LEVO

A level
Chemistry
For OCR Exam Board
Specification A

The ultimate active recall guide

 ABOUT THIS GUIDE

This guide focuses largely on the art of ‘Active recall’ and how to
utilise your brain at its fullest capacity. Active recall is essentially
the opposite of traditional revision methods. Rather than inputting
information by reading, highlighting, and trying to retain it; this
method teaches you to output information instead by consistently
testing yourself and forcing your brain to recall it- until it moves
over to the long-term memory store.

Think of when you passively memorise a song. You don’t read the
lyrics and highlight them hoping they will stick in your brain. You
sing the lyrics either in your head or out loud, and eventually they
stick in your head for years. This is because you are forcing your
brain to actively utilise that information, which it will then
choose to store long term as it is used often.

The structure of this guide, although it may seem odd, will largely
just be questions. These are short and simple questions that you
need to answer to trigger the process of active recall. That’s it.

*These are NOT exam questions and shouldn’t be treated as

such. These are simply questions surrounding the compulsory
topics that you must do, with the intent to allow you to
memorise key information needed for the exams.*
USING THE ACTIVE RECALL METHOD

Answer your questions 3 times

Attempt 1: Answer from memory, mark when finished

Attempt 2: Answer open book

Attempt 3: Answer from memory again, mark when finished

Comparison

Compare attempts 1 and 3 and see if there are any improvements

Identify
Highlight all the questions you got wrong in BOTH attempts 1&3.
Repeat process until all questions are answered correctly
 ACTIVE RECALL QUESTIONS

This section will be the main body of this guide. Below, you
will find active recall questions that will cover every single
compulsory topic for Year 1/AS and Year 2 A level.
 Module 1- Development of
Practical Skills

Planning Experiments
1.What is the purpose of a control experiment?
2.Name one variable in an experiment that should remain constant.
3.What is the independent variable?
4.Define "reproducibility" in experiments.
5.How would you calculate the mean of a set of data?
6.What is the significance of a pilot experiment?
7.Why is it important to use a range of values in an experiment?
8.Describe how to calculate percentage error.
9.What is meant by "validity" in experimental design?
10.How can you minimize systematic errors?

Practical Techniques
1.How do you accurately measure volume?
2.What is the purpose of a burette?
3.Define "titration" in chemistry.
4.How would you prepare a standard solution?
5.What is the function of a conical flask?
6.Describe the process of filtration.
7.What is the role of a watch glass in experiments?
8.How do you ensure accurate weighing?
9.Explain the purpose of a pipette.
10.What safety precautions should be taken when handling acids?

Presenting Results
1.How do you label axes?
2.What is a data table?
3.Describe a line graph.
4.How do you calculate percentage yield?
5.What units are used for temperature?
6.Define "precision" in measurement.
7.Explain how to calculate concentration.
8.What is a scatter plot?
9.Define "standard deviation" in statistics.
10.How do you calculate rate of reaction?
 Module 1- Development of
Practical Skills

Analysing Results
1.How do you calculate percentage error?
2.What is the purpose of averaging?
3.Define "accuracy" in experimental results.
4.How do you identify outliers?
5.What is a trend in data?
6.Explain the significance of repeats.
7.Describe how to calculate mean.
8.What is meant by "correlation"?
9.How do you determine reliability?
10.Define "uncertainty" in measurements.

Evaluating Experiments
1.How do you identify limitations?
2.What is meant by "reproducibility"?
3.Describe sources of error. 4.How can
you improve accuracy? 5.Define
"validity" in experiments. 6.Explain the
significance of controls. 7.What is a
systematic error? 8.How do you
minimize bias? 9.Define "precision" in
experimentation.
10.Why is peer review important?
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

The Atom
1.What are subatomic particles?
2.Define "atomic number."
3.Describe the nucleus of an atom.
4.What is an electron shell?
5.Explain the concept of isotopes.
6.What determines an element's identity?
7.How do electrons move around the nucleus?
8.Define "mass number."
9.What is the charge of a proton?
10.How does atomic radius change?

Atomic Models
1.Who proposed the plum pudding model?
2.What did Rutherford's experiment demonstrate?
3.Describe Bohr's atomic model.
4.How did Thomson contribute to atomic theory?
5.What is the nucleus composed of?
6.Explain the limitations of Rutherford's model.
7.Who proposed the planetary model?
8.What is the significance of electron shells?
9.Describe the modern atomic model.
10.How do atomic models evolve?

Relative Mass
1.What is the relative mass?
2.How is relative atomic mass calculated?
3.Define "atomic mass unit."
4.What is the mass of a proton?
5.Explain the term "relative isotopic mass."
6.How do you calculate relative formula mass?
7.Define "molar mass."
8.What is the mass of a neutron?
9.How do you calculate relative molecular mass?
10.Explain the significance of relative mass.
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

The Mole
1.What is Avogadro's constant?
2.Define "molar mass."
3.How do you calculate moles?
4.What is the mole concept?
5.Explain the term "molar volume."
6.How many particles in a mole?
7.Describe the relationship between mass and moles.
8.What is the mole ratio?
9.Define "mole fraction."
10.How do you find molarity?

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1.What is an empirical formula?
2.How is the empirical formula determined?
3.Define "molecular formula."
4.How do you calculate molecular formula?
5.What is the relationship between empirical and molecular formulae?
6.Explain the significance of subscripts.
7.How do you find the empirical formula from percentages?
8.What is the simplest formula?
9.Define "stoichiometry" in chemical formulas.
10.How do you calculate the empirical formula mass?

Equations and Calculations

1.What is a chemical equation?
2.How do you balance equations?
3.Define "stoichiometry" in equations.
4.What is a limiting reactant?
5.How do you calculate percentage yield?
6.Define "molar volume."
7.What is Avogadro's law?
8.How do you calculate concentration?
9.What is a mole ratio?
10.Define "empirical formula."
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

Formulae of Ionic Compounds

1.What is an ionic compound?
2.How do you write formulas?
3.Define "cation" and "anion."
4.What is the charge of sodium?
5.How do you determine charges?
6.Explain the criss-cross method.
7.Define "polyatomic ion." 8.What
is the charge of sulfate? 9.How do
you name compounds?
10.Define "ionic bonding."

Acids and Bases

1.What defines an acid?
2.Define "pH."
3.What is a neutralization reaction?
4.Describe the Arrhenius theory.
5.How do acids react with metals?
6.Define "alkali."
7.What is a base according to Arrhenius?
8.How does litmus paper work?
9.What is the pH of acids?
10.Describe the reaction of acids with carbonates.

Titrations
1.What is a titration?
2.Describe the purpose of titration.
3.What is a burette used for?
4.Explain the endpoint in titration.
5.Define "equivalence point."
6.How do you calculate concentration?
7.What is a standard solution?
8.Describe the role of an indicator.
9.How do you perform a titration?
10.What is the formula for titration?
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

Titration Calculations
1.How do you calculate concentration?
2.What is the titration formula?
3.Describe the role of indicators.
4.How do you find volume?
5.What is the purpose of a burette?
6.Define "standard solution."
7.What is a titration curve?
8.How do you determine equivalence?
9.What is the endpoint?
10.What is the meaning of stoichiometry?

Atom Economy and Percentage Yield

1.What is atom economy?
2.Define "percentage yield."
3.How do you calculate atom economy?
4.What does a high atom economy indicate?
5.How do you calculate percentage yield?
6.Explain the significance of high percentage yield.
7.Describe the ideal reaction outcome.
8.What is the purpose of maximizing atom economy?
9.How can you improve percentage yield?
10.Why is maximizing atom economy important?

Oxidation Numbers
1.What is an oxidation number?
2.How do you assign oxidation numbers?
3.Define "oxidation" in chemistry.
4.What is the oxidation state?
5.Describe the oxidation of metals.
6.How do you determine oxidation?
7.What is the oxidation of hydrogen?
8.Define "reduction" in chemistry.
9.How do you balance redox reactions?
10.What is the oxidation of oxygen?
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

Redox Reactions
1.What defines a redox reaction?
2.Explain oxidation and reduction.
3.How do you identify oxidizing agents?
4.What is a reducing agent?
5.Define "half-reaction."
6.How do you balance redox equations?
7.Describe the oxidation state changes.
8.What is a redox couple?
9.What are disproportionation reactions?
10.What is the standard electrode potential?
 Module 2: Section 2- Electrons,
Bonding & Structure

Electronic Structure
1.What are electron shells?
2.How many electrons per shell?
3.Define "subshell."
4.What is the Aufbau principle?
5.Describe the Pauli exclusion principle.
6.What are orbitals?
7.How many orbitals in each subshell?
8.Define "electron configuration."
9.What is the electron cloud?
10.What is Hund's rule?

Ionic Bonding
1.What is an ionic bond?
2.Define "cation" and "anion."
3.How are ions formed?
4.What happens in ionic bonding?
5.Explain electrostatic attraction in ions.
6.Describe the properties of ionic compounds.
7.What are the characteristics of cations?
8.What are the characteristics of anions?
9.How do ionic compounds dissolve?
10.What is lattice energy?

Covalent Bonding
1.What is a covalent bond? 2.Describe the sharing
of electrons. 3.How are covalent bonds formed?
4.What determines bond strength? 5.Define
"molecular orbitals." 6.What are the properties of
covalent compounds? 7.Explain the concept of
electronegativity. 8.Describe polar and nonpolar
bonds. 9.What is a coordinate covalent bond?

10.How do you represent covalent bonds?

 Module 2: Section 2- Electrons,
Bonding & Structure

Shapes of Molecules
1.What determines molecular shape?
2.Define "electron pair repulsion theory."
3.What are the VSEPR rules?
4.Describe linear molecular shape.
5.What is the shape of CO2?
6.Explain the bent molecular shape.
7.Describe trigonal planar molecular shape.
8.What is the shape of CH4?
9.Explain the tetrahedral molecular shape.
10.Describe the pyramidal molecular shape.

Polarity and Intermolecular Forces

1.What is polarity?
2.Define "polar molecule."
3.What determines molecule polarity?
4.Describe dipole-dipole forces.
5.What is a hydrogen bond?
6.How do London dispersion forces work?
7.Explain the concept of van der Waals forces.
8.What is the role of polarity in solubility?
9.Describe the effect of intermolecular forces on boiling points.
10.How do intermolecular forces affect physical properties?
 Module 3: Section 1- The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table

1.What is the periodic table?
2.Who developed the periodic table?
3.How are elements arranged?
4.Define "period" in the periodic table.
5.Describe the significance of groups.
6.What are the properties of metals?
7.Define "periodicity" in chemistry.
8.What is the trend in atomic size?
9.How does electronegativity change?
10.Describe the trend in reactivity.

Ionisation Energies
1.What is ionisation energy?
2.How is ionisation energy measured?
3.Define "first ionisation energy."
4.What happens to ionisation energy?
5.Explain the trend across periods.
6.How does ionisation energy change?
7.Describe the trend down groups.
8.What factors affect ionisation energy?
9.How does nuclear charge affect?
10.What is the effect of shielding?

Structure, Bonding and Properties

1.What determines a substance's properties?
2.Define "chemical bonding."
3.How does bonding affect properties?
4.Describe the properties of ionic compounds.
5.Explain the properties of covalent compounds.
6.What is metallic bonding?
7.Describe the properties of metals.
8.What are the properties of giant covalent structures?
9.Explain the properties of simple molecular structures.
10.How does bonding affect melting points?
 Module 3: Section 1- The Periodic Table

Group 2- The Alkaline Earth Metals

1.What is Group 2?
2.How many valence electrons?
3.Describe the reactivity trend.
4.What is the trend down?
5.How do they react with water?
6.Describe the thermal stability trend.
7.What is the common oxide?
8.How do they react with acids?
9.Describe the solubility trend.
10.What is the flame color?

Group 7- The Halogens

1.What is Group 7? 2.How many
valence electrons? 3.Describe the
reactivity trend. 4.What is the trend
down? 5.How do they react with
metals? 6.Describe the physical
state. 7.What is the common state?
8.How do they react with hydrogen?
9.Describe the color trend.

10.What is the reactivity order?

Disproportionation and Water Treatment

1.What is disproportionation reaction?
2.Define "oxidizing agent" in disproportionation.
3.Define "reducing agent" in disproportionation.
4.How does chlorine undergo disproportionation?
5.Explain the role of Cl2 in water treatment.
6.What is the function of chlorine?
7.Describe the process of chlorination.
8.What is the purpose of chlorination?
9.How does chlorine disinfect water?
10.What are the products of chlorination?
 Module 3: Section 1- The Periodic Table

Test for Ions

1.How do you test for carbonate ions?
2.Describe the test for sulfate ions.
3.What is the test for halide ions?
4.How do you test for chloride ions?
5.What is the test for bromide ions?
6.Describe the test for iodide ions.
7.How do you test for nitrate ions?
8.What is the test for ammonium ions?
9.How do you test for carbonate ions?
10.What is the test for phosphate ions?
 Module 3: Section 2- Physical Chemistry

Enthalpy Changes
1.What is enthalpy?
2.Define "endothermic reaction."
3.Explain "exothermic reaction."
4.What is enthalpy change?
5.Define "standard enthalpy change."
6.How is enthalpy measured?
7.What is the sign convention?
8.What is Hess's Law?
9.Define "bond enthalpy."
10.How do you calculate enthalpy change?

Enthalpy Calculations
1.How do you calculate enthalpy?
2.Define "enthalpy change of reaction."
3.What is the enthalpy change?
4.How do you calculate enthalpy change?
5.Explain enthalpy change of combustion.
6.What is the enthalpy of formation?
7.How is enthalpy of formation calculated?
8.What is Hess's Law used for?
9.How do you apply Hess's Law?
10.Explain bond enthalpy calculation.

Reaction Rates
1.What is reaction rate?
2.Describe factors affecting reaction rate.
3.How does temperature affect rate?
4.What is the effect of concentration?
5.Explain the role of catalysts.
6.How does surface area affect rate?
7.Define "collision theory" in reactions.
8.What are reaction intermediates?
9.How do you measure rate?
10.What is a rate equation?
 Module 3: Section 2- Physical Chemistry

Catalysts
1.What is a catalyst?
2.Describe catalytic converters in cars.
3.How do catalysts work?
4.What is homogeneous catalysis?
5.Explain heterogeneous catalysis.
6.What are enzyme catalysts?
7.Describe the role of transition metals.
8.How do catalysts affect activation?
9.What is the purpose of catalysts?
10.Explain the selectivity of catalysts.

Calculating Reaction Rates

1.How do you calculate rate?
2.Define "initial rate of reaction."
3.What affects reaction rate?
4.Describe the rate-time graphs.
5.Explain "half-life of reaction."
6.What is the rate constant?
7.How do you calculate rate constant?
8.Define "order of reaction."
9.How do you determine order?
10.What is the rate equation?

Dynamic Equilibrium
1.What is dynamic equilibrium? 2.Describe
reversible reactions. 3.How is equilibrium
reached? 4.Explain Le Chatelier's Principle.
5.What affects equilibrium position?
6.Describe the role of catalysts. 7.How does
temperature affect equilibrium? 8.What
happens to reaction rates? 9.How does
pressure affect equilibrium?

10.What is the equilibrium constant?

 Module 3: Section 2- Physical Chemistry

The Equilibrium Constant

1.What is equilibrium constant?
2.Define "law of mass action."
3.How is equilibrium constant expressed?
4.Explain the significance of Kc.
5.What is the reaction quotient?
6.Describe the meaning of Kp.
7.How do you calculate Kc?
8.What is the effect of temperature?
9.How does concentration affect Kc?
10.Explain the meaning of Qc.
 Module 4: Section 1- Basic Concepts
& Hydrocarbons
Organic Chemistry- The Basics
1.What is organic chemistry?
2.Define "hydrocarbons" in organic chemistry.
3.How are hydrocarbons classified?
4.Explain the structure of alkanes.
5.What is the general formula?
6.Describe the properties of alkanes.
7.How do you name alkanes?
8.Define "isomerism" in alkanes.
9.How do alkanes react?
10.What is the combustion reaction?

Alkanes
1.What are alkanes?
2.Describe the bonding in alkanes.
3.How do you name alkanes?
4.What is the general formula?
5.Explain the properties of alkanes.
6.What is the physical state?
7.How do alkanes react?
8.Describe combustion of alkanes.
9.What is the trend in boiling points?
10.How do you prepare alkanes?

Reactions of Alkanes
1.How do alkanes react?
2.Describe combustion of alkanes.
3.What are halogenation reactions?
4.How do alkanes undergo halogenation?
5.What is the role of UV?
6.Explain the mechanism of halogenation.
7.What are the products?
8.How do alkanes undergo combustion?
9.What is the result?
10.How do you balance equations?
 Module 4: Section 1- Basic Concepts
& Hydrocarbons
Alkenes
1.What are alkenes?
2.Describe the bonding in alkenes.
3.How do you name alkenes?
4.What is the general formula?
5.Explain the properties of alkenes.
6.What is the physical state?
7.How do alkenes react?
8.Describe the addition reaction.
9.What is hydrogenation of alkenes?
10.How do you prepare alkenes?

Stereoisomerism
1.What is stereoisomerism?
2.Describe geometric isomerism.
3.How do you determine cis/trans?
4.What are cis/trans isomers?
5.Explain optical isomerism.
6.What are chiral molecules?
7.How do you determine chirality?
8.What are enantiomers?
9.How do enantiomers differ?
10.What is a racemic mixture?

Reactions of Alkenes
1.How do alkenes react?
2.Describe the addition reaction.
3.What are hydrogen halide additions?
4.How do alkenes react with HX?
5.Explain hydration of alkenes.
6.What is the product?
7.How do alkenes react with steam?
8.What are the conditions?
9.How do alkenes react with halogens?
10.What is the result?
 Module 4: Section 1- Basic Concepts
& Hydrocarbons
Polymers
1.What are polymers?
2.Describe polymerization process.
3.What are addition polymers?
4.How are addition polymers formed?
5.Explain condensation polymers.
6.What is the product of condensation?
7.Describe natural polymers.
8.Give examples of natural polymers.
9.What are synthetic polymers?
10.Give examples of synthetic polymers.
 Module 4: Section 2- Alcohols,
Haloalkanes & Analysis

Alcohols
1.What are alcohols?
2.Describe the functional group.
3.How do you name alcohols?
4.What is the general formula?
5.Explain physical properties of alcohols.
6.What are primary alcohols?
7.How do primary alcohols oxidize?
8.What are secondary alcohols?
9.How do secondary alcohols oxidize?
10.Describe tertiary alcohols.

Oxidation of Alcohols
1.How do alcohols oxidize?
2.Describe oxidation of primary alcohols.
3.What are the products?
4.How do you distinguish between alcohols?
5.Explain oxidation of secondary alcohols.
6.What is the product?
7.Describe oxidation of tertiary alcohols.
8.What is the result?
9.How do you test for alcohols?
10.What is the oxidizing agent?

Haloalkanes
1.What are haloalkanes?
2.Describe the functional group. 3.How do
you name haloalkanes? 4.What is the general
formula? 5.Explain physical properties of
haloalkanes. 6.What are primary
haloalkanes? 7.Describe reactions of
haloalkanes. 8.What is nucleophilic
substitution? 9.How do you classify
haloalkanes?
10.What is the leaving group?
 Module 4: Section 2- Alcohols,
Haloalkanes & Analysis

Haloalkanes & the Environment

1.How do haloalkanes affect environment?
2.Describe ozone depletion.
3.What are CFCs?
4.Explain their role in ozone.
5.How do CFCs deplete ozone?
6.What are HCFCs?
7.Describe their impact on ozone.
8.How do HCFCs affect ozone?
9.What are HFCs?
10.Explain their environmental impact.

The Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming

1.What is the greenhouse effect?
2.Describe the role of greenhouse gases.
3.How does the greenhouse effect work?
4.What are greenhouse gases?
5.Explain the impact on climate.
6.What is global warming?
7.Describe the causes of global warming.
8.How does human activity contribute?
9.What are the consequences?
10.How can we mitigate it?

Analytical Techniques
1.What are analytical techniques?
2.Describe spectroscopy.
3.How does chromatography work?
4.Explain titration.
5.What is spectrophotometry used for?
6.Describe gas chromatography.
7.How does mass spectrometry work?
8.What is NMR spectroscopy?
9.How does it analyze compounds?
10.What is infrared spectroscopy?
 Module 4: Section 2- Alcohols,
Haloalkanes & Analysis

Organic Synthesis- Practical Skills

1.What are organic syntheses?
2.Describe reflux and distillation.
3.How do you perform extraction?
4.What is recrystallization used for?
5.Explain filtration in organic synthesis.
6.Describe the use of drying agents.
7.What is vacuum filtration?
8.How do you perform distillation?
9.What is the purpose of reflux?
10.Explain fractional distillation process.

Organic Synthesis- Synthetic Routes

1.What are synthetic routes?
2.Describe addition reactions in synthesis.
3.How do you synthesize alcohols?
4.What are substitution reactions?
5.Explain how to synthesize halogenoalkanes.
6.Describe esterification in synthesis.
7.How do you form esters?
8.What is the purpose of dehydration?
9.Explain oxidation in synthesis.
10.How do you oxidize alcohols?
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Rates of Reaction
1.What are rates of reaction?
2.Describe factors affecting rate.
3.How does concentration affect rate?
4.Explain effect of temperature on rate.
5.What is surface area's effect?
6.Describe role of catalysts.
7.What is collision theory?
8.How do you measure rate?
9.What are initial rates?
10.Explain reaction mechanisms.

Reaction Orders
1.What is reaction order?
2.Describe zero-order reactions.
3.How do you determine order?
4.Explain first-order reactions.
5.What is rate constant?
6.Describe second-order reactions.
7.How do you find order?
8.What is overall reaction order?
9.Explain mixed-order reactions.
10.How to calculate reaction rate?

The Rate Constant

1.What is the rate constant?
2.How is it represented?
3.Describe its units.
4.What is its significance?
5.How do you calculate it?
6.Explain its relationship with temperature.
7.What does a higher rate constant indicate?
8.How does it change with temperature?
9.What is the Arrhenius equation?
10.What affects the rate constant?
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

The Rate-Determining Step

1.What is the rate-determining step?
2.Describe its significance in reactions.
3.How does it affect reaction rate?
4.What determines the rate?
5.Explain concept of slowest step.
6.How do you identify it?
7.Describe transition state theory.
8.What is activation energy?
9.How does it relate?
10.What controls overall reaction rate?

The Arrhenius Equation

1.What is the Arrhenius equation?
2.Describe its purpose in kinetics. 3.What
does it relate to? 4.Explain its components.
5.What does 'A' represent? 6.What is 'Ea'?
7.How do you calculate activation energy?
8.What is the frequency factor? 9.Explain its
relationship with temperature.

10.What does it predict?

The Equilibrium Constant

1.What is the equilibrium constant?
2.How is it denoted?
3.Describe its significance in reactions.
4.What does it indicate?
5.How is it calculated?
6.Explain relationship with concentration.
7.What is Le Chatelier's principle?
8.How does it affect equilibrium?
9.What does a large Kc signify?
10.What does a small Kc signify?
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Equilibrium Concentrations
1.What are equilibrium concentrations?
2.Describe concentrations at equilibrium.
3.How do you calculate concentrations?
4.What is the reaction quotient?
5.Explain Q vs. Kc.
6.Describe equilibrium constant expression.
7.What does Qc represent?
8.How does Qc compare with Kc?
9.What is the significance?
10.How does it determine equilibrium?

Gas Equilibria
1.What is gas equilibrium? 2.Describe
partial pressures. 3.How is total
pressure determined? 4.Explain the
ideal gas law. 5.What is Dalton's law?
6.How does it apply? 7.Describe
equilibrium with gases. 8.What factors
affect equilibrium? 9.How does volume
affect equilibrium?

10.Explain Le Chatelier's principle.

More on Equilibrium Constants

1.What are equilibrium expressions?
2.How do you write them?
3.Describe the equilibrium constant.
4.What does it represent?
5.How do you calculate Kc?
6.What does Kc > 1 signify?
7.Explain Kc < 1.
8.What is reaction quotient Qc?
9.How does it compare with Kc?
10.What is the significance?
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Acids and Bases

1.Define acids and bases.
2.What are their characteristics?
3.Describe Arrhenius theory.
4.How do acids ionize?
5.What is a strong acid?
6.Explain weak acids behavior.
7.Define pH scale.
8.How to calculate pH?
9.What is a neutralization reaction?
10.Describe acid-base indicators.

pH
1.What does pH measure?
2.Define pH numerically.
3.What does a low pH signify?
4.Explain high pH value.
5.Describe pH of acids.
6.What pH do bases have?
7.How is pH calculated?
8.What is neutral pH?
9.What affects pH levels?
10.How to measure pH?

The Acid Dissociation Constant

1.What is the acid dissociation constant?
2.Define Ka numerically.
3.What does a high Ka signify?
4.Explain low Ka value.
5.How is Ka calculated?
6.Describe strong acid Ka.
7.What is weak acid Ka?
8.How does Ka relate to acidity?
9.What is pKa?
10.How to determine Ka?
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Buffers
1.What are buffers?
2.Describe buffer solutions.
3.What do they resist?
4.How do they maintain pH?
5.What components do they contain?
6.Explain buffer capacity.
7.Describe acidic buffer action.
8.What is basic buffer action?
9.How are buffers prepared?
10.What are common buffers?

pH Curves and Titrations

1.What is a pH curve?
2.Describe titration process briefly.
3.What is the equivalence point?
4.How do you calculate pH?
5.Explain pH change during titration.
6.Describe pH at start.
7.What is a buffer region?
8.When does pH stabilize?
9.How does indicator work?
10.What affects titration curve shape?
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Lattice Enthalpy and Born-Haber

1.What is lattice enthalpy?
2.Describe its significance in crystals.
3.How is it measured?
4.Explain Born-Haber cycle.
5.What does it represent?
6.Define sublimation enthalpy.
7.How does it relate?
8.What is ionization enthalpy?
9.Describe electron affinity.
10.How do you calculate lattice enthalpy?

Enthalpies of Solution
1.What is enthalpy of solution?
2.Describe its significance.
3.How is it measured?
4.Explain dissolution process.
5.What factors affect enthalpy?
6.Define solvation enthalpy.
7.What is heat of hydration?
8.How does it relate?
9.Describe endothermic dissolution.
10.How do you calculate enthalpy?

Entropy
1.What is entropy?
2.Describe its significance in thermodynamics.
3.How is it measured?
4.Explain disorder in entropy.
5.What factors affect entropy?
6.Define standard entropy change.
7.What is entropy of formation?
8.How does it relate?
9.Describe entropy change in reactions.
10.How do you calculate entropy?
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Free Energy
1.What is free energy?
2.Describe its significance.
3.How is it calculated?
4.Explain Gibbs free energy.
5.What does negative ΔG imply?
6.Define standard free energy change.
7.What is free energy change?
8.How does it relate to spontaneity?
9.Describe entropy change's role.
10.How do you calculate ΔG?

Redox Equations
1.What are redox reactions?
2.Define oxidation and reduction.
3.How to identify redox reactions?
4.What is the oxidizing agent?
5.What is the reducing agent?
6.Define oxidation state. 7.What
does OIL RIG stand for? 8.What
happens to electrons? 9.How to
balance redox equations?
10.Describe half-reactions briefly.

Redox Titrations
1.What are redox titrations?
2.Describe titration process briefly.
3.What is the indicator used?
4.How to determine endpoint?
5.Define equivalence point.
6.What is titrant in titration?
7.What does the redox reaction involve?
8.How to calculate unknown concentration?
9.Explain stoichiometry in titration.
10.How to prepare the titrant?
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Iodine-Thiosulfate Titrations
1.What is iodine-thiosulfate titration?
2.Describe titration process briefly.
3.What is the reaction equation?
4.Explain the role of starch.
5.How to detect endpoint?
6.Define back titration.
7.What affects accuracy in titration?
8.How to calculate unknown concentration?
9.Describe any common errors.
10.What is the purpose?

Electrochemical Cells
1.What are electrochemical cells?
2.Define oxidation and reduction half-cells.
3.What is anode?
4.What is cathode?
5.Explain cell potential.
6.What is standard electrode potential?
7.How to calculate cell potential?
8.Describe salt bridge function.
9.Define cell notation.
10.What is the cell diagram?

The Electrochemical Series

1.What is the electrochemical series?
2.How are elements arranged?
3.What is standard electrode potential?
4.Explain its significance in reactions.
5.Describe metals' reactivity trend.
6.Which element is standard?
7.How to determine relative reactivity?
8.Define electrolysis.
9.How does it relate?
10.What is its practical use?
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Storage and Fuel Cells

1.What are storage cells?
2.Describe fuel cells briefly.
3.How does a battery work?
4.Explain fuel cell operation.
5.What are the types?
6.What is an anode?
7.What is a cathode?
8.How to recharge cells?
9.What are electrolytes' roles?
10.State advantages of fuel cells?
 Module 5: Section 3- Transition Elements

The d-block
1.What is the d-block?
2.How many elements?
3.What are its properties?
4.Describe transition metals' characteristics.
5.What is a complex ion?
6.Explain ligands' role.
7.How do ligands coordinate?
8.Define coordination number.
9.Describe d-block oxidation states.
10.State d-block's significance.

Properties of Transition Elements

1.What are transition elements?
2.Describe their electron configurations.
3.Explain their metallic properties.
4.What are complex ions?
5.State their catalytic properties.
6.What colors do they exhibit?
7.Define variable oxidation states.
8.How do they form ions?
9.What are their magnetic properties?
10.Describe their uses.

Ligands and Complex Ions

1.What are ligands?
2.Describe coordination number.
3.How do ligands coordinate?
4.What is a complex ion?
5.Define chelation.
6.Explain coordination isomerism.
7.What is geometric isomerism?
8.State its significance.
9.What is optical isomerism?
10.Why are complex ions colorful?
 Module 5: Section 3- Transition Elements

Substitution Reactions
1.What are substitution reactions?
2.Describe nucleophilic substitution.
3.Explain electrophilic substitution.
4.What are SN1 and SN2?
5.Compare their reaction mechanisms.
6.What factors affect reactions?
7.State the leaving group role.
8.What are the reaction outcomes?
9.How do substitution reactions proceed?
10.Describe their applications briefly.

Reactions of Ions
1.What are ion reactions?
2.Describe precipitation reactions.
3.Explain redox reactions involving ions.
4.What is a salt?
5.How do ions form salts?
6.Define oxidation and reduction.
7.Give examples of redox reactions.
8.What are oxidation states?
9.Explain disproportionation reactions.
10.State the importance of ions.
 Module 6: Section 1- Aromatic
Compounds & Carbonyls

Benzene and Aromatic Compounds

1.What is benzene's structure?
2.Describe its electron delocalization.
3.What is resonance in benzene?
4.Explain its stability compared?
5.How does benzene undergo substitution?
6.State its reactivity towards electrophiles.
7.Describe its reaction with halogens.
8.What are aromatic compounds?
9.Compare benzene to alkenes.
10.Explain benzene's industrial applications.

Electrophilic Substitution
1.What is electrophilic substitution?
2.Describe the role of electrophile.
3.How does benzene react?
4.Explain the electrophilic substitution mechanism.
5.State the conditions required.
6.Give an example of electrophilic substitution.
7.What are the products formed?
8.How does the benzene ring activate?
9.Compare reactivity of benzene derivatives.
10.What are the industrial applications?

Substituted Benzene Rings

1.What are substituted benzene rings?
2.Explain ortho, meta, para directing.
3.Define activating and deactivating groups.
4.How do substituents affect reactivity?
5.Describe electron-donating groups. 6.List
examples of activating groups. 7.Explain
electron-withdrawing groups. 8.Give
examples of deactivating groups. 9.How do
substituents affect product?
10.State their significance in synthesis.
 Module 6: Section 1- Aromatic
Compounds & Carbonyls

Aldehydes and Ketones

1.What are aldehydes and ketones?
2.Describe their functional groups.
3.How do they differ structurally?
4.State an example of each.
5.What are common properties?
6.Explain their boiling points.
7.How do they react differently?
8.Discuss their acidity/basicity.
9.Describe their solubility in water.
10.What are typical uses?

Carboxylic Acids and Acyl Chlorides

1.What is a carboxylic acid?
2.Describe its functional group.
3.How do they differ from aldehydes?
4.State common examples of carboxylic acids.
5.What is an acyl chloride?
6.Explain its structure and formula.
7.How are they synthesized?
8.Discuss their reactivity compared to carboxylic acids.
9.What are typical reactions of carboxylic acids?
10.What are typical reactions of acyl chlorides?

Esters
1.What are esters?
2.How are esters formed?
3.What is the functional group of esters?
4.Describe their smell.
5.How are esters named?
6.State examples of esters.
7.What type of reaction forms esters?
8.What are esters used for?
9.How do esters differ from carboxylic acids?
10.What is the reaction of esters with water called?
 Module 6: Section 2- Nitrogen Compounds,
Polymers & Synthesis

Amines and Amides

1.What are amines?
2.Describe the amine functional group.
3.How are amines classified?
4.Give examples of primary amines.
5.What is the odor of amines?
6.How are amides formed?
7.What is the functional group of amides?
8.State examples of amides.
9.What is the role of amines in biology?
10.How do amides differ from amines?

Chirality
1.What is chirality?
2.Define a chiral molecule.
3.How is chirality determined?
4.What does an asymmetric carbon signify?
5.Describe enantiomers.
6.How do enantiomers differ?
7.What is a racemic mixture?
8.Can a molecule with a plane of symmetry be chiral?
9.Explain optical activity.
10.What is meant by "handedness" in chirality?

Polymers
1.What are polymers made of?
2.Define polymerization.
3.Name a natural polymer.
4.What are monomers?
5.Describe addition polymerization.
6.Give an example of a condensation polymer.
7.What properties do polymers exhibit?
8.How are polymers classified?
9.Explain the concept of cross-linking.
10.What is a copolymer?
 Module 6: Section 2- Nitrogen Compounds,
Polymers & Synthesis

More on Polymers
1.What are copolymers?
2.Define homopolymers.
3.What is a branched polymer?
4.Explain the term cross-linking.
5.Name a thermoplastic polymer.
6.Describe the structure of PVC.
7.What are elastomers?
8.Give an example of a thermosetting polymer.
9.Define polymer crystallinity.
10.What is polymer degradation?

Carbon-Carbon bond Synthesis

1.What is a Grignard reagent?
2.Name a common Grignard reagent.
3.What type of compound reacts with Grignard reagents?
4.Describe the Wittig reaction.
5.What reagent is used in the Wittig reaction?
6.How is a carboxylic acid converted to an ester?
7.What is the purpose of a Friedel-Crafts reaction?
8.Name a common reagent in Friedel-Crafts acylation.
9.What are the products of a Diels-Alder reaction?
10.Describe the Heck reaction.

Organic Synthesis- Practical Techniques

1.What is reflux used for?
2.How does distillation work?
3.Describe extraction in chemistry.
4.What's the purpose of recrystallization?
5.Define chromatography in chemistry.
6.Why use a drying agent?
7.Explain the role of filtration.
8.What's the aim of distillation?
9.Describe the purpose of extraction.
10.What's the function of chromatography?
 Module 6: Section 2- Nitrogen Compounds,
Polymers & Synthesis

Functional Groups
1.What defines a functional group?
2.Identify the alcohol functional group.
3.What is the formula for aldehydes?
4.Name the functional group in carboxylic acids.
5.Which functional group is in ketones?
6.What's the functional group in amines?
7.Identify the functional group in ethers.
8.What's the functional group in esters?
9.Name the functional group in amides.
10.Identify the functional group in halogenoalkanes.

Synthetic Routes
1.What are synthetic routes?
2.Define retrosynthesis.
3.Name a common starting material.
4.What's a key intermediate?
5.What's the purpose of protecting groups?
6.Define functional group interconversion.
7.What's a common reagent?
8.Name a common reducing agent.
9.Define nucleophile.
10.What's a common leaving group?
 Module 6: Section 3- Analysis

Tests for Organic Functional Groups

1.How do you test for alkenes?
2.What reagent tests for alkenes?
3.How do you test for alcohols?
4.What reagent tests for alcohols?
5.How do you test for carboxylic acids?
6.What reagent tests for carboxylic acids?
7.How do you test for aldehydes?
8.What reagent tests for aldehydes?
9.How do you test for ketones?
10.What reagent tests for ketones?

Chromatography
1.What does TLC stand for?
2.What does HPLC stand for?
3.How does paper chromatography work?
4.What's the purpose of the stationary phase in chromatography?
5.What's the purpose of the mobile phase in chromatography?
6.What's the principle behind thin-layer chromatography (TLC)?
7.What's the principle behind high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)?
8.Name a common stationary phase in gas chromatography.
9.What's the purpose of the detector in chromatography?
10.How is retention factor (Rf) calculated?

NMR Spectroscopy
1.What does NMR stand for?
2.What property of atoms does NMR exploit?
3.What type of nuclei are commonly studied in NMR?
4.What does the chemical shift measure?
5.What does integration measure in NMR?
6.How does NMR spectroscopy distinguish between different atoms in a molecule?
7.What does the splitting pattern in NMR indicate?
8.How does the magnetic field strength affect NMR signals?
9.What unit is chemical shift measured in?
10.What type of information does NMR provide about a molecule?
 Module 6: Section 3- Analysis

Proton NMR
1.What does proton NMR measure?
2.What property of protons is utilized in proton NMR?
3.What does the chemical shift represent in proton NMR?
4.How does the number of peaks relate to the number of hydrogen environments?
5.What does the area under a peak represent?
6.What is meant by the term "shielding" in proton NMR?
7.What type of solvent is commonly used in proton NMR experiments?
8.What is TMS used for in proton NMR?
9.How is the chemical shift scale calibrated in proton NMR?
10.What information can coupling patterns provide in proton NMR?

More on Spectra
1.What does IR spectroscopy measure?
2.What types of bonds are detected by IR spectroscopy?
3.What is the fingerprint region in an IR spectrum?
4.How does mass spectrometry ionize compounds?
5.What information does mass spectrometry provide?
6.What is the base peak in a mass spectrum?
7.How are fragments formed in mass spectrometry?
8.What does the molecular ion peak represent?
9.How is molecular weight determined in mass spectrometry?
10.What is the principle behind UV-Vis spectroscopy?
 ACTIVE RECALL ANSWERS

Please find the answers for your Active recall Questions

Below
 Module 1- Development of
Practical Skills

Planning Experiments
1.Compare results, check consistency.
2.Controlled variables.
3.Manipulated variable.
4.Consistency of results.
5.Sum divided by count.
6.Test feasibility, adjust procedure.
7.To assess trend accurately.
8.|(experimental - accepted) / accepted| × 100.
9.Accuracy of experimental results.
10.Calibration, standardization, careful technique.

Practical Techniques
1.Use graduated cylinder, eye level.
2.Deliver precise volumes of solutions.
3.Controlled reaction to determine concentration.
4.Dissolve solute in solvent.
5.Hold, mix, contain liquids.
6.Separate solid from liquid.
7.Evaporation, small-scale reactions containment.
8.Zero balance, handle carefully.
9.Accurately transfer small volumes.
10.Wear goggles, use fume hood.

Presenting Results
1.Quantity vs. unit.
2.Organized presentation of data.
3.Connects plotted points, shows trend.
4.(actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100.
5.Celsius or Kelvin.
6.Consistency of repeated measurements.
7.(moles of solute / volume of solvent).
8.Shows relationship between variables.
9.Measure of data dispersion.
10.Change in concentration / time.
 Module 1- Development of
Practical Skills

Analysing Results
1.|(experimental - accepted) / accepted| × 100.
2.Reduce random errors, improve precision.
3.Closeness to true value. 4.Data points far
from trend. 5.Consistent pattern in data.
6.Check for result consistency. 7.Sum
divided by count. 8.Relationship between
two variables. 9.Consistency of experimental
outcomes.

10.Range of possible measurement values.

Evaluating Experiments
1.Identify weaknesses, suggest improvements.
2.Consistency of experimental results.
3.Human error, equipment limitations, etc.
4.Calibrate equipment, repeat measurements.
5.Accuracy of experimental design.
6.Ensure experimental conditions controlled.
7.Consistent error in measurements.
8.Remove subjective influences, use controls.
9.Consistency of repeated measurements.
10.Ensure scientific rigor, accuracy.
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

The Atom
1.Protons, neutrons, electrons.
2.Number of protons.
3.Contains protons and neutrons.
4.Energy level around nucleus.
5.Atoms with same protons, different neutrons.
6.Number of protons.
7.In specific energy levels.
8.Protons + neutrons.
9. Positive.
10.Increases down a group.

Atomic Models
1.J.J. Thomson.
2.Atom mostly empty space.
3.Electrons in specific orbits.
4.Discovered electrons, proposed model.
5.Protons and neutrons.
6.Couldn't explain electron's behavior.
7.Niels Bohr.
8.Energy levels, electron arrangement.
9.Electron cloud, nucleus center.
10.Based on new evidence.

Relative Mass
1.Comparison to carbon-12 atom.
2.Average mass of isotopes.
3.Mass of 1/12 carbon-12 atom.
4.1 atomic mass unit (amu).
5.Mass compared to carbon-12.
6.Sum of atomic masses.
7.Mass of 1 mole substance.
8.1 atomic mass unit (amu).
9.Sum of atomic masses.
10.Standard for comparing masses.
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

The Mole
1.6.022 × 10^23 particles/mol.
2.Mass of 1 mole substance. 3.Mass
divided by molar mass. 4.Number of
atoms or molecules. 5.Volume
occupied by 1 mole. 6.Avogadro's
number. 7.Directly proportional
relationship. 8.Ratio of moles in
reaction. 9.Ratio of moles in mixture.
10.Moles of solute / volume.

Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1.Simplest ratio of atoms.
2.Divide by greatest common divisor.
3.Actual number of atoms.
4.Molecular mass / empirical mass.
5.Whole-number multiples of each other.
6.Represents ratio of atoms.
7.Convert % to moles.
8.Same as empirical formula.
9.Quantitative relationships in reactions.
10.Sum of atomic masses.

Equations and Calculations

1.Reactants to products representation.
2.Adjust coefficients, conserve atoms.
3.Quantitative relationships in reactions.
4.Reactant that runs out first.
5.(actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100.
6.Volume occupied by 1 mole.
7.Equal volumes contain equal particles.
8.Moles of solute / volume.
9.Ratio of moles in reaction.
10.Simplest ratio of atoms.
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

Formulae of Ionic Compounds

1.Metal and nonmetal combination.
2.Balance charges, criss-cross method.
3.Positive, negative ions.
4.+1.
5.Group number or oxidation state.
6.Swap and drop method.
7.Charged group of atoms.
8.-2.
9.Cation, anion, suffix -ide.
10.Transfer of electron attraction.

Acids and Bases

1.Donate proton (H⁺).
2.Measure of acidity or alkalinity.
3.Acid and base reaction. 4.Acids
produce H⁺, bases OH⁻.
5.Produce hydrogen gas.
6.Soluble base, produces OH⁻.
7.Produces OH⁻ ions in water.
8.Change color in presence.
9.Below 7.
10.Produce carbon dioxide gas.

Titrations
1.Volume measurement chemical reaction.
2.Determine unknown concentration substance.
3.Deliver precise volume solutions.
4.Point indicator changes color.
5.Stoichiometrically equal amounts reactants.
6.Volume × concentration before/after equivalence.
7.Solution of known concentration.
8.Signals endpoint of reaction.
9.Slowly add titrant to analyte.
10.Moles titrant = moles analyte.
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

Titration Calculations
1.Volume × concentration before/after equivalence.
2.Moles titrant = moles analyte.
3.Signals endpoint of reaction.
4.Reading before, after titration.
5.Deliver precise volume solutions.
6.Solution of known concentration.
7.Plot pH vs. volume added.
8.Equal moles reactants, sharp pH change.
9.Point indicator changes color.
10.Balanced reaction quantities.

Atom Economy and Percentage Yield

1.Efficiency of reaction process.
2.Actual yield / theoretical yield.
3.(Molecular mass of desired product / sum of molecular masses of all products and
reactants) × 100.
4.Minimal waste, maximum product.
5.(Actual yield / theoretical yield) × 100.
6.Efficient use of resources.
7.Maximized product, minimal waste.
8.Minimize waste, conserve resources.
9.Optimize reaction conditions, purification.
10.Minimize waste, conserve resources.

Oxidation Numbers
1.Charge of atom.
2.Rules or by calculation.
3.Loss of electrons.
4.Charge of atom.
5.Loss of electrons.
6.Rules or by calculation.
7.+1 in most compounds.
8.Gain of electrons.
9.Add or remove electrons.
10.-2 in most compounds.
 Module 2: Section 1- Atoms and Reactions

Redox Reactions
1.Transfer of electrons.
2.Loss, gain of electrons.
3.Gains electrons, reduced itself.
4.Loses electrons, oxidized itself.
5.Separate oxidation or reduction process.
6.Adjust atoms, charge balance.
7.Changes in oxidation states. 8.Oxidized and
reduced form. 9.Element both oxidized, reduced
simultaneously.
10.Measure of redox potential.
 Module 2: Section 2- Electrons,
Bonding & Structure

Electronic Structure
1.Energy levels around nucleus.
2. 2n^2.
3.Orbitals with specific energy.
4.Fill lowest energy first.
5.Max two electrons, opposite spin.
6.Regions of electron probability.
7.s = 1, p = 3, d = 5, f = 7.
8.Arrangement of electrons in atom.
9.Space around nucleus, electron probability.
10.Fill orbitals singly, same spin.

Ionic Bonding
1.Transfer of electrons, oppositely charged.
2.Positive, negative ions.
3.Loss or gain of electrons.
4.Transfer of electrons between ions.
5.Opposite charged ions attract.
6.High melting, boiling points.
7.Small, positively charged ions.
8.Large, negatively charged ions.
9.Separate into ions, dissolve.
10.Energy to separate ions.

Covalent Bonding
1.Shared pair of electrons.
2.Between nonmetal atoms, sharing electrons.
3.Overlapping atomic orbitals, sharing electrons.
4.Number of shared electrons.
5.Overlapping atomic orbitals form.
6.Low melting, boiling points.
7.Atom's attraction for electrons.
8.Unequal, equal sharing of electrons.
9.Both electrons from one atom.
10.Lines between bonded atoms.
 Module 2: Section 2- Electrons,
Bonding & Structure

Shapes of Molecules
1.Electron pair arrangement around central.
2.Electron pairs repel to minimize.
3.Electron pairs arrange to minimize.
4.Linear, 180 degrees bond angle. 5.Linear,
180 degrees bond angle. 6.Bent, less than 120
degrees. 7.Trigonal planar, 120 degrees.
8.Tetrahedral, 109.5 degrees bond.
9.Tetrahedral, 109.5 degrees bond.

10.Trigonal pyramidal, less than 109.5.

Polarity and Intermolecular Forces

1.Unequal sharing of electrons.
2.Molecule with partial charges.
3.Asymmetrical electron distribution.
4.Attraction between polar molecules.
5.Strong dipole-dipole attraction.
6.Temporary dipoles attract temporarily.
7.Weak attractions between molecules.
8.Like dissolves like principle.
9.Stronger forces, higher boiling points.
10.Stronger forces, higher boiling points.
 Module 3: Section 1- The Periodic Table

The Periodic Table

1.Arrangement of chemical elements.
2.Dmitri Mendeleev.
3.By increasing atomic number.
4.Horizontal row of elements.
5.Similar chemical properties column-wise.
6.Shiny, conductive, malleable elements.
7.Gradual repetition of properties.
8.Increases down a group.
9.Decreases down a group.
10.Increases down a group.

Ionisation Energies
1.Energy to remove electron.
2.Energy required to remove electron. 3.Energy to
remove first electron. 4.Increases across periods,
decreases down groups. 5.Increases across periods,
decreases down groups. 6.Increases across periods.
7.Decreases down a group. 8.Nuclear charge,
shielding, distance. 9.More protons, higher
ionisation energy.

10.Shielding reduces effective nuclear charge.

Structure, Bonding and Properties

1.Structure and bonding arrangement.
2.Forces holding atoms together.
3.Determines physical, chemical properties.
4.High melting, boiling points.
5.Low melting, boiling points.
6.Sea of delocalized electrons.
7.High melting, boiling points.
8.High melting, boiling points.
9.Low melting, boiling points.
10.Strong bonds, higher melting points.
 Module 3: Section 1- The Periodic Table

Group 2- The Alkaline Earth Metals

1.Alkaline earth metals group.
2.Two valence electrons. 3.Increases
down the group. 4.Increases down
the group. 5.Form metal hydroxides,
hydrogen. 6.Increases down the
group. 7.Metal oxide, alkaline
solution. 8.React to form hydrogen
gas. 9.Increases down the group.

10.Reddish-orange flame color.

Group 7- The Halogens

1.Halogens group.
2.Seven valence electrons.
3.Decreases down the group.
4.Decreases down the group.
5.Form metal halides. 6.Gases
or liquids. 7.Gaseous state.
8.Form hydrogen halides.
9.Gets darker down group.

10.F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2.

Disproportionation and Water Treatment

1.Simultaneous oxidation, reduction of species.
2.Oxidizes one substance, reduces another.
3.Reduces one substance, oxidizes another.
4.Cl2 → Cl- + ClO3-. 5.Kills bacteria,
disinfects water. 6.Kills microorganisms,
purifies water. 7.Addition of chlorine to
water. 8.Kill bacteria, prevent diseases.
9.Kills bacteria, viruses, pathogens.

10.Hypochlorous acid, chlorate ions.

 Module 3: Section 1- The Periodic Table

Test for Ions

1.React with dilute acid, effervescence.
2.Add barium chloride, white precipitate.
3.Add silver nitrate, precipitate formed.
4.Add silver nitrate, white precipitate.
5.Add silver nitrate, cream precipitate.
6.Add silver nitrate, yellow precipitate.
7.Add sodium hydroxide, warm, ammonia.
8.Add sodium hydroxide, warm, ammonia.
9.React with dilute acid, effervescence.
10.Add ammonium molybdate, acid, heat.
 Module 3: Section 2- Physical Chemistry

Enthalpy Changes
Heat energy of system.
2. Absorbs heat from surroundings.
3. Releases heat to surroundings.
4. Heat absorbed or released.
5. Enthalpy change under standard conditions.
6. Calorimetry or enthalpy change.
7. • for endothermic, - for exothermic.
8. Total enthalpy change independent steps.
9. Energy to break bonds.
10. ∑(bonds broken) - ∑(bonds formed).

Enthalpy Calculations
1.Energy change = products - reactants.
2.Energy change during reaction.
3.Heat absorbed or released.
4.Sum bonds broken - formed.
5.Heat released during combustion.
6.Enthalpy change forming compound.
7.Sum of products minus reactants.
8.Total enthalpy change independent steps.
9.Sum of enthalpy changes steps.
10.Energy to break bonds.

Reaction Rates
1.Speed of reaction.
2.Concentration, temperature, catalysts, surface.
3.Increases with temperature rise.
4.Higher concentration, faster rate.
5.Increase reaction rate significantly.
6.Larger surface area, faster.
7.Reactants must collide effectively.
8.Produced, consumed during reaction.
9.Change in concentration over time.
10.Relationship between rate, concentrations.
 Module 3: Section 2- Physical Chemistry

Catalysts
1.Speeds up chemical reaction.
2.Reduces pollutants in exhaust gases.
3.Lower activation energy barrier.
4.Same phase as reactants.
5.Different phase as reactants.
6.Biological catalysts in living organisms.
7.Act as catalysts in reactions.
8.Lower activation energy barrier.
9.Increase rate without consumed.
10.Promote specific reaction pathways.

Calculating Reaction Rates

1.Change in concentration / time.
2.Rate at start of reaction.
3.Temperature, concentration, catalysts, surface area.
4.Initial gradient of curve.
5.Time for concentration halved.
6.Constant in rate equation.
7.Slope of concentration-time graph.
8.Sum of powers of concentration.
9.Experimental determination of k.
10.Mathematical expression for rate.

Dynamic Equilibrium
1.Forward, reverse reaction rates equal.
2.Both forward, reverse reactions occur.
3.Forward, reverse rates equalized.
4.System adjusts to change.
5.Changes in concentration, temperature, pressure.
6.Speeds up forward, reverse reactions.
7.Shifts equilibrium towards endothermic, exothermic.
8.Equal at equilibrium.
9.Shifts equilibrium to fewer moles.
10.Ratio of product, reactant concentrations.
 Module 3: Section 2- Physical Chemistry

The Equilibrium Constant

1.Ratio of product, reactant concentrations.
2.Equilibrium constant expression, concentrations.
3.Ratio of product, reactant concentrations.
4.Indicates extent of reaction. 5.Reaction quotient
at any point. 6.Equilibrium constant for gases.
7.Concentration product/reactant concentrations.
8.Temperature change shifts equilibrium position.
9.Higher concentrations, larger Kc.

10.Compares Qc to Kc.
 Module 4: Section 1- Basic Concepts
& Hydrocarbons
Organic Chemistry- The Basics
1.Study of carbon compounds.
2.Compounds containing hydrogen, carbon.
3.Saturated, unsaturated, aromatic compounds.
4.Single bonds, tetrahedral shape.
5. CnH2n+2.
6.Nonpolar, relatively unreactive.
7.Follow IUPAC naming rules.
8.Same formula, different structure.
9.Combustion, substitution with halogens.
10.Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water.

Alkanes
1.Saturated hydrocarbons containing only C-C single bonds.
2.Single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
3.Follow IUPAC naming rules.
4. CnH2n+2.
5.Nonpolar, relatively unreactive.
6.Gases, liquids, or solids.
7.Combustion, substitution with halogens.
8.Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water.
9.Increase with increasing chain length.
10.From crude oil by distillation.

Reactions of Alkanes
1.Slow, unreactive under normal conditions.
2.Hydrocarbon + oxygen → CO2 + H2O.
3.Substitution reactions with halogens.
4.Substitution of hydrogen atoms.
5.UV breaks halogen molecule bond.
6.Initiation, propagation, termination steps.
7.Halogenated alkane + HX.
8.Complete oxidation, release energy.
9.Heat, light, carbon dioxide, water.
10.Equal atoms on both sides.
 Module 4: Section 1- Basic Concepts
& Hydrocarbons
Alkenes
1.Unsaturated hydrocarbons with C=C.
2.One double bond between carbons.
3.Follow IUPAC naming rules.
4. CnH2n.
5.Relatively reactive, undergo addition.
6.Gases, liquids, or volatile.
7.Addition reactions with electrophiles.
8.Add X2 or HX.
9.Hydrogen gas + catalyst.
10.Cracking of petroleum fractions.

Stereoisomerism
1.Same molecular formula, arrangement differs.
2.Restricted rotation around C=C.
3.Relative position of substituents.
4.Different arrangement around C=C.
5.Mirror images, non-superimposable.
6.Molecules with asymmetric carbon.
7.No plane of symmetry.
8.Non-superimposable mirror images.
9.Different optical activity.
10.Equal amounts of enantiomers.

Reactions of Alkenes
1.Addition reactions with electrophiles.
2.Addition of electrophile to alkene.
3.Addition of HX to alkene.
4.Markovnikov's rule, carbocation intermediate.
5.Addition of water to alkene.
6. Alcohol.
7.Acidic conditions, high temperature.
8.Phosphoric acid, 300°C.
9.Addition of X2 to alkene.
10.Di-halogenoalkane formation.
 Module 4: Section 1- Basic Concepts
& Hydrocarbons
Polymers
1.Large molecules from monomers.
2.Monomers join to form polymer.
3.Formed from unsaturated monomers.
4.By addition polymerization reaction.
5.Formed by monomer condensation.
6.Water.
7.Polymers from natural sources.
8.Starch, cellulose, proteins, DNA.
9.Man-made polymers from monomers.
10.PVC, nylon, polyester, Teflon.
 Module 4: Section 2- Alcohols,
Haloalkanes & Analysis

Alcohols
1.Hydroxyl (-OH) functional group.
2.Carbon attached to -OH.
3.Follow IUPAC naming rules.
4. CnH2n+1OH.
5.Polar, higher boiling points.
6.Carbon attached to one alkyl.
7.Oxidize to aldehydes, carboxylic acids.
8.Carbon attached to two alkyl.
9.Oxidize to ketones.
10.No hydrogen on carbon.

Oxidation of Alcohols
1.Gain oxygen, lose hydrogen.
2.Aldehyde, then carboxylic acid.
3.Aldehyde or carboxylic acid.
4.Tollen's, Fehling's, Benedict's tests.
5.Ketone formation.
6. Ketone.
7.No reaction under mild conditions.
8.No reaction.
9.Change in color.
10.Oxidizing agent: acidified potassium dichromate.

Haloalkanes
1.Alkanes with halogen substituents.
2.Carbon attached to halogen.
3.Follow IUPAC naming rules.
4.R-X (X = halogen).
5.Polar, higher boiling points.
6.Carbon attached to one alkyl.
7.Nucleophilic substitution, elimination reactions.
8.Replacement of leaving group.
9.Methyl, primary, secondary, tertiary.
10.Halide ion (X⁻).
 Module 4: Section 2- Alcohols,
Haloalkanes & Analysis

Haloalkanes & the Environment

1.Contribute to ozone depletion.
2.Thinning of ozone layer.
3. Chlorofluorocarbons.
4.Degrade ozone in stratosphere.
5.Release chlorine radicals, react.
6. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons.
7.Less damaging than CFCs.
8.Break down faster, less harm.
9. Hydrofluorocarbons.
10.Weaker effect on ozone layer.

The Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming

1.Trapping heat in atmosphere.
2.Trap heat, warm atmosphere.
3.Absorb and re-radiate infrared.
4.CO2, methane, water vapor. 5.Rise
in average temperatures. 6.Increase
in Earth's temperature. 7.Burning
fossil fuels, deforestation.
8.Emissions of greenhouse gases.
9.Rising sea levels, extreme weather.
10.Reduce emissions, adopt renewables.

Analytical Techniques
1.Methods to analyze substances.
2.Identify compounds by spectra.
3.Separate mixtures based on properties.
4.Determine concentration of solutions.
5.Measure concentration using light.
6.Separate and analyze volatile compounds.
7.Identify and quantify compounds.
8.Analyze atomic and molecular structure.
9.Based on atomic nuclei properties.
10.Identify functional groups in compounds.
 Module 4: Section 2- Alcohols,
Haloalkanes & Analysis

Organic Synthesis- Practical Skills

1.Creating organic compounds. 2.Separate and
purify mixtures. 3.Separate soluble
components from mixture. 4.Purify solid
compounds. 5.Separate solid from liquid.
6.Remove water or impurities. 7.Speed up
filtration process. 8.Separate liquids by boiling
points. 9.Prevent loss of volatile components.

10.Separate liquids with close boiling points.

Organic Synthesis- Synthetic Routes

1.Paths to organic compounds.
2.Add reagents to double bond.
3.Hydration, reduction, or substitution.
4.Replacement of functional group.
5.React alkane with halogen.
6.React alcohol with carboxylic acid.
7.Acid catalyst with heating.
8.Remove water, drive reaction forward.
9.Increase oxidation state of carbon.
10.Use oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7.
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Rates of Reaction
1.Change in concentration over time.
2.Concentration, temperature, surface area, catalyst.
3.Increase concentration, increase rate.
4.Higher temperature, faster rate.
5.Increase surface area, faster rate.
6.Speed up reaction without consuming.
7.Particles must collide with energy.
8.Monitoring change in concentration.
9.At beginning of reaction.
10.Series of elementary reactions steps.

Reaction Orders
1.Exponent of concentration term.
2.Rate independent of concentration.
3.From rate equation experimentally.
4.Rate proportional to concentration.
5.Rate of reaction at equilibrium.
6.Rate proportional to square concentration.
7.Experimentally or from rate law.
8.Sum of individual orders.
9.Combination of different orders.
10.Using rate equation expression.

The Rate Constant

1.Proportionality constant in rate.
2.Symbolized as k.
3.Units depend on reaction order.
4.Determines rate of reaction.
5.From rate equation and data.
6.Increases with higher temperature.
7.Faster reaction rate.
8.Increases exponentially with temperature.
9.Relates rate constant to temperature.
10.Temperature, activation energy, catalysts.
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

The Rate-Determining Step

1.Slowest step in reaction.
2.Determines overall reaction rate.
3.Dictates overall reaction rate.
4.Activation energy of step.
5.Determines overall reaction rate.
6.By highest activation energy.
7.Explains energy barriers in reactions.
8.Energy barrier to reaction.
9.Determines reaction rate.
10.Rate-determining step.

The Arrhenius Equation

1.Relates rate constant to temperature.
2.Predicts rate at temperature.
3.Temperature and rate constant.
4.Rate constant, temperature, activation energy.
5.Pre-exponential factor or frequency factor.
6.Activation energy for reaction.
7.Using rate constants at temperatures.
8.Number of collisions per second.
9.Directly proportional to temperature.
10.Rate constant at temperature.

The Equilibrium Constant

1.Measure of equilibrium position.
2.Denoted as Kc or Keq.
3.Extent of reaction completion.
4.Ratio of product to reactant.
5.Products over reactants concentrations.
6.Determines position of equilibrium.
7.System adjusts to stress.
8.Shifts to oppose changes.
9.Products dominate at equilibrium.
10.Reactants dominate at equilibrium.
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Equilibrium Concentrations
1.Concentrations at chemical equilibrium.
2.Constant once equilibrium is reached.
3.Measure at equilibrium position.
4.Ratio of products to reactants.
5.Qc compared to Kc.
6.Ratio of product to reactant.
7.Same as equilibrium constant.
8.Determines reaction direction.
9.Predicts equilibrium position.
10.Shifts towards equilibrium conditions.

Gas Equilibria
1.Equilibrium involving gas components.
2.Pressure exerted by gas.
3.Sum of partial pressures.
4.PV = nRT equation.
5.Total pressure of mixture.
6.Sum of partial pressures.
7.Equilibrium of gas reactions.
8.Pressure, temperature, and concentration.
9.Affects concentration of gases.
10.System adjusts to stress.

More on Equilibrium Constants

1.Expression for equilibrium mixture.
2.Products over reactants concentrations.
3.Measure of equilibrium position.
4.Ratio of product to reactant.
5.Concentrations at equilibrium conditions.
6.Products favored at equilibrium.
7.Reactants favored at equilibrium.
8.Ratio of products to reactants.
9.Predicts direction of reaction.
10.Determines reaction position.
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Acids and Bases

1.Donates H+ ions, accepts OH-.
2.Sour taste, turns litmus red/blue.
3.Acids donate H+, bases accept.
4.Release H+ ions in water.
5.Completely ionizes in solution.
6.Partially ionize in solution.
7.Measures acidity or alkalinity.
8.-log[H+], -log[OH-] for pOH.
9.Acid reacts with base.
10.Change color at certain pH.

pH
1.Measure of acidity/alkalinity.
2.Negative logarithm of [H+].
3.Higher H+, lower pH.
4.Lower H+, higher pH.
5.Below 7, less than 7.
6.Above 7, greater than 7.
7.Using -log[H+].
8.pH of pure water.
9.Concentration of H+ ions.
10.Using pH indicator or meter.

The Acid Dissociation Constant

1.Measure of acid strength.
2. [H+][A-]/[HA].
3.Stronger acid, higher Ka.
4.Weaker acid, lower Ka.
5.Concentration of products/reactants.
6.Large Ka, complete dissociation.
7.Small Ka, partial dissociation.
8.Higher Ka, stronger acid.
9. -log(Ka).
10.Equilibrium concentrations of products/reactants.
 Module 5: Section 1- Rates,
Equilibrium & pH

Buffers
1.Resist changes in pH.
2.Contains weak acid/base.
3.pH changes upon dilution.
4.By adding acid/base.
5.Weak acid and conjugate base.
6.Ability to resist pH changes.
7.Acid reacts with added base.
8.Base reacts with added acid.
9.By mixing weak acid/base.
10.Acetate, phosphate, ammonium buffers.

pH Curves and Titrations

1.Graph of pH changes.
2.Adding one solution to another.
3.Equal moles of acid/base.
4.Using stoichiometry and pKa.
5.Rapid change near equivalence.
6.pH at start of titration.
7.Resists pH change.
8.When acid/base are equal.
9.Changes color at pH.
10.Strengths of acid/base.
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Lattice Enthalpy and Born-Haber

1.Energy to form lattice structure.
2.Strength of ionic bonding.
3.Energy required to break.
4.Series of energy changes.
5.Formation of ionic compound.
6.Solid to gas transition.
7.Forms part of Born-Haber cycle.
8.Energy to remove electron.
9.Energy released upon gaining electron.
10.Using Born-Haber cycle steps.

Enthalpies of Solution
1.Energy change when dissolving solute.
2.Determines solubility and dissolution.
3.Heat change upon dissolution.
4.Solute particles in solvent.
5.Temperature, pressure, solvent nature.
6.Energy change during solvation process.
7.Energy change when ions hydrate.
8.Part of enthalpy of solution.
9.Absorbs heat from surroundings.
10.Using experimental data or equations.

Entropy
1.Measure of disorder.
2.System's randomness and chaos.
3.Using Boltzmann equation.
4.Increase in system randomness.
5.Temperature, state, number molecules.
6.Standard state's entropy difference.
7.Entropy change forming one mole.
8.Part of reaction's enthalpy.
9.Change in system's disorder.
10.Using standard entropy data.
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Free Energy
1.Energy available for work.
2.Predicts spontaneity of reaction.
3.Using Gibbs free energy equation.
4.Energy available for work.
5.Reaction is spontaneous.
6.Standard state's ΔG difference.
7.Change in system's energy.
8.Negative ΔG, spontaneous reaction.
9.Entropy and temperature factors.
10.ΔG = ΔH - TΔS.

Redox Equations
1.Transfer of electrons.
2.Loss and gain of electrons.
3.Change in oxidation states.
4.Substance being reduced.
5.Substance being oxidized.
6.Electron count in species.
7.Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain.
8.Transferred between species.
9.Using oxidation number method.
10.Separate oxidation and reduction.

Redox Titrations
1.Based on redox reactions.
2.Adding titrant to analyte.
3.Redox indicator or potentiometric.
4.Sudden color change observed.
5.Equal moles of titrant/analyte.
6.Solution of known concentration.
7.Transfer of electrons between.
8.Using mole ratios.
9.Reactant mole ratios relationship.
10.Using standard solution method.
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Iodine-Thiosulfate Titrations
1.Quantitative determination of substances.
2.Adding thiosulfate to iodine.
3.I2 + 2S2O3^2− -> 2I− + S4O6^2−.
4.Indicating endpoint by color.
5.Color change from blue-black.
6.Determining excess reactant concentration.
7.Careful endpoint observation, constant conditions.
8.Using stoichiometry and volume.
9.Titration volume measurement errors.
10.Quantitative analysis of substances.

Electrochemical Cells
1.Convert chemical energy electricity.
2.Where oxidation, reduction occur.
3.Electrode where oxidation occurs.
4.Electrode where reduction occurs.
5.Driving force of reaction.
6.Electrode's potential under standard conditions.
7.Subtracting half-cell potentials.
8.Completes circuit, maintains charge balance.
9.Anode | Anode solution || Cathode solution | Cathode.
10.Symbolic representation of cell.

The Electrochemical Series

1.Arrangement of electrode potentials.
2.According to electrode potentials.
3.Potential under standard conditions.
4.Determines spontaneity of reactions.
5.Higher reactivity higher position.
6.Hydrogen (H⁺|H₂).
7.By comparing electrode potentials.
8.Chemical decomposition using electricity.
9.Redox reactions in electrolytic cells.
10.Predicting redox reactions feasibility.
 Module 5: Section 2- Energy

Storage and Fuel Cells

1.Store electrical energy chemically.
2.Generate electricity from fuels.
3.Convert chemical energy electricity.
4.Oxidizing fuel at anode, reducing oxygen at cathode.
5.Hydrogen fuel cells, metal-air cells.
6.Electrode where oxidation occurs.
7.Electrode where reduction occurs.
8.Passing current opposite direction.
9.Facilitate ion movement in cells.
10.Efficient, low emissions, quiet.
 Module 5: Section 3- Transition Elements

The d-block
1.Transition metal section.
2.10 groups, 40 elements.
3.Variable oxidation states, colored compounds.
4.High melting points, dense.
5.Central metal ion, ligands.
6.Forming complex ions with metals.
7.Donor-acceptor mechanism.
8.Number of ligands attached.
9.Variable oxidation states, colors.
10.Catalysts, colorants, industrial applications.

Properties of Transition Elements

1.Middle of periodic table.
2.(n-1)d^1-10 ns^1-2.
3.Conductivity, malleability, ductility.
4.Central metal ion, ligands.
5.Catalysts in various reactions.
6.Colors in solution complexes.
7.Different oxidation states possible.
8.Losing variable number electrons.
9.Paramagnetic or diamagnetic.
10.Catalysts, pigments, alloy components.

Ligands and Complex Ions

1.Molecules/ions surrounding central metal.
2.Number of ligands attached.
3.Via lone pair electrons.
4.Metal ion surrounded ligands.
5.Multiple ligands bound simultaneously.
6.Different arrangements of ligands.
7.Different spatial arrangements of ligands.
8.Different properties in compounds.
9.Mirror image arrangement ligands.
10.Absorb light in visible range.
 Module 5: Section 3- Transition Elements

Substitution Reactions
1.Replace one atom/group.
2.Nucleophile replaces leaving group.
3.Electrophile replaces hydrogen atom.
4.Nucleophilic substitution 1/2.
5.Uni-/bimolecular, nucleophile attacking.
6.Nature of nucleophile, substrate.
7.Leaving group departs substrate.
8.Formation of new compound.
9.Via single or two steps.
10.Synthesis, pharmaceuticals, organic synthesis.

Reactions of Ions
1.Chemical reactions involving ions.
2.Formation of insoluble compounds.
3.Transfer of electrons.
4.Ionic compound formed ions.
5.Ionic bonding between ions.
6.Loss/gain of electrons.
7.Rusting, combustion, respiration.
8.Electron distribution in atoms.
9.Element simultaneously oxidized/reduced.
10.Biological processes, industrial applications.
 Module 6: Section 1- Aromatic
Compounds & Carbonyls

Benzene and Aromatic Compounds

1.Hexagonal, alternating double bonds.
2.π-electrons spread throughout ring.
3.Electrons delocalized between carbon atoms.
4.High, due to resonance stabilization.
5.Via electrophilic substitution reactions.
6.Attracts electron deficient species.
7.Electrophilic addition, form halogenoarenes.
8.Cyclic, planar, conjugated compounds.
9.More stable, less reactive.
10.Solvents, detergents, plastics production.

Electrophilic Substitution
1.Electrophile replaces hydrogen atom.
2.Electron-deficient species attracting electrons.
3.Substituent replaces hydrogen atom.
4.Electrophile attacks electron-rich benzene.
5.Presence of Lewis acid catalyst.
6.Nitration, halogenation, sulfonation.
7.Substituted benzene derivative and HX.
8.Activated by electron-donating groups.
9.Ortho/para directors, meta directors.
10.Dyes, drugs, fragrances synthesis.

Substituted Benzene Rings

1.Benzene with attached substituents.
2.Substituent positions in benzene.
3.Influence on reaction rate.
4.Through electron density manipulation.
5.Donate electrons to benzene ring.
6.Alkyl, alkoxyl, amino groups.
7.Withdraw electrons from benzene.
8.Nitro, carbonyl, cyano groups.
9.Position and orientation changes.
10.Directing reaction pathways, yields.
 Module 6: Section 1- Aromatic
Compounds & Carbonyls

Aldehydes and Ketones

1.Carbonyl compounds with H/alkyl.
2.C=O group with R.
3.Aldehyde: H at C=O, Ketone: 2 alkyl groups at C=O.
4.Ethanal (Aldehyde), Propanone (Ketone).
5.Odor, solubility, boiling point.
6.Ketones have higher boiling points.
7.Aldehydes: Reduced to primary alcohols, Ketones: No reduction.
8.Aldehydes: Slightly acidic, Ketones: Not acidic.
9.Low molecular weight ones soluble.
10.Perfumes, solvents, pharmaceuticals production.

Carboxylic Acids and Acyl Chlorides

1.Acid with carboxyl functional group.
2.-COOH group attached to carbon.
3.Include carbonyl and hydroxyl groups.
4.Ethanoic acid, propanoic acid, etc.
5.Derivative of carboxylic acid.
6.R-COCl; R is alkyl group.
7.By reacting carboxylic acids with PCl5 or SOCl2.
8.More reactive than carboxylic acids.
9.Esterification, amidation, decarboxylation.
10.Hydrolysis, nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Esters
1.Organic compounds with RCOOR' structure.
2.By condensation of alcohol and carboxylic acid.
3.-COO- functional group.
4.Often fruity or pleasant.
5.From alcohol and carboxylic acid.
6.Ethyl acetate, methyl ethanoate, etc.
7. Esterification.
8.Flavorings, perfumes, solvents, plasticizers.
9.Lack hydroxyl functional group.
10. Hydrolysis.
 Module 6: Section 2- Nitrogen Compounds,
Polymers & Synthesis

Amines and Amides

1.Organic compounds derived from ammonia.
2.-NH2 or -NR2.
3.Primary, secondary, tertiary.
4.Ethylamine, methylamine, etc.
5.Often fishy or ammoniacal.
6.By reaction of amines with carboxylic acids.
7. -CONH2.
8.Acetamide, benzamide, etc.
9.Building blocks of proteins.
10.Contain carbonyl and nitrogen.

Chirality
1.Symmetry-breaking in molecular structure.
2.Non-superimposable mirror image.
3.Lack of internal symmetry.
4.Carbon bonded to 4 different groups.
5.Mirror-image molecules.
6.Same properties, different orientation.
7.Equal mix of enantiomers.
8.No, it's achiral.
9.Rotation of plane-polarized light.
10.Different spatial arrangements of atoms.

Polymers
1.Repeating units of monomers.
2.Process of forming polymers.
3.Cellulose, DNA, proteins.
4.Building blocks of polymers.
5.Monomers adding without elimination.
6.Nylon, polyester, proteins.
7.Wide range of properties.
8.Based on structure and source.
9.Bonds between polymer chains.
10.Polymer with two monomers.
 Module 6: Section 2- Nitrogen Compounds,
Polymers & Synthesis

More on Polymers
1.Two different monomers polymerized.
2.Polymer from identical monomers.
3.Polymer with side chains.
4.Bonds between polymer chains.
5.Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene.
6.Vinyl chloride repeating units.
7.Polymers with elastic properties.
8.Bakelite, epoxy resins, urea-formaldehyde.
9.Ordered arrangement of polymers.
10.Breakdown of polymer chains.

Carbon-Carbon bond Synthesis

1.Magnesium alkyl or aryl halides.
2.Phenylmagnesium bromide (PhMgBr).
3.Carbonyl compounds (aldehydes, ketones).
4.Converts aldehyde to alkene.
5.Phosphonium ylide (Ph3P+CH2).
6.React with alcohol, acid catalyst.
7.Introduce alkyl or acyl group.
8.Aluminum chloride (AlCl3).
9.Cyclohexene derivatives or cycloadducts.
10.Catalytic olefin synthesis from halides.

Organic Synthesis- Practical Techniques

1.Heating under continuous condensation.
2.Separates components based on boiling.
3.Separating components using solvents.
4.Purifying solids from impurities.
5.Separating mixtures based on adsorption.
6.Removes traces of water.
7.Separates solid from liquid.
8.Separate components by boiling point.
9.Isolating desired compounds from mixtures.
10.Separating compounds based on affinity.
 Module 6: Section 2- Nitrogen Compounds,
Polymers & Synthesis

Functional Groups
1.Specific arrangement of atoms.
2.-OH group.
3. RCHO.
4. -COOH.
5.Carbonyl group.
6.-NH2.
7. R-O-R.
8. -COOR.
9. -CONH2.
10.Halogen atom bonded to carbon.

Synthetic Routes
1.Pathways to target molecules.
2.Reverse reaction planning.
3.Alcohols, acids, or ketones.
4.Intermediate in reaction sequence.
5.Shield reactive functional groups.
6.Conversion between different groups.
7.Grignard reagents, organolithium compounds.
8.Sodium borohydride, lithium aluminum hydride.
9.Electron-rich reactant.
10.Halides, tosylates, sulfonates.
 Module 6: Section 3- Analysis

Tests for Organic Functional Groups

1.Decolorization of bromine water.
2.Bromine water.
3.Acidified potassium dichromate (VI).
4.Orange to green color change.
5.Sodium bicarbonate effervescence.
6.Sodium bicarbonate solution.
7.Silver mirror formation.
8.Tollens' reagent (ammoniacal silver nitrate).
9.Fehling's solution or Benedict's solution.
10.Brick red precipitate formation.

Chromatography
1.Thin-Layer Chromatography.
2.High-Performance Liquid Chromatography.
3.Separates based on solubility differences.
4.Separates components based on interactions.
5.Moves the sample through.
6.Separates based on polarity.
7.Separates based on solubility.
8.Silica or alumina.
9.Detects separated components.
10.Distance moved by solute.

NMR Spectroscopy
1.Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.
2.Nuclei with magnetic properties.
3.Hydrogen (^1H) and Carbon (^13C).
4.Chemical environment around nuclei.
5.Relative number of protons.
6.By their chemical environment.
7.Number of neighboring protons.
8.Determines signal frequency.
9.Parts per million (ppm).
10.Structural and molecular information.
 Module 6: Section 3- Analysis

Proton NMR
1.Chemical environment of protons.
2.Spin states of protons.
3.Chemical environment of protons.
4.Number of different hydrogen atoms.
5.Relative number of protons.
6.Electron cloud around nuclei.
7.Deuterated solvents or D2O.
8.Reference standard for calibration.
9.Chemical shift reference point.
10.Proton-proton coupling interactions.

More on Spectra
1.Absorption of infrared radiation.
2.Vibrational bonds.
3.Unique compound-specific pattern.
4.Electron bombardment or ionization.
5.Molecular mass and structure.
6.Tallest peak in spectrum.
7.By breaking molecular bonds.
8.Intact molecule's mass.
9.By analyzing mass peaks.
10.Absorption of ultraviolet-visible light.
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