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ARM NOTES (UPTILL MIDTERM) 2. Types of Research and Their Explanation

1. Definition of Research
Research is a structured process of investigating
a topic to gain new knowledge, confirm existing
theories, or solve specific problems. It involves
gathering data, analyzing information, and
drawing conclusions.
 Research can be done in various fields such as
science, business, social studies, and
engineering.
 Business research can be described as a
systematic and organized effort to investigate a
specific problem encountered in the work
setting, which needs a solution. It comprises a a. Basic(Pure) Research vs. Applied Research:

series of steps that are designed and executed They differ in their purpose and end goal.

with the goal of finding answers to the issues  Basic Research (Fundamental Research)

that are of concern to the manager in the work o This is also called fundamental or pure research.

environment. o Focuses on expanding general knowledge

 The first step in research is to know where the without a direct practical application. It aims to

problem areas exist in the organization, and to understand natural phenomena or theories

identify as clearly and specifically as possible o Example: Studying how electrons behave in

the problems that need to be studied and different materials to improve future

resolved semiconductor technology.

 Once the problem is clearly defined, steps can o Explanation: The results of basic research may

be taken to determine the factors that are not be immediately useful but can lay the

associated with the problem, gather foundation for applied research.

information, analyze the data, develop an  Applied Research

explanation for the problem at hand and then o Focuses on solving real-world and current

solve it by taking the necessary corrective problems faced by manager in the work setting

measures while using existing knowledge. It also aims to

 This entire process by which we attempt to create new technologies, products, or solutions.
solve problems is called research o Example: Developing a new, more efficient solar
 Business research is defined by Uma Sekaran panel based on basic research about how light
and Roger Bougie as “An organized, interacts with materials.
systematic, data‐based, critical and objective o Explanation: Applied research uses principles
inquiry/ investigation into a specific problem, discovered in basic research to create something
undertaken with the purpose of finding beneficial for society.
answers or solutions to it.”
 Thus research provides necessary information b. Quantitative Research vs. Qualitative
that guides managers to make informed Research: These types differ in the way they collect
decisions to successfully deal with problems and analyse data.
 Quantitative Research
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o Uses numerical data and statistical methods. It o Example: Writing a paper on the importance
aims to measure relationships between of artificial intelligence in future education
variables, test hypotheses, and make without conducting experiments.
predictions. o Explanation: Non-empirical research is
o Example: A survey showing that 80% of people useful for developing theories, reviewing
prefer electric cars over gasoline cars. existing knowledge, and forming new ideas.
o Explanation: Quantitative research is useful d. Exploratory Research vs. Descriptive
when objective, measurable data is required. It Research vs. Hypothesis-Driven Research: These
helps in making data-driven decisions. types of research differ in their purpose and
 Qualitative Research approach to studying a subject.
o Focuses on non-numerical data such as  Exploratory Research
opinions, experiences, and behaviours. o Investigates new ideas when little or no
o It explores underlying reasons and information is available.
motivations. o It helps define research problems and
o Example: Conducting interviews to generate new questions.
understand why people prefer electric cars. o Example: Studying how AI could be applied
o Explanation: Qualitative research is useful in greenhouse farming for the first time.
when researchers want to explore thoughts, o Explanation: Exploratory research is useful in
emotions, and perceptions that cannot be the early stages of research when
easily measured. researchers want to understand a new topic
before conducting more detailed studies.
c. Empirical Research vs. Non-Empirical  Descriptive Research
Research: They differ in their approach to o Collects detailed information to describe a
gathering evidence. situation, event, or phenomenon.
 Empirical Research o It does not explain why something happens
o Based on real-world observations, but focuses on documenting facts.
experiments, and data collection. o Example: Conducting a survey to find out
o It involves testing ideas with actual how many people use electric cars in a city.
evidence. o Explanation: Descriptive research helps
o Example: Testing a new fertilizer on tomato create a clear picture of a subject but does
plants and measuring their growth. not test cause and-effect relationships.
o Explanation: Empirical research provides  Hypothesis-Driven Research
strong, fact-based conclusions because it o Starts with a specific assumption
relies on direct experience and (hypothesis) and tests whether it is true or
experiments. false.
 Non-Empirical Research o It involves designing experiments or studies
o Based on theories, logic, and reasoning to confirm or reject the hypothesis.
rather than direct experiments. o Example: "Drinking coffee improves focus" –
o It relies on existing knowledge, literature then conducting an experiment to measure
reviews, or philosophical analysis. focus levels in people who drink coffee vs.
those who don’t.
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o Explanation: Hypothesis-driven research is c. Hypothesis Formation – Making a testable
useful when researchers want to test prediction.
cause-and-effect relationships using d. Experimentation & Data Collection –
experiments and data analysis. Conducting tests and gathering data.
e. Correlational Research: Correlational e. Data Analysis – Interpreting results using
research is a type of descriptive research, which statistical methods.
explores the relationship between two or more f. Conclusion – Evaluating findings and their
variables without controlling or manipulating them. It implications.
aims to identify whether and how they vary g. Reporting & Peer Review – Publishing and
together. A correlation reflects the strength and/or validating research.
direction of the relationship between two (or more)
variables. The direction of a correlation can be  The Seven-Step Process in the
either positive or negative. Hypothetico - Deductive Method. A typical
f. Causal Research: Causal research, also scientific method is Hypothetico-Deductive
known as explanatory or causal-comparative Method popularized by the Austrian philosopher
research, investigates cause-and-effect Karl Popper. It involves fol seven steps: -
relationships by manipulating independent variables a. Identify a broad problem area.
and measuring their impact on dependent variables. b. Define the problem statement.
g. Group Difference: In research and statistics, a c. Develop hypotheses.
"group difference" refers to a significant variation or d. Determine measures.
disparity observed between different groups in a e. Data collection.
study or experiment, often focusing on differences f. Data analysis.
in means or other relevant metrics. It refers to a g. Data Interpretation.
significant variation observed between different
groups, such as the difference found between the 5. The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
control group and the treatment group in a research
(book): The hallmarks or main distinguishing
setting.
characteristics of scientific research may be
3. Scientific Research: Scientific research listed as follows:
focuses on solving problems and pursues a a. Purposiveness. It has some definite purpose or
step-by-step, logical, organized and rigorous aim.
method to identify the problems, gather data, b. Rigor. Rigor connotes carefulness,
analyze them, and draw valid conclusions from scrupulousness, and the degree of exactitude
them. in research investigations. A good theoretical
4. Steps in Scientific Research Method: base and a sound methodological design add
Scientific Research Method follows these key rigor to a purposive study.
steps: c. Testability. Testability is a property that applies
a. Observation & Problem Identification – to the hypotheses of a study i.e., a scitific
Recognizing a research question. hypothesis MUST be testable.
b. Literature Review – Studying existing d. Replicability. Replicability is the extent to which
research. a re‐study is made possible by the provision of
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the design details of the study in the research Hallmarks of Scientific Research (Notes-H):
report. The hallmarks of the scientific research method
e. Precision and confidence. Precision refers to ensure that research is systematic, reliable, and
the closeness of the findings to “reality” based valid. Key characteristics include:
on a sample. In other words, precision a. Empirical – Based on observation and
reflects the degree of accuracy or exactitude experiments.
of the results on the basis of the sample, to b. Systematic – Follows a structured process.
what really exists in the universe. Whereas, c. Objective – Free from bias, relies on data.
Confidence refers to the probability that our d. Replicability – Can be repeated for
estimations are correct. That is, it is not verification.
merely enough to be precise, but it is also e. Logical – Uses reasoning and critical
important that we can confidently claim that thinking.
95% of the time our results will be true and f. Falsifiable – Hypotheses can be tested and
there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. disproved.
This is also known as the confidence level. g. Quantifiable – Uses measurable data and
f. Objectivity. It means that: conclusions drawn statistics.
through the interpretation of the results of h. Modifiable – Open to revision with new
data analysis should be objective i.e., they evidence.
should be based on the facts of the findings i. Ethical – Follows honesty and integrity
derived from actual data, and not on our own standards.
subjective or emotional values.
g. Generalizability. It refers to the scope of
6. Terminologies of Scientific Research
applicability of the research findings in one
Contruct Vs Variable
organizational setting to the other.
 Construct:
h. Parsimony. Simplicity in explaining the
○ A construct is a theoretical concept that is not
phenomena or problems that occur, and
directly observable but is used to explain a
in generating solutions for the problems,
phenomenon
is always preferred to complex research
○ It is often defined in terms of measurable
frameworks. variables
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○ Constructs are commonly used in psychology,  Hypothesis
social sciences, and research. For Example: A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the
Intelligence – It is not directly observable, but it relationship between variables in research. It serves
can be measured through IQ tests, academic as the foundation for experiments and data analysis.
performance, or problem-solving abilities.
○ Motivation – It is a construct that influences Types of Hypothesis
behavior, but it is measured through effort, a. Null Hypothesis (H): S
persistence, or engagement. b. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁): States there is a
relationship between variables. E.g., Better
 Variable inventory management improves supply chain
○ Variable is a single construct/ problem on which efficiency.
research is made. c. Directional Hypothesis: Specifies the direction
○ A variable in research methods refers to any of the relationship. E.g., Higher inventory
characteristic, quantity, or factor that can accuracy leads to faster order fulfillment.
change or take on different values. d. Non-Directional Hypothesis: Predicts a
○ Variables are crucial in research because they relationship but not its direction. E.g., Inventory
help in analyzing relationships, testing accuracy is related to order fulfillment time.
hypotheses, and drawing conclusions. e. Mediating Hypothesis: Suggests an indirect
○ These are practical & observable. effect through a third variable. E.g., Inventory
○ Used for data collection (e.g. blood pressure, management improves efficiency through
stress survey, sugar level...) technology adoption.
f. Moderating Hypothesis: States that the effect
 Types of Variables in Research of IV on DV depends on another factor. E.g., The
a. Independent Variable (IV) – The cause that impact of inventory management on efficiency
influences the dependent variable. Example: changes based on demand variability
Supplier training (IV) affects delivery
performance (DV).  Argument Building:
b. Dependent Variable (DV) – The effect or Argument building is the process of creating a logical
outcome measured in response to the IV. and persuasive case for a particular idea or claim. It
Example: Delivery performance (DV) depends involves presenting evidence, organizing ideas
on supplier training (IV). clearly, and addressing counterarguments to
c. Mediating Variable (M) – Acts as a bridge convince the reader or listener.
explaining how IV affects DV. Example: Inductive vs. Deductive Arguments
Supplier training (IV) → Better quality control  Inductive Reasoning
(MV) → Improved product quality (DV). ○ Moves from specific observations of phenomena
d. Moderating Variable (Mo) – Influences the to a general conclusion.
strength or direction of the IV-DV relationship. ○ Conclusion is probable but not guaranteed
Example: The impact of supplier training (IV) on ○ Example: "Every tomato plant I’ve grown in my
delivery performance (DV) changes based on greenhouse has thrived." : "Therefore, all tomato
market competition (MoV) plants grow well in my greenhouse."
 Deductive Reasoning:
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○ Moves from general principle to specific ○ Qualitative Research: Aims to understand and
conclusion interpret human behavior, experiences, and
○ We narrow down our findings till we collect social phenomena. Examples: Interviews, focus
specific observations to test our hypotheses. groups, ethnography, case studies.
○ The scientific method uses deductive reasoning
to test a theory about a topic of interest. ○ Mixed Methods Research: Combines both
○ Conclusion is certain if premises are true quantitative and qualitative approaches to
○ Example: "All plants need water to survive.". address research questions. Examples:
"Tomatoes are plants.". Therefore, tomatoes Combining surveys with interviews, or
need water to survive." experiments with observations.

7. Research Model:
 Research GAP: A research gap is an area
A research model is a structured framework that
within a field of study where existing research is
defines the relationship between different variables
incomplete, insufficient, or entirely missing. It
in a study. It visually represents how an
represents unanswered questions, unexplored
independent variable (IV) influences a dependent
ideas, or limitations in past studies that provide
variable (DV), including the role of mediating and
opportunities for further investigation.
moderating variables.
 Research gap can any of the fol types: -
Example in SCM- Research Question: How does
a. Theoretical gap: Missing or conflicting
inventory management affect supply chain
theories that need further development.
efficiency?
b. Methodological gap
○ IV: Inventory management strategies
c. Contextual gap.
○ DV: Supply chain efficiency
○ MV: Technology adoption (explains the effect)
 How to Select a Research Topic
○ MoV: Market demand fluctuations (influences
1- Observation
the strength of the effect) 2- General - Specific
3- Future Direction
 Forms/ Types of Research Models 4- Journal (Regular & Special Issue)
Research models are broadly categorized into
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods, each  How to Select a Research Topic
with unique approaches to data collection and 1- Model finalization
analysis, and are further classified by purpose, such 2- Survey/ Questionnaire Design
as exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Where to find? Article and thesis (Research
Here's a breakdown of different types of research Methodology section, sub heading "Measures")
models: Questionnaire Design
(a) Cover letter
○ Quantitative Research: Focuses on collecting (b) Demographic
and analyzing numerical data to test (c) Variables
hypotheses, identify patterns, and make
predictions. Examples: Experiments,
8. Introduction to a Research Paper
surveys, statistical analysis.
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A research article is a published document that → Yes → Continue
reports the findings of a scientific study, providing ↓
the scientific community with enduring and (If revisions needed) Revise & Resubmit → Peer
accessible results. It typically includes sections like Review Again for any of Following Comments
an abstract, introduction, methods, results, i. Accept as it is
discussion, and references. ii. Accept with minor changes
 Peer Review: Many research articles are peer- iii. Accept with major changes
reviewed, meaning they are evaluated by iv. Rejected
experts in the field before publication to ensure ↓
quality and validity. (If rejected) Modify & Submit to Another Journal
 Primary Source: Research articles are (If accepted); Published
considered primary sources because they
report original research data. Headings and Sub-Headings of a Research
 Accessibility: Research articles are often Paper
published in academic journals or other  Important Steps/ Parts of Research
scholarly publications, making them accessible
Paper: An empirical research paper typically
to a wider audience, including other
includes these key sections:
researchers.
a. Title and Abstract: Defines the very
objective of research and gives main details
and summarizes the paper.
 Steps in Publishing a Research Paper
b. Introduction – Defines the research
Select Research Topic
problem, objectives, and significance.
↓
c. Literature Review – Summarizes existing
Conduct Research
studies and identifies research gaps.
↓
d. Methodology – Describes research design,
Write Manuscript
data collection, and analysis methods.
↓
e. Results – Presents findings with tables,
Select Journal
graphs, or statistics.
↓
f. Discussion – Interprets results, compares
Author’s Guidelines
with previous studies, and highlights
↓
implications.
After selecting Journal, Submit Article for Review
g. Conclusion – Summarizes findings,
↓
suggests applications, and proposes future
Editor in Chief Review:
research.
↓
h. References – Lists all cited sources in a
Review and check Impact of paper
standardized format.
Plagiarism
Scope of Article
 APA References/ Styles:
↓
APA (American Psychological Association) style
(If any above didn’t fulfill), Then Editor in Chief:
is a widely used formatting and citation style for
→ No → Desk Rejection
academic and research writing. It provides guidelines
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for citing sources, structuring papers, and people; a group (government agency,
referencing to ensure clarity and consistency. organisation or institution); or a combination
For One Author of groups and people. While writing the name
Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Title of the book the last name is written first, fol by the first
(italicized). Publisher. name separated by comma.
For Two Authors  Date: when was the work published? Date of
Johnson, R. T., & Brown, K. L. (2021). Sustainable publication can be year only; year, month and
logistics and green supply chains. Springer. day (exact date); year and month; year and
For More than two Authors: season; or a range of dates (e.g. range of
Taylor, et al. (2022). Digital transformation in supply years).
chain management. Oxford University Press.  Title: what is the work called? There are two
categories of titles: works that stand alone
 End Referencing (e.g. reports, whole books, data sets,
 The end-text reference is a standardized form webpages, and films), and works that are part
of describing a source used in a piece of work. of a greater whole (e.g. edited book chapters,
Depending on the style it contains enough podcast and television episodes, and journal
information to describe and provide directions articles).
for any reader to locate the source.  Identifying details (optional): any information
 The order and presentation of the elements in related to the source that is used to uniquely
an end-text reference is defined by the identify it (e.g. editions of books, versions of
referencing style. Referencing styles are programs, report numbers, catalogue
created to create a uniform presentation of the reference numbers).
references for their publication and subject  Bracketed description (optional): if a source
interest. is ambiguous as to what it is (e.g. posters,
 Most commonly used style is APA 7th Edition videos, flyers, thesis) you may be required to
from the American Psychological Association. provide a brief description. For common
They use an Author-Date style so all end-text sources (e.g. books, journal articles,
references start with the authors and date of webpages) where it will be obvious as to what
publication. The style also governs how the you have by looking at the other elements
elements are formatted (e.g. dates are then you don't need to include this.
presented in round brackets, elements are  Source: where can I find the work? This
separated by periods, and titles are italicised). might be a publisher, a web address/URL, or
both.

Elements of End Referencing

Each of the elements in the end-text reference also
Author. (Date). Title of the
has rules as to how to format and include information
work (Identifying details) [Bracketed
in them. Create each individual element separately
Description]. Source
and include it in the order presented above.
Where:

 Author: who is responsible for this work? An

Title:
author may be an individual; multiple
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• A 20 - 25 words title and Model must be reflected i. Significance or importance of key/ focal variable.
in Title. It should be either IV or DV.
• 16 font size ii. Then what already has been done in Literature.
• Times New Roman Brief literature review. Then organize from
general to Specific.
Abstract iii. What is missing till date on which work is not
• An abstract is structured or a standard summary of done till date and what’s the problem within
paper having 200-250 words already researches i.e. Research GAP.
• Level One Heading: 14 Bold iv. Significance or importance of variable (area of
• Two: 12 Bold interest) which has not been done previously.
• 3rd: 12 Bold and Italic v. Objective/ purpose of research article.

Types of Abstract Scientific Sources of Information

 Structured Abstract: Databases
A structured abstract is a systematically written i. Web of Science (WOS)
short summary of the paper, which is written with ii. Scopus
different headings. Main headings of a structured
Publishers
abstract are as under: -
iii. Elsevier
i. Purpose of Study
iv. Wiley
ii. Design/ Methodology
v. Taylor & Francis
iii. Findings/ Results
iv. Research Limitations
vi. Emerald

v. Practical Implications vii. Springer Nature

vi. Originality/ Value viii. SAGE Publishing
 Standard Abstract:
A standard abstract is a short summary of a
research paper written in a single paragraph. It
briefly explains the main idea, methods, key
findings, and conclusion without using section
headings. It is commonly used in social sciences,
humanities, and general research papers

 Introduction
An introduction is the opening section of an article
that provides an overview of the topic, establishes
the context, and engages the reader. It sets the
stage for the discussion by presenting the main
idea, background information, and the purpose of
the article.
 Five themes of introduction are:
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HEC Policy


H

ow to Download Research Articles

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 Open Access Journals Author(s). (Year). Title of the article. Journal Name,

 Google Scholar Volume(Issue), Page numbers.

 Riphah Library ➡ Smith, J. (2024). Advances in Renewable Energy.

Energy Journal, 15(2), 45–60.
 Sci-Hub
Here, Volume = 15, Issue = 2, meaning the article
 Facebook Groups
appeared in the second issue of the 15th year of the
 LinkdIn
journal.

 Useful Ai Tools
 Clarivate Analytics:
i. Connected Papers
Clarivate Analytics is a global analytics company that
ii. Consensus (to find insights within provides data-driven insights, tools, and services for
research papers, building a better research, innovation, and intellectual property
understanding of the topic management. It is best known for its databases like
iii. Jenni.ai (automate & improve your Web of Science, InCites, Journal Citation Reports
writing and research processes) (JCR), and Derwent Innovation Index, which help
researchers, institutions, and policymakers analyze
scientific output and impact.
 Research Journals
Research journals are periodicals that publish
 How Clarivate Works in Research
articles containing the results of original research,
Methodology:
typically peer-reviewed, and serve as a primary
a. Literature Review & Citation Tracking
means of disseminating knowledge within academic
 Web of Science (WoS) helps researchers find
and scientific communities.
high-impact journal articles, track citations, and
Every journal is allotted a serial number ISSN
analyze trends in a research field.
(International Standard Serial Number) which is
 Citation analysis allows researchers to identify
unique number for its identification. When it has to
influential papers and emerging trends.
be published it is allotted EISSN.
b. Journal Selection & Impact Analysis
 Volume and Issue: In academic publishing,
 Journal Citation Reports (JCR) provides
volume and issue refer to the way journals
impact factors and rankings of journals, helping
organize and number their published articles.
researchers choose the right journals for
○ Volume: Represents the number of years a
publishing
journal has been published. It typically changes
 Researchers can assess the credibility and
once a year. For example, if a journal started in
visibility of different journals.
2010, then in 2024, it would be in Volume 15.
c. Research Performance & Bench-marking
○ Issue: Represents a specific set of articles
 InCites offers performance evaluation tools for
published within a volume. Most journals
institutions, research groups, and individuals by
release multiple issues per year (e.g., monthly,
analyzing citation metrics and collaboration
quarterly). For example, a quarterly journal in
networks.
its 15th year might have Issue 1 (January–
 Helps universities and funding bodies measure
March), Issue 2 (April–June), Issue 3 (July–
research output.
September), and Issue 4 (October–December).
○ Example of Citation:
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d. Why is Clarivate Important in Research? ○ Lower IF → Less influential but still valuable
 Ensures Credibility: Provides access to peer- within niche fields.
reviewed, high-quality research. ○ Field-Dependent → Some disciplines (e.g.,
 Facilitates Impact Measurement: Helps medicine) naturally have higher IFs than
measure citation impact and research others (e.g., humanities).
contributions.
 Supports Decision Making: Assists
universities, funding agencies, and
policymakers in allocating resources effectively.
Clarivate initiates four reports in order to maintai the
quality of journals: -
i. Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI)
ii. Science Citation Index (SCI)
iii. Art & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI)
iv. Journal Citation Report (JCR)

 Impact Factor (IF) of a Journal:

The Impact Factor (IF) is a measure of a journal’s
influence and significance within its field. It reflects
the average number of citations per article
published in that journal over a specific period,
usually two years.
 A higher impact factor indicates that the
journal's articles are frequently cited,
suggesting greater credibility and influence in
the academic community.
 Formula for Calculating Impact Factor
IF = Total Citation in Pr 2 years ÷ Tot No. Of
Articles published in 2 years
 Example Calculation: If a journal published 100
articles in 2022 and 2023, and those articles
received 500 citations in 2024, the Impact
Factor for 2024 would be:
500 ÷ 100 = 5.0
This means, on average, each article was cited 5
times.

 Significance of Impact Factor

○ Higher IF → More reputable and widely
recognized journal.