Formula sheet of

Point and Straight Line

1. Coordinate system
a. Cartesian Coordinate System,Polar coordinates

CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM:

Two mutually perpendicular lines meeting at ‘O’ (origin) are called axes. Horizontal line X' OX is known as the
x-axis and vertical line YOY' is called the y-axis. These two perpendicular lines divide the plane into four
quadrants,
Coordinates of a point are given by ordered pair (x,y) whose first entry (x) denotes the x-coordinate or abscissa
of the point, and second entry (y) denotes the y-coordinate or ordinate of the point.
Note:
(i) y-coordinate of any point lying on the x-axis is always zero.
(ii) x-coordinate of any point lying on the y-axis is always zero.
(iii) In 1st quadrant x>0, y>0, in 2nd quadrant x<0, y>0,in 3rd quadrant x<0,y<0 and in 4th quadrant x>0,y<0

POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM:

The polar coordinates of a point P with respect to a pole O and the initial line OA are given by ordered pair (r,θ ), we always take r>0 and
−π< θ ≤π
If a point has Cartesian coordinates (x,y) and polar coordinates (r,θ ) then we use
(i) x=r.cosθ , y=r.sinθ to convert from polar coordinates to cartesian coordinates, and
2 2 2 y
(ii) r = x + y , tanθ = to convert from cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates.
x

b. Distance Formula ,Pythagoras Theorem

Let P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2) be two given points in the x-y plane then distance between them is given by PQ | |= ( x2 −x + y −y
1 )
2
(
2 1
)
2

c. Section Formula

Internal Division:
Coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the points x1 y1 and x2 y2 internally in the ratio m: n is given by , ,
+ nx my + ny
( ) ( )

mx2
, m+ n
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 2 1 ⎟

m+ n
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟

+x +y
⎝ ⎠

x1 y1
, , ,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 2 ⎟
-> The midpoint of x1 y1 and x2 y2 ​is ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
2 2
( ) ( )

⎝ ⎠

External Division:
Coordinates of the point that divides the line segment joining the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) externally in the ratio m: n is given by
− nx
mx2 my2 − ny
,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1 1 ⎟

m− n m− n
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠

d. Area of Triangle in Coordinate Geometry

 x1 y1 1 

The area of a triangle with vertices x1 y1 (

, , x ,y
)
(
2 2 ) and x3 y3 is
( , )
1
2
|x
1 ( y2 −y +x
3
)
2 ( y3 −y +x1
)
3 ( y1 − y |= 2 | x
2
)
1 

 2 y2 1


 |
 


x3 y3 1 

e. Collinearity Coordinate Geometry

Different conditions for three points A(x1,y1), B(x2,y2) and C(x3,y3) to be collinear are as follows
(i) AB + BC = AC, or BC + AC = AB or AB + AC = BC
(ii) If the area of triangle ABC be zero then the three points will be collinear
 x1 y1 1 

⇒ 


x2 y2 1


 =0
 


x3 y3 1 
2. Imp Points of Triangle
a. Centroid,Incentre

Centroid (G): The point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid (G). The coordinates of the centroid of the
x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3
, , ,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
triangle with vertices as x1 y1 x2 ,y2 and x3 ,y3 are ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
3 3
( ) ( ) ( )

⎝ ⎠

The centroid always lies inside the triangle and divides the medians in the ratio 2:1 internally.
Incentre (I): The point of concurrency of the internal angle bisectors of a triangle is called incentre(I). The coordinates of the incentre
ax1 + bx2 + cx3 ay 1 + by2 + cy3
( , , ) ( , ) ( ,
of a triangle with vertices A x1 y1 B x2 y2 and C x3 y3 and side lengths a, b, c are x
) = a +b+ c , y = a+b+ c
The incentre always lies inside a triangle and the angle bisector divides the opposite side in the ratio of adjacent sides.

b. Circumcentre, Orthocentre

Circumcentre:
Circumcentre O(x,y) is a point that is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle A x 1 y 1 , , B x ,y , C x , y 2 2 3 3 .
+ x sin2B + x sin2C y sin2A + y sin2B + y sin2C
( ) ( ) ( )

x 1sin2A
, sin2A + sin2B + sin2C
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 3 1 2 3 ⎟

sin2A + sin2B + sin2C

The coordinates of circumcentre are given by ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟

⎝ ⎠

For the right triangle, the circumcentre is the midpoint of the hypotenuse.
Note- Students are advised not to learn this formula and use other methods to find the coordinates of circumcentre
Method-1: Let the coordinates of circumcentre are (x,y) and find distances of it from vertices of triangle OA, OB and OC then
put OA=OB=OC .By taking OA=OB you will get a linear equation in x and y and by taking OB=OC you will get another equation in x and y
now solve these two equations to find x and y
Method-2: Find the equation of perpendicular bisectors of any two sides (which you will study in the next concepts) of the triangle and
solve them to get the coordinates of the circumcentre

Orthocentre(H):
The point of concurrency of the altitudes of a triangle is called the orthocentre of the triangle
x 1tanA + x tanB + x tanC y tanA + y tanB + y tanC
∆ ABC , and it is given by , tanA + tanB + tanC
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 3 1 2 3 ⎟

tanA + tan B + tanC

Point H is orthocentre of ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟

⎝ ⎠

For the right triangle, orthocentre is the right vertex.

Note- Students are advised not to learn this formula and use other methods to find the coordinates of orthocentre
Method: Find the equation of any two altitudes(which you will study in the next concepts) and solve them to find the coordinates of the
orthocentre
Please note that:
(i) For acute angle ∆ ⇒ circumcentre and orthocentre lies inside ∆
(ii) For obtuse angle ∆ ⇒ circumcentre and orthocentre lies outside ∆
(iii) For right angle ∆ ⇒ circumcentre is the midpoint of the hypotenuse and orthocentre is the right-angled vertex of triangle

c. Euler Line
1. Nine-point circle is a circle that passes through nine fixed points of a triangle which are:
The midpoint of each side of the triangle.
The feet of altitudes.
The midpoint of the line segment from each vertex of the triangle to the orthocenter.
2. Euler Line: In any triangle Orthocentre(H), Centre of Nine Point circle(N), Centroid(G), Circumcentre(O) are collinear and the line
joining these points is called Euler line. Centroid divides the line joining orthocentre and circumcentre internally in the ratio 2:1.

3. Imp points of quadrilateral

a. Parallelogram,Rectangle,Rhombus

Parallelogram: If opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and equal, then the quadrilateral is called a parallelogram
Rectangle: If all angles of a parallelogram are equal then it is called a rectangle.
Rhombus: If all sides of a parallelogram are equal then it is called Rhombus
P1P2
Note: Area of parallelogram =
sinθ

b. Square,Kite,Cyclic Quadrilateral
Square: If all the sides and all the interior angles of a parallelogram are equal then it is called a square. Diagonals of a square are equal
and bisect each other at 900.
Kite: It is a quadrilateral in which two pairs of adjacent sides are equal and diagonals are perpendicular.
Cyclic Quadrilateral: If all vertices of quadrilateral lie on the circumference of a circle then it is called a cyclic quadrilateral. The Sum of
opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 1800.

4. Locus of a Point
a. Meaning,Equation,Steps to find the locus

Locus: When a point moves in a plane under certain geometrical conditions, the point traces out a path. This path of a moving point is
called its locus.
EQUATION Of LOCUS: The equation to the locus of a point is the relationship that is satisfied by the coordinates of every point on
the locus of the point.
Steps to find the locus of a point.
Step I: Assume the coordinates of the point say P(h, k) whose is to be determined.
Step Il: Write the given condition in the mathematical form involving P(h, k).
Step III: Eliminate the variable(s), if any.
Step IV: Replace 'h' by 'x' and 'k' by 'y' in in step III.
The equation so obtained is the locus of the point which moves under some condition(s).

5. Change of axes
a. Shifting of origin

SHIFTING OF ORIGIN:
If (x, y) are coordinates of a point referred to old axes and (X, Y) are the coordinates of the same point referred to new axes. then x = X +
h and y = Y + k Therefore, the origin is shifted at a point (h, k), we must substitute X + h and Y + k for x and y, respectively..
The transformation formula from new axes to old axes is
X = x – h, Y = y - k
The coordinates of the old origin referred to the new axes are (-h, - k).

b. Rotation of axes

ROTATION OF AXIS:

Compare real and imaginary parts of the equation (x + iy) = (x' + iy') cos θ( + i sin θ to remember the formula
)

c. Removal of the term xy from ax²+2hxy+by²+2gx+2fy+c

To remove the x.y term from the expression f(x,y)=ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0 , rotate the coordinate axes by an angle

θ = 12 tan−
1 ⎛⎜
⎜
a
2h
−b
⎞
⎟
⎟

⎝ ⎠

6. Slope
a. Inclination,Slope of line with given inclination
1. The inclination of the line (θ) is defined as the measure of the smallest non-negative angle which the line makes with the Positive
Direction of the x-axis in an anti-clockwise direction hence 0 θ ≤ <π
2. If the inclination of a line is 'θ' then the slope (m) = tan θ.
b. Slope of line joining two points,Slope of line ax+by+c=0
y −y
1. The slope of the line joining two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) is m = tan θ = x2 − x1
2 1

2. Slope of line ax + by + c = 0 is − ba or − coeff. of x

coeff. of y

c. Collinearity of three points by slope

y2 − y1 y3 − y2
The points A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3) are collinear if the slope of AB = Slope of BC or
x2 − x1
= x −x
3 2

d. Angle between two lines,Condition of parallelism and perpendicularity

m −m
1. The acute angle between the lines with slopes m1 and m2 is given by tanθ = 1 +1m m2





 .
 1 2 

2. The lines are perpendicular if m1m2 = -1. If the set of perpendicular lines are parallel to the coordinate axes, this condition does not
hold.
3. The lines are parallel if m1 = m2.

7. Equation of line
a. Equation of line parallel to x & y-axis
1. Equation of a line parallel to the x-axis at a distance 'a' from it is of the form y = a

2. Equation of a line parallel to the y-axis at a distance 'a' from it is of the form x = a

b. Equation of line in point slope, two point form

1. Point Slope form: Equation of a line which passes through (x1, y1) and has a slope 'm' is
y - y1 = m(x - x1)
2. Two - Point form: Equation of a line which passes through two given points A(x1,y1) and B(x2, y2) is
y −y
y − y1 = x2 − x1 ( x − x1 )

2 1

c. Equation of line in intercept form, slope intercept form, general form

1. Slope intercept form: The equation of a line with slope 'm' that makes an intercept 'c' on the y-axis is y = mx + c.

2. Intercept form: The equation of a line which cuts-off intercepts a and b respectively on x & y axes is
x
a
+ y
b
= 1.
3. General form: General form of a line is ax + by + c = 0. It's i) slope is - a/b, ii) y - intercept is - c/b, iii) x - intercept is - c/a

d. Equation of line in normal form

Normal Form: The equation of the straight line upon which the length of the perpendicular
from the origin is 'p' making an angle α with positive x-axis is x cos α + y sin α = p.
e. Equation of line in parametric form

(
,
1. The equation of the straight line passing through a given point A x 1 y 1 and making an angle θ with the positive direction of the x-axis )

in an anticlockwise sense is -
x − x1 y − y1
cos θ
= sin θ
=± r

where, r is the distance of any point represented by (x, y) on the line from the given point A(x1,y1).
2. Here, x = x1 ± r cos θ , y = y 1 ± r sin θ ​are the co-ordinates of the points situated on the line at a distance r from the given point A
(x1,y1).

f. Equation of line parallel and perpendicular to a given line

1. Any line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 can be assumed as ax + by + k = 0 where k is any contant.
2. Any line perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form bx - ay + k = 0 where k is any contant. Please note that any line perpendicular to
x = a is y = b and vice - versa.

8. Point of intersection of two Lines

a. Intersection point of two lines,Concurrence of 3 Lines
b1 c 2 − b2 c 1 c 1 a 2 − c 2 a 1
,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1. Point of intersection of two lines L1: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and L2: a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 is
a 1 b2 − a 2 b1 a 1 b2 − a 2 b1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠

2. The three lines

a1 x+ b1 y+ c1 = 0 ....... i ( )

a2 x+ b2 y + c2 = 0 ........ ii ( )

a3 x+ b3 y + c3 = 0 .......... iii ( )

 a 1 b1 c 1 

 

are concurrent if  a2 b2 c2 

 


a 3 b3 c 3 

 

9. Distance of a Point from a Line

a. Distance of a point from a line,Distance between two parallel lines




ax 1 + by 1 +c 



1. Perpendicular distance of a point (x1,y1) from a line ax + by + c = 0 is
a2 + b2
|c − c1 |
2. Distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c =0 and ax + by + c1 =0 is
a 2 + b2

b. Image/foot of Perpendicular of a Point in a Line

1. If the image of A(x1, y1) with respect to the line mirror ax + by + c = 0 be B(x2, y2) then it is given by
x2 −x y2 −y −2 ax + by + c
1
= 1
= 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )

a +b
2 2
a b

2. If the foot of perpendicular of A(x1, y1) on the line ax + by + c = 0 be B(x3, y3) then it is given by
x3 −x y3 −y − ax + by + c
1
= 1
= 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )

a +b
2 2
a b

c. Concept of reflection of ray

1. Equation Of Reflected Ray:

Let L1 ≡ a x + b y + c = 0 be the incident ray in the line mirror L ≡ a x + b y + c = 0.
1 1 1 2 2 2 2

Let L3 be the reflected ray from the line L2. Then

2 a1 a2 + b1 b2
= L1 − =0
( )

L3 L2
a22 + b22
2. Minimization:
Let A and B are two given points on the same side of ax+by+c=0. Suppose we want to determine a point P on ax+by+c=0 such that
PA+PB is minimum. Then find the image of A or B about the line ax+by+c=0 (say A' or B' ) then join B' with A or A' with B wherever it
intersects ax+by+c=0 is the required point.
3. Maximization:
Let A and B are two given points on the same side of ax+by+c=0. Suppose we want to determine a point P on ax+by+c=0 such that


 PA − PB 

 is maximum, then find the equation of line AB wherever it intersects ax+by+c=0 is the required point.

10. Position of Point w.r.t. Line

a. Position of points w.r.t. Line,Position of point inside a triangle
1. Point (x1, y1) lies below the line ax + by + c = 0 if b(ax1 + by1 + c) < 0 and above the line if b(ax1 + by1 + c) > 0.
Please note that in case, b = 0, the line becomes parallel to y - axis and (x1, y1) lies to the right of line if x1 > - c/a and to the left if x1 < - c/a.
2. Two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) lie on same side of the line ax + by + c = 0 if (ax1 + by1 + c)(ax2 + by2 + c) > 0 and lie on the opposite side of the
line (ax1 + by1 + c)(ax2 + by2 + c) < 0
3. A point M lies inside ΔABC if M & A lie on the same side of BC, M & B lie on the same side of AC, and M & C lie on the same side of AB.

11. Angle bisectors

a. Equation of angle acute/obtuse bisectors
EQUATION OF BISECTOR OF THE ANGLES BETWEEN TWO LINES :
Equation of the bisector of angle between the lines a1x + b1y + c1 =0 & a2x +b2y + c2 = 0 where a1b2 ≠ b1 a 2 are
+ b1 y+ c1 + b2 y+ c2
( )

a1 x a2 x
(

=±
) ( )

a21 + b21 a22 + b22

(i) If a1a2 +b1b2<​0, then the equation of the bisector of acute angle is
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y+ c2 a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y+ c2
(

=+
) ( )

therefore
( )

=− ( )

is the equation of obtuse angle bisector ​

a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a21 + b21 a22 + b22

(ii) However, if aa' +bb' >​0, then the equation of the bisector of obtuse angle is :
a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y+ c2 a1 x + b1 y + c1 a2 x + b2 y+ c2
(

=+
) ( )

; therefore
( )

=− ( )

is the equation of acute angle bisector

a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a21 + b21 a22 + b22

b. Determination of angle bisector containing/not containing (α,β)

For the lines L1: a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and L2: a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 and point M(α, β)
1. If (a1α + b1β + c1)(a2α + b2β + c2) > 0 then the equation of angle bisector containing M(α, β) is
a1x + b y+c a x+ b y+c
1
= 1 2 2 2

a +b
2
1
a +b
2
1
2
2
2
2

2. if (a1α + b1β + c1)(a2α + b2β + c2) < 0 then the equation of angle bisector containing M(α, β) is
a1x + b y+c a x+ b y+c
1
=− 1 2 2 2

a +b a +b
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2

12. Family of Straight Lines

a. Family of straight lines

1.Family of intersecting straight lines:

Let L1 = a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and L2 = a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0 . Then, the general equation of any straight line passing through the point of
intersection of lines L1 and L2 is given by L1+ λ L2=0

2. Family of parallel straight lines:

A family of parallel straight lines is the set of infinite straight lines that are parallel to a given line ax+by+c=0,
equation of the family of straight line parallel to ax+by+c=0 is ax+by+k=0 where k ∈R
13. Pair of straight lines
a. Definition,General equation of 2nd degree
1. If the equation of two lines be L1=a1x+b1y+c1=0 and L2=a2x+b2y+c2=0 then L1.L2=0 that is ( a1x+b1y+c1).( a2x+b2y+c2)=0 is called the joint equation of
pair of lines L1=0 and L2=0
2. The general equation of degree 2 in x and y is ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0 . It may represent a pair of straight lines, circle, or other curves
in different cases.

Condition Nature of Conic

P.O.S.L. ∆ =0
Circle ∆≠ 0 , h=0 and a=b Where,
Parabola ∆≠ 0 and h2=ab ∆ = abc+2fgh-af2-bg2-
Ellipse ∆≠ 0 and h2<ab ch2

Hyperbola ∆≠ 0 and h2>ab

b. Condition for general equation of 2nd degree to represent p.o.s.l.
The equation ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0 represents P.O.S.L. if ,
a h g
△ = abc + 2 fgh − af − bg − ch = =0
 
2 2 2 
h b f 

 

 g f c 

c. Factorisation of general equation of 2nd degree

If ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 represents two straight lines, then the equation of the pair of line through the origin and parallel to
them is ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0
If ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = (a1x + b1y) (a2x + b2y) = 0,
then ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = (a1x + b1y + c1) (a2x + b2y + c2) = 0
In order to obtain the values of c1 and c2, we can compare the coefficients of x and y (or even constant term) in LHS and RHS.

d. Homogeneous Equations in 2nd Degree

An equation in which the sum of the powers of x and y in each term is the same, say 'n', is called a homogeneous equation of nth
degree. The equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is a homogeneous equation of second degree, it always represents a POSL passing through
the origin. If
(a) h2 > ab lines are real and distinct.
(b) h2 = ab ⇒ lines are coincident.
(c) h2 < ab ⇒ lines are imaginary with real point of intersection i.e, (0,0).

e. Slope quadratic,Angle between p.o.s.l.

1. If the equation a x 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 represents two lines y - m1x = 0 and y - m2x = 0. Taking xy = m , the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 can be written as
bm 2 + 2hm + a = 0 with roots m1 and m2
2. Acute angle θ between the pair of straight line represented by the equation a x 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is tan θ =
 2 h2 − ab .


a +b
 

 

Lines are perpendicular if a + b = 0 and coincident if h2 = ab

f. Condition for parallel intersecting, perpendicular and coincident lines

The POSL represented by the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 are:
1. Perpendicular if a + b = 0.
2. Parallel if h2 = ab
3. Coincident if f2 = bc, g2 = ac and h2 = ab

g. Point of intersection of p.o.s.l.

To find point of intersection of the two lines represented by ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0, partially differentiate the expression w.r.t. x
and y as:
ax + hy + g = 0 and hx + by +f = 0
− hf af − gh
− ab , h − ab
⎛ bg ⎞
On solving these two equations, the point of intersection obtained is ⎜
⎜
2 2
⎟
⎟

⎝ h ⎠

14. Equation of Angle Bisector

a. Equation of Angle Bisector of P.O.S.L.

Combined equation of pair of angle bisectors of POSL ax2 + 2hxy + by2 = 0 is

x2 − y 2 = xy
a −b h
15. Homogenisation of non Homogeneous Equation
a. Family of pair of lines
A. A quadrilateral whose sides are represented by the lines L1 = 0, L2 = 0, L3 = 0 and L4 = 0.
Then a general two degree curve passing through vertices of a this quadrilateral is L1 L3 + λ L2 L4 = 0

For circumcircle, the above equation should represent a circle.

coeff. of x2 = coeff. of y2 and coeff. of xy = 0

If the values of λ obtained from these equations is same, we obtain the equation of circle. But if value of λ obtained is different, then we
can conclude that the quadrilateral is not cyclic.

B. If the sides of the triangle are represented by the lines L1 = 0, L2 = 0, L3 = 0,

then a two-degree curve passing through it's vertices is L1 L2 + λ L2 L3 + µ L2 L3 = 0

For this equation to represent a circle:

coeff. of x2 = coeff. of y2 and coeff. of xy = 0

From these two equations we can obtain the values of λ and µ.

b. Equation of p.o.s.l. Joining point of intersection of a curve and line

The joint equation of POSL joining origin to the points of intersection of line L = lx + my + n = 0 and curve f(x, y) = ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy + c = 0 is
obtained by homogenizing f(x, y) = 0 with the help of L = 0.

Writing the equation of L in the form:

lx +my = 1
−n
Substituting the value to have only second degree terms, we get:

ax
2
+ 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx lx +
⎛
⎜
⎜
−n
my
+ ⎞
2f y
⎟
⎟
lx +my
⎛

−n
⎜
⎜ + c
lx +my 2
−n = 0 which represents combined
⎞
⎟
⎟
⎛
⎜
⎜
⎞
⎟
⎟

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

equation of OA and OB.

16. Some other important concepts

a. Product of perpendicular distances from a point to a p.o.s.l.

1. Product of perpendicular distances from a point (α, β) to POSL ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy + c = 0 is p 1 p 2 . =  aα
2
+ 2hαβ + bβ 2 + 2gα + 2f β + c 

a − b + 4h
 
2 2
 ( ) 

2 2
2. Product of perpendicular distances from origin to POSL ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx +2fy + c = 0 is p 1 p 2 . =  c 

 (a − b 2 + 4h 2
)


b. Distance between parallel p.o.s.l.

+ 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a pair of parallel straight lines iff bg 2 = af 2 and h 2 = ab
1. The Equation a x 2

g 2 − ac f − bc
2
2. The distance between the POSL is given by 2 or 2
a a +b ( b a +b
) ( )