1

MAT 313: GROUP THEORY LECTURE NOTES

By Dr. Runji Flora,
Lecturer
Department of Mathematics,Statistics and Actuarial Science
School of Pure and Applied Sciences
Karatina University
 Contents

1 BINARY OPERATIONS 4

1.1 What is an operation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.2 What is a Binary operation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.3 Properties of Binary operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.4 Combination or Cayley Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.4.1 Deductions from a Cayley Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.5 Algebraic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 GROUPS 18

2.1 Definition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2 Examples of groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.1 Number systems as groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.2 The trivial group: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2.3 Modular Arithmetic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.2.4 Functions as groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2.5 Vectors as groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2.6 Matrices as groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.2.7 The Quaternion Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.2.8 Symmetry Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2.9 Symmetric Group, Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.2.10 Alternating Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.3 The order of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2
CONTENTS 3

2.3.1 Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.4 Basic Properties of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.5 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.6 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.7 Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

2.8 Conjugacy Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.9 Normal Subgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.10 Centralizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.11 Centre of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.12 Normalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.13 Quotient Group/Factor group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.14 Simple Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.14.1 Division Algorithm in Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.14.2 Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.14.3 The extended Euclidean algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

2.14.4 Subgroups of Finite Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3 Group Homomorphism and Isormorphisms 64

Chapter 1

BINARY OPERATIONS

1.1 What is an operation?

Definition 1.1.1. An operation is a rule which defines or tells us what to do with one
or two or more members of a set.

If the rule is just on one element, then its referred to as a unary operation.
Examples of unary operations: Reciprocal, nth root, determinant, complements, etc.
If the operation involves two elements then we loosely refer to it a binary operation.

1.2 What is a Binary operation?

Let S be a non-empty set and let ? be an operation on the set S.

? is a binary operation on the set S if and only if

i) a ? b is well defined for all a, b ∈ S . This implies that given any two elements in S
, we should be able to determine a ? b.

ii) a ? b ∈ S, ∀ a, b ∈ S. This is called the closure property. i.e. combining any two
elements of S yields another element of S.

Notations:

i) N = {1, 2, 3, ...}. The set of natural numbers

4
1.2 What is a Binary operation? 5

ii) Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ...}. The set of integers.

iii) Q = The set of rational numbers

iv) Q0 = The set of irrational numbers

v) R = Q ∪ Q0 . The set of real numbers

If S is a set of numbers, then S ? means S − {0}. e.g

vi) Z? = Z − {0} . The set of non-zero integers.

vii) R? = R − {0} . The set of non-zero real numbers.

If S is a set of numbers, then S + refers to the positive elements of S. e.g

viii) Z+ is the set of positive integers.

ix) R+ is the set of positive real numbers.

Examples on Binary operations

Example 1.2.1. Let S = Z+ and ? = addition.

Then Addition is a binary operation on Z+ since any two positive integers can be added
(well defined operation) and the sum is a positive integer(closure property on Z+ ). e.g
7 − 9 is not positive though 7 and 9 are positive integers.

Example 1.2.2. Let S = Z+ and ? = subtraction.

Then subtraction is not a binary operation on Z+ since even though any two positive
integers can be subtracted (well defined operation) , however the difference is not nec-
essarily a positive integer(closure property on Z+ fails).

Example 1.2.3. Let S = Z and ? = +, −, ×, ÷. Then

Addition is a binary operation on Z
Subtraction is a binary operation on Z
Multiplication is a binary operation on Z
a
Division is not a binary operation on Z. Division of integers is not well defined since
0
is undefined for all a ∈ Z. Its also not closed since the quotient of two integers is not
necessarily an integer.
1.2 What is a Binary operation? 6

Example 1.2.4. An operation ? is defined on the set Z by a ? b = a2 + b, for all a, b ∈ Z.

Is ? a binary operation.
Solution: Notice that for this operation, for example, 3 ? 4 = 32 + 4 = 13 and 4 ? 3 =
42 + 3 = 19
For all a, b ∈ Z , a2 + b can be evaluated and thus ? is well defined.
Also a2 + b is in Z meaning there is closure and hence ? is a binary operation

Example 1.2.5. Decide whether the following are binary operation on the given sets:

a(b + 1)
i) a ? b = on Z. Solution: Not a binary operation. Why?
2
a+1
ii) a ? b = on R+ . Solution: A binary operation. Why?
b+1
√
iii) a ? b = a2 + b2 on Q+ . Solution: Not a binary operation. Why?

iv) a ? b = a2 + b2 − 3ab on Q+ . Solution: Not a binary operation. Why?

xy
Example 1.2.6. An operation ? is defined on the set of numbers S by x ? y = .
x+y
Determine whether ? is a binary operation when:

i) S = Z+ . Solution: Not a binary operation. Why?

ii) S = Q. Solution: Not a binary operation. Why?

iii) S = Q+ . Solution: A binary operation. Why?

iv) S = Q? . Solution: Not a binary operation. Why?

Example 1.2.7. Let S be the set of all 2 × 2 matrices.

Let ? be matrix addition. Is matrix addition a binary operation?
Let ? be matrix multiplication. Is matrix multiplication a binary operation?

Example 1.2.8. Let S be the set of all matrices.

Let ? be matrix addition. Is matrix addition a binary operation?
Let ? be matrix multiplication. Is matrix multiplication a binary operation?
1.3 Properties of Binary operations 7

Example 1.2.9. Let S be the set S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}.

Define ? on S by (a, b) ? (c, d) = (ac, a + bd), for all a, b, c, d ∈ R.
Determine whether ? is a binary operation.
Solution: If a, b, c, d ∈ R the product ac and the sum a + bd can be evaluated and thus
(ac, a + bd) can be evaluated (well defined). Furthermore, ac and a + bd are also real
numbers and thus the pair (ac, a + bd) is in S (closure). Thus ? is a binary operation.

1.3 Properties of Binary operations

i) Commutativity: A binary operation ? on a non-empty set S is said to be a

commutative operation if a ? b = b ? a, for all a, b ∈ S.

Example 1.3.1. Addition and multiplication are commutative operations on any

set of numbers say N, Z, Q, R, e.t.c. e.g 4 + 5 = 5 + 4

Example 1.3.2. Subtraction and division are not commutative operations on any
set of numbers say N, Z, Q, R, e.t.c. e.g 4 − 5 6= 5 − 4

Example 1.3.3. Is a ? b = a + b + ab commutative for all a, b ∈ R?

Solution: ? is a commutative operation since:

b ? a = b + a + ba

= a + b + ab

= a ? b.

Example 1.3.4. Let S be the set of all 2×2 matrices and ? be matrix multiplication.
Is ? a commutative operation?
Solution: Let    
a b  x y 
A= ,B =  
c d z w
1.3 Properties of Binary operations 8

. Then    
ax + bz ay + bw  ax + cy xb + yd 
AB =   and BA =  
cx + dz cy + dw zc + wc zb + wd

Clearly AB 6= BA and thus matrix multiplication is not a commutative operation.

  
 λ1 0
 

Example 1.3.5. Let S =   : λ1 , λ2 ∈ R , the set of all 2 × 2 diagonal
 
 0 λ2
 

matrices. Let ? be matrix multiplication. Is ? a commutative operation on S?
Solution: Let    
λ1 0  λ3 0 
A= ,B =  
0 λ2 0 λ4

. Then    
λ1 λ3 0  λ3 λ1 0 
AB =   and BA =  
0 λ2 λ4 0 λ4 λ2

Clearly AB = BA since λ1 λ3 = λ3 λ1 and λ2 λ4 = λ4 λ2 and thus matrix multiplica-

tion is a commutative operation on the given set.

Example 1.3.6. Let S be the set S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}.

Define ? on S by (a, b) ? (c, d) = (ac, ad + b), for all a, b, c, d ∈ R.
Determine whether ? is a commutative operation.
Solution: (a, b) ? (c, d) = (ac, ad + b) and (c, d) ? (a, b) = (ca, cb + d). These are not
equal and so ? is not a commutative operation.

Example 1.3.7. Let S = R, define ? on S by a ? b = a + b − 2a2 b2 . Is ? a

commutative operation on S?

ii) Associativity: A binary operation ? on a non-empty set S is said to be an asso-

ciative operation if (a ? b) ? c = a ? (b ? c), for all a, b, c ∈ S.

Example 1.3.8. Addition and multiplication of numbers are associative operations.

Example 1.3.9. Addition and multiplication of matrices are associative operations.

Example 1.3.10. Set intersection and union are associative operations.

1.3 Properties of Binary operations 9

Example 1.3.11. Composition of matrices is an associative operation. How? Let

f, g and h be mappings from a set S onto itself. Then we need to show that
(f ◦ g) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h). To do this we show that they give the same assignment to
each input x ∈ S.
((f ◦ g) ◦ h) (x) = (f ◦ g) (h(x)) = f (g (h(x))) and
(f ◦ (g ◦ h)) (x) = f ((g ◦ h) (x)) = f (g (h(x))).
The output is the same and thus Composition of matrices is an associative operation.

Example 1.3.12. Let S be the set S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}.

Define ? on S by (a, b) ? (c, d) = (ac, ad + b), for all a, b, c, d ∈ R.
Determine whether ? is an associative operation.
Solution:
[(a, b) ? (c, d)] ? (e, f ) = (ac, ad + b) ? (e, f ) = (ace, acf + ad + b)
(a, b) ? [(c, d) ? (e, f )] = (a, b) ? (ce, cf + d) = (ace, acf + ad + b)
The two evaluations yield the same result and therefore ? is an associative operation.

Example 1.3.13. Define ? on Z by a ? b = a + b − ab. Is ? associative?

a+b
Example 1.3.14. Define ? on R by a ? b = . Is ? associative?
1 + ab

Example 1.3.15. Define ? on R by a ? b = 2a + 2b + ab + 2. Is ? associative?

iii) The identity element for ?:

Definition 1.3.1. Let ? be a binary operation on a non-empty set S. If ∃ e ∈ S

such that:

a) e ? x = x, for all x ∈ S, then we say e is a Left Identity or a Left Neutral

Element for ?

b) x ? e = x, for all x ∈ S, then we say e is a Right Identity or a Right Neutral

Element for ?.

c) both i) and ii) are both satisfied, then we say that e is the Identity Element
or the Neutral Element for ?.
1.3 Properties of Binary operations 10

Example 1.3.16. 0 is both a left identity and a right identity for addition in Z, Q, R
e.t.c. Observe that
0 + x = x for all x in the given sets
x + 0 = x for all x in the given sets
Hence 0 is the identity element for addition. We also say 0 is the additive identity
for the given sets.

Example 1.3.17. 0 is the right identity element for subtraction since x − 0 = x

for all x ∈ Z, Q, R, e.t.c. 0 is not a left identity since 0 − x = −x 6= x

Example 1.3.18. 1 is the identity element for multiplication in Z, Q, R e.t.c. Ob-

serve that : 1 × x = x = x × 1 for all x ∈ Z, Q, R, e.t.c.

Example 1.3.19. Let S be the set of all matrices of order m × n. Then the zero
matrix of order m × n is the identity element for matrix addition.

Example 1.3.20. Let Sbe the set of all 2× matrices under matrix Multiplication.

1 0
Then the element   is the identity element for matrix Multiplication.
0 1

Example 1.3.21. Let S be the set S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}.

Define ? on S by (a, b) ? (c, d) = (ac, ad + b), for all a, b, c, d ∈ R.
What is the identity element for ??
Solution: Suppose the identity element is (a0 , b0 ) . Then
(a, b) ? (a0 , b0 ) = (aa0 , ab0 + b) = (a, b) and
(a0 , b0 ) ? (a, b) = (a0 a, a0 b + b0 ) = (a, b)
⇒ aa0 = a0 a = a, ⇒ a0 = 1
Also ab0 + b = a0 b + b0 = b, ⇒ ab0 + b = 1.b + b0 = b, ⇒ b0 = 0.
So (1, 0) is the identity element for ?.

Example 1.3.22. Define a ? b = a + b − ab on Z. Determine the identity element

for ?.
Solution: If α is the identity element for ?, then
a ? α = a + α − aα = a and
1.3 Properties of Binary operations 11

α ? a = α + a − αa = a
⇒ α − αa = 0 = α(1 − a), ⇒ α = 0.
Hence 0 is the identity element for ?.

Example 1.3.23. Define ? on R by a ? b = 2a + 2b + ab + 2. Determine the identity

element for ?.
Solution: If α is the identity element for ?, then
a ? α = 2a + 2α + aα + 2 = a. ⇒ α(2 + a) = −a − 2, ⇒ α = −1.
Hence −1 is the identity element for ?.

Example 1.3.24. What is the identity element for set intersection? We require a
set X such that A ∩ X = A for all A. Then X is the universal set.

Example 1.3.25. Under composition of mappings, the identity function f : x → x

is the identity element

iv) The inverse of an element under ?:

Definition 1.3.2. Let ? be a binary operation on a non-empty set S and let e ∈ S

be the identity for ?. If for x ∈ S there exists x0 ∈ S such that

a) x ? x0 = e, we say that x0 is the Right Inverse for x under ?

b) x0 ? x = e, we say that x0 is the Left Inverse for x under ?.

If both hold simultaneously, we say that x0 is the Inverse for x under ?

Example 1.3.26. −a is the inverse of a under addition in Z, Q, R e.t.c. since

−a + a = a + −a = 0

Example 1.3.27. Under multiplication , in Z, we don’t have a multiplicative in-

1
verse for all x ∈ Z. e.g If x = 2 then 2b = 1, ⇒ b = ∈ / Z . However if x = 1
2
or x = −1, then there exists multiplicative inverses for these two integers. These
elements are self inverses in that the inverse of 1 is 1 and the inverse of −1 is −1.
In Q, except for the zero element, all the other rational numbers have a multiplica-
tive inverse, i.e their respective reciprocals e.g
1.3 Properties of Binary operations 12

1
the inverse of 2 is
2
3 4
the inverse of is e.t.c
4 3
Under multiplication in R, the same case applies. Every real number a has an
1
inverse ∈ R provided a 6= 0.
a
Example 1.3.28. Define ? on Z by a ? b = a + b − ab. ? is a binary operation on
Z with identity element 0. If a ∈ Z , what is the inverse of a ?

Solution: Suppose the inverse of a is α. Then

a ? α = α ? a = o = a + α − aα
−a −a
⇒ α(1 − a) = −a, ⇒ α = provided ∈ Z.
−1 − a −1 − a
−a
Exercise: Verify that indeed is the inverse of a.
−1 − a
Example 1.3.29. Let S be the set S = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}.
Define ? on S by (a, b) ? (c, d) = (ac, ad + b), for all a, b, c, d ∈ R. ? is a binary
operation on S with identity element (1, 0). What is the inverse of (a, b) ∈ S ?

Solution: Suppose the inverse of (a, b) is (α, β) ∈ S. Then

(a, b) ? (α, β) = (aα, aβ + b) = (1, 0).
1 −b
⇒ aα = 1 ⇒ α = aβ + b = 0, ⇒ β = . Thus the inverse of (a, b) is
a a
1 −b
( , ) provided a 6= 0. If a = 0 the the inverse is not defined. This means all
a a
pairs of the form (0, b) don’t have inverses.
1 −b
Exercise: Verify that indeed ( , ) is the inverse of (a, b).
a a
Example 1.3.30. Let S be the set of all m × n matrices under addition. The
additive identity is the zero matrix of the same order. The inverse of a matrix A
under addition is the matrix −A

Example 1.3.31. Let S be the set of all non-zero n × n matrices under multiplica-
tion. The identity matrix In of the same order is the identity element. The inverse
of a matrix A under multiplication exists provided A is non-singular.

Example 1.3.32. Define ? on R by a ? b = 2a + 2b + ab + 2. The identity element

for ? is −1. What is the inverse of a ∈ S
Solution:
1.4 Combination or Cayley Tables 13

1.4 Combination or Cayley Tables

A binary operation on a finite set can completely be described by means of a table

If S is a finite set, then the binary operation ? on S can be represented by its
multiplication table or operation table called a Cayley Table.
To make a Cayley Table for a given finite set, begin by listing the set elements along
the top row and along the left column. Traditionally, the identity element is listed first
and the elements are listed in the same order left to right and top to bottom. To fill in
the interior of the table, fill in the element in the row for element x and the column for
element y, figure out what x ? y . Do this for every pair of elements.

1.4.1 Deductions from a Cayley Table

i) If the operation ? is closed on the set S, then a ? b ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S. So if ? is

closed on S, the body of the table consists of only elements of S.
Note: Every element of S must appear only once in every row and column.

ii) If e is the identity element for ?, then one row in the body of the table is the same
as the top row and one column in the body of the table is the same as the side
column of the Cayley table.

iii) Every element of S has an inverse if the identity element appears in each row/column.

iv) ? is commutative in S if the Cayley table for S under ? has symmetry about the
leading diagonal.

Example 1.4.1. Consider S = {1, −1, i, −i} where i2 = −1. Let ? = ×. We construct
the Cayley table for S under ? and make all the possible deductions from the table.

× 1 -1 i -i

1 1 -1 i -i

-1 -1 1 -i i

i i -i -1 1

-i -i i 1 -1
1.4 Combination or Cayley Tables 14

Deductions from the Cayley table

ˆ The operation × is closed on the set S.

ˆ 1 is the identity element

ˆ Every element has an inverse

Element 1 -1 i -i

Inverse 1 -1 -i i

ˆ The operation × is commutative

Example 1.4.2. Consider the set S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} under the operation of addition
modulo 5. Below is its Cayley table.

+ 0 1 2 3 4

0 0 1 2 3 4

1 1 2 3 4 0

2 2 3 4 0 1

3 3 4 0 1 2

4 4 0 1 2 3

Deductions from the Cayley table

ˆ The operation ? is closed on the set S.

ˆ 0 is the identity element

ˆ Every element has an inverse

Element 0 1 2 3 4

Inverse 0 4 3 2 1

ˆ The operation ? is commutative

Example
 1.4.3.
 Consider
 the
 following
 set of matrices
 under multiplication:

1 0 1 0  −1 0 −1 0 
A= , B =  , C =  , D =  .
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1
1.4 Combination or Cayley Tables 15

i) Draw a multiplication table for this set.

Solution:

× A B C D

A A B C D

B B A D C

C C D A B

D D C B A

ii) Establish if × is commutative.

Solution: Yes. There is a line of symmetry.

iii) Identify the identity element

Solution: Matrix A

iv) Identify the inverse of each element

Matrix A B C D
Solution: All the elements are self inverse.
Inverse A B C D

Example 1.4.4. Let S = {f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 } where fi : R? → R? defined by f1 (x) = x,

1 1
f2 (x) = , f3 (x) = −x, f4 (x) = − . Let ◦ denote composition of mappings. Construct
x x
the Cayley table for S under ◦ and make all the possible deductions from the table.
Solution:

◦ f1 f2 f3 f4

f1 f1 f2 f3 f4

f2 f2 f1 f4 f3

f3 f3 f4 f1 f2

f4 f4 f3 f2 f1

Deductions from the Cayley table

ˆ The operation ◦ is closed on the set S.

ˆ f1 is the identity element

1.5 Algebraic Structures 16

ˆ Every element has an inverse

Element f1 f2 f3 f4

Inverse f1 f2 f3 f4

ˆ The operation ◦ is commutative

1
Example 1.4.5. Consider the set S = {f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 } where f1 (x) = x, f2 (x) = ,
x
1 x x
f3 (x) = 1 − x, f4 (x) = − , f5 (x) = and f6 (x) = . Let ◦ denote composition
x x−1 1−x
of mappings. Construct the Cayley table for S under ◦ and make all the possible
deductions from the table.
Solution: Cayley table for S under ◦

◦ f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6

f1 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6

f2 f2 f1 f6 f5 f4 f3

f3 f3 f4 f1 f2 f6 f5

f4 f4 f3 f5 f6 f2 f1

f5 f5 f6 f4 f3 f1 f2

f6 f6 f5 f2 f1 f3 f4
Deductions from the Cayley table

ˆ f1 is the identity element

ˆ Every element has an inverse since f1 appears in each row/column.

Element f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
t
Inverse f1 f2 f3 f6 f5 f4

ˆ The operation ◦ is not commutative since there is no symmetry about the leading

diagonal.

1.5 Algebraic Structures

Definition 1.5.1. A non empty set together with one or two binary operations forms
an algebraic structure if the set under the operations satisfies certain conditions/axioms.
1.5 Algebraic Structures 17

Examples of algebraic structures: Vectorspaces, Groups, rings, fields e.t.c

We will study the Groups in the work that follows.