Investigation of the foaming

capacity of different washing

soaps and effect of the addition
of sodium carbonate to it

subheadings

soap:
introduction

short intro about soaps

types of soap
about micelles

hydrophilic and hydrophbic tail

commercial preparation of soap

fat in soap
preparation of soap

factors affecting foaming capacity of soap

experiment 1
1 introduction to the experiment

2 objective

3 theory

4 observation

5 Apparatus Requirements

6 Chemical Requirements

8 Procedure

9 observation

10 results

effect of adding sodium carbonate

experiment 1

Introduction to the Experiment

Soap samples of various brands are taken and their
foaming capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are taken
separately and their foaming capacity is observed. The soap
with the maximum foaming capacity is thus, said to be
having the best cleaning capacity. The test requires to be
done with distilled water as well as with tap water. The
test of soap on distilled water gives the actual strength of
the soaps cleaning capacity. The second test with tap water
tests the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their foaming
capacities.

OBJECTIVE:
To compare the foaming capacity of various soaps.
Theory
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the nature of
the soap and its concentration. This may be compared by
shaking equal volumes of solutions of different samples
having the same concentration with same force for the
same amount of time. The solutions are then allowed to
stand when the foam produced during shaking disappears
gradually. The time taken for the foam to disappear in
each sample is determined. The longer the time taken for
the disappearance of the foam for the given sample of
soap, greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing action.

Apparatus Requirements:
Five 100ml conical flasks, five test tubes, 100ml
measuring cylinder, test tube stand, weighing machine,
stop watch.

Chemical Requirements:
Five different soap samples, distilled water, tap
water.
Procedure
1.Take five 100ml conical flasks and number them 1,2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of
water in each flask and add 8 grams of soap.
2.Warm the contents to get a solution.
3.Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution in different test tubes

4. Close the mouth of the test tube and shake vigorously for a minute.
Do the same for all test tubes and with equal force.

5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate of disappearance of

2mm of froth.

6. Record the observation in tabular form

Observation
The following outcomes were noticed at the end of the
experiment
Result
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in the
order:
Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor has the highest
foaming capacity, in other words, highest cleaning capacity. Lux,
on the other hand is found to have taken the least amount of
time for the disappearance of foam produced and thus is said
to be having the least foaming capacity and cleansing capacity.

The tests show negative results for the presence of the salts
causing hardness in water. The water used does not contain salts
of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water provided is soft and thus, the
experimental results and values hold good for distilled water and
tap water.
 effect of adding sodium
carbonate

soaps samples of various brands are taken and their

foaming capacity is noticed.Various soap samples are
taken separately and their foaming capacity is
observed.The soap with the maximum foaming capacity is
thus, said to be having the best cleaning capacity. The
test requires to be done with distilled water as well as
with tap water. The test of soap on distilled water gives
the actual strength of soaps cleaning capacity. The
second test with tap water tests the effect of Ca++ and
Mg++ salts on their foaming capacities. Effect of adding
of sodium carbonate on soap: adding sodium carbonate
to soap can affect the activity of the soap in different
manners in presence of different types of water. For
example on case of hard water it will precipitate
calcium carbonate and hence, activity of soap will
improve. But in presence of fresh water it will reduce
the interfacial tension but bubbles of soap will not be
formed. In presence of saline water addition of sodium
carbonate may increase pH resulting in scale formation
of calcium carbonate. However, in general the foaming
capacity of detergents is not affected to a very large
extent by addition of sodium carbonate.
 introduction

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids like stearic, palmitic
and oleic acids can be either saturated or unsaturated. They contain a long
hydrocarbon chain of about 10-20 carbon with one carboxylic acid group as the
functional group. A soap molecule a tadpole shaped structure, whose ends have
different polarities. At one end is the long hydrocarbon chain that is non- polar
and hydrophobic, i.e., insoluble in water but oil soluble. At the other end is the
short polar carboxylate ion which is hydrophilic i.e., water soluble but insoluble
in oil and grease. Long Hydrocarbon Chain contain Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic
end. When soap is shaken with water it becomes a soap solution that is colloidal
in nature. Agitating it tends to concentrate the solution on the surface and
causes foaming. This helps the soap molecules make a unimolecular film on the
surface of water and to penetrate the fabric. The long non-polar end of a soap
molecule that are hydrophobic, gravitate towards and surround the dirt (fat or
oil with dust absorbed in it). The short polar end containing the carboxylate ion,
face the water away from the dirt. A number of soap molecules surround or
encircle dirt and grease in a clustered structure called ‘micelles’, which encircles
such particles and emulsify them. Cleansing action of soaps decreases in hard
water. Hard water contains Calcium and magnesium ions which react with sodium
carbonate to produce insoluble carbonates of higher fatty acids. This hardness
can be removed by addition of Sodium Carbonate
 commercial
preparation of soap

The most popular soap making process today is the cold process method,
where fats such as olive oil react with strong alkaline solution, while some
soapers use the historical hot process. Handmade soap differs from
industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used to
consume the alkali (super fatting), and in that the glycerine is not
removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added ‘at trace’
(the point at which the saponification process is sufficiently advanced
that the soap has begun to thicken), after most of the oils have
saponified, so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap.
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal fats. Sodium
Tallowate, a common ingredient in much soap, is derived from
rendered beef fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils, such as
palm oil, and the product is typically softer. An array of specifiable
oils and fats are used in the process such as olive, coconut, palm,
cocoa butter to provide different qualities. For example, olive oil
provides mildness in soap; coconut oil provides lots of lather; while
coconut and palm oils provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can also
be used as an ebullient. Smaller amounts of unsaponifiable oils and
fats that do not yield soap are sometimes added for further
benefits.
 preparations
of soap
HOT AND COLD PROCESS

In cold-process and hot-process soap making, heat may be

required for saponification. Cold-process soap making takes place
at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat
being used. Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be
used right away because the alkali and fat saponify more quickly
at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soap making. Hot-
process soap making was used when the purity of alkali was
unreliable. Cold-process soap making requires exact measurements
of alkali and fat amounts and computing their ratio, using
saponification charts to ensure that the finished product is mild
and skin-friendly.
Hot process:
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat are
boiled together at 80–100 °C until saponification
occurs, which the soap maker can determine by
taste or by eye. After saponification has occurred,
the soap is sometimes precipitated from the
solution by adding salt, and the excess liquid
drained off. The hot, soft soap is then spooned
into a mould.
Cold process:
A cold-process soap maker first looks up the saponification
value of the fats being used on a saponification chart, which
is then used to calculate the appropriate amount of alkali.
Excess unreacted alkali in the soap will result in a very high
pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough alkali and the
soap are greasy. The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils are
heated, or melted if they are solid at room temperature. Once
both substances have cooled to approximately 100-110°F (37-
43°C), and are no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be
combined. This alkali-fat mixture is stirred until “trace”. There
are varying levels of trace. After much stirring, the mixture
turns to the consistency of a thin pudding. “Trace”
corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils
are added at light trace. Introduction to the experiment Soap
samples of various brands are taken and their foaming
capacity is noticed. Various soap samples are taken separately
and their foaming capacity is observed. The soap with the
maximum foaming capacity is thus, said to be having the best
cleaning capacity
 factors affecting
foaming capacity of
soap

If calcium, iron and magnesium compounds are

dissolved in the water, the foaming capability
will be greatly restricted. --Temperature is also
a factor. Hot water create smore foam than
cold water. --Motion of solvent. If water is
moving lot and changing direction it will cause
a great increase in foam .


 about
soaps
Soap is a common term for a number of related compounds used as of washing clothes or
bathing. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as stearic acid (C17 H35
COOH), palmittic acid (C15 H31 COOH) and oleic acid (C17H35 COOH) they have the general
formula RCOONa and R COONa. Soap is produced by a saponification or basic hydrolysis
reaction of a fat or oil. Currently sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide is used to neutralize
the fatty acid and convert it to the salt..

General Overall Hydrolysis Reaction

Although the reaction is shown as one step reaction, it is in fact two steps. The net effect as
that the ester bonds all broken. The glycerol turns back into an alcohol. The fatty acid is
turned into a salt due to the presence of a basic solution of NaoH. In the carboxyl group, one
oxygen now has a negative charge that attacts the positive sodium ion. A molecule of soap
consists of two parts.

a) Alkyl group – it is oil soluble

b) Carboxyl group – It is water soluble

 micelles
Micelles formation is done by substances soaps and detergents when dissolved in water.
The aggregate of colloidal particles which have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts
are called micelles. These are formed above a particular temperature called Kraft's
temperature (Tk) and above certain concentrations, called Critical Micellar Concentration
(CMC).

When present in water, these substances arrange themselves in the spherical structure in
such a manner that their hydrophobic parts are present towards the centre, while the
hydrophilic parts are pointing towards the outside (as shown in the given figure). This is
known as micelles formation.

These molecules are arranged radially with the hydrocarbon or non-polar part towards
the centre and the periphery.

Some examples of Micells System:

Sodium Stearate + Water

Sodium dodecyl + Water

Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide + water

ABOUT
HYDROPHILIC AND
HYDROPHOBIC TAIL
Soaps or detergents are the large hydrocarbon chains. This is a derivative of
fatty acid. The soap has a large hydrocarbon tail and a negative charge head.
The soap in solution dissolves into soap anions and sodium cations. For example
sodium palmitate

The hydrocarbon tail is made of the long carbon chain and it is nonpolar.
Since it is a carbon chain it doesn’t have the affinity towards the water.
Therefore, it is also called the hydrophobic end (or water-hating or repelling).
It is readily soluble in oil and grease The sops are fatty acid derivatives
therefore one end of the hydrocarbon chain bonded to the carboxylic acid
therefore the negatively charged head is polar. It has a great affinity towards
the water. It is also known as the hydrophilic end (water-loving). It is readily
soluble in water.
Additional information:
In aqueous solution, water molecules are polar thus they
surround the head of the molecule and repel the hydrocarbon
tail. Therefore when soap or detergent is dissolved in water,
the molecules associate to form a cluster of molecules called
as the micelles as shown below,

In cleansing, the micelles are arranged in such a way that the

hydrophobic tail (hydrocarbon chain) is attached to the oily
dirt and the hydrophilic head is moving outward. When the
water is shaken vigorously the oily dirt is displaced from the
surface and dissociates into the fragments. Thus, more
hydrophobic tails can be attached to the oil that prevent the
further aggregation of the molecule and removes the dirt
from the fabric.

Note: The micelle is a unique capacity of a soap anion to

aggregate in solution. They are uniquely oriented such that the
hydrophilic head is outward and the hydrophobic tail is
inward towards the oil.
 TYPES OF

SOAP

The type of carboxylic acid & length of the carbon chain

determines the unique properties of varied soaps. Tallow or animal
fats give plimarily sodium stearate (18 carbons) a really hard,
insoluble soap. Fatty acids with longer chains are even more
insoluble. As a matter of fact, 3inc stearate is used in talcum
powders because it's water repellent. copra oil may be a source of
dodecanoic acid (12 carbons) which may be made into sodium
laurate. This soap is extremely soluble & can lather easily even in
sea water. Fatty acids with only 10 or fewer carbons aren't
utilized in soaps because they irritate the skin & have
objectionable odours •