
the period of Baji Rao. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)

• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) was the Peshwa from 1740 to 1761.
• King Shahu died in 1749 and, by his will, left all management of state affairs in the Peshwa’s hands. Now,
Peshwa has become the official head of the administration and has shifted the government to
Poona, his headquarters.

Campaigns of Balaji Baji Rao

• Balaji Baji Rao extended the Empire in different directions, taking Maratha’s power to its height.
• East: Bengal was repeatedly invaded, and in 1751, the Alivardi Khan ceded Orissa to Maratha.
• South: The state of Mysore and other minor states were forced to pay tribute. In 1760, the Nizam of
Hyderabad was defeated at Udgir and was compelled to cede vast territories that yield an annual reve-
nue of Rs. 62 lakhs.
• North: After Nadir Shah invaded Delhi, there was a period of instability. The Marathas saw this as an
opportunity to gain power and influence, and they soon became the dominant force behind the
Mughal throne.
 In 1752, they helped Imad-ul-Mulk become the wazir, who became a puppet in their hands. For all
practical purposes, the Marathas were the rulers.

Conflict with Afghans and Mughals

• India's riches attracted Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded and plundered northern India several times
between 1748 and 1767. He invaded the Punjab in 1751. The Mughals tried to buy peace in 1751-52 by
ceding Punjab to him.
• The Mughals faced a huge threat from Abdali's invasion. They sought protection from the Maratha, as
no other power was strong enough to defend Delhi.
• In April 1752, the Emperor of India entered into a treaty with the Marathas, according to which:
 The Marathas agreed to protect the Mughal power from enemies like the Rohillas, the Jats, the
Rajputs, and the Afghans.
 In return, the Peshwa was supposed to get:
 Fifty lakh rupees
 Right to collect the Chauth of the Punjab, Sindh, Multan, Rajputana and Rohilkhand.
 Governorship of Ajmer and Agra.
• Raghunath Rao, brother of the Peshwa Nana Saheb, undertook the campaign of North India to combat
Abdali. In 1758, He expelled Najib-ud-Daulah from Delhi and captured Punjab.
• Najib-ud-Daulah, a Rohilla chief, requested Abdali to invade India due to his inability to tolerate Ma-

548
ratha supremacy in the North.

Third Battle of Panipat

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• In 1759, Ahmad Shah Abdali again marched into India to settle accounts with the Maratha power.
He formed an alliance with Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-Daulah of Avadh, both of
whom had suffered at the hands of the Maratha sardars.
• The Peshwa dispatched a powerful army to the north under Sadashiv Rao Bhau (cousin brother of
Peshwa) and Vishwas Rao (son of Peshwa), the nominal commander.
• The Marathas tried to find allies among the northern powers, but nobody helped them. So, they had
to fight their enemies alone, with only limited help from Imad-ul-Mulk.
• Most rulers didn’t support the Maratha, and some even joined with Abdali. This was because:
  In the process of conquering and administering the area of the empire, the Marathas acquired
many enemies.
 The Jat and Rajput chiefs were completely alienated by their conquests.
 The Mughal nobles (except Imad-ul-Mulk) were defeated by them in the power game.
 The local rulers in the north saw the Marathas from the South as their competitors.
 The local rulers did not like the Maratha supremacy and interventions in the Delhi court.
• The forces of the Maratha and Abdali met at Panipat on 14 January 1761. Nearly 28,000 soldiers died,
including Vishwas Rao and Sadashiv Rao Bhau.
• The Maratha defeat at Panipat was a disaster for them because:
 They lost the cream of their army.
 Their political prestige suffered a big blow.
 It allowed the English EIC to consolidate its power.
• After losing the third Battle of Panipat, the Marathas' dream of ruling the entire country was shat-
tered. The Afghans also didn’t benefit from their win. It was not easy for Abdali to rule Delhi, and he soon
returned home.
• The Maratha opposition was so fierce that neither Abdali nor his successors ever returned to India.
They could not even hold the Punjab. In fact, the Third Battle of Panipat did not decide who was to rule
India but who was not.
• The Peshwa, Balaji Baji Rao, marching north to help Sadashiv Rao Bhau, was stunned by the tragic news
of the defeat. He did not survive for long and died in June 1761.

The Broad Perspective of Marathas

• The Marathas fought at Panipat with the broad perspective that India is for Indians. They believed
an outsider like Abdali had no moral right to rule over India.
• Sadashiv Rao Bhau tried to explain to northern rulers that the Marathas were all native to the land
while Abdali was an enemy from a foreign country. However, the rulers in the North did not respond

549
positively to his message and maintained a neutral stance. As a result, the Marathas had to bear the
responsibility of protecting India.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

[Mains Practice – Opinions Explored] Do you think the Marathas could have replaced the
Mughals as an all-India empire if they had not been defeated in the Third Battle of Panipat?

Shaping Destiny: The Role of Panipat in Empire-Shaking Conflicts

• Panipat is a historic city in Haryana. It is 90 km north of Delhi. The town witnessed three decisive battles
in Indian history in 1526, 1556, and 1761. These battles were fought at Panipat due to the following
factors:
 Invasion Routes: The northwest region, including modern-day Afghanistan, was often a starting
point for invasions. Invaders had difficulty fighting in the deserts of Rajasthan or forested areas of
 north India. Hence, the flat terrain of Panipat, which lay along invasion routes, served as a natural
battleground.
 Proximity to Delhi: Panipat is close to Delhi, which is historically a significant political and cultural
centre. This proximity made it easy for the ruler of Delhi to get weapons, military aid and food
supplies.
 Military Considerations: The flat terrain around Panipat provided an ideal battlefield for large-
scale cavalry warfare, a dominant feature of military strategies in the region during those times.
 Agricultural Richness: The fertile plains around Panipat are conducive to agriculture, providing
resources for sustaining armies. The control of this region was crucial for the economic sustenance
of any power in northern India.
Battles Year Participants Result Significance
First Battle of 1526 Babur (Timurid ruler) and Ibra- Babur defeated Establishment of the
Panipat him Lodhi (Sultan of Delhi). Ibrahim Mughal Empire
Second Battle of 1556 Akbar and Samrat Hem Chan- Akbar defeated Continuation of the
Panipat dra Vikramaditya (Hemu) the king Hemu Mughal Empire
Third Battle of 1761 Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghan Abdali defeated Ended the Marathas'
Panipat invader) and Sadashiv Rao the Marathas dream of ruling the en-
Bhau (the Marathas) tire country.
Created an oppor-
tunity for the British
conquest of India.

Madhav Rao (1761-72)

• The 17-year-old Madhav Rao became the Peshwa in 1761. Within a short period of eleven years, he
restored the lost fortunes of the Maratha Empire.
• Madhav Rao defeated the Nizam, made successful expeditions against Haidar Ali in 1764-65 and 1769-

550
72, compelled him to pay tribute, and reasserted control over North India.
• During the rule of the Madhav Rao, Marathas returned Emperor Shah Alam to Delhi under their own
protection. Thus, it seemed like the Maratha had regained power in the northern region. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Power struggle
• Madhav Rao died of consumption in 1772. After his death, there was a struggle for power between
Raghunath Rao (the younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao) and Narayan Rao (the younger brother of
Madhav Rao). Narayan Rao succeeded to the throne.
• Narayan Rao was killed in 1773. He was succeeded by his posthumous son, Sawai Madhav Rao (Madhav
Rao II). During the rule of Sawai Madhav Rao, the administration was in the hands of Nana Phadnis
(Phadanavis).
 Nana Phadanvis
• He was a well-known administrator of the Peshwas. He restored the state affairs of the state with the
assistance of Mahadji (Maratha Sardar).
• Frustrated, Raghunath Rao approached the British and tried to capture power with their help. This
resulted in the First Anglo-Maratha War. Power struggles within the Marathas:
 Led to their defeat by the British.
 Weakened the authority of the Peshwa.

[UPSC Mains 2014] The third battle of Panipat was fought in 1761. Why were so many em-
pire-shaking battles fought at Panipat? (2014)

Sawai Madhav Rao (1774-95)

• Peshwa Madhava Rao died in 1772. He was succeeded by his brother Narayana Rao. Raghunath Rao
killed the Narayan Rao and became the Peshwa.
• In the meantime, the widow of the late Narayana Rao gave birth to a male child. The child, Sawai Madhav
Rao, was supported by the Maratha chiefs and became the Peshwa.
• During the rule of Sawai Madhav Rao, the administration was in the hands of Nana Phadnis (Phada-
navis).

Battle of Kharda (1795)

• In the Battle of Kharda in 1795, the combined Maratha forces of Peshwa, Sindhia, Holkar, Bhosale, and
Gaikwad defeated the Nizam. This was the last occasion when all Maratha Chiefs acted in concert under
the authority of Peshwa.
• The Nizam took refuge in the Kharda fort but surrendered after two days of cannon fire. Nizam was
forced to sign a treaty giving up vast territories, including the fortress of Daulatabad.
 Governor-General John Shore followed a policy of non-intervention in the Battle of Kharda despite
having Nizam under his protection.

551
• The Nizam was so afraid of the Maratha that on 1 September 1798, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nizam Ali
Khan (Asaf Jah II), accepted the Subsidiary Alliance of the British in Hyderabad.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Semi-independent Maratha Houses
• The big Maratha sardars took advantage of weakened central authority and carved out semi-inde-
pendent states in the North. The most important were:
 Gaekwad at Baroda
 Bhonsle at Nagpur
 Holkar at Indore
 Sindhia at Gwalior
 • The Maratha Sardars established regular administration on the pattern of Mughal administration
and possessed their separate army. Their loyalty to the Peshwas became symbolic, and they started
plotting with the enemies of the Maratha Empire.

Mahadji Sindhia

• Mahadji Sindhia was a prominent Maratha ruler (Sardar) in the North. He escorted the Shah Alam
from Allahabad Fort and was a mediator in the Treaty of Salbai.
• Mahadji Sindhia organised a powerful army with the help of French officers and established control
over Emperor Shah Alam. In 1784, emperor gave him the management of Delhi and Agra in return
of monthly allowance.
• Mahadji Sindhia became the de facto ruler of Hindustan by securing the appointment of the Peshwa
as the Emperor’s Deputy (Naib-i-Munaib) from Shah Alam, with the condition that Mahadji would
act on behalf of the Peshwa.

Restoration of Power
• The Marathas overcame the great defeat at Panipat and successfully revived their supremacy in the
politics of the North. While Mahadji (Sardar) was busy restoring the Maratha supremacy in the North,
Nana managed the affairs of the South.
• After the death of Mahadji Shinde (1794) and Nana Phadanavis (1800), the Maratha power began to
decline.

Baji Rao II (1795-1818)

• Sawai Madhav Rao died in 1795 and was succeeded by the worthless Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath
Rao.
• Baji Rao II lacked leadership qualities and had many vices. He could not unite the Maratha Sardars,
and their internal strife weakened their power.
• During the reign of Baji Rao II, the Maratha's influence both in the North and South gradually dimin-

552
ished, ultimately leading to their replacement by the British.

End of Maratha Rule

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The British divided the Maratha sardars through clever diplomacy and defeated the Maratha sardars in
separate battles during the second (1803-1805) and third Maratha wars (1817- 1819).
• While other Maratha states were permitted to remain subsidiary states, the house of the Peshwas was
extinguished. Thus, the Maratha dream of controlling the Mughal Empire and establishing their own
Empire over large parts of the country could not be realised.

Reasons for the end of Maratha rule

1. The Maratha Empire had the same weaknesses as the Mughal Empire. The Maratha Sardars:
 Didn’t try to develop a new economy.
  Didn’t take much interest in trade and industry.
 Failed to encourage science and technology.
 Were mainly interested in raising revenue from the helpless peasantry.
2. They lost nearly all their wise and experienced leaders towards the end of the eighteenth century.
 Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis died in 1794 and 1800, respectively. These were the last great
soldiers and statesmen who had raised the Maratha power to its height in the eighteenth century.
3. They failed to provide good administration to areas beyond Maharashtra.

25.5. Summary

• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj founded the Maratha Empire from the Mawal region of Maharashtra. He
fought against the sultan of Bijapur and Mughal Sardars. "
 Established a strong naval force, earning him the title "Father of the Indian Navy."
 Used guerrilla warfare tactics against the Mughals.
 Promoted religious tolerance and ensured fair treatment of all faiths.

Marathas After Shivaji Maharaj

• Sambhaji Maharaj fought Aurangzeb but was captured and killed in 1689. Rajaram Maharaj and Shahu
Maharaj continued the struggle.

The Peshwas

• Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa of the Maratha state. During his rule, the Maratha state became a
dominant expansionist state.
• Baji Rao I succeeded Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1720. Baji Rao is considered the greatest of all the
Peshwas and “the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji".
• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) was the Peshwa from 1740 to 1761. During his rule, the Maratha power
reached its zenith.
• Till Shahu's death in 1749, Peshwa was still under the control of the King. Thereafter, Peshwa virtually

553
dislodged the King from sovereign power.
• The defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 was a major setback for the Marathas. It ended the
Marathas' ambition of replacing the Mughals as the imperial power. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
• The British divided the Maratha sardars through clever diplomacy and defeated the Maratha sardars in
separate battles during the second (1803-1805) and third Maratha wars (1817- 1819). While other Mara-
tha states were permitted to remain subsidiary states, the house of the Peshwas was abolished.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 26. Appendix

26.1. Important Literary Works

Writer/Poet Work
Herodotus (Father of history)  Historica
Kautilya or Chanakya  Arthashastra
Panini  Ashtadhyayi
Patanjali  Mahabhasya
Ptolemy  Geographia (Geography)
Pliny  Naturalis Historia (Natural History)
Nagasena  Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda)
King Hala  Gathasaptashati (Sattasai)
Ashvaghosha  Buddhacharita
 Mahalankara
 Sariputraprakarna
 Saundarananda.
 Vajrasuchi
 Sutralankara
Vasumitra  Vibhasha Shastras
Nagarjuna  Mulamadhyamakakarika
 Prajnaparimita Karika
Buddhaghosha  Visuddhimagga
 Sumangalvasini
 Atthakathayen

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Tolkappiyar  Tolkappiyam
Thiruvalluvar  Tirukkural
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Ilango  Silappadikaram
Sittalai Sattanar  Manimekalai
Vatsyayana  Kamasutra
Bhasa  Svapnavasavadattam
 Madhyamavyayoga
 Dutavakyam
 Pancharatra
 Balacharita
  Charudatta
 Urubhanga
 Karnabhara
Amarasimha (Buddhist author) Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicon)
Kalidasa Dramas: Abhijnana-Shakuntalam
 Malavikagnimitram
 Vikramorvashiyam
Poetic works: Raghuvamsha
 Kumarasambhavam
 Meghadutam
 Ritusamhara
Aryabhata  Aryabhatiyam
 Surya Sidhant
Vagbhata  Ashtangasamgraha
Varahamihira  Pancha Siddhantika
 Brihat-Samhita
Vishakhadatta  Mudrarakshasa
 Devichandraguptam
Banabhatta  Kadambari
 Harshacharita
Harsha  Ratnavali
 Nagananda
 Priyardarsika
Bilhana  Vikramankadevacarita
Shudraka  Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart

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Bharavi  Kiratarjuniya
Dandin  Kavyadarsa
 Dasakumaracharita PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Vishnu Sharma  Panchatantra
Subandhu  Vasavadatta
Hemachandra  Trishashti Shalaka Purusha-charitra
 Parisishta Parvan
 Kumarapalacharita
Bhavabhuti  Uttararamacharita
 Malati Madhava
Amoghavarsha I  Prashnottara Ratnamalika
 Kavirajamarga
Jinasena  Adipurana
 Mahapurana
 Parsvabhudaya
Ponna  Shantipurana
Mahendravarman I  Mattavilasa Prahasana
 Bhagavadajjuka
Bharavi  Kiratarjuniya
Kshemendra  Dasavataracharita (ten incarnations of Vishnu)
 Kalavilasa
 Samayamatrika
 Desopadesa
 Narmamala
Rajshekhar  Viddhasalabhanjika
 Balabharata
 Karpuramanjari
 Balaramayana
 Kavyamimsa
Sarvavarman  Katantra (sanskrit grammar)
Vijnaneshwara  Mitakshara
Kalhana  Rajatarangini (River of Kings)
Jayadeva  Gita Govinda
Surdas  Sursagar
 Sur Saravali

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 Sahitya-Lahiri
Tulsidas  Ramcharit Manas
 Vinaya Patrika PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
 Kavitavali
Sriharsha  Naishadhiya Charita
Magha  Shishupalavadha
Bhavabhuti  Uttararamacharita
 Malati Madhava
Kshemendra  Dasavataracharita
Al-Beruni  Kitab-ul-Hind (Tarikh-Al-Hind)
  Qanun-e-Masudi
 Kitab-fi-Tahqiq
 Jawahar-fil-Jawahir
Firdausi  Shah Namah (The Book of Kings)
Al Utbi (Abu Nasr-al-utbi)  Tarikh Yamini or Kitabu-l-Yamini
Ibn Battuta  Rihla
Minhaj-i-Siraj  Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
Amir Khusrau  Tughlaq Nama
Ziauddin Barani  Fatawa-i-Jahandari
 Tarikha-i-Firoz Shahi
Shams-i-Siraj Afif  Tarikh i Firuz Shahi
Firdausi  Shah Namah
Deva Raya II  Mahanataka Sudhanidhi (in Sanskrit)
 Sobagina Sone and Amaruka (in Kannada)
Krishna Deva Raya  Telugu poem Amuktamalyada
 Sanskrit dramas Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
Ain-i Akbari  Abul Fazl
 Padshahnama, or Badshah Nama
 Abdul Hamid Lahori (first two volumes)
 Waris (third volume)

26.2. Foreign Travellers

Foreign Traveller Key Points

Megasthenes • A Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
• He wrote an account of the Maurya empire in his book 'Indica'.

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Fa Xian (Fa Hien) • Chinese monk
• Visited India during Chandragupta II’s reign for around nine years, probably 400-
410 CE. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Xuanzang • Chinese monk
(Hsuan Tsang) • Visited India during India during Harsha's reign from 630 – 645 CE
Al-Beruni • A mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and historian from Khwarizm (modern
Uzbekistan).
• Came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni.
• Book - Kitab-ul-Hind (Tarikh-Al-Hind): Written in Arabic, a detailed account of
Indian culture.
Al-Masudi • Arab traveller (a native of Baghdad)
• Visited Gujarat in 915-16
• He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom al-Juzr and the King Bhoja King Baura.
Marco Polo • An Italian traveller.
• He visited Motupalli, a seaport in Andhra Pradesh, during the Kakatiya Dynasty
ruled by Rani Rudrama Devi around 1292 CE.
• He also visited the Pandya kingdom.
Ibn Battuta • A Moroccan traveller
• Lived in India from 1333 to 1347 CE during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Book - Rihla: written in Arabic
Nicolo de Conti • Italian trader
• Visited Vijayanagara in 1420 during the reign of Deva Raya I (1404 - 1422 CE)
Abdur Razzaq • An ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia.
• Visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Deva Raya II (1425 - 1446 CE)
Afanasii Nikitin • A merchant from Russia
• Visited Vijayanagara in the fifteenth century [during the reign of Muhammad Shah
III (Bahmani Ruler)]
Duarte Barbosa • Portuguese traveller
• Visited Vijayanagara during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509 - 29)
Domingo Paes • Portuguese trader
• Visited Vijayanagara around 1520 during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509 -
29)
Fernao Nuniz • Portuguese horse trader
• Visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya (1529-42)
Francois Bernier • A French physician, political philosopher and historian.

558
• He was in India for twelve years, from 1656 to 1668, during the reign of Shah
Jahan and Aurangzeb.

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• He was closely associated with the Mughal court as a physician to Prince Dara
Shukoh, the eldest son of Emperor Shah Jahan, and later as an intellectual and
scientist with Danishmand Khan, an Armenian noble at the Mughal court.
Jean-Baptiste • A French gem merchant and traveller
Tavernier • He travelled to India at least six times during the reign of Shah Jahan and Au-
rangzeb.
Mandelslo • A German adventurer and traveller
• He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
 Peter Mundy • An English Trader
• He visited India during the reign of Shah Jahan.
• He described the Banjaras.
Manucci • An Italian writer and traveller.
• Came to India during the reign of Shah Jahan. He never returned to Europe and
settled down in India.

26.3. The Ancient Ports of India

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Important Ports of Indus Civilisation

• Lothal (Gujarat, India), Khirasa (Gujarat, India), Kuntasi (Gujarat, India), Sutkagendor (Baluchistan, Paki-
stan), Balakot (Baluchistan, Pakistan).

Important Ports During the Sangam Age

1. Chief ports of Cheras: Muciris (kerala) and Tondi (Tamil Nadu)
2. Chief port of Cholas: Puhar or Poompuhar or kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu)
3. Chief port of Pandyas: Korkai (Tamil Nadu)

Important Ports of the Post-Mauryan Period

• Broach (Bharuch port, Gujarat)
• Sopara, Kalyani and Chaul (Maharashtra)
• Gopakapatna (Goa)
• Udyavara, Honnavar (Karnataka)
• Marakkanam and Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu)
• Arikamedu (Puducherry)
• Maesolia or Masulipatam, Motupalli, Kadura, Ghantasala and Kalingapatna (Andhra Pradesh)
• Dasarna and Manikpatna (Odisha)
• Chandraketugarh and Tamralipti (West Bengal)
• Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geographia mentioned the following ports
1. The ports on the west coast: Barygaya, Suppara, Calliena, Semylla, Mandagore, Palaepatme, Mal-
izigara, Aurranobbas, Byzantine, Naura, Tyndis, Muziris and Nelcynda
2. The ports on the east coast: Tamralipti, Charitrapur, Paluru, Dantapur, Kalingapatnam, Pithunda,
Sopatma, Ghantasala, Poduca, Puhar, Korkai and Camara.

26.4. India Coinage

Period Coin Important Points

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Stone Age No evidence of use of coins
Chalcolithic Cultures No evidence of use of coins

PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Indus Civilisation No evidence of use of coins • The Harappans were a trading people. How-
ever, they did not use metal money, instead
they exchanged goods through barter.
• There is no consensus on whether the seals
excavated from the Indus valley sites were in
fact coins.
Vedic Period No evidence of use of coins • The Vedic people used a barter system to ex-
change goods.
 • Nishka and Satamana: The terms nishka
and satamana mentioned in Vedic texts are
often interpreted as names of coins. How-
ever, they appear to have been metal pres-
tige objects rather than actual currency. Gold
is mentioned as nishka in the Vedas.
Period Punch-marked coins • Punch-marked coins: Metal coins first ap-
of Mahajanapadas peared around the sixth century BCE. Punch-
(sixth century BCE) marked coins made of silver and copper were
among the earliest to be minted and used.
• Punch-marked coins were not inscribed but
stamped with symbols using dies or punches.
They remained in circulation till the early
centuries CE.
The Mauryan Period Punch-marked coins • The punch-marked silver coins, which carried
the symbols of the peacock, hill, and cres-
cent, formed the imperial currency of the
Mauryas.
• Karshapana and Pana: Silver coins
The Indo-Greeks First rulers in India to issue gold • The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold
coins coins in India. Their coins were the first in In-
dia to bear the names and images of kings.
Hence, the Indo-Greeks were the first rulers
in India to issue coins which can be definitely
attributed to the kings.

561
The Shakas First rulers in India to introduce • Western Kshatrapas were the first in Indian
the date on their coins. history who introduced the date on their
coins. The dates on the coins were given in
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
the Saka era, which began in 78 CE.
The Kushanas First rulers in India to issue gold • The Kushanas were the first rulers in India to
coins on a large scale. issue gold coins on a large scale. These gold
coins had a higher degree of metallic purity
than the Gupta gold coins.
• King Kanishka issued coins in copper and
gold (Gold dinar). Kanishka’s Dinar gold
coins often featured a depiction of King
 Kanishka on one side and an image of a deity
on the reverse side. These deities included
Greek as well as Indian gods.
The Satavahanas They mainly issued lead potin, •
copper, and bronze coins.
The Gupta Period They issued the largest number • Dinara: The Gupta rulers issued the largest
of gold coins number of gold coins, which were called di-
naras in their inscriptions. The coins depict
the king on the obverse and a deity on the
reverse; the deities were Indian and the leg-
ends were in Brahmi. The goddess Lakshmi is
also represented on the Gupta coins as the
wife of Vishnu. Gold content of these coins
are not as pure as Kushan.
• In contrast to those of the Kushans, the
Gupta copper coins are very few.
Vijayanagara Empire Issued many gold, silver and • Gold Pagodas: Highest denomination
copper coins. • Gold Fanams: Used for medium-value trans-
actions
• Silver Taras: Common for daily trade
• Copper Jittals: Used for small transactions
• Varaha: The gold coins issued by the Vijaya-
nagara rulers. Also known as "Pon" in Tamil
and "Honnu" in Kannada. It contains images
of Hindu deities and animals.

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Iltutmish Introduced Tanka and Jital Tanka: A silver coin
Jital: A copper coin
Sher Shah Suri Issued gold, silver and copper Mohur: A gold coin
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
coins of uniform standard Rupiya: A silver coin
Dam: A copper coin
Akbar Issued many gold, silver and Shahanshah: highest gold coin
copper coins. Mohur: A gold coin
He was the only Mughal em- Rupiya: A silver coin
peror who issued 26 types of Dam and Tanka: A copper coin
gold coins.
26.5. India's Rich Cultural Heritage and Indian Constitution

• All 22 parts of the Indian Constitution carry hand-painted images, and its pages are adorned with elabo-
rate borders. From the Indus Valley civilisation to the freedom struggle, the paintings represent different
periods in Indian history.
• Two handwritten copies of the Constitution, one in English and one in Hindi include beautiful paintings.
 It was handwritten by calligrapher Prem Behari Narain Raizada.
 Artist Nandalal Bose and his team conceived and executed the paintings of the Indian Constitution in
Santiniketan.
 The Preamble page features intricate patterns sketched by Beohar Rammanohar Sinha, along with his
signature.
 Dinanath Bhargava designed the National Emblem, the Lion Capital of Ashoka.
Part of Illustration
Constitution
Part I Bull Seal, excavated from the Indus Valley region and a short inscription in the undeci-
phered script.
Part II The portrayal of a Gurukul educational system in ancient India
Part III Scene from the Ramayana: Depicts a scene of Lord Rama, Lakshman and Sita returning
home (Ayodhya) after the victory over Ravana in Lanka.
Part IV Scene from the Mahabharata or Bhagavat Gita: Discussion between Arjun and Krishna be-
fore the commencement of the battle of Kurukshetra.
Part V Dharmachakra Pravartana (Gautam Buddha delivering his first sermon): Buddha is the cen-
tral figure, surrounded by disciples, animals, and birds.
Part VI Vardhmana Mahavir seated cross-legged in meditation.
Part VII Emperor Ashoka is seen seated on an elephant, propagating Buddhism.
Part VIII Scene from Gupta Art

563
Part IX The royal court of King Vikramaditya with musicians and dancers representing him as a
patron of art.
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Part X The Nalanda University
Part XI Scene from Orrisian sculpture representing a horse, a man and another figure.
Part XII Shiva Natraj and the Swastika
Part XIII The portrayal of sculptures from Mahabalipuram and the descent of Ganga to Earth.
Part XIV Mughal Emperor Akbar's court, with Mughal architecture in the background
Part XV Portraits of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and Guru Gobind Singh
Part XVI Portraits of Rani Lakshmibai and Tipu Sultan
 Part XVII Gandhi’s Dandi March
Part XVIII Gandhiji visiting riot-hit Noakhali in Bangladesh.
Part XIX Subhas Chandra Bose is seen against a mountainous backdrop, saluting the flag, with
members of Azad Hind Fauj marching ahead.
Part XX Scene from the Himalayas
Part XXI Scene of the Desert
Part XXII Scene of the Ocean

26.6. World Heritage Sites in India

564
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• India has 43 World Heritage Sites. Of these, 35 are cultural, seven are natural, and one, Khangchendzonga
National Park, is of mixed type.
Cultural World Heritage Sites
World Heritage Sites Year
Cultural World Heritage Sites
Agra Fort 1983
Ajanta Caves 1983
Taj Mahal 1983
Ellora Caves 1983
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram 1984
Sun Temple, Konarak 1984
Churches and Convents of Goa 1986
Fatehpur Sikri 1986
Group of Monuments at Hampi 1986
Khajuraho Group of Monuments 1986
Elephanta Caves 1987
Group of Monuments at Pattadakal 1987
Great Living Chola Temples 1987, 2004
Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi 1989
Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi 1993
Humayun's Tomb, Delhi 1993
Mountain Railways of India 1999, 2005, 2008
Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya 2002
Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka 2003
Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park 2004
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus 2004

565
Red Fort Complex 2007
The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur 2010
Hill Forts of Rajasthan 2013 PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat 2014
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar 2016
The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern 2016
Movement
Historic City of Ahmadabad 2017
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai 2018
Jaipur City, Rajasthan 2019
 Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Temple, Telangana 2021
Dholavira: A Harappan City 2021
Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 2023
Santiniketan 2023
Moidams – The Mound-Burial System of the Ahom Dynasty 2024
Natural World Heritage Sites
Kaziranga National Park 1985
Keoladeo National Park 1985
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary 1985
Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks 1988, 2005
Sundarbans National Park 1987
Western Ghats 2012
Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area 2014
Mixed World Heritage Sites
Khangchendzonga National Park

26.7. Important World Heritage Sites

Ajanta Caves
• The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to the
fifth century CE in Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar or Aurangabad (Maharashtra, India).
• The caves were built in two phases:
1. The first phase coincides with the rule of the Satavahana dynasty from about the 2nd century BCE to
the 1st century BCE. Six caves (caves 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A) were excavated in the first phase by
Hinayana Buddhists.
2. The second phase corresponds to the Vakataka dynasty with their Asmaka and Rishika feudatories in

566
the 5th to 6th centuries CE. In the second phase, the Mahayana Buddhists dominated the rupestral
activity.
• Patrons of Ajanta Caves: PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

 Patron of Cave No. 4: Mathuradasa

 Patron of Cave No. 16: Varahadeva, the prime minister of the Vakataka king, Harishena.
 Patron of Cave Nos. 17–20: Upendragupta, the local king of the region and feudatory of the Vakataka
king, Harishena.
 Patron of Cave No. 26: Buddhabhadra

Ajanta Paintings
 567
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

• In Ajanta, cave excavation and painting were simultaneous processes, and the dating of the paintings
follows the date of the cave excavations. Ajanta paintings covered the period from the first to the seventh
century CE, with most belonging to the Gupta period. However, there is no evidence that the Guptas
patronised them.
• The themes of the paintings are the events from the life of the Buddha, the Jatakas and the Avadanas.
Some paintings such as Simhala Avadana, Mahajanaka Jataka and Vidhurpundita Jataka cover the entire
 wall of the cave. The Chaddanta Jataka, painted in early Cave No. 10, is detailed. Events are grouped
according to their geographical locations, with jungle scenes separated from palace scenes.
• Pictures have been painted in almost all the finished excavations, but very few have survived.
 The paintings of Cave Nos. 1 and 2 are very orderly and naturalistic, well integrated with the sculptures
in the caves.
 Paintings of Cave Nos. 16 and 17 have precise and elegant painterly qualities. They do not bear the
ponderous volume of the sculptures in the caves.
 Cave No. 1 contains the famous Padmapani (Avalokitesvara) and Vajrapani paintings. Although im-
ages of Padmapani and Vajrapani are very common in Ajanta, the best-preserved paintings are in
Cave No. 1.
 Padmapani painting: The Boddhisattva standing in Tribhanga pose, holding a padma (blue lotus) in
his right hand and wearing a big crow.
 Vajrapani painting: The Boddhisattva holding a vajra in his right hand and wearing a crown.

Ellora Caves (Verul Leni)

• The Ellora caves (Verul Leni) are located in the Charanadri Hills, Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (Aurangabad),
Maharashtra.
• The caves are datable from c. 6th – 7th century CE to the 11th – 12th century CE.
• The excavations at Ellora started before the Rashtrakutas. Caves 1 to 10 and Cave 21 (Ramesvara) were
constructed by the Kalachuris of Mahismati and the Chalukyas of Badami.
• In total, there are nearly 100 caves in the hill range, out of which 34 caves are famous, out of which:
 Buddhist Caves (1 to 12): Buddhist caves are big and consist of single, double, and triple storeys.
 Brahmanical Caves (13 to 29): The only double-storey cave of the Brahmanical faith is Cave No. 14.
 Jaina Caves (30 to 34)
 Ajanta has also excavated double-storeyed caves, but the triple storey at Ellora (Cave No. 12) is a unique
achievement.

568
• Patrons of Ellora Caves: Chalukya and Rashtrakuta rulers were patrons of Ellora Caves.
 Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga supported Cave 15
 Rashtrakuta King Krishna I built the grand rock-cut Monolithic Kailasanath Temple (Cave 16: Kailash PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
leni).

Paintings
• The Ellora cave paintings are found mainly in the Kailasa temple (Cave 16: Kailash leni) and a few other
caves. They are newer than the Ajanta cave paintings.
• These paintings depict Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain themes.

Elephanta Caves
• The Elephanta Caves, located near Mumbai, consist of seven caves - five Hindu caves and two Buddhist
caves. They are contemporary with Ellora and probably belong to the 6th to the 8th century CE.
• The Elephanta Caves, dominated by the Shaivite faith, are believed to have been patronised by the Rash-
trakuta dynasty.
• The carvings at Elephanta depict Shiva in different forms: Trimurti (the three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (the
Lord of Dance), Ardhnareshwara, Gangadhara, and Yogishvara (the Lord of Yoga).
• The most important sculpture is the 7-metre-tall Sadashiva (Trimurti or three-faced Lord Shiva) on the
entrance to Cave 1.

Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram

• The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th and 8th century CE monuments in
Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984.
• The site has 40 ancient monuments and Hindu temples, including the descent of the ganga, pan-
chapandava rathas and the Shore Temple.
1. The Descent of the Ganga (Arjuna's Penance) is a giant open-air rock relief sculpture carved on two mon-
olithic rock boulders in Mamallapuram. It depicts the descent of the Ganges from the heavens to earth.
It was created during the reign of Narasimhavarman I.
2. Panchapandava Rathas are five monolithic temples. They are called "rathas" (chariots) because they re-
semble temple processional chariots. The Panchapandava Rathas comprise Dharmaraja Ratha, Arjuna
Ratha, Bhima Ratha, Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi. The largest is Dharmaraja Ratha, which is
three stories tall and has a square base.
3. The Shore Temple, one of the earliest examples of structural temples in South India, was constructed
during the reign of Rajasimha (CE 700-728).

Group of Monuments at Pattadakal

• The Group of Monuments at Pattadakal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.

569
• The Chalukyas built it between the 7th and 8th centuries CE. It includes nine Hindu temples dedicated to
Shiva and a Jain temple.
The most well-known temples include:
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
•
1. Sangamesvara temple: It was the oldest temple at Pattadakal. It was built by Vijayaditya Satyasraya.
2. Mallikarjuna temple: It was constructed by Rani Trilokyamahadevi to celebrate the victory over the
Pallavas by Vikramaditya II.
3. Virupaksha temple: It was built by Queen Lohamahadevi to commemorate the conquest of Kanchi-
puram by Vikramaditya II.
• The last addition to Pattadakal was made during the reign of Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II in the 9th century
CE. This was the Jaina Narayana temple, a Jain shrine with two functional lower storeys.
 570
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Great Living Chola Temples

• The Great Living Chola Temples is a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation for a group of Chola dynasty
era Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu. The temple at Thanjavur was added to the list in 1987, while the other
two were added in 2004.
• The monuments include:
1. Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur: Built by Rajaraja I.
 2. Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram: Built by Rajendra I.
3. Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram: Built by Rajaraja II.

Ramappa Temple
• Ramappa Temple, also known as the Kakatiya Rudreshwara temple, is a Kakatiya-style Hindu temple ded-
icated to the Hindu god Shiva, located in Palampet, Telangana. It is named after its architect, Ramappa.
• The temple was constructed in 1213 CE by Recharla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva
(1199 – 1262 CE).
• In July 2021, Ramappa Temple was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Moidams
• The Moidams (spelled Maidams) are unique burial mounds built by the Ahom Dynasty rulers in Assam
from the 13th to the early 19th century.
• These mounds are distinct for their architecture and primarily serve as burial sites for Ahom kings, queens,
and nobles.
• Each Moidam features a vault for the body, an earthen mound, and a brick structure for annual offerings,
showcasing the Ahom's elaborate burial customs.
• Although the Ahoms transitioned to cremation with Hindu influence, Moidam burials continue among
some priestly groups and the Chao-dang clan.

Charaideo
• Charaideo, the first Ahom capital, is the main necropolis, revered as a sacred site for traditional Tai-Ahom
burials.
• Charaideo Moidam is one of the best preserved maidams with 90 royal burial sites out of 386 maidams.
Aspect Ajanta Caves Ellora caves (Verul Leni)
30 rock-cut Buddhist caves 34 famous Buddhist, Brahmanical and
Jaina caves

571
Location On the left bank of the river Waghora In the Charanadri Hills, Chhatrapati
in Chhatrapati Sambhaji Nagar (Au- Sambhaji Nagar (Aurangabad), Maha-
rangabad), Maharashtra. rashtra. PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India

Time Period From 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE From 6th /7th to 11th /12th century CE.
UNESCO’s Recognition Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Declared a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 1983. Site in 1983.
Patrons Patron of Cave No. 4: Mathuradasa. • Chalukya and Rashtrakuta rulers
Patron of Cave No. 16: Varahadeva, were patrons of Ellora Caves
the prime minister of the Vakataka • Dantidurga supported Cave 15.
king, Harishena
 Patron of Cave Nos. 17–20: Upen- • Krishna I built the grand rock-cut
dragupta, the local king of the region Monolithic Kailasanath Temple
and feudatory of the Vakataka king, (Cave 16: Kailash leni).
Harishena
Patron of Cave No. 26: Bud-
dhabhadra
Aspect Group of Monuments at Mahaba- Elephanta Caves
lipuram
Ancient monuments and Hindu tem- Seven caves (five Hindu and two Bud-
ples dhist caves) dominated by the Shaivite
faith
Location In Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram or Near Mumbai, Maharashtra.
Seven Pagodas), Tamil Nadu.
Time Period 7th to 8th century CE 6th to 8th century CE
UNESCO’s Recognition Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Declared a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 1984. Site in 1987.
Patrons Narasimhavarman I: Built rock relief Believed to have been patronised by
"Descent of the Ganga" and Pan- the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
chapandava Rathas.
Rajasimha: Built the Shore Temple

26.8. Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage

Year Intangible Cultural Heritage

2023 Garba of Gujarat
2021 Durga Puja in Kolkata

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2017 Kumbh Mela
2016 Nawrouz
Yoga PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
2014 Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru,
Punjab
2013 Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur
2012 Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh
region, Jammu and Kashmir.
2010 Chhau dance
Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan
 Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala
2009 Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas
2008 Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre
Tradition of Vedic chanting
Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana

26.9. Key Terms

Term Meaning
Vellalar Large landowners in South Indian villages
Uzhavar Ploughmen South Indian villages
Adimai Slaves in South Indian villages
Kadaisiyar Landless labourers in South Indian villages
Brahmadeya Land gifted to Brahmanas in the Chola kingdom in the early medieval period
Vellanvagai Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors in the Chola kingdom in the early
medieval period
Shalabhoga Land for the maintenance of a school in the Chola kingdom in the early medieval
period
Devadana and Land gifted to temples in the Chola kingdom in the early medieval period
Tirunamattukkani
Shrenis Associations of artisans (craft persons) and merchants
Vishti Forced labour: A source of income for the State, a tax paid by the people during
the Gupta period
Taniyurs Separate administrative units independent of the nadus such as important brah-
madeyas, in South India in the early medieval period
Parivrajaka Wandering ascetic

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Upasaka Lay disciple
Bhikkhu Monk

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Shramana Seekers or ascetics who rejected the authority of the Brahmanas and the Vedas
Theri A senior Buddhist nun
Thera A senior Buddhist monk
Nirvana Enlightenment
Paramitas Perfection whose attainment led to the bodhisattva path
Arhat In Theravada Buddhism, an arhat has attained enlightenment and gained insight
into the true nature of existence. Having freed himself from the bonds of desire,
 the arhat has been liberated from the endless cycle of rebirth and will not be
reborn.
Bodhisattas In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattas were perceived as deeply compassionate
beings who had attained enlightenment, but instead of living in complete iso-
lation and meditating in peace, they remained in the world to teach and help
other people to attain salvation.
Ghatika A Brahmanical educational institution (college) attached to the temples in South
India in the early medieval period
Kutagarshala A place where teachers of different sects or schools of thought tried to convince
one another and laypersons about the validity of their philosophy or the way
they understood the world.
Agrahara Land granted to a Brahmana, who was usually exempted from paying land rev-
enue and other dues to the king
Yaudheyas A tribal or clan-based republics of Punjab and Haryana in the post-Mauryan
period
Kulyavapa and drona- Denote units of land measurement
vyapa • Kulyavapa: Area required to sow one kulya of grain, roughly equivalent to
12-16 acres. It was used in the western parts.
• Dronavapa: Area required to sow one drona of grain, approximately 1½-2
acres. It was used in the northern parts of India
Yupa or Yupastambha A Vedic sacrificial pillar used in Ancient India
Viragal Hero stone: A type of stone monument that commemorates the death of a
hero, often in battle or a heroic act. Mostly found in Ancient South India
Antariya A lower garment, specifically a simple, unstitched cloth draped around the waist
and legs similar to a dhoti or a saree.

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Uttariya An upper garment used to cover the upper body portion
Bandagan Slaves during the Delhi Sultanate
Banjaras Traders in medieval India
PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
Iqta • Land revenue from different territorial units assigned to army officers.
• Province or Suba
Milkiyat Personal lands of zamindars (private property)
Manjaniq A type of catapult
Mauza A specific land area, often corresponding to a revenue village or a settlement
Khalisa Crown's land
Aurang A type of warehouse or godown
Ibadat khana A hall built by Akbar where different scholars discuss their religious views
Manigramam Guilds of Merchants in South India in the early medieval period
and Nanadesi
Mahattara and pat- Village headmen in medieval India
takila
Araghatta Persian water wheel or water lifting device
Hundi A bill of exchange
Dadni system Loan payment or advance money given to craftsman
Jizya The Tax levied on on Non-Muslims

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PMF IAS Ancient & Medieval India
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