CONTENTS

o AIM
o PREFACE
o INTRODUCTON
o THEORY
o REQUIREMENTS
oPROCEDURE
oOBSERVATONS
o RESULT
o PRECAUTIONS
o BIBLEOGRAPHY
 PREFACE
Soaps and detergents remove dirt and grease
from skin and clothes. But all soaps are not
equally effective in their cleaning action. Soaps
are the Na and Ksalts of higher fatty acids such
as Palmitic acid, Stearic acid and Oleic acid. The
cleansing action ofsoaps depends on the
solubility of the long alkyl chain in grease and
that of the -COONa or the -COOK part in water.
Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet cloth,
the non polar alkyl group dissolves in grease
while the polar -CoONa part dissolves in water.
In this manner, an emulsion is formed between
grease and water which appears as foam. The
washing ability ofsoap depends on foaming
capacitY, as well as the water usead in cleaning.
The salts of Ca and Mg disrupt the formation of
micelle formation. The presence of such salts
makes the water hard and the water is called
hard water. These salts thus make the soap
inefficient in its cleaning action. Sodium
Carbonate when added to hard water reacts with
Ca and Mg and precipitates them out. Therefore
Sodium carbonate is used in the treatment of
hard water. This project aims at finding the
foaming capacity of various soaps and the action
of Ca and Mg salts on their foaming capacity.
 INTRODUCTION
Soap is an ionic surfactant used in conjunction
with water for washing and cleaning, which
historically comes either in solid bars or in the
form ofa viscous liquid. Soap consists ofsodium
or potassium salts of fatty acids and is obtained
by reacting common oils or fats with a
strong alkaline in aprocess known
as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the
base, yielding alkali salts of fatty acids (crude
soap) and glycerol. The general formula of soap
is Fatty end water soluble end CH3-(CH2) n
COONa. Soaps are useful for cleaning because
soap molecules have both a hydrophilic end
which dissolves in water, as well as a hydrophobic
end, which is able to dissolve non polar grease
molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy
water effectively holds particles in colloidal
suspension so it can be rinsed off with clean
ater. The hydrophobic portion dissolves dirt
and oils, while the ionic end dissolves in water.
 The resultant fornms a round structure called
micelle. Therefore, itallows water to remove
normally-insoluble matter by emulsification.
Commercial production of soap:- The
most popular soap making process today is the
cold process method, where fats such as olive oil
react with strong alkaline solution, while
Some soapers use the historical hot prOcess.
Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in
that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes used
to consume the alkali (super fatting), and in that
the glycerin is not removed, leaving a naturall
moisturizing soap and not pure detergent.
Often, emollients such as jojoba oil or Shea
butter are added 'at trace'(the point at which
the saponification process is sufficierntly
advanced that the soap has begun to thicken),
after most of the oils have saponified, so that
they remain unreacted in the finished soap. Fat in
Soap Soap is derived from either vegetable or
animal fats. Sodium Tallowate, a common
ingredient in much soap, is derived
made
from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be
the
of vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and
product is typically softer. An array
of saponifiable oils and fats are used in the
procesS sUch as olive, cOConut, palm, coCoa
butter to provide different qualities. For example,
olive oil provides mildness in soap; cOConut oil
provides lots of lather; while coconut and palm
oils provide hardness. Sometimes castor oil can
also be used as an ebullient. Smaller amounts
of unsaponifable oils and fats that do not yield
Soap are sometimes added for further benefits.
Preparation of soapIn cold-process and hot
process soap making ,heat may be required
for saponification. Cold-process soap making
takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure
the liquification of the fat being used. Unlike
cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be
used right away because the alkali and fat
saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures
used in hotprocess soap making. Hot-process
soap making was used when the purity of alkali
was unreliable Cold-procesS Soap making
requires exact measurements of alkali and fat
nounts and computing their ratio, using
saponification charts to ensure that the finished
product ismild and skin-friendly.
Hot process:- In the hot-process method
alkali and fat are boiled together at 80-100 °C
until saponification occurs, which the soap maker
can determine by taste or by eye. After
saponification has occurred, the soap is
sometimes precipitated from the solution by
adding salt and the excess liquid drained off. The
hot soft soap is then spooned intoa mold.
Cold process:- Acold-process soap maker
first looks up the saponification value of the fats
being used on a sponification chart, which is
then used to calculate the appropriate amount of
alkali. Excess unreacted alkali in the soap will
result in avery high pH and can burn or irritate
skin. Not enough alkali and the soap are geasy.
The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils are
heated, or melted if they are solid at room
temperature. Once both substances have cooled
to approximately 100-110°F (37-43°C) and are
nomore than 10°F (~5.5°) apart, they may be
combined This alkali-fat mixture is stirred until
"trace"

There are varying levels of trace. After much

stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency of a
thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds roughly to
Viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils are added
at light trace. Introduction to the experiment
Soap samples of various brands are taken and
their foaming capacity is noticed. Various soap
samples are taken separately and their foaming
capacity is observed. The soap with the maximum
foaming capacity is thus, said to be having the
best cleaning capacity. The test requires to be
done with distilled water as well as with tap
water. The test of soap on distilled water gives
the actual strength of the soaps cleaning
capacity. The second test with tap water tests the
efect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their foaming
capacities.
 THEORY
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon the
concentration. This
nature of the soap and its of
by shaking equal volumes
may be compared having the same
solutions of differentsamples
the same
Concentration with same force for
solutions are then allowed
amount of time. The
foam produced during shaking
to stand when the taken for the
disappears gradually. The time
each sample is determined.
foam to disappear in
taken for the disappearance
The longer the time
given sample ofsoap, greater
ofthe foam for the
capacity or action.
cleansing
is its foaming
 REQUIREMENTS

> Five 100m/ conical flasks

>five test tubes
> 100ml measuring cylinder
>test tube stand
> weighing machine
> stop watch
Chemical Requirements:
>Five different soap samples
> distilled water
> tap water
 PROCEDURE
number
" Take five 100ml conical flasks and
them 1, 2.34,5. Put 16ml of water in each
flask and add 8 gm of soap.
" Warm the contents to get a solution.
" Take five test tubes; add Im/ ofsoap
solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the
different
process for each soap solution in
test tubes.
the mouth of the test tube and shake
Close
for a minute. Do the same for all
Vigorously
test tubes and with equal force.
immediately and notice the rate
Start the timer
disappearance of2mm of froth.
of
 OBSERVATIONS
Time taken for
Test Tube no Vol. ofsoap Vol. of water disappearance
solution added of 2mm

8 ml 16 ml 1142"
1. Dove

8 ml 16 ml 328"
2. Lux

16 ml 5'10"
3. Detol 8 ml

16 ml 1532"
4. Santoor 8 ml
5. Cinthol 8 ml 16 ml 9'40"
 RESULT
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in
the order: Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Detol >
Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor

has the highest foaming capacity, in other
words, highest cleaning capacity. Lux, on the
other hand is found to have taken the least
amount of time for the disappearance of foam
produced and thus is said to be having the
least foaming capacity and cleansing capacity.
Test for hardness in water Test for Ca2+ and
Mg2+ salts in the water supplied Test for Ca2+
in water H20+ NH4CI+ NH4OH+ (NH4)2CO3
No precipitate Test for Mg2+ in water H2O+
NH4CI+ NH4OH+ (NH4)3P04 No precipitate
The tests show negative results for the
presence of the salts causing hardness in water.
The water used does not contain salts of Ca2+
and Mg2+. The tap water provided is soft and
thus, the experimnental results and values hold
good for distilled water and tap water.
 PRECAUTIoNS

> RECORD THE TIME CAREFULLY.

> MEASURE THE AMOUWT OF SOLUTION

CAREFULLY.

> ALWAYS TAKE LOWER MINISCUS IN

CONSIDERA TION.
 BIBLEOGRAPHY
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