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 Introduction to
Microcontroller
Programming for
Power Electronics
Control Applications
 Introduction to
Microcontroller
Programming for
Power Electronics
Control Applications
Coding with MATLAB® and
Simulink®

Mattia Rossi
Nicola Toscani
Marco Mauri
Francesco Castelli Dezza
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of
MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The
MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

First edition published 2022

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-70985-3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-05303-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-19693-8 (ebk)
eBook + ISBN: 978-1-032-05465-0

DOI: 10.1201/9781003196938

Typeset in LM Roman
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

eResources are available for this title at www.routledge.com/9780367709853

a Daniela
Contents

Foreword xiii

Preface xvii

Acknowledgments xix

Biographies xxi

1 Advances in Firmware Design for

Power Electronics Control Platforms 1
1.1 Embedded Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Selecting a Development Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Key elements of a microcontroller . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Programming microcontrollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The C2000™ Family of MCU from Texas Instruments™ . . . 7
1.4 Scheme of a Power Electronics Control Problem . . . . . . . 9

I Embedded Development:
Hardware Kits and Coding 13
2 Automatic Code Generation through MATLAB® 15
2.1 Model-Based Design and Rapid Prototyping . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Workflow for Automatic Code Generation . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Generate Code for C2000™ Microcontrollers . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 TI C2000™ Processors Block-set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Texas Instruments™ Development Kit 27

3.1 TI C2000™ LaunchPad™ : F28069M Piccolo . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.1 Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.2 Pin muxing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1.3 Power connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1.4 Serial connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.5 Boot options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 TI BOOSTXL-DRV8301 BoosterPack . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.1 BoosterPack PWM signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.2 BoosterPack GPIO signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 DC bus and phase voltage sense . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

vii
viii Contents

3.2.4 Low-side shunt-based current sense . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4 Software Installation 39
4.1 TI Support Packages:
Code Composer™ Studio and ControlSUITE™ . . . . . . . . 39
4.2 MATLAB® Support Package:
Embedded Coder for Texas Instruments C2000 Processors . 41
4.3 Installation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

II Review of Control Theory: Closing the Loop 47

Introduction 49

5 Designing a Closed-Loop Control System 51

5.1 Dynamical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.1.1 Mathematical laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.1.2 Dynamical systems in electrical applications . . . . . . 54
5.2 Design a PI Controller in Continuous-Time Domain . . . . . 54
5.2.1 Serial/parallel form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2.2 Characterization of the closed-loop dynamics F (s) . . 55
5.3 Derive a PI Controller in Discrete-Time Domain . . . . . . . 60
5.3.1 General properties of the discretization process . . . . 60
5.3.2 Characterization of the closed-loop dynamics F (z) . . 62

6 Design Example: PI-Based Current Control of an RL Load 65

6.1 Simulink® Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.1.1 Use of standard blocks (continuous/discrete) . . . . . 71
6.1.2 Use of Simscape™ (specialized power systems) . . . . 73
6.1.3 Controller performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2 Derive an Anti-Windup PI Controller Scheme . . . . . . . . 77
6.3 Design Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

7 Manipulate the Variables Format: Data Types 85

7.1 Fixed Point vs Floating Point Representation . . . . . . . . . 85
7.2 Single vs Double Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.3 Use of Scaling in Fixed Point Representation . . . . . . . . 91
7.4 Converting from Decimal Representation to Single Format . 93
7.5 Processing the Data: Implementation Hints . . . . . . . . . . 95

III Real-Time Control in Power Electronics:

Peripherals Settings 97
Introduction 99
Contents ix

8 Basic Settings:
Serial Communication COM and Hardware Target 101
8.1 Virtual Serial Communication through COM port . . . . . . 101

9 Simulink® Configuration 105

9.1 Simulink® Environments: Firmware vs Testing . . . . . . . . 107
9.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.1.2 Execution in Simulink® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.2 MCUs and Real-Time Control with Simulink® . . . . . . . . 109

10 Serial Communication Interface (SCI) Peripheral 111

10.1 Hardware Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
10.2 Firmware Environment:
Send and Receive Data through Serial Communication . . . 113
10.2.1 C2806x SCI receive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.2.2 C2806x SCI transmit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.3 Testing Environment:
Send/Receive Data through Serial Communication . . . . . . 117
10.3.1 Serial configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.3.2 Serial send . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
10.3.3 Serial receive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10.4 Time Variable Settings (Sample Rates) . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
10.5 Examples on Serial Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

11 GPIO Peripheral—Digital Input/Output 131

11.1 Hardware Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
11.2 Firmware Environment: GPIO Peripherals . . . . . . . . . . 133
11.2.1 C2806x GPIO digital input (GPIO DI) . . . . . . . . 133
11.2.2 C2806x digital output (GPIO DO) . . . . . . . . . . . 134
11.3 Examples with GPIO blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

12 Analog to Digital Converter Peripheral 149

12.1 Operating Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
12.1.1 Sample & hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
12.1.2 Analog to digital converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
12.2 Hardware Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
12.2.1 Difference between acquisition window
and sample time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
12.3 Firmware Environment: ADC Peripheral . . . . . . . . . . . 153
12.3.1 C2806x ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
12.4 Example with ADC block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
12.5 Synchronization between ADC modules . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
x Contents

13 Pulse Width Modulator Peripheral 163

13.1 Operating Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
13.2 Hardware Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
13.2.1 ePWM sub-modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
13.3 Generation of PWM signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
13.3.1 Counting modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
13.3.2 ePWMxA and ePWMxB sub-modules . . . . . . . . . 174
13.3.3 Setting dead bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
13.4 Firmware Environment: ePWM Peripheral . . . . . . . . . . 178
13.4.1 C2806x ePWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
13.5 Example with ePWM block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
13.6 DAC Peripheral—Filtered PWM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
13.7 Examples with DAC Peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
13.8 Synchronization between Multiple ePWM Modules . . . . . . 197
13.9 Synchronization between ADC and ePWM Modules:
Average Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
13.10Events Execution within Sample Time . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

14 Encoder Peripheral 207

14.1 Operating Principle of Incremental Encoders . . . . . . . . . 207
14.2 Hardware Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.3 Optical Rotary Encoder LPD3806 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
14.4 Speed Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
14.5 Firmware Environment: eQEP Peripheral . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.5.1 C2806x eQEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.6 Example with eQEP block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

IV Real-Time Control in Power Electronics:

Applications 219
15 Open Loop Control of a Permanent Magnet DC Motor 221
15.1 Required Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
15.2 Linear Model of a PMDC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
15.3 System Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
15.4 Half-Bridge Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
15.4.1 Control implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
15.5 Full-Bridge Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
15.5.1 Modulation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
15.5.2 Unipolar voltage switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
15.5.3 Bipolar voltage switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
15.5.4 Control implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

16 Low-Side Shunt Current Sensing 251

16.1 Sensor Characterization: Theoretical Approach . . . . . . . . 252
16.2 Locked Rotor Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
16.3 Sensor Characterization: Experimental Approach . . . . . . . 260
Contents xi

17 Current Control of an RL Load 267

17.1 Required Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
17.2 Linear Average Model and Controller Design . . . . . . . . . 269
17.3 System Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
17.3.1 Detailed modeling of the actuation variables . . . . . . 271
17.4 Half-Bridge Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
17.4.1 Control implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
17.5 Variation of Load Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
17.5.1 Effects on the transient response . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
17.5.2 Parameters estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

18 Voltage Control of an RLC load 293

18.1 Required Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
18.2 Guidelines for the Hardware Design of a RLC Load . . . . . 296
18.3 General State-Space Average Modeling Method . . . . . . . . 300
18.3.1 Linear average model and controller design . . . . . . 303
18.4 System Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
18.5 Half-Bridge Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
18.5.1 Control implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
18.6 Variations of LC Filter Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

19 Cascade Speed Control of a Permanent Magnet DC Motor 325

19.1 Required Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
19.2 Linear Model of a PMDC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
19.3 Cascade Control Architecture and Design . . . . . . . . . . . 330
19.4 System Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
19.5 Full-Bridge Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
19.5.1 Model reference adaptive system (MRAS) observer . . 344
19.6 Single Motor Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
19.6.1 Parameter identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
19.6.2 Control implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
19.7 Back-to-Back (B2B) Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
19.7.1 Parameter identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
19.7.2 Control implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

V Real-Time Control in Power Electronics:

Load Emulation 371
20 Debugging Tools and Firmware Profiling 373
20.1 Processor-in-the-loop with Simulink® . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
20.1.1 PMDC motor control implementation through PIL . . 375
20.2 External Mode Execution with Simulink® . . . . . . . . . . . 380
20.2.1 Simulink® setup for external mode execution . . . . . 381
xii Contents

21 Electric Propulsion Case Studies 385

21.1 Urban Tramway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
21.2 Electric Racing Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

A Appendix A: Basics of C 401

A.1 Operations between numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
A.1.1 Sum and differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
A.1.2 Shift operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
A.1.3 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
A.1.4 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
A.2 Structure of a C program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

B Appendix B: Custom Expansion Boards and Hardware Kits 405

Bibliography 423
Index 427
Foreword

The new book Introduction to Microcontroller Programming for Power Elec-

tronics Control Applications contains the fundamental subjects of the interdis-
ciplinary field of power electronic based systems, which draws knowledge from
circuit and control theory, (digital) signal processing for embedded implemen-
tation, electrical machines/drives, and power semiconductor devices. Written
for students and practicing engineers, this book introduces the analysis and de-
sign of motor control systems and their implementation on microcontrollers.
The requirements and capabilities of the latter influence the structure and
design choice of the closed-loop control scheme, a subject particularly rele-
vant for laboratory activities both at university and industry level. This book
presents state-of-the-art techniques to implement modulation schemes and
control algorithms in a commercial microcontroller (MCU) suitable for rapid
prototyping approach, and hint for designing analog circuits, such as low-
voltage converter, output filters/load. MATLAB/Simulink® is introduced and
used to solve example problems.
The book presents a concise workflow for the reader by using a specific
embedded target, which is not a limiting factor for the validity of the sug-
gested approach. The latter can be extended even to different boards. It is
valuable to every graduate student, serving as a textbook for classes (looking
to create teamwork) and as a starting point for more advanced studies, for
industry professionals, researchers, and academics willing to study the broad
field of power electronics. The contents of the book are easy to read and pre-
sented in an interesting way with good illustrations and solid background on
the underlying theory. Solved problems (built-in files) are presented to help
the readers.

Introduction to Microcontroller Programming for Power Electronics Control

Applications is unique in the synthesis of the main characteristics of electri-
cal drive behavior and in their link to the main implementation aspect into
modern MCU, trying to fill the gap between system/circuit design, control
techniques, and digital signal processing. The authors are power electronics
and drives specialists from the Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Elec-
tronics Research Group of Politecnico di Milano, Italy. They collected in the
book the several years of teaching and subjects of the laboratory activities for

xiii
xiv Foreword

the M.Sc. in Automation and Control Engineering and Electrical Engineering

at the same university, with the collaboration and contribution of industrial
partner. As industrial partners, we retain this book a great achievement of
the last four years collaboration with the authors.

Angelo Strati — Field Application Engineer Italy

Domenico Santoro — Field Application Engineer Italy
. Giuseppe Ballarin — Team Leader FAE Italy
Würth Elektronik Group
angelo.strati@we-online.com

Most people go about their day blissfully unaware of the electric motors that
are spinning the world around us. We wake up staring upwards at a ceiling
fan, silently rotating in a circle. We jump into our car and rely on up to
40 motors—pumps, fans, locks, and lifts—to get us to our destination. We
power up our laptop computers and hear the soft whine of fans working to
keep the electronics cool. Motors are everywhere because they are one of the
main ways that an electronic circuit can interact with the real world, i.e. a
power electronic-based system. They are “lectromechanical, turning analog
and digital signals into real and visible mechanical motion. It is estimated
that electric motors consume 45 percent of the total worldwide electricity—
this is a stunning statistic! As we look to reducing energy consumption and
enabling a greener future, electric motors present a huge potential for efficiency
improvements.
Few engineering students are aware of the impact of electric motors on
the world around them, and even less are versed in the design and control of
motor systems. This is a problem! We need engineers growing in competency
in this field to create better and more efficient motor drive systems.
Motor drive and control is an incredibly multidisciplinary field. Real-time
digital processing is implemented in microcontrollers to be the “brain” behind
the motor system; controlling speed, power, and efficiency from the digital
domain. A wealth of analog components from power management (voltage
regulators & gate drivers) and signal chain (amplifiers & sensors) interface
the microcontroller to the motor through a power converter while providing
sensing, safe operation, and support for the system. Texas Instruments has
over 25 years of experience in the field of real-time control and also provides

Texas Instruments Incorporated (Nasdaq: TXN) is a global semiconductor company

that designs, manufactures, tests and sells analog and embedded processing chips for mar-
kets such as industrial, automotive, personal electronics, communications equipment and
enterprise systems. Our passion to create a better world by making electronics more afford-
able through semiconductors is alive today, as each generation of innovation builds upon
the last to make our technology smaller, more efficient, more reliable and more affordable—
making it possible for semiconductors to go into electronics everywhere. We think of this
as Engineering Progress. It is what we do and have been doing for decades. Learn more at
www.ti.com.
Foreword xv

a comprehensive analog portfolio covering every block of the motor drive and
control system.
This book presents very practical and important lessons to engineers and
engineering students alike on the topics of motor drive and control, covering
not only general concepts but details on how to create a motor drive system.
It provides an excellent resource to encourage the next generation of engineers
to grow and develop skills in the area of electric motors and power electronics,
introducing them the tools they need to make an impact on the world.
Politecnico di Milano is an outstanding academic partner, and the focus
of the Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Electronics Research Group on
cutting-edge power electronic-based technologies helps shape quality engineer-
ing minds. We wish the best of success to this publication and to the continued
collaboration between industry and academia.

Olivier Monnier — Marketing Manager, C2000 Real-Time MCU

Matt Hein — Applications Manager, Brushless-DC Motor Drives
. Antonio Faggio — Field Application Engineer
Texas Instruments Inc.
a-faggio@ti.com

Can you write the 100 million lines of code that are needed to build an average
modern car? The answer is pretty obvious: of course you can, it’s just a matter
of time. And how would you compare the complexity of this problem to writing
the 4501 lines of assembly code needed to build the first version of UNIX in
1971? While both tasks appear to be at a similar level of dauntlessness, the half
century separating them has witnessed the emergence of high-level languages
that enable programmers to address highly complex problems on their own
while reusing the legacy of their peers.
At MathWorks Inc., we relentlessly work on providing the best high-level
programming tools to automate the implementation of your ideas into embed-
ded systems. Simulink allows you to design and simulate complex algorithms
that you can translate into thousands of lines of embedded code with a click
of a button via our code generation technology.
The book Introduction to Microcontroller Programming for Power Elec-
tronics Control Applications will teach you how to use these modern techniques
to create control algorithms for systems involving complex physics. The re-
markable work of Mattia Rossi, Nicola Toscani, Marco Mauri and Francesco
Castelli Dezza from Politecnico di Milano, Italy, clearly explains deep concepts
to the reader in the field of embedded programming for power electronics ap-
plications using Model-Based Design.

The copyrighted material included in this book is reprinted with permission of The
MathWorks, Inc.
xvi Foreword

While the shift to digital is now largely dominating the industry of mo-
tor control, this revolution is just starting for power conversion applications.
The material in this book provides state of art techniques to train the many
engineers that the world needs tomorrow in a field that is at the core of the
indispensable transition to clean energy.
In recent conversations with Mattia and Nicola, while they politely thanked
us for our help, it was clear to us that the quality and the amount of effort
in this book deserved much more thanking from our side. With this foreword,
we extend all our gratitude to this outstanding contribution to accelerating
the pace of engineering and science, our core mission.

Antonin Ancelle — Embedded Targets Development Manager

John Kluza — Embedded Systems Partner Manager
Tom Erkkinen — Code Generation Marketing Manager
.
Brian McKay — Embedded Systems Partner Manager
MathWorks Inc.
aancelle@mathworks.com

www.we-online.com www.ti.com www.mathworks.com

Preface

Power electronics-based systems are the key enabling technology to meet most
of the future sustainable challenges from grid to motor applications.
Standard textbooks and courses about power electronics and electrical ma-
chines deal with analysis in continuous-time, averaged modeling of switched-
mode power converters, and continuous-time control theory. Nevertheless, real
control algorithms and management functions around power converters are
implemented digitally, thus, extending the field of fundamentals studies to
discrete-time modeling and digital control concepts specific to power electron-
ics. The necessary background is achieved by combining specific textbooks
and courses from both power electronics and digital control theory. However,
students who approach the design of digitally controlled power converters for
the first time may not fully understand and successfully practice for a targeted
problem due to such fragmented references.
In this book, we attempt to fill this gap by treating the fundamental as-
pects of digital control implementation for power electronics based systems
in a systematic and rigorous manner. Our objectives are to put the reader
in the position to understand, analyze, model, design, and implement digital
feedback loops around power converters, from system-level transfer function
formulations to understand which coding tool may be used when working
with microcontroller (MCU or µC) platforms. In particular, the latter be-
longs to Texas Instruments™ C2000™ family, which is specifically designed
for real-time closed loop control such as power supplies, industrial drives,
and solar inverters applications. The Simulink® environment is able to au-
tomatically generate ANSI/ISO C/C++ code tailored for specific embedded
targets through a model-based workflow. Given the settings which enable a
background usage of the Code Composer™ Studio IDE, a Simulink® scheme
can be directly compiled and executed on C2000™ MCUs. Such automated
build and execution procedure speed up the control algorithms implementa-
tion, thus, the code generation of software interfaces and MCU peripherals
(e.g. ADC, digital I/O, PWM), which can be tested with execution profiling.
This makes the reader working in a rapid prototyping manner.
This book is oriented to graduate students of electrical and automation
and control engineering pursuing a curriculum in power electronics and drives.
Moreover, it aims to be a reference for engineers and researchers who seek to
expand on the expertize in design-oriented knowledge for the aforementioned
applications. It is assumed that the reader is well acquainted with funda-
mentals of electrical machines and power converters, along with associated

xvii
xviii Preface

continuous-time modeling and control techniques. Familiarity with sampled-

data, discrete-time system analysis and embedded design topics is helpful but
not absolutely essential since the scope of the book is to provide a basic knowl-
edge even to whom is approaching these topics for the first time. Key concepts
are developed from scratches, including a brief review of control theory and
detailed description of the hardware and test bench used. Either custom ex-
pansion boards and assembled kits are open to users community. Project files
can be shared and/or pre-assembled boards/kit can be directly shipped.
There is no standard notation to cover all of the topics covered in this
book. We tried to use the most familiar notation from the literature whenever
possible to help the reader’s understanding through the chapters.
Acknowledgments

Most of the projects shown in this book have been funded by the Department
of Mechanical Engineering of Politecnico di Milano, Italy, with the particular
contribution of its Laboratory of Electrical Drives and Power Electronics.
Special thanks goes to the university rector Prof. Ferrucio Resta and the
department director Prof. Marco Bocciolone for their support to this initiative.
We are grateful to our graduate students Marco Gerosa, Matteo Scandella,
Andrea Polastri, Matteo Sposito, and Luca Grittini for the precious work
in supporting the hardware development, the boards testing and the many
suggestions they made. We also thank all the Ph.D. students and researchers
who contributed to this book. In particular, Dr. Khaled ElShawarby and Dr.
Alberto Bolzoni, who were supporting the project from day zero.

This book is the final outcome of a collaboration between Politecnico di

Milano, Italy, Würth Elektronik™ Group Texas Instruments™ Inc. and
MathWorks® Inc. . The authors are grateful to them for their support, help
and vision. In particular, Tristan De Cande for his encouragement to tight
the collaboration between university and company; Antonio Faggio and the
US C2000™ product line of Texas Instruments™ Inc. for their commitment to
invest in young generation growing at the university; Angelo Strati, Giuseppe
Ballarin, Domenico Santoro, Andrea De Gruttola from Würth Elektronik™
Group for helping in components selection and boards design; Antonin
Ancelle, John Kluza and their teams from MathWorks® Inc. for their help
on embedded development. Moreover, we thank also MathWorks® Inc. for let-
ting us being part of their Book Program.

The authors would like to specially thank Prof. Petros Karamanakos from
Tampere University, Finland, and Prof. Ralph Kennel from Technical Univer-
sity Munich, Germany, for their guidance, long discussions and availability to
share their high expertize in this field.

We are grateful to Nora Konopka and CRC Press LLC from Taylor and Fran-
cis Group for publishing this book. Special thanks goes to Prachi Mishra for
her guidance and support.

Finally, we acknowledge the inspiration, patience, and support of our fami-

lies during the preparation of this book, who allowed us to work during long
nights, weekends, and holidays. The book is dedicated to Daniela.

xix
Biographies

Mattia Rossi is a Research Assistant at Politecnico di

Milano, Italy. He received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in
Automation and Control Engineering from Politecnico di
Milano, Italy, in 2013 and 2015, respectively. In 2015, he
was at the ABB MV Drives, Switzerland, working on en-
hanced motor control design to reduce mechanical vibrations
in motor-load couplings. Since 2016, he is a Ph.D. student
in Electrical Engineering at Politecnico di Milano, Italy, in
collaboration with Tampere University, Finland. In 2019, he
was a visiting Ph.D. student at the Technical University of
Munich, Germany. His main research activities cover model predictive control
(MPC) algorithms for multilevel medium voltage power electronic-based sys-
tems and their embedded implementation, aiming to improve power conversion
efficiency and system components reliability. He received the Best Student Pa-
per Award at the 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Predictive Control
of Electrical Drives and Power Electronics, and the Jorma Luomi Student Fo-
rum Award at the 2016 International Conference on Electrical Machines.
Email: mattia.rossi@polimi.it

Nicola Toscani received the Bachelor (B.Sc.), Master of

Science (M.Sc.), and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees
in Electrical Engineering from the Politecnico di Milano,
Milan, Italy, in 2013, 2015, and 2019, respectively. He is
currently working as a Postdoctoral Research Fellow in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering of Politecnico di Mi-
lano. His last research activities deal with the development
and the control of electrical machines for high-performance
vehicles and wireless power transfer. His research inter-
ests also include modeling strategies for Electromagnetic
Compatibility problems, Power Electronics and Electrical Drives. Email:
nicola.toscani@polimi.it

xxi
xxii Biographies

Marco Mauri is an Assistant Professor in Electrical Ma-

chines and Drives at Politecnico di Milano, Italy. He received
the Master of Science (M.Sc.) and Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) degrees in Electrical Engineering from Politecnico
di Milano in 1998 and 2002. His research interests mainly
include the control of electrical machines and modeling prin-
ciple of electrical drives and electromagnetic effects. He is a
member of the IEEE Power Electronics and Industrial Elec-
tronics societies Email: marco.mauri@polimi.it

Francesco Castelli Dezza is a Full Professor in Electri-

cal Machines and Drives at Politecnico di Milano, Italy.
He received the Master of Science (M.Sc.) and Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.) degrees in electrical engineering from
the Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy, in 1986 and 1990,
respectively. He is currently the head of the Electrical Ma-
chines, Drives and Power Electronics research group of Po-
litecnico di Milano, Italy, which is mainly located at the De-
partment of Mechanical Engineering of the same university.
His research interests include studies on dynamic behavior of
electrical machines, electrical drives control and design, and power electronics
for energy flow management. He is a member of the IEEE Power Electronics
and Industrial Electronics societies. Email: francesco.castellidezza@polimi.it
1
Advances in Firmware Design for Power
Electronics Control Platforms

The rising complexity and tighter requirements of power electronics-based sys-

tems lead to a great complexity of digital control algorithms, which has to be
tested in many working conditions, i.e., looking for reliability. Hence, firmware
design and testing routines have become increasingly time-consuming. To
speed up the proof of concepts and to improve firmware quality assurance, the
simulation analysis is combined with several automatic code generation proce-
dures to achieve rapid prototyping. Such approach is aimed to test the control
algorithm and the related generated code on real hardware through mini-
mal modifications. This approach also helps to identify coding and platform-
specific configuration errors, as well as to get rid of them. In particular, this
book refers to microcontrollers (MCU or µC).
In this first, introductory chapter, basics of embedded systems and corre-
sponding coding approaches are presented in detail.

1.1 Embedded Control System

Everyone who encounter these book subjects for the first time may have a
very fundamental question: what is an embedded system?
To provide a clear answer, it is necessary to underline the major difference
between a microprocessor and a microcontroller first.
A microprocessor is the computational intelligence of complex systems,
i.e., the central processing unit (CPU), which is optimized to do logical-
mathematical computations. It usually has mainly on-board communica-
tions peripherals to interact with the rest of the system. However, in many
fields, including power electronics-based systems, there is the need for com-
municating with rather complex peripherals like Analog-to-Digital Conver-
sion (ADC) channels, Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC) modules, Pulse-
Width-Modulation (PWM) peripheral, and Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C)
communication.
A microcontroller (MCU) is designed to include such peripherals. Hence,
a MCU is a device built around a microprocessor (or CPU), where the

DOI: 10.1201/9781003196938-1 1
2 Advances in Firmware Design for Power Electronics Control Platforms

Standard microprocessor Microcontroller

(PCs) (Power electronics)
• High computational power • “Low” computational power
• Several communication peripheral • Communication, actuation and
sensing (measurements) peripherals
• General usage (e.g., software sim- • Target usage: optimizing perfor-
ulations, document editing) mances and costs

number of peripherals as well as their type and accuracy/resolution are related

to the final market price other than the specific task they have to carry out.
Figure 1.1 shows an example of architecture of MCU board. Note that, MCU
refers to microprocessor for which the computational power is significantly
lower compared to those used inside a personal computer. This is the reason
why most of the MCUs for the industrial markets are able to manage a re-
duced number of computations even if they drive high-speed/high-resolution
peripherals.
Therefore, an embedded system can be generally defined as a control plat-
form based on a programmable logic (i.e., microprocessor), where the control
algorithm and the peripheral interfaces are dedicated to specific tasks/func-
tions or a group of them. All the application requirements, e.g., from ADC
resolution to modulator dead time, are given from the beginning. This allows
every user to choose the best trade-off between computational power, type of
peripherals, and unitary cost, optimizing its design. The algorithm is executed
in real-time, generally without using an on-board operating systems (OS). In-
deed a custom (light) OS might be needed just for the most demanding cases.
Nowadays, the modern definition of embedded system mainly refers to mi-
crocontrollers. Nevertheless, even a single microprocessor which is specialized

CPU
A/D
CONVERTER RAM

PROGRAM
CLOCK
MEMORY
MCU

Figure 1.1 Example of the architecture of a MCU board [11].

Selecting a Development Board 3

Figure 1.2 Examples of power electronic-based applications [8].

in certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the applica-

tion at hand, may be considered as an embedded system. This is the case
of digital signal processors (DSPs), which are out of the scope of this book.
The wide-ranging insertion of power electronics in many applications with
different requirements still creates market for microcontrollers. Some of such
applications are reported in Figure 1.2. As an example, the MCU usage in the
automotive field is grown about +11% from 2006 to 2015. The popularity of
MCUs depends on their ability to work with floating point variables (i.e., to
include a floating point unit) as well as their benefit from mass production.
Nevertheless, some applications require cost-effective devices,1 thus, working
with integer variables (e.g., 8–16 bit), targeting low cost MCUs. Furthermore,
in order to extend the potential market of control platforms, today microcon-
trollers can be interfaced with different peripheral on the same pins, which
can be chosen by setting different values on the corresponding registers. Thus,
that allows to have more peripheral channels than pins.

1.2 Selecting a Development Board

Power electronics-based systems like power management and motor drive are
going on with their fast evolution toward high-performance and high-efficiency
solutions. Likewise, the demand for digital control algorithms managing the
electronic component operations and the overall system has been rising, and
embedded systems have been increasing in complexity reaching fast execution
times. Therefore, it has become a standard engineering practice to test the
control algorithm through real-time simulations and to verify its feasibility
based on the hardware at disposal. This is the reason why in both research
centers and academia development board must be updated according to the
new emerging platforms on the market.
The selection of the development board represents the very first
task of a project. In particular, development boards are designed to be
efficient, portable, and sensored according to a specific applications field.

1 From the customer’s point of view the “best” microcontroller is the one which matches

all the application requirements at the lowest price.

 4 Advances in Firmware Design for Power Electronics Control Platforms

Since this book focuses on electrical power conversion case studies, from
now on the text refers to MCU platforms targeted to power electronics-based
applications. Even if this last statement reduces the candidate list, there still
are several suitable solutions available on the market which share a common
goal of being compact and versatile. Since the definition of a criterion to cat-
egorize each board would not be practical (i.e., there might be even deep
technology differences), it is recommended to follow a system-level approach
like the one presented here:
1. Consider all the components and peripherals that are necessary to
run all of the required features. If the board lacks any of them, it is
important to identify some supported expansions to include them.
2. Consider the supported programming languages and the level of
competence of the final user. Moreover, investigate if any automatic
code generation procedure is available as well as the quality of the
documentation at disposal for the adopted board. Indeed, commu-
nity and support are factors of great importance since they are the
primary resources when designing a project.
3. Evaluate costs versus adopted components for the considered spe-
cific application: is it worth paying for them?

1.2.1 Key elements of a microcontroller

The main features of microcontroller boards that set their performances are
reported below:

• CPU and clock speed: these two values affect the overall performance of
the board. Namely, how fast it can perform computations. It should be noted
that clock speed comparisons between CPUs coming from different families
may not lead to meaningful considerations. Other factors, such as instruction
cycles, instruction sets, and pipeline depth, also affect MCU performances.
• RAM: the size of this memory affects the number of tasks that can be run
simultaneously. It also impacts how fast data can be processed, as swapping
it from RAM to nonvolatile storage incurs large performance overheads.
• Graphical processing unit (GPU): it allows development board to run
video output (e.g., VGA/HDMI). High-performance GPUs are needed while
processing video/images with the development board.
• Data memory: it affects the size of programs, operating systems, and gen-
erated/downloaded data that can be stored on development boards.
• General purpose input/output pins: these pins are used to connect
external components to the development board in use. Hence, more pins
typically means more possible simultaneous connections. These pins are
usually assigned specific functionalities by the manufacturer being compli-
ant with some standards, such as integrated circuit (I2C), serial peripheral
 Selecting a Development Board 5

interface (SPI), and universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART).

These standards facilitate interoperability with third-party devices such as
displays or sensors.
• Analog-in pins: these pins are necessary for any data acquisition from
sensors and they are classified through the resolution and sampling rate of
the peripheral to which they are connected. In particular, resolution refers
to the number of discrete levels to which the input signal is quantized, while
sampling rate is the number of data points that can be obtained in a reference
time interval. High resolution is required for accurate measurements, while
high sampling rates are needed for the acquisition of fast changing signals.
• Pulse width modulator: pulse width modulation is a kind of digital signal
that is ideal for mimicking analog signals. Such signals are generated through
modulators which vary the duty cycle of square waves depending on the
desired output.
• Power supply and consumption: both of them can play a major role in
design choices. For portable products, the runtime requirements and power
demand of the board/associated components must be considered when se-
lecting an energy source. For example, a development board serving as a
data logger in a remote location must run uninterrupted for months, while
another one working as a mobile personal computer only needs to run for sev-
eral hours before recharging. Power consumption can be difficult to quantify
as many boards have varying modes of operation, allowing some of them
to work in very low power consumption modes. When considering power
consumption, the designer must take the following factors into account: re-
quired computational power, maximum run time without recharging, and
the cost/size of the energy source. The size of power sources is easier to
determine since it depends on the rated values of the adopted board

1.2.2 Programming microcontrollers

The development environment of boards affects how the designer interacts
with the hardware. The support for multiple operating systems, languages,
and integrated development environments creates a rich programming frame-
work and more appealing development board as well.
Depending on the specific application, all the onboard peripherals as well
as the main algorithm features have to be correctly set while programming
the MCU for executing required tasks.
Across the years, different coding approaches have been developed:

1. Low-level, based on machine code (e.g., Assembler language);

2. Intermediate-level, based on a combination of C-code (to define
algorithm features and peripheral settings) and the usage of an In-
tegrated Development Environment (IDE, e.g., Code Composer™
6 Advances in Firmware Design for Power Electronics Control Platforms

Studio from Texas Instruments™ ) to compile, link, debug, and down-

load the script on target;
3. High-level, based on a combination of objective-oriented languages
(e.g., Simulink® , to define algorithm features and peripherals set-
tings) and the usage of specific target toolbox to generate C-code,
compile, link, debug and download the algorithm into platform.
C code is considered as the universal language for microcontroller program-
ming, with C++ following closely behind. In addition, more and more boards
have custom IDEs associated with them, providing pre-configured device sup-
port and libraries, aimed at offering an all-around user-friendly workspace.
More versatile IDEs (i.e., those not designed for a specific development board)
allow users to explore alternative programming languages.
Each of the previously mentioned approaches has advantages and draw-
backs according to the end-user type. Some of the main differences between
low and high level coding are listed here in the following:
• Platform Dependencies
Low-level programming languages are platform-dependent, which means
that programs are written in such way they can run on the one hardware
configuration only. Instead, high-level programming languages are platform-
independent, that means programs written in such way can run on different
hardware configurations.
Remark: platform-independent does not mean operating system-
independent. Indeed, hardware configuration may change, but OS (if
present) should be the same for every new setup.
• Speed
Low-level language programs are faster than those written in high-level lan-
guage since they do not need to convert any algorithm in code executable on
the hardware. In addition, low-level languages have less syntax, functions,
keywords, and class libraries compared to other coding approaches.
• Easy Programming and Flexibility
Low-level languages are not as easy and user-friendly to manage as high-
level ones. Indeed, there are only two low-level programming languages,
which are Binary and Assembly. Binary language foresees codes made by
zeros and ones only, whereas Assembly requires some symbols knows as
mnemonics which are difficult to type. On the other hand, high-level lan-
guage programs are easy to write, read, modify, and understand. Moreover,
high-level languages have huge libraries with a rich set of functions, allowing
the development of algorithms for several applications with low effort.
• Performance
Since low-level language programs are faster than any other, their perfor-
mance are for sure better than those of high-level ones.
 The C2000™ Family of MCU from Texas Instruments™ 7

• Translation
Programs written in Binary code does not need any translation as this lan-
guage is a machine code already. Namely, the hardware is capable of un-
derstanding them without any translation. Instead, Assembly codes need
an Assembler to translate programs to their equivalent counterpart in Ma-
chine Code. High-level languages are always translated by compilers or in-
terpreters. Some of them required both compilers and interpreters to get the
Object/Binary file.

• Support
Low-level languages have less support than high-level ones. There may be
lower number of communities for low-level languages than for high-level ones.

This book focuses on high-level programming languages which are user-

friendly both for students and for everyone who is approaching microcontroller
programming for the first time. In particular, coding/programming through
Simulink® is proposed in the following chapters.

1.3 The C2000™ Family of MCU from Texas

Instruments™
Texas Instruments™ (TI) offers free software development tools for
LaunchPad™ boards, such as Code Composer™ Studio (IDE) and Energia2 .
In addition, TI allows free use (limited size) of cloud-based development tools.
All these tools accept C/C++ code for programming.

Texas Instruments™ has a wide range of embedded processors from very

low-cost, limited performance up to high-cost, very high performance. Its main
product families are:

• MSP43x™ ultra-low-power microcontroller family;

• C2000™ microcontroller family;

• ARM-based microcontroller family;

• C5000™ low-power signal-processing DSPs;
• C6000™ high-perfomance signal-processing DSPs.

Among them, the C2000™ microcontroller family (also known as the

TMS320C2000™ family) is a product line aimed at high-performance control

2 Energia is a rapid prototyping platform based on Arduino IDE.

 8 Advances in Firmware Design for Power Electronics Control Platforms

applications in the fields of motor control, digital power supplies, lighting, re-
newable energy, and smart grids. This family is made up of several subfamilies,
from which it is worth mentioning:

• C24xx: a 16-bit microcontroller that evolved from the TMS320C2x family

of digital signal processors.
• C28xx: a 32-bit microcontroller, fixed or floating point, with a robust set
of peripherals and I/Os which match the classical needs typical of power
electronics applications.

In particular, the C28xx chips are from low to high performance MCU.
Piccolo™ (which main features and applications are summarized in Figure 1.3)
and Delfino™ are the families for low and high performance microcontrollers,
respectively. Their main characteristics are reported here in the following:
1. Piccolo™
•MCU with floating-point unit;
•CPU frequency: from 40 to 120 MHz;
•Core: 1xC28x;
•Memory:
from 60 kbit up to 512 kbit flash;
from 12 kbit up to 100 kbit SRAM;
•Main peripherals: ADC, PWM, QEP, DMA, SPI, UART, I2C,
CAN, USB.
2. Delfino™
•MCU with floating-point unit;
•CPU frequency: from 100 to 200 MHz;
•Core: from 1xC28x up to 2xC28x + 2xCLA + ARM Cortex-
M4;
•Memory:
from 512 kB up to 1.5 MB flash;
from 68 kB up to 338 kB SRAM;
•Main peripherals: ADC, PWM, QEP, DMA, SPI, UART, I2C,
CAN, EMIF.
In particular, the following families of C28xx MCUs (which are also available
as LaunchPad™ development kits) are supported with a dedicated library
available in Matlab® Simulink® : F2802x Piccolo™ , F2803x Piccolo™ , F2805x
Piccolo™ , F2807x Piccolo™ , F2806x Piccolo™ , F2837xS Delfino™ , F2837xD
Delfino™ , F28004x, F2823x Delfino™ , F28M3x.
From Chapter 2 on, this book refers to a specific model of development board,
that is Texas Instruments™ LaunchXL F28069M Piccolo™ , which is shown in
 Scheme of a Power Electronics Control Problem 9

Figure 1.3 LaunchPad™ Piccolo MCU framework [10].

Figure 1.4. The reason behind this choice is its low-cost, low-power, and simple
development environment of the board. Moreover, it has both a 256 kbit flash
memory and a 96 kbit RAM. Finally, the community and project support for
this device is relatively sparse compared to other boards. TI offers several plug-
in expansion boards to expand the capabilities of the F28069M LaunchPad™
Piccolo™ .

1.4 Scheme of a Power Electronics Control Problem

Most of the MCU-based closed loop control schemes for power electronics
applications can be summarized in a structure like the one reported in Figure
1.5, which refers specifically to C2000™ processors. More in details, the key
elements/features of this scheme (i.e., the ones necessary to close a loop) are:

• Reference: the controller must act to let the system follow a reference
signal. The latter can be both internally generated on the MCU or provided
as an external signal.
• Processing: this relates to the control logic implemented on the MCU.
The control structure is the main part of the scheme, since it is aimed at
generating the desired output based on the error between the reference and
the feedback signals. This stage may also comprise scaling routines.

Figure 1.4 F28069M LaunchPad™ Piccolo™ board.

 10 Advances in Firmware Design for Power Electronics Control Platforms

Figure 1.5 Classical structure of a closed-loop control scheme for implemen-

tations on C2000™ -based boards and its main elements [13].

• Actuation: the controller output must be translated into a signal which

must be suitable and consistent with the actuation logic used to operate the
power converter. The modulator stage is the key element of the actuation
block, which also comprise the safety routines.
• Power electronics: this refer to the switching devices used to realize a
energy conversion. This system is used to drive different loads based on the
reference signal. Generally, this stage is not embedded into MCU boards.
Typically, they are built up on expansion boards.
• Sensing: sensors may be embedded on the MCU board or physically in-
stalled in close proximity of the switching device. In both case, analog sig-
nals must be acquired and digitalized through analog to digital converters
(included in the architecture of the MCU), being available to be processed
for closing the loop.

Note that, the C2000™ MCU family includes several parts of this struc-
ture representing a complex ecosystem. Its main features are summarized in
Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 C2000™ MCU feature highlights [13].

 Scheme of a Power Electronics Control Problem 11

Figure 1.7 Traction converter and motor control for an efficient conversion DC
to AC to drive an electric motor [9].

Examples of fields of application for MCU boards

The wide-ranging integration of power electronics in many applications with
different requirements creates many control challenges. Several constraints
means large embedded platform capabilities (in addition to ad-hoc power elec-
tronics design) which is reflected in the demand of specific number/type of
peripherals, resolution/accuracy, computational power, safety target, power
absorbition, etc . Some examples of power electronic-based applications that
can be controlled by an MCU-based control scheme are:
• Industrial drives: they are aimed to control a wide variety of motors, e.g.,
AC and servo drives, equipped with sensing technologies (e.g., encoder or
sensor-less solutions) and communications networks (like real-time Ethernet
communications and functional safety topologies), which may be included
in a complex production system (such as robotic lines or rolling mills) or
targeted to a specific industrial task.
• Electric vehicles (auxiliaries and traction systems): advanced power
control technology is needed for the electrification of vehicles. In particu-
lar, a car environment comprises motor control technologies, e.g., traction
or propulsion motors, auxiliary motors, power steering, and digital power
 12 Advances in Firmware Design for Power Electronics Control Platforms

Figure 1.8 Example of energy collection from PV panels [8].

technology, like charging stations (AC/DC), DC/DC power conversion, on-

board charging, and AC output stage. In order to achieve high performance
while maximizing driving range and minimizing energy loss, more attention
is needed on the choice of the right motor and the most efficient control
techniques. As more electric vehicles enter the market, it is challenging to
provide on-board charging solutions that can support multiple regions with
different power grid infrastructures [27].
Several aspects and subsystems may be defined and analyzed, thus, electric
vehicles represent a complex environment, as shown in Figure 1.7.
• Renewable and digital power: this kind of applications addresses the
growing need for high efficiency, smaller form factor, and adaptability in
digitally controlled power electronic converters driving energy productions,
such as photovoltaic panels and wind turbines.
Digital power management and control capabilities provide real-time intel-
ligence allowing for the development of adaptable high frequency switching
power supplies that automatically tune to their environment, improving ef-
ficiency and performance. This automatic adjustment allows for changes in
input voltage, output load current and system temperature, delivering en-
ergy savings with dynamic voltage scaling, and advanced control techniques
for optimal system performance [39].
Several aspects and subsystems (like batteries and power conversion substa-
tions) may be defined and analyzed, as reported in the renewable energy-
based distribution system shown in Figure 1.8.
 Part I

Embedded Development:
Hardware Kits and Coding
 2
Automatic Code Generation through
MATLAB®

Any time engineers design digital controls for power electronic-based applica-
tions, there are many good reasons to perform modeling and simulation:
• Test system behavior an possible variations, e.g., in the topology, power
supply, load.
• Test different passive (e.g. resistors, capacitors, inductors) and active (e.g.
semiconductor technology) elements to find suitable components.
• Test if the feedback control algorithms are able to meet the currents/volt-
ages/speeds regulation requirements.
Then, move to the coding stage aimed to embedded implementation for a
specific target. MathWorks® provides tools which bring the simulation stage
together with the implementation one, creating a powerful ecosystem which
allow to speed up the workflow from idea to practice.
In this book, the concepts of rapid prototyping and digital control tech-
niques for power electronics-based systems are explained by programming
a TI C2000™ based MCU platform through the MathWorks® MATLAB®
and Simulink® frameworks. Both MATLAB® and Simulink® are commonly
used for the analysis, design, simulation and optimization of models, includ-
ing power electronic circuits. For the latter, the Simscape™ Power Systems1
toolbox allows to model all the parts of power networks and to take into
account the realistic behavior of each component. Moreover, MathWorks®
along with various MCU manufacturers, such as Texas Instruments® , devel-
oped several Simulink® toolboxes aimed at automatically generating C/C++
targeted code for a specific CPU. Such toolboxes work together with the
IDE of the microcontoller supplier, i.e., TI Code Composer™ Studio in this
case.

1 Simscape™ toolbox enables a quick creation of models of physical systems within the

Simulink® environment. With Simscape™ , component models based on physical connections

are built directly integrated with block diagrams and other modeling paradigms. Thus, it
is possible to model systems such as electric motors, bridge rectifiers other than hydraulic
actuators. Their interactions can be included in the same environment.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003196938-2 15
16 Automatic Code Generation through MATLAB®

Figure 2.1 Model-Based Design workflow [34].

2.1 Model-Based Design and Rapid Prototyping

Rather than relying on physical prototypes and textual specifications, Model-
Based Design approach proposed by MathWorks® in [34] uses a system model
as an executable specification throughout development. It supports system-
and component-level design and simulation, automatic code generation, and
continuous test and verification.
Anyway, the best way to understand what a Model-Based Design is, it is
through an example (the reader is referred to [34]):
A team of engineers sets out to build a motor control unit for an AC
electrical drive. Because they are using the Model-Based Design approach,
they begin by settling an architecture model from the system requirements;
in this case, the system comprises the AC electrical machine, the power
converter, the sensing/actuation stage and the control unit. A simula-
tion/design model is then derived. This high-level model includes portions
of the controls software that will be running in the control unit, and the
load–in this case, the motor and the power converter. The team performs
initial system and integration tests by simulating this high-level model un-
der various scenarios to verify that the system is represented correctly and
that it properly responds to input signals. They add detail to the model,
continuously testing and verifying the system-level behavior against spec-
ifications. If the system is large and complex, the engineers can develop
and test individual components independently but still test them frequently
in a full system simulation. Ultimately, they build a detailed model of the
 Model-Based Design and Rapid Prototyping 17

Figure 2.2 Model-Based Design workflow specified to power electronic-based

applications [33].

system and the specific environment in which it operates. This model cap-
tures the accumulated knowledge about the control unit (e.g. considering
the peripheral of the targeted MCU). The engineers generate code auto-
matically from the model of the control algorithms for firmware testing and
verification. Then, they download the generated code onto production hard-
ware (e.g., MCU) for testing in an real hardware.

As this example shows, Model-Based Design uses the same elements as tradi-
tional development workflows, but with two key differences:
• A system model is at the heart of development, from requirements capture
through design, implementation, and testing;
• It requires to follow this modeling approach to enable the automated rou-
tines, e.g., automatic code generation.
The workflow reported in Figure 2.1 can be specified for power electronic-
based applications, as shown in Figure 2.2.
 18 Automatic Code Generation through MATLAB®

Simulations allow to analyze system performances in conditions otherwise

too expensive, risky, or time-consuming to consider. This aspect combined
with the possibility to automatically generate C, C++, HDL, or Structured
Text from the model (the generated code can be optimized and combined with
hand-written code) defines the rapid prototyping approach.

Goals of Real-Time Rapid Prototyping

Assuming that the functional requirements, the system hardware and the
targeted control platform are given, rapid prototyping (in terms of real-time
simulation, testing and coding) can be used to:

• Refine and verify the functional operations of control system design with
the exploited hardware by rapidly iterating between algorithm design and
prototyping;
• Continuously explore and test new ideas using a flexible, scalable platform;
validate whether a component can adequately control the physical system
in real time;
• Evaluate system performance, investigate scenarios and hardware interac-
tions that are complex, expensive, or dangerous to perform with production
hardware (i.e. before laying out hardware, coding production software);
• Test hardware cutting the development time from idea to practice, to avoid
costly design flaws by detecting errors early when they are still cost-effective
to correct.

For more information on this topic, the reader is referenced to [34].

2.2 Workflow for Automatic Code Generation

Making changes to the controller code during hardware testing can be time-
consuming. Indeed, modifying the code, recompiling and deploying it to the
microcontroller frequently may take long time depending on the extent of the
required improvements. As an alternative, Simulink® can generate C/C++
code for a specific MCU starting from the scheme which models the controller,
achieving rapid prototyping. By simulating the complete power electronic sys-
tem (controller included) over all its possible operating and fault conditions,
the ability to handle those same scenarios in the real system is increased.
Assuming to consider a generic power electronics-based systems, e.g., a
two-level converter driving a combined resistive-inductive (RL) load, it is
quite easy (and fast) to simulate the system behavior by representing it as
a transfer function or by means of physical components from the Simscape™
Workflow for Automatic Code Generation 19
Micro controller, discrete time

y ∗ (k)
Reference + e (k) PI u (k) PWM u (t) Power v (t) Electrical
− controller modulator electronics system

y (k) y (t)
Sensor

Figure 2.3 Block diagram of a microcontroller-based closed-loop system for

power electronics applications.

Power Systems library. In both cases, the system receives an actuating vari-
able/signal u(t) and it returns an output variable/signal y(t). Supposing to
design a closed-loop control, e.g., a PI-based current control, the regulator
processes the error y ∗ (t) − y(t) and it returns the control input u(t). The
whole control scheme is reported in Figure 2.3.
Due to the switching nature of power converters (i.e., discrete on-off behav-
ior), a modulation stage such as pulse width modulation (PWM), translates
the control input u∗ (t) into the actuating signal u(t) by a suitable switch-
ing pattern of the power converter. In this framework, the controller has to
be implemented into the processor of the MCU which cannot handle con-
tinuous signals. Thus, the control algorithm must be discretized. Namely, its
input/output signals are sampled at discrete time instances, i.e., u(k) and
y(k), while the discrete controller form is derived from the continuous-time
one through a discretization method. These latter aspects are deeply discussed
in Part II of this book.
The overall control implementation process can be summarized in three
main steps:
1. The Simulink® file is used to test and to optimize the controller
through simulation before its deployment on the selected hardware2 ;
2. Once the control design is ready, the control input and output are
substituted by the related MCU peripherals which are given in
Simulink® as block-set. According to the peripheral requirements,
it may be necessary to edit the data type of the signals;
3. Finally, the overall scheme (controller + I/O block-sets) can be
deployed on the MCU, i.e., translated into binary code and uploaded
into the MCU. The whole procedure is summarized in Figure 2.4.
This model translation is not simple since it involves several hidden steps.
Simulink® converts the model to a C programming code through MathWorks®

2 Given that the converter behavior is assumed to be faster than the load dynamics,

it is common practice to design the controller without taking the converter dynamics into
account
20 Automatic Code Generation through MATLAB®
Specifcations
I m pro v e m e nts

s
Simulation Bug
Firmware
Design of the
execution
control logic
E rrors
Discretization

Firmware
Automatic Deploy
Peripheral setting
code generation to hardware
Data type setting

Figure 2.4 Workflow for firmware design.

Embedded Coder® . Then, the executable C code is fed to the IDE Code Com-
poser Studio™ in which it is:
1. Sequentially compiled to assembly language exploiting the Texas
Instruments libraries;
2. Assembled (e.g., ASM source code);
3. Lik-edited;
4. Downloaded on the TI C2000™ MCU flash memory.
Figure 2.5 shows such steps with a flowchart.

Benefits
The key advantage of such rapid prototyping technique is a seamless integra-
tion capability over multiple processors. This can be achieved by just replacing

Simulink®
Embedded
Coder

C-code

Code Composer Studio™

Compiler

Assembly Linker OBJ to Hex

OBJ fle HEX fle
language converter

Download

Hardware

Figure 2.5 Simulink® workflow for firmware deployment on MCU boards.

 Workflow for Automatic Code Generation 21

the processor specific block-set, making the necessary changes in their config-
uration rather than rewriting or rebuilding the whole model. This is valid not
only for hardware made by the same manufacturer, but by different producers
as well. Hence, designers do not have to worry about the compatibility of the
code. To validate changes made on the controller, it is enough to run the simu-
lation model first and, then, to verify that no errors are generated. Hence, this
approach is naturally oriented to research and development activities (i.e., for
academic and industries).

Drawbacks
It is important to underline how such procedure may imply performance bot-
tlenecks. Skipping the effort of low-level coding may limit the computational
efficiency of the generated code. The resulting C/C++ code is numerically
equivalent to the previously validated algorithms in Simulink® , but these lat-
ter has to be prepared for code generation, e.g., introducing implementation
considerations needed for low-level C code and using functions for code gen-
eration support.
To clarify such concept, the code generation of a simple MATLAB® func-
tion which multiplies two inputs is investigated here in the following:

function c = Prod(a,b) #include “Prod.h”

% multiply two inputs double Prod(double a, double b)
c = a * b; {
AAreturn a * b;
}
(a) MATLAB® source code (b) generated C code

Given two scalar inputs, the automatically generated C code maps clearly
back to the MATLAB® environment, as shown above.
Nevertheless, as any MATLAB® algorithms intended for code generation,
implementation constraints due to the differences between the two program-
ming languages must be considered. These mainly include:

• Memory allocation: in MATLAB® , memory allocation is automatic while

in C code is manual. Namely, it may be allocated either statically (using
static), dynamically (using malloc), or on the stack (using local variables).
• Array-based language: MATLAB® provides a rich set of array operations
that allow concise coding of numerical algorithms; C code requires explicit
for-loops to express the same algorithms.
• Data type: MATLAB® automatically determines the data types and sizes
as the code runs; C language requires explicit type declarations on all the
exploited variables and functions (e.g., int, uint, single, double).
 22 Automatic Code Generation through MATLAB®

• Polymorphism: MATLAB® functions can support many different input

types and they adapt the use of proper operators, while C code requires
clear data type declarations.

Given the purpose of this book, the last two points require particular at-
tention. The polymorphism can give a single line of MATLAB® code different
meanings depending on the inputs. For example, the function shown previ-
ously could mean scalar multiplication, dot product, or matrix multiplication.
In fact, the inputs could be of different data types (logical, integer, floating-
point, fixed-point) or either real or complex numbers. If two matrices are
multiplied, the automatic procedure produce many lines of C code, even with
3 for-loops, as shown here in the following:
void Prod ( const double a [12] ,
const double b [20] ,
double c [15])
{
int i0 ; int i1 ; int i2 ;
for ( i0 = 0; i0 <3; i0 ++)
{
for ( i1 = 0; i1 <5; i1 ++)
{
c [ i0 + 3 * i1 ] = 0.0;
for ( i2 = 0; i2 <4; i2 ++)
{
c [ i0 + 3 * i1 ] =...
... a [ i0 + 3 * i2 ] * b [ i2 + ( i1 << 2)];
}
}
}
}

Thus, this piece of code looks quite different from that one reported before.
For further information on this topic, the reader is referenced to [5].

2.3 Generate Code for C2000™ Microcontrollers

MATLAB® Coder™ , Simulink® Coder™ , and Embedded Coder® generate
ANSI/ISO C/C++ code that can be compiled and executed on Texas
Instruments™ (TI) C2000™ microcontrollers (MCUs) using Code Composer™
Studio IDE. Embedded Coder® allows an easy configuration of the code gen-
eration from MATLAB® and Simulink® algorithms to control software inter-
faces, optimize execution performance, and minimize memory consumption.
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 CHAPTER IV.

"More anxious thoughts attacked me as I lost sight of the English

coast; but as I had not left there any strong attachment, I was soon
consoled, on arriving at Leghorn, and reviewing the charms of Italy.
I told no one my true name,[1] and took merely that of Corinne,
which the history of a Grecian poetess, the friend of Pindar, had
endeared to me.[2] My person was so changed that I was secure
against recognition. I had lived so retired in Florence, that I had a
right to anticipate my identity's remaining unknown in Rome. Lady
Edgarmond wrote me word of her having spread the report that the
physicians had prescribed a voyage to the south for my health, and
that I had died on my passage. Her letter contained no comments.
She remitted, with great exactness, my whole fortune, which was
considerable; but wrote to me no more. Five years then elapsed ere
I beheld you; during which I tasted much good fortune. My fame
increased: the fine arts and literature afforded me even more delight
in solitude than in my own success. I knew not, till I met you, the
full power of sentiment: my imagination sometimes colored and
discolored my illusions without giving me great uneasiness. I had not
yet been seized by any affection capable of overruling me.
Admiration, respect, and love had not enchained all the faculties of
my soul; I conceived more charms than I ever found, and remained
superior to my own impressions. Do not insist on me describing to
you how two men, whose passion for me is but too generally known,
successively occupied my life, before I knew you. I outrage my own
conviction in now reminding myself that any one, save you, could
ever have interested me: on this subject I feel equal grief and
repentance. I shall only tell you what you have already heard from
my friends. My free life so much pleased me, that, after long
irresolutions and painful scenes, I twice broke the ties which the
necessity of loving had made me contract, and could not resolve to
render them irrevocable. A German noble would have married and
taken me to his own country. An Italian prince offered me a most
brilliant establishment in Rome. The first pleased and inspired me
with the highest esteem; but, in time, I perceived that he had few
mental resources. When we were alone together, it cost me great
trouble to sustain a conversation, and conceal from him his own
deficiencies. I dared not display myself at my best for fear of
embarrassing him. I foresaw that his regard for me must necessarily
decrease when I should cease to manage him; and it is difficult, in
such a case, to keep up one's enthusiasm: a woman's feeling for a
man any way inferior to herself is rather pity than love; and the
calculations, the reflections required by such a state, wither the
celestial nature of an involuntary sentiment. The Italian prince was
all grace and fertility of mind: he participated in my tastes, and loved
my way of life; but, on an important occasion, I remarked that he
wanted energy, and that, in any difficulties, I should have to sustain
and fortify him. There was an end of love—for women need support;
and nothing chills them more than the necessity of affording it. Thus
was I twice undeceived, not by faults or misfortunes, but by the
spirit of observation, which detected what imagination had
concealed. I believed myself destined never to love with the full
power of my soul: sometimes this idea pained me; but more
frequently I applauded my own freedom—fearing the capability of
suffering that impassioned impulse which might threaten my
happiness and my life. I always reassured myself in thinking that my
judgment was not easily captivated, and that no man could answer
my ideal of masculine mind and character. I hoped ever to escape
the absolute power of love, by perceiving some defects in those who
charmed me. I then knew not that there are faults which increase
our passion by the inquietude they cause. Oswald! the melancholy
indecision which discourages you—the severity of your opinions—
troubles my repose, without decreasing my affection. I often think
that it will never make me happy; but then it is always myself I
judge, and not you. And now you know my history—my flight from
England—my change of name—my heart's inconstancy: I have
concealed nothing. Doubtless you think that fancy hath oft misled
me; but, if society bound us not by chains from which men are free,
what were there in my life which should prevent your loving me?
Have I ever deceived? have I ever wronged any one? has my mind
been seared by vulgar interests? Sincerity, good-will, and pride—
does God ask more from an orphan alone in the world? Happy the
women who, in their early youth, meet those they ought to love
forever; but do I the less deserve you for having known you too
late? Yet, I assure you, my Lord, and you may trust my frankness,
could I but pass my life near you, methinks, despite the loss of the
greatest happiness and glory I can imagine; I would not be your
wife. Perhaps such marriage were to you a sacrifice: you may one
day regret the fair Lucy, my sister to whom your father destined you.
She is twelve years my younger; her name is stainless as the first
flower of spring; we should be obliged, in England, to revive mine,
which is now as that of the dead. Lucy, I know, has a pure and
gentle spirit; if I may judge from her childhood, she may become
capable of understanding—loving you. Oswald, you are free. When
you desire it, your ring shall be restored to you. Perhaps you wish to
hear, ere you decide, what I shall suffer if you leave me. I know not:
sometimes impetuous impulses arise within me, that overrule my
reason: should I be to blame, then, if they rendered life
insupportable? It is equally true that I have a great faculty of
happiness; it interests me in everything: I converse with pleasure,
and revel in the minds of others—in the friendship they show me—in
all the wonders of art and nature, which affectation hath not stricken
dead. But would it be in my power to live when I no longer saw you?
it is for you to judge, Oswald: you know me better than I know
myself. I am not responsible for what I may experience: it is he who
plants the dagger should guess whether the wound is mortal; but if
it were so, I should forgive you. My happiness entirely depends on
the affection you have paid me for the last six months. I defy all
your delicacy to blind me, were it in the least degree impaired.
Banish from your mind all idea of duty. In love, I acknowledged no
promises no security: God alone can raise the flower which storms
have blighted. A tone, a look, will be enough to tell me that your
heart is not the same; and I shall detest all you may offer me
instead of love—your love, that heavenly ray, my only glory! Be free,
then, Nevil! now—ever—even if my husband; for, did you cease to
love, my death would free you from bonds that else would be
indissoluble. When you have read this, I would see you: my
impatience will bring me to your side, and I shall read my fate at a
glance; for grief is a rapid poison—and the heart, though weak,
never mistakes the signal of irrevocable destiny.
"Adieu."

[1] Her real Christian name is never divulged even to the reader.
—TR.
[2] This name must not be confused with that of Corilla, an
Italian improvisatrice. The Grecian Corinna was famed for lyric
poetry. Pindar himself received lessons from her.

BOOK XV.

THE ADIEU TO ROME, AND JOURNEY TO

VENICE.

CHAPTER I.

It was with deep emotion that Oswald read the narrative of Corinne:
many and varied were the confused thoughts that agitated him.
Sometimes he felt hurt by the picture she drew of an English
country, and despairingly exclaimed: "Such a woman could never be
happy in domestic life!" then he pitied what she had suffered there,
and could not but admire the simple frankness of her recital. He was
jealous of the affection she had felt ere she met him; and the more
he sought to hide this from himself, the more it tortured him; but
above all was he afflicted by his father's part in her history. His
anguish was such that, not knowing what he did, he rushed forth
beneath the noonday sun, when the streets of Naples were
deserted, and their inhabitants all secluded in the shade. He hurried
at random towards Portici: the beams which fell on his brow at once
excited and bewildered his ideas. Corinne, meanwhile, having waited
for some hours, could no longer resist her desire to see him. She
entered his room; he was not there: his absence at such a crisis,
fearfully alarmed her. She saw her papers on the table, and doubted
not that, after reading them, he had left her forever. Each moment's
attempt at patience added to her distress; she walked the chamber
hastily, then stopped, in fear of losing the least sound that might
announce his return; at last, unable to control her anxiety, she
descended to inquire if any one had seen Lord Nevil go out, and
which way he went. The master of the inn replied: "Towards Portici;"
adding, "that his Lordship surely would not walk far at such a
dangerous period of the day." This terror, blending with so many
others, determined Corinne to follow him, though her head: was
undefended from the sun. The large white pavements of Naples,
formed of lava, redoubling the light and heat, scorched and dazzled
her as she walked. She did not intend going to Portici, yet advanced
towards it with increasing speed, meeting no one; for even the
animals now shrunk from the ardors of the clime. Clouds of dust
filled the air, with the slightest breeze, covering the fields, and
concealing all appearance of verdant life. Every instant Corinne felt
about to fall; not even a tree was near to support her. Reason reeled
in this burning desert: a few steps more, and she might reach the
royal palace, beneath whose porch she would find both shade and
water; but her strength failed—she could no longer see her way—
her head swam—a thousand flames, more vivid even than the blaze
of day, danced before her eyes—an unrefreshing darkness suddenly
succeeded them—a cruel thirst consumed her. One of the Lazzaroni,
the only human creature expected to brave these fervid horrors, now
came up; she prayed him to bring her a little water; but the man
beholding so beautiful and elegant a woman alone, on foot, at such
an hour, concluded that she must be insane, and ran from her in
dismay. Fortunately, Oswald at this moment returned: the voice of
Corinne reached his ear. He hastened towards her, as she was falling
to the earth insensible, and bore her to the palace portico, where he
called her back to life by the tenderest cares. As she recognized him,
her senses still wandered, and she wildly exclaimed: "You promised
never to depart without my consent! I may now appear unworthy of
your love; but a promise, Oswald!"—"Corinne," he cried, "the
thought of leaving you never entered my heart. I would only reflect
on our fate; and wished to recover my spirits ere I saw you
again."—"Well," she said, struggling to appear calm, "you have had
time, during the long hours that might have cost my life; time
enough—therefore speak! tell me what you have resolved!" Oswald,
terrified at the accents, which betrayed her inmost feelings, knelt
before her, answering, "Corinne, my heart is unchanged; what have
I learned that should dispel your enchantment? Only hear me;" and
as she trembled still more violently, he added, with much
earnestness: "Listen fearlessly to one who cannot live, and know
thou art unhappy."—"Ah," she sighed, "it is of my happiness you
speak; your own, then, no longer depends on me? Yet I repulse not
your pity; for, at this moment, I have need of it: but think you I will
live for that alone?"—"No, no, we will both live for love. I will
return."—"Return!" interrupted Corinne, "Ah, you do go, then? What
has happened? how is all changed since yesterday! hapless wretch
that I am!"—"Dearest love," returned Oswald, "be composed; and let
me, if I can, explain my meaning; it is better than you suppose,
much better; but it is necessary, nevertheless, that I should
ascertain my father's reasons for opposing our union seven years
since: he never mentioned the subject to me; but his most intimate
surviving friend, in England, must know his motives. If, as I believe,
they sprung from unimportant circumstances, I can pardon your
desertion of your father's land and mine; to so noble a country love
may attach you yet, and bid you prefer homefelt peace, with its
gentle and natural virtues, even to the fame of genius. I will hope
everything, do everything; if my father decides against thee,
Corinne, I will never be the husband of another, though then I
cannot be thine." A cold dew stood on his brow: the effort he had
made to speak thus cost him so much agony, that for some time
Corinne could think of nothing but the sad state in which she beheld
him. At last she took his hand, crying, "So, you return to England
without me!" Oswald was silent. "Cruel!" she continued: "you say
nothing to contradict my fears; they are just, then, though even
while saying so I cannot yet believe it."—"Thanks to your cares,"
answered Nevil, "I have regained the life so nearly lost: it belongs to
my country during the war. If I can marry you, we part no more. I
will restore you to your rank in England. If this too happy lot should
be forbidden me, I shall return, with the peace, to Italy, stay with
you long, and change your fate in nothing save in giving you one
faithful friend the more."—"Not change my fate!" she repeated;
"you, who have become my only interest in the world! to whom I
owe the intoxicating draught which gives happiness or death? Yet
tell me, at least, this parting, when must it be? How many days are
left me?"—"Beloved!" he cried, pressing her to his heart, "I swear,
that for three months I will not leave thee; not, perhaps, even
then."—"Three months!" she burst forth; "am I to live so long? it is
much, I did not hope so much. Come, I feel better. Three months?—
what a futurity!" she added, with a mixture of joy and sadness, that
profoundly affected Oswald, and both, in silence, entered the
carriage which took them back to Naples.

CHAPTER II.

Castel Forte awaited them at the inn. A report had been circulated of
their marriage: it greatly pained the Prince, yet he came to assure
himself of the fact; to regain, as a friend, the society of his love,
even if she were forever united to another. The state of dejection in
which he beheld her, for the first time, occasioned him much
uneasiness; but he dared not question her, as she seemed to avoid
all conversation on this subject. There are situations in which we
dread to confide in any one; a single word, that we might say or
hear, would suffice to dissipate the illusion that supports our life. The
self-deceptions of impassioned sentiment have the peculiarity of
humoring the heart, as we humor a friend whom we fear to afflict by
the truth; thus, unconsciously, trust we our own griefs to the
protection of our own pity.
Next day, Corinne, who was too natural a person to attempt
producing an effect by her sorrows, strove to appear gay; believing
that the best method of retaining Oswald was to seem as attractive
as formerly. She, therefore, introduced some interesting topic; but
suddenly her abstraction returned, her eyes wandered; the woman
who had possessed the greatest possible faculty of address now
hesitated in her choice of words, and sometimes used expressions
that bore not the slightest reference to what she intended saying:
then she would laugh at herself, though through tears; and Oswald,
overwhelmed by the wreck he had made, would have sought to be
alone with her, but she carefully denied him an opportunity.
"What would you learn from me?" she said one day, when for an
instant, he insisted on speaking with her. "I regret myself—that is all!
I had some pride in my talents. I loved success, glory. The praises,
even of indifferent persons, were objects of my ambition; now I care
for nothing; and it is not happiness that weans me from these vain
pleasures, but a vast discouragement. I accuse not you; it springs
from myself; perhaps I may yet triumph over it. Many things pass in
the depths of the soul that we can neither foresee nor direct; but I
do you justice, Oswald: I see you suffer for me. I sympathize with
you, too; why should not pity bestow her gifts on us? Alas! they
might be offered to all who breathe, without proving very
inapplicable."
Oswald, indeed, was not less wretched than Corinne. He loved her
strongly; but her history had wounded his affections, his way of
thinking. He seemed to perceive clearly that his father had
prejudged everything for him; and that he could only wed Corinne in
defiance of such warning; yet how resign her? His uncertainty was
more painful than that which he hoped to terminate by a knowledge
of her life. On her part, she had not wished that the tie of marriage
should unite her to Oswald: so she could have been certain that he
would never leave her, she would have wanted no more to render
her content; but she knew him well enough to understand, that he
could conceive no happiness save in domestic life; and would never
abjure the design of marrying her, unless in ceasing to love. His
departure for England appeared the signal for her death. She was
aware how great an influence the manners and opinions of his
country held over his mind. Vainly did he talk of passing his life with
her in Italy; she doubted not that, once returned to his home, the
thought of quitting it again would be odious to him. She felt that she
owed her power to her charms; and what is that power in absence?
What are the memories of imagination to a man encircled by all the
realities of social order, the more imperious from being founded on
pure and noble reason? Tormented by these reflections, Corinne
strove to exert some power over her fondness. She tried to speak
with Castel Forte on literature and the fine arts: but, if Oswald joined
them, the dignity of his mien, the melancholy look which seemed to
ask, "Why will you renounce me?" disconcerted all her attempts.
Twenty times would she have told him, that his irresolution offended
her, and that she was decided to leave him; but she saw him now
lean his head upon his hand, as if bending breathless beneath his
sorrows; now musing beside the sea, or raising his eyes to heaven,
at the sound of music; and these simple changes, whose magic was
known but to herself, suddenly overthrew her determination. A look,
an accent, a certain grace of gesture, reveals to love the nearest
secrets of the soul; and, perhaps, a countenance, so apparently cold
as Nevil's, can never be read, save by those to whom it is dearest.
Impartiality guesses nothing, judges only by what is displayed.
Corinne, in solitude, essayed a test which had succeeded when she
had but believed that she loved. She taxed her spirit of observation
(which was capable of detecting the slightest foibles) to represent
Oswald beneath less seducing colors; but there was nothing about
him less than noble, simple, and affecting. How then defeat the spell
of so perfectly natural a mind? It is only affectation which can at
once awaken the heart, astonished at ever having loved. Besides,
there existed between Oswald and Corinne a singular, all-powerful
sympathy. Their tastes were not the same; their opinions rarely
accorded; yet in the centre of each soul dwelt kindred mysteries,
drawn from one source; a secret likeness, that attests the same
nature, however differently modified by external circumstances.
Corinne, therefore, found, to her dismay, that she had but increased
her passion, by thus minutely considering Oswald anew, even in her
very struggle against his image. She invited Castel Forte to return to
Rome with them. Nevil knew she did this to avoid being alone with
him: he felt it sadly, but could not oppose. He was no longer
persuaded that what he might offer Corinne would constitute her
content; and this thought rendered him timid. She, the while, had
hoped that he would refuse the Prince's company. Their situation
was no longer honest as of old; though as yet without actual
dissimulation, restraint already troubled a regard, which for six
months had daily conferred on them a bliss almost unqualified.
Returning by Capua and Gaëta, scenes which she had so lately
visited with such delight, Corinne felt that these beauties vainly
called on her to reflect their smile. When such a sky fails to disperse
the clouds of care, its laughing contrast but augments their gloom.
They arrived at Terracina on a deliciously refreshing eve. Corinne
withdrew after supper. Oswald went forth, and his heart, like hers,
led him towards the spot where they had rested on their way to
Naples. He beheld her kneeling before the rock on which they sat;
and, as he looked on the moon, saw that she was veiled by a cloud,
as she had been two months since at that hour. Corinne, at his
approach, rose, and pointing upwards, said: "Have I not reason to
believe in omens? Is there not some compassion in that heaven? It
warned me of the future; and to-night, you see, it mourns for me.
Forget not, Oswald, to remark, if such a cloud passes not over the
moon when I am dying."—"Corinne," he cried, "have I deserved that
you should kill me? It were easily done: speak thus again, and you
will see how easily—but for what crime? Your mode of thinking lifts
you above the world's opinion: in your country it is not severe; and if
it were, your genius could surmount it. Whatever happens, I will live
near you; whence, then, this despair? If I cannot be your husband,
without offence to the memory of one who reigns equally with
yourself in my breast—do you not love me well enough to find some
solace in the tender devotion of mine every instant? Have you not
still my ring—that sacred pledge?"—"I will return it,
Oswald."—"Never!"—"Ah, yes; when you desire it, the ring itself will
tell me. An old legend says that the diamond, more true than man,
dims when the giver has betrayed our trust."[1]—"Corinne," said
Oswald, "dare you speak such treason? your mind is lost; it no
longer knows me."—"Pardon! oh, pardon me! in love like mine, the
heart, Oswald, is gifted suddenly with most miraculous instincts; and
its own sufferings become oracles. What portends, then, the heavy
palpitation of my heart? Ah, love, I should not fear it, if it were but
my knell!" She fled, precipitately, dreading to remain longer with
him. She could not dally with her grief, but sought to break from it;
yet it returned but the more violently for her repulse. The next day,
as they crossed the Pontine Marsh, Oswald's care of her was even
more scrupulous than before; she received it with the sweetest
thankfulness: but there was something in her look that said: "Why
will you not let me die?"
 [1] An old tradition supports the imaginative prejudice which
persuaded Corinne that the diamond could forewarn its wearer of
its giver's treachery. Frequent allusions are made to this legend by
Spanish poets, in their peculiar manner. In one of Calderon's
tragedies, Ferdinand, Prince of Portugal, prefers death in chains,
before the crime of surrendering to a Moorish king the Christian
city which his brother, King Edward, offers for his ransom. The
Moor, enraged at this refusal, subjects the noble youth to the
basest ignominy. Ferdinand, in reproof, reminds him that mercy
and generosity are the truest characteristics of supreme power.
He cites all that is royal in the universe—the lion, the dolphin, the
eagle, amid animals; and seeks even among plants and stones for
traits of natural goodness, which have been attributed to those
who lord it over the rest. Thus he says, the diamond, which
resists the blow of steel, resolves itself to dust, that it may inform
its master if treason threatens him. It is impossible to know
whether this mode of considering all nature as connected with the
destiny and sentiments of man is mathematically correct; but it is
ever pleasing to imagination; and poetry, especially that of Spain,
has owed it many great beauties. Calderon is only known to me
by the German translation of Wihelm Schlegel; but this author,
one of his own country's finest poets, has the art of transporting
into his native language, with the rarest perfection, the poetic
graces of Spanish, English, and Italian—giving a lively idea of the
original, be it what it may.
NoteTR.—Had Oswald's gift been his mother's wedding-ring, that
incident would have been more affecting than so fanciful a fable.

CHAPTER III.

What a desert seems Rome, in going to it from Naples! Entering by

the gate of St. John Lateran, you traverse but long, solitary streets;
they please afresh after a little time: but, on just leaving a lively,
dissipated population, it is melancholy to be thrown upon one's self,
even were that self at ease. Besides this, Rome, towards the end of
July, is a dangerous residence. The malaria renders many quarters
uninhabitable; and the contagion often spreads through the whole
city. This year, particularly, every face bore the impress of
apprehension. Corinne was met at her own door by a monk, who
asked leave to bless her house against infection: she consented; and
the priest walked through the rooms, sprinkling holy water, and
repeating Latin prayers. Lord Nevil smiled at this ceremony—
Corinne's heart melted over it. "I find indefinable charms," she said,
"in all that is religious, or even superstitious, while nothing hostile
nor intolerant blends with it. Divine aid is so needful, when our
thoughts stray from the common path, that the highest minds most
require superhuman care."—"Doubtless such want exists, but can it
thus be satisfied?"—"I never refuse a prayer associated with my
own, from whomsoever it is offered me."—"You are right," said
Nevil, giving his purse to the old friar, who departed with
benedictions on them both. When the friends of Corinne heard of
her return, they flocked to see her: if any wondered that she was
not Oswald's wife, none, at least, asked the reason: the pleasure of
regaining her diverted them from every other thought. Corinne
endeavored to appear unchanged; but she could not succeed. She
revisited the works of art that once afforded her such vivid pleasure;
but sorrow was the base of her every feeling now. At the Villa
Borghese, or the tomb of Cecilia Metella, she no longer enjoyed that
reverie on the instability of human blessings, which lends them a still
more touching character. A fixed, despondent pensiveness absorbed
her. Nature, who ever speaks to the heart vaguely, can do nothing
for it when oppressed by real calamities. Oswald and Corinne were
worse than unhappy; for actual misery oft causes such emotions as
relieve the laden breast; and from the storm may burst a flash
pointing the onward way: but mutual restraint, and fruitless efforts
to escape pursuing recollections, made them even discontented with
one another. Indeed, how can we suffer thus, without accusing the
being we love as the cause? True, a word, a look, suffices to efface
our displeasure; but that look, that word, may not come when most
expected, or most needful. Nothing in love can be premeditated; it is
as a power divine, that thinks and feels within us, unswayed by our
control.
A fever, more malignant than had been known in Rome for some
years, now broke out suddenly. A young woman was attacked; her
friends and family refused to fly, and perished with her. The next
house experienced the same devastation. Every hour a holy
fraternity, veiled in white, accompanied the dead to interment;
themselves appearing like the ghosts of those they followed. The
bodies, with their faces uncovered, are borne on a kind of litter. Over
their feet is thrown a pall of gold or rose-colored satin; and children
often unconsciously play with the cold hands of the corpse. This
spectacle, at once terrific and familiar, is graced but by the
monotonous murmur of a psalm, in which the accent of the human
soul can scarce be recognized. One evening, when Oswald and
Corinne were alone together, and he more depressed than usual by
her altered manner, he heard, beneath the windows, these dreary
sounds, announcing a funeral; he listened awhile in silence, and then
said: "Perhaps to-morrow I may be seized by this same malady,
against which there is no defence; you will then wish that you had
said a few kind words to me on the day that may be my last.
Corinne, death threatens us both closely. Are there not miseries
enough in life, that we should thus mutually augment each other's?"
Struck by the idea of his danger, she now entreated him to leave
Rome instantly; he stubbornly refused: she then proposed their
going to Venice; to this he cheerfully assented: it was for her alone
that he had trembled. Their departure was fixed for the second day
from this; but on that morning, Oswald, who had not seen Corinne
the night before, received a note, informing him that indispensable
business obliged her to visit Florence; but that she should rejoin him
at Venice in a fortnight; she begged him to take Ancona in his way,
and gave him a seemingly important commission to execute for her
there. Her style was more calm and considerate than he had found it
since they left Naples. He believed her implicitly, and prepared for
his journey; but, wishing once more to behold the dwelling of
Corinne ere he left Rome, he went thither, found it shut up, and
rapped at the door. An old woman appeared, told him that all the
other servants had gone with her mistress, and would not answer
another word to his numerous questions. He hastened to Prince
Castel Forte, who was as surprised as himself at Corinne's abrupt
retirement. Nevil, all anxiety, imagined that her agent at Tivoli must
have received some instructions as to her affairs. He mounted his
horse with a promptitude unusual to him, and, in extreme agitation,
rode to her country house; its doors were open; he entered, passed
some of the rooms without meeting any one, till he reached that of
Corinne: though darkness reigned there, he saw her on her bed,
with Thérésina alone beside her; he uttered a cry of recognition: it
recalled her to consciousness: she raised herself, saying eagerly: "Do
not come near me! I forbid you! I die if you do!"
Oswald felt as if his beloved were accusing him of some crime which
she had all at once suspected: believing himself hated—scorned—he
fell on his knees, with despairing submission which suggested to
Corinne the idea of profiting by this mistake, and she commanded
him to leave her forever, as if he had in truth been guilty. Speechless
with wonder, he would have obeyed, when Thérésina sobbed forth:
"Oh, my Lord! will you, then, desert my dear lady? She has sent
every one away, and would fain banish me too: for she has caught
the infectious fever!" These words instantly explained the affecting
stratagem of Corinne; and Oswald clasped her to his heart, with a
transport of tenderness, such as he had never before experienced.
In vain she repelled him; in vain she reproached Thérésina. Oswald
bade the good creature withdraw, and lavished his tearful kisses on
the face of his adored. "Now, now," he cried, "thou shalt not die
without me: if the fatal poison be in thy veins, at least, thank
Heaven, I breathe it in thine arms."—"Dear, cruel Oswald!" she
sighed, "to what tortures you condemn me! O God! since he will not
live without me, let not my better angel perish! no, save him, save
him!" Here her strength was lost, and, for eight days, she remained
in the greatest danger. In the midst of her delirium, she would cry:
"Keep Oswald from me! let him not come here! never tell him where
I am!" When her reason returned, she gazed on him, murmuring:
"Oswald! in death as in life you are with me; we shall be reunited."
When she perceived how pale he was, a deadly terror seized her,
and she called to his aid the physicians, who had given her a strong
proof of devotion in never having abandoned her. Oswald constantly
held her burning hands in his, and finished the cup of which she had
drunk; in fact, with such avidity did he share her perils, that she
herself ceased at last to combat this passionate self-sacrifice.
Leaning her head upon his arm, she resigned herself to his will. The
beings who so love that they feel the impossibility of living without
each other, may well attain the noble and tender intimacy which puts
all things in common, even death itself.[1] Happily, Lord Nevil did not
take the disease through which he so carefully nursed Corinne. She
recovered; but another malady penetrated yet deeper into her
breast. The generosity of her lover, alas! redoubled the attachment
she had borne him.

[1] M. Dubreuil, a very skilful French physician, fell ill of a fatal

distemper. His popularity filled the sick room with visitants. Calling
to his intimate friend, M. Péméja, as eminent a man as himself, he
said, "Send away all these people; you know my fever is
contagious; no one but yourself ought to be with me now." Happy
the friend who ever heard such words! Péméja died fifteen days
after his heart's brother.

CHAPTER IV.

It was agreed that Neville and Corinne should visit Venice. They had
relapsed into silence on their future prospects, but spoke of their
affection more confidingly than ever: both avoided all topics that
could disturb their present mutual peace. A day passed with him was
to her such enjoyment! he seemed so to revel in her conversation;
he followed her every impulse; studied her slightest wish, with so
sustained an interest, that it appeared impossible he could bestow
so much felicity without himself being happy. Corinne drew
assurances of safety from the bliss she tasted. After some months of
such habits we believe them inseparable from our existence. Her
agitation was calmed again, and her natural heedlessness of the
future returned. Yet, on the eve of quitting Rome, she became
extremely melancholy: this time she both hoped and feared that it
was forever. The night before her departure, unable to sleep, she
heard a troop of Romans singing in the moonlight. She could not
resist her desire to follow them, and once more wander through that
beloved scene. She dressed; and bidding her servants keep the
carriage within sight of her, put on a veil, to avoid recognition, and
at some distance, pursued the musicians. They paused on the bridge
of St. Angelo, in front of Adrian's tomb: in such a spot music seems
to express the vanities and splendors of the world. One might fancy
one beheld in the air the imperial shade wondering to find no other
trace left of his power on earth except a tomb. The band continued
their walk, singing as they went, to the silent night, when the happy
ought to sleep: their pure and gentle melodies seem designed to
solace wakeful suffering. Drawn onward by this resistless spell,
Corinne, insensible to fatigue, seemed winging her way along. They
also sang before Antoninus's pillar, and then at Trajan's column: they
saluted the obelisk of St. John Lateran. The ideal language of music
worthily mates the ideal expression of works like these: enthusiasm
reigns alone, while vulgar interests slumber. At last the singers
departed, and left Corinne near the Coliseum: she wished to enter
its inclosure and bid adieu to ancient Rome.
Those who have seen this place but by day cannot judge of the
impression it may make. The sun of Italy should shine on festivals;
but the moon is the light for ruins. Sometimes, through the openings
of the amphitheatre, which seems towering to the clouds, a portion
of heaven's vault appears like a dark blue curtain. The plants that
cling to the broken walls all wear the hues of night. The soul at once
shudders and melts on finding itself alone with nature. One side of
this edifice is much more fallen than the other; the two
contemporaries make an unequal struggle against time. He fells the
weakest; the other still resists, but soon must yield.
"Ye solemn scenes!" cried Corinne, "where, at this hour, no being
breathes beside me—where but the echoes of my own voice answer
me—how are the storms of passion calmed by nature, who thus
peacefully permits so many generations to glide by! Has not the
universe some better end than man? or are its marvels scattered
here, merely to be reflected in his mind? Oswald! why do I love with
such idolatry? why live but for the feelings of a day compared to the
infinite hopes that unite us with divinity? My God! if it be true, as I
believe, that we admire thee the more capable we are of reflection,
make my own mind my refuge against my heart! The noble being
whose gentle looks I can never forget is but a perishable mortal like
myself. Among the stars there is eternal love, alone sufficing to a
boundless heart." Corinne remained long in these ideas, and, at last,
turned slowly towards her own abode; but, ere she re-entered it,
she wished to await the dawn at St. Peter's, and from its dome take
her last leave of all beneath. Her imagination represented this edifice
as it must be, when, in its turn, a wreck—the theme of wonder for
yet unborn ages. The columns, now erect, half bedded in earth; the
porch dilapidated, with the Egyptian obelisk exulting over the decay
of novelties, wrought for an earthly immortality. From the summit of
St. Peter's Corinne beheld day rise over Rome, which, in its
uncultivated Campagna, looks like the oasis of a Libyan desert.
Devastation is around it; but the multitude of spires and cupolas,
over which St. Peter's rises, give a strange beauty to its aspect. This
city may boast one peculiar charm: we love it as an animated being:
its very ruins are as friends, from whom we cannot part without
farewell.
Corinne addressed the Pantheon, St. Angelo's, and all the sites that
once renewed the pleasures of her fancy. "Adieu!" she said, "land of
remembrances! scenes where life depends not on events, nor on
society; where enthusiasm refreshes itself through the eyes, and
links the soul to each external object. I leave you, to follow Oswald,
not knowing to what fate he may consign me. I prefer him to the
independence which here afforded me such happy days. I may
return to more; but for a broken heart and blighted mind, ye arts
and monuments so oft invoked, while I was exiled beneath his
stormy sky, ye could do nothing to console!"
She wept; yet thought not, for an instant, of letting Oswald depart
without her. Resolutions springing from the heart we often justly
blame, yet hesitate not to adopt. When passion masters a superior
mind, it separates our judgment from our conduct, and need not
cloud the one in order to overrule the other.
Corinne's black curls and veil floating on the breeze gave her so
picturesque an air, that, as she left the church, the common people
recognised and followed her to her carriage with the warmest
testimonials of respect. She sighed again, at parting from a race so
ardent and so graceful in their expressions of esteem. Nor was this
all. She had to endure the regrets of her friends They devised fêtes
in order to delay her departure: their poetical tributes strove in a
thousand ways to convince her that she ought to stay; and finally
they accompanied her on horseback for twenty miles. She was
extremely affected. Oswald cast down his eyes in confusion,
reproaching himself for tearing her from so much delight, though he
knew that an offer of remaining there would be more barbarous still.
He appeared selfish in removing Corinne from Rome; yet he was not
so; for the fear of afflicting her, by setting forth alone, had more
weight with him than even the hope of retaining her presence. He
knew not what he was about to do—saw nothing beyond Venice. He
had written to inquire how soon his regiment would be actively
employed in the war, and awaited a reply. Sometimes he thought of
taking Corinne with him to England; yet instantly remembered that
he should forever ruin her reputation by so doing, unless she were
his wife; then he wished to soften the pangs of separation by a
private marriage; but a moment afterwards gave up that plan also.
"We can keep no secrets from the dead," he cried: "and what should
I gain by making a mystery of a union prohibited by nothing but my
worship of a tomb?" His mind, so weak in all that concerned his
affections, was sadly agitated by contending sentiments. Corinne
resigned herself to him, like a victim, exulting, amid her sorrows, in
the sacrifices she made; while Oswald, responsible for the welfare of
another, bound himself to her daily by new ties, without the power
of yielding to them; and unhappy in his love as in his conscience, felt
the presence of both but in their combats with each other.
When the friends of Corinne took leave, they commended her
earnestly to his care; congratulated him on the love of so eminent a
woman; their every word sounding like mockery and upbraiding. She
felt this, and hastily concluded the trying scene; and when, after
turning from time to time to salute her, they were at last lost to her
sight, she only said to her lover: "Oswald! I have now no one but
you in the world!" How did he long to swear he would be hers! But
frequent disappointments teach us to mistrust our own inclinations,
and shrink even from the vows our hearts may prompt. Corinne read
his thoughts, and delicately strove to fix his attention on the country
through which they travelled.

CHAPTER V.

It was the beginning of September, and the weather super till they
neared the Apennines, where they felt the approach of winter. A soft
air is seldom united with the pleasure of looking on picturesque
mountains. One evening, a terrible hurricane arose: the thickest
darkness closed around them; and the horses, so wild there that
they are even harnessed by stratagem, set off with inconceivable
rapidity. Our lovers felt much excited by being thus hurried on
together. "Ah!" cried Oswald, "if they could bear us from all I know
on earth—if they could climb these hills, and dash into another life,
where we should regain my father, who would receive and bless us,
would you not go with me, beloved?" He pressed her vehemently to
his bosom. Corinne, enamored as himself, replied: "Dispose of me as
you will; chain me like a slave to your fate: had not the slaves of
other days talents that soothed their masters? Such would I be to
thee. But, Oswald, yet respect her who thus trusts thee: condemned
by all the world, she must not blush to meet thine eye."—"No," he
exclaimed, "I will lose all, or all obtain. I ought, I must either live thy
husband, or die in stifling the transports of my passion: but I will
hope to be thine before the world, and glory in thy tenderness. Yet
tell me, I conjure thee, have I not sunk in thine esteem by all these
struggles? Canst thou believe thyself less dear than ever?" His
accents were so sincere, that, for awhile, they gave her back her
confidence, and the purest, sweetest rapture animated them both.
Meanwhile the horses stopped. Oswald alighted first. The cold sharp
wind almost made him fancy himself landing in England: this
freezing air was not like that of Italy, which bids young breasts
forget all things save love. Oswald sank back into his gloom.
Corinne, who knew the unsettled nature of his fancy, but too well
guessed the cause. On the morrow they arrived at our Lady of
Loretto, which stands upon an eminence, from whence is seen the
Adriatic. While Oswald gave some orders for their journey, Corinne
entered the church, where the image of the Virgin is inclosed in the
choir of a small chapel, adorned with bas-reliefs. The marble
pavement that surrounds the sanctuary is worn by pilgrim knees.
Corinne, moved by these marks of prayer, knelt on the stones so
often pressed by the unfortunate, and addressed the type of
heavenly truth and sensibility. Oswald here found her bathed in
tears. He did not understand how a woman of her mind could bow
to the practices of the ignorant. She guessed this by his looks, and
said: "Dear Oswald, are there not many moments when we dare not
raise our hopes to the Supreme Being, or breathe to him the sorrows
of our hearts? Is it not pleasing, then, to behold a woman as
intercessor for our human weakness? She suffered on this earth, for
she lived on it; to her I blush not to pray for you, when a petition to
God himself would overawe me."—"I cannot always directly
supplicate my Maker," replied Oswald. "I, too, have my intercessor:
the guardian angel of children is their father: and since mine has
been in heaven, I have oft received an unexpected solace, aid, and
composure, which I can but attribute to the miraculous protection
whence I still hope to escape from my perplexities."—"I comprehend
you," said Corinne, "and believe there is no one who has not some
mysterious idea of his own destiny—one event which he has always
dreaded, and which, though improbable, is sure to happen. The
punishment of some fault, though it be impossible to trace the
connection our misfortunes have with it, often strikes the
imagination. From my childhood I trembled at the idea of living in
England. Well; my inability to do so may be my worst regret; and on
that point I feel there is something unconquerable in my fate,
against which I struggle in vain. Every one conceives his life
interiorly a contrast to what it seems we have a confused sense of
some supernatural power, disguised in the form of external
circumstance, while itself alone is the source of all our actions. Dear
friend, minds capable of reasoning forever plunge into their own
abyss, but always fail to fathom it."
Oswald, as he heard her speak thus, wondered to find that, while
she was capable of such glowing sentiments, her judgment still
could hover over them, like their presiding genius. "No," he
frequently said to himself, "no other society on earth can satisfy the
man who has possessed such a companion as this."
They entered Ancona at night, as he wished not to be recognized: in
spite of his precautions, however, he was so; and the next morning
all the inhabitants crowded about the house in which he stayed,
awaking Corinne by shouts of "Long live Lord Nevil, our benefactor!"
She started, rose hastily, and mingled with the crowd, to hear their
praises of the man she loved. Oswald, informed that the people
were impatiently calling for him, was at last obliged to appear. He
believed Corinne still slept: what was his astonishment at finding her
already known and cherished by the grateful multitude, who
entreated her to be their interpretress! Corinne's imagination—by
turns her charm and her defect—delighted in extraordinary
adventures. She thanked Lord Nevil, in the name of the people, with
a grace so noble that the natives were in ectasies. Speaking for
them, she said: "You preserved us—we owe you our lives!" But
when she offered him the oak and laurel crown they had entwined,
an indefinite timidity beset her: the enthusiastic populace prostrated
themselves before him, and Corinne involuntarily bent her knee in
tendering him the garland. Oswald was so overwhelmed at the sight,
that he could no longer support this scene, nor the public homage of
his beloved; but drew her away with him. She wept, and thanked
the good inhabitants of Ancona, who followed them with blessings,
as Oswald, hiding himself in his carriage, murmured: "Corinne at my
feet! Corinne, in whose path I ought to kneel! Have I deserved this?
Do you suspect me of such unworthy pride?"—"No, no," she said;
"but I was suddenly seized with the respect a woman always feels
for him she loves. To us, indeed, is external deference most
directed; but in truth, in nature, it is the woman who reveres the
being capable of defending her."
"Yes, I will be thy defender, to the last hour of my life!" he
answered. "Heaven be my witness, such a genius shall not in vain
seek a refuge in the harbor of my love!"—"Alas!" she sighed, "that
love is all I need; and what promise can secure it to me? No matter.
I feel that you love me now better than ever: let us not trouble this
return of affection."—"Return!" interrupted Oswald.—"I cannot
retract the expression; but let us not seek to explain it;" and she
made a gentle sign for Nevil to be silent.

CHAPTER VI.

For two days they proceeded on the shore of the Adriatic; but this
sea, on the Romagnan side, has not the effect of the ocean, nor
even of the Mediterranean. The high road winds close to its waves,
and grass grows on its banks: it is not thus that we would represent
the mighty realm of tempests. At Rimini and Cesena, you quit the
classic scenes of history: their latest remembrancer is the Rubicon,
which Cæsar passed to become the lord of Rome. Not far from
hence is the republic of St. Marino, the last weak vestige of liberty,
besides the spot on which was resolved the destruction of the
world's chief republic. By degrees, you now advance towards a
country very opposite in aspect to the Papal State. Bologna,
Lombardy, the environs of Ferrara and Rovigo, are remarkable for
beauty and cultivation—how unlike the poetic barrenness and decay
that announce an approach to Rome, and tell of the terrible events
that have occurred there!
You then quit what Sabran calls "black pines, the summer's
mourning, but the winter's bravery," and the conical cypresses that
remind one of obelisks, mountains, and the sea. Nature, like the
traveller, now parts from the southern rays. At first, the oranges are
found no longer in the open air—they are succeeded by olives,
whose pale and tender foliage might suit the bowers of the Elysian
fields. Further on, even the olive disappears.
On entering Bologna's smiling plain, the vines garland the elms
together, and the whole land is decked as for a festival. Corinne was
sensible of the contrast between her present state of mind and the
resplendent scene she now beheld.—"Ah, Oswald!" she sighed,
"ought nature to spread such images of happiness before two
friends perhaps about to lose each other?"—"No, Corinne—never!
each day I feel less able to resign thee: that untiring gentleness
unites the charm of habit with the love I bear thee. One lives as
contentedly with you as if you were not the finest genius in the
world, or, rather, because you are so; for real superiority confers a
perfect goodness, that makes one's peace with one's self and all the
world. What angry thoughts can live in such a presence?" They
arrived at Ferrara, one of the saddest towns in Italy, vast and
deserted. The few inhabitants found there, at distant intervals, loiter
on slowly, as if secure of time for all they have to do. It is hard to
conceive this the scene of that gay court sung both by Tasso and
Ariosto; yet still are shown their manuscripts, with that also of the
Pastor Fido. Ariosto knew how to live at ease here, amid courtiers;
but the house is yet to be seen wherein they dared confine Tasso as
a maniac. It is sad to read the various letters which he wrote, asking
the death it was so long ere he obtained. Tasso was so peculiarly
organised, that his talent became its owner's formidable foe. His
genius dissected his own heart. He could not so have read the
secrets of the soul if he had felt less sorrow. The man who has not
suffered, says a prophet, what does he know? In some respects,
Corinne resembled him. She was more cheerful and more versatile,
but her imagination required extreme government: far from
assuaging any grief, it lent each pang fresh might. Nevil deceived
himself if he believed her brilliant faculties could give her means of
happiness apart from her affections. When genius is united with true
feeling, our talents multiply our woes. We analyze, we make
discoveries, and, the heart's urn of tears being exhaustless, the
more we think the more we feel it flow.

CHAPTER VII.

They embarked for Venice on the Brenta. At each side they beheld
its palaces, grand but dilapidated, like all Italian magnificence. They
are too wildly ornamented to remind us of the antique: Venetian
architecture betrays a commerce with the East: there is a blendure
of the Gothic and Moresco that takes the eye, though it offends the
taste. The poplar, regular almost as architecture itself, borders the
canals. The sky's bright blue sets off the splendid verdure of the
country, which owes its green to the abundant waters. Nature seems
to wear these two colors in mere coquetry; and the vague beauty of
the South is found no more. Venice astonishes more than it pleases
at first sight: it looks a city under water: and one can scarce admire
the ambition which disputed this space with the sea. The
amphitheatre of Naples is built as if to welcome it; but on the flats of
Venice, steeples appear, like masts, immovable in the midst of
waves. In entering the city, one takes leave of vegetation; one sees
not even a fly there: all animals are banished; man alone remains to
battle with the waves. In a city whose streets are all canals, the
silence is profound—the dash of oars its only interruption. You
cannot fancy yourself in the country, for you see no trees; nor in a
town, for you hear no bustle; or even on board ship, for you make
no way; but in a place which storms would convert into a prison—for
there are times when you cannot leave the city, nor even your own
house.
Many men in Venice never went from one quarter to another—never
beheld St. Mark's—a horse or a tree were actual miracles to them.
The black gondolas glide along like biers or cradles, the last and the
first beds of human kind. At night, their dark color renders them
invisible, and they are only traced by the reflection of the lights they
carry—one might call them phantoms, guided by faint stars. In this
abode all is mysterious—the government, the habits, love itself.
Doubtless the heart and reason find much food when they can
penetrate this secrecy, but strangers always feel the first impression
singularly sad.
Corinne, who was a believer in presentiments, and now made
presages of everything, said to Nevil: "Is not the melancholy that I
feel on entering this place a proof that some great misfortune will
befall me here?" As she said this, she heard three reports of cannon,
from one of the Isles of the Lagune—she started, and inquired the
cause of a gondolier—"It is a woman taking the veil," he said, "at
one of those convents in the midst of the sea. The custom here is,
that the moment such vow is uttered, the female throws the flowers
she wore during the ceremony behind her, as a sign of her resigning
the world, and the firing you have just heard announces this event."
Corinne shuddered. Oswald felt her hand grow cold in his, and saw a
deathlike pallor overspread her face.—"My life!" he cried, "why give
this importance to so simple a chance?"—"It is not simple," she
replied. "I, too, have thrown the flowers of youth behind
me."—"How! when I love thee more than ever? when my whole soul
is thine?"—"The thunders of war," she continued, "elsewhere
devoted to victory or death, here celebrate the obscure sacrifice of a
maiden—an innocent employment for the arms that shake the world
with terror: a solemn message from a resigned woman to those of
her sisters who still contend with fate."
 CHAPTER VIII.

The power of the Venetian government, during its latter years, has
almost entirely consisted in the empire of habit and association of
ideas. It once was formidably daring,—it has become lenient and
timorous: hate of its past potency is easily revived, and easily
subdued, by the thoughts that its might is over. The aristocracy woo
the favour of the people, and yet by a kind of despotism, since they
rather amuse than enlighten them; an agreeable state enough, while
the common herd are afforded no pleasures that can brutify their
minds, while the government watches over its subjects like a sultan
over his harem, forbidding them to meddle with politics, or presume
to form any judgment of existing authorities, but allowing them
sufficient diversion, and not a little glory. The spoils of
Constantinople enrich the churches; the standards of Cyprus and
Candia float over the Piazza; the Corinthian horses delight the eye;
and the winged lion of St. Mark's appears the type of fame. The
situation of the city rendering agriculture and the chase impossible,
nothing is left for the Venetians but dissipation. Their dialect is soft
and light as a zephyr. One can hardly conceive how the people who
resisted the league of Cambray should speak so flexible a tongue: it
is charming while expressive of graceful pleasantry, but suits not
graver themes; verses on death, for instance, breathed in these
delicate and almost infantine accents, sound more like the
descriptions of poetic fable. The Venetians are the most intelligent
men in Italy; they think more deeply, though with less ardent fancies
than their southern countrymen; yet, for the most part, the women,
though very agreeable, have acquired a sentimentality of language,
which, without restraining their morals, merely lends their gallantry
an air of affectation. There is more vanity, as there is more society,
here, than in the rest of Italy. Where applause is quick and frequent,
conceit calculates all debts instantaneously; knows what success is
owed, and claims its due, without giving a minute's credit. Its bills
must be paid at sight. Still, much originality may be found in Venice.
Ladies of the highest rank receive visits in the cafés, and this strange
confusion prevents their salons becoming the arenas of serious self-
love. There yet remain here some ancient usages that evince a
respect for their forefathers, and a certain youth of heart which tires
not of the past, nor shrinks from melting recollections. The sight of
the city itself is always sufficient to awaken a host of memories. The
Piazza is crowded by blue tents, beneath which rest Turks, Greeks
and Armenians, who sometimes also loll carelessly in open boats,
with stands of flowers at their feet. St. Mark's, too, looks rather like
a mosque than a Christian temple; and its vicinity gives a true idea
of the oriental indolence with which life is spent here, in drinking
sherbet, and smoking perfumed pipes.
Men and women of quality never leave their houses, except in black
mantles; while the gondolas are often winged along by rowers clad
in white, with rose-colored sashes, as if holiday array were
abandoned to the vulgar, while the nobility kept up a vow of
perpetual mourning. In most European towns, authors are obliged
carefully to avoid depicting the daily routine; for our customs, even
in luxury, are rarely poetic; but in Venice nothing appears coarse;
the canals, the boats, make pictures of the commonest events in life.
On the quay of the galleys you constantly encounter puppet shows,
mountebanks, and story-tellers; the last are worthy of remark. It is
usually some episode from Tasso or Ariosto which they relate in
prose, to the great admiration of their hearers, who sit round the
speaker half clad, and motionless with curiosity; from time to time
they purchase glasses of water, as wine is bought elsewhere, and
this refreshment is all they take for hours, so strongly are their
minds interested. The narrator uses the most animating gestures;
his voice is raised; he irritates himself; he grows pathetic; and yet
one sees, all the while, that at heart he is perfectly unmoved. One
might say to him, as did Sappho to the Circean nymph, who, in
perfect sobriety, was assuming fury: "Bacchante—who art not drunk
—what wouldst thou with me?" Yet the lively pantomime of the
south does not appear quite artificial: it is a singular habit handed
down from the Romans, and springing from quickness of disposition.
A people so enslaved by pleasure may soon be alarmed by the
dream of power in which the Venetian government is veiled. Never
are soldiers seen there. If even a drummer appears in their
comedies they are all astonishment; yet a state inquisitor needs but
to show himself to restore order among thirty thousand people,
assembled for a public fête. It were well if this influence was derived
from a respect for the laws; but it is fortified by terror of the secret
means which may still be used to preserve the peace. The prisons
are in the very palace of the Doge, above and below his apartments.
The Lion's Mouth, into which all denunciations are thrown, is also
here; the hall of trial is hung with black, and makes judgment
appear anticipating condemnation.
The Bridge of Sighs leads from the palace to the state prison. In
passing the canal, how oft were heard the cries of "Justice! Mercy!"
in voices that could be no longer recognized. When a state criminal
was sentenced, a bark removed him in the night, by a little gate that
opens on the water: he was taken some distance from the city, to a
part of the Lagune where fishing is prohibited, and there drowned:
thus secrecy is perpetuated, even after death, not leaving the
unhappy wretch a hope that his remains may inform those who
loved him that he suffered, and is no more. When Lord Nevil and
Corinne visited Venice, these executions had not taken place for
nearly a century: but sufficient mystery still existed: and, though
Oswald was the last man to interfere with the politics of foreign
lands, he felt oppressed by this arbitrary power, from which there
was no appeal, that seemed to hang over every head in Venice.

CHAPTER IX.

"You must not," said Corinne, "give way merely to the gloomy
impressions which these silent proceedings have created; you ought
also to observe the great qualities of this senate, which makes
Venice a republic for nobles, and formerly inspired that aristocratic
energy, the result of freedom, even though concentrated in the few.
You will find them severe on one another, at least establishing, in
their own breasts, the rights and virtues that should belong to all.
You will see them as paternal towards their subjects as they can be,
while merely considering that class of men with reference to physical
prosperity. You will detect a great pride in the country which is their
property, and an art of endearing it even to the people, whom they
allow so few actual possessions there."
Corinne and Oswald visited the hall where the great council was
then assembled. It is hung with portraits of the doges; on the space
which would have been occupied by that of Faliero, who was
beheaded as a traitor, is painted a black curtain, whereon is written
the date and manner of his death. The regal magnificence of the
other pictures adds to the effect of this ghastly pall. There is also a
representation of the Last Judgment, another of the powerful
emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, humbling himself to the Venetian
senate. It was a fine idea, thus to unite all that can exalt pride upon
earth, and bend it before Heaven.
They proceeded to the arsenal: before its gates are two Grecian
lions, brought from Athens, to become the guardians of Venetian
power. Motionless guardians, that defend but what they respect.
This repository is full of marine trophies. The famous ceremony of
the doge's marriage with the Adriatic, in fact, all the institutions,
here attest their gratitude to the sea: in this respect they resemble
the English, and Nevil strongly felt the similarity. Corinne now led
him to the tower called the Steeple of St. Mark's, though some paces
from the church. Thence is seen the whole city of the waves, and
the huge embankment which defends it from inundation. The coasts
of Istria and Dalmatia are in the distance. "Behind the clouds, on this
side, lies Greece," said Corinne: "is not that thought enough to stir
the heart? There, still, are men of lively, ardent characters, victims to
fate; yet destined, perhaps, some day, to resuscitate the ashes of
their sires. It is always something for a land to have been great; its
natives blush at least beneath degradation; while, in a country never
consecrated to fame, the inhabitants do not even suspect that there
can be a nobler doom than the obscure servility bequeathed to them
by their fathers. Dalmatia, which was of yore occupied by so warlike
a race, still preserves something of the savage. Its natives are so
little aware of the changes wrought by fifteen centuries, that they
still deem the Romans 'all-powerful;' yet they betray more modern
knowledge, by calling the English 'the heroes of the sea,' because
you have so often landed in their ports; but they know nothing
about the rest of the world. I love all realms where, in the manners,
customs, language, something original is left. Civilized life is so
monotonous; you know its secrets in so short a time; I have already
lived long enough for that."—"Living with you," said Nevil, "can we
ever behold the end of new thoughts and sensations?"—"God grant
that such may prove exhaustless!" she replied, continuing: "Let us
give one moment more to Dalmatia: when we descend from this
height we shall still see the uncertain lines which mark that land, as
indistinctly as a tender recollection in the memory of man. There are
improvisatores among the Dalmatians as among the savages; they
were found, too, with the Grecians, and almost always exist where
there is much imagination, and little vanity. Natural talent turns
rather to epigram, in countries where a fear of ridicule makes every
man anxious to be the first who secures that weapon; but people
thrown much with Nature feel a reverence for her that greatly
nurtures fancy. 'Caverns are sacred,' say the Dalmatians; doubtless,
thus expressing an indefinite terror of the old earth's secrets. Their
poetry, Southerns though they be, resembles Ossian's; but there are
only two ways of feeling the charms of nature. Men either animate
and deify them, as did the ancients, beneath a thousand brilliant
shapes, or, like the Scottish bards, yield to the melancholy fear
inspired by the unknown. Since I met you, Oswald, this last manner
has best pleased me. Formerly, I had vivacious hope enough to
prefer a fearless enjoyment of smiling imagery."—"It is I, then," said
Nevil, "who have withered the fair ideal, to which I owed the richest
pleasures of my life."—"No, you are not in fault, but my own
passion. Talent requires internal freedom, such as true love
destroys."—"Ah! if you mean that your genius may lose its voice,
and your heart but speak for me——" He could not proceed; the
words promised more to his mind than he dared utter. Corinne
guessed this, and would not answer, lest she should dissipate their
present hopes. She felt herself beloved, and, used to live where men
lose all for love, she was easily persuaded that Nevil could not leave
her. At once ardent and indolent, she deemed a danger past which
was no longer mentioned. She lived as many others do; who have
been long menaced by the same misfortune, and think it will never
happen, merely because it has not done so yet.
The air of Venice, and the life led there, is singularly calculated for
lulling the mind into security: the very boats, peacefully rocking to
and fro, induce a languid reverie; now and then a gondolier on the
Rialto sings a stanza from Tasso; one of his fellows answers him, by
the next verse, from the extremity of the canal. The very antique
music they employ is like church psalmody, and monotonous enough
when near; but, on the evening breeze, it floats over the waters like
the last beams of the sun; and, aided by the sentiment it expresses,
in such a scene, it cannot be heard without a gentle pensiveness.
Oswald and Corinne remained on the canals, side by side, for hours;
often without a word; holding each other's hands, and yielding to
the formless dreams inspired by love and nature.

BOOK XVI.

PARTING AND ABSENCE.

CHAPTER I.

As soon as Corinne's arrival was known in Venice, it excited the

greatest curiosity. When she went to a café in the piazza of St. Mark,
its galleries were crowded, for a moment's glimpse at her; and the
best society sought her with eager haste. She had once loved to
produce this effect wherever she appeared, and naturally confessed
that admiration had many charms for her. Genius inspires this thirst
for fame: there is no blessing undesired by those to whom Heaven
gave the means of winning it. Yet in her present situation she
dreaded everything in opposition with the domestic habits so dear to
Nevil. Corinne was blind to her own welfare, in attaching herself to a
man likely rather to repress than to excite her talents; but it is easy
to conceive why a woman, occupied by literature and the arts,
should love the tastes that differed from her own. One is so often
weary of one's self, that a resemblance of that self would never
tempt affection, which requires a harmony of sentiment, but a
contrast of character; many sympathies, but not unvaried
congeniality. Nevil was supremely blessed with this double charm.
His gentle ease and gracious manner could never sate, because his
liability to clouds and storms kept up a constant interest. Although
the depth and extent of his acquirements fitted him for any life, his
political opinions and military bias inclined him rather to a career of
arms than one of letters—the thought that action might be more
poetical than even verse itself. He was superior to the success of his
own mind, and spoke of it with much indifference. Corinne strove to
please him by imitating this carelessness of literary glory; in order to
grow more like the retiring females from whom English womanhood
offers the best model. Yet the homage she received at Venice gave
Oswald none but agreeable sensations. There was so much cordial
good-breeding in the reception she met—the Venetians expressed
the pleasure her conversation afforded them with such vivacity, that
Oswald felt proud of being dear to one so universally admired. He
was no longer jealous of her celebrity, certain that she prized him far
above it; and his own love increased by every tribute she elicited. He
forgot England, and revelled in the Italian heedlessness of days to
come. Corinne perceived this change; and her imprudent heart
welcomed it, as if to last forever.
Italian is the only tongue whose dialects are almost languages of
themselves. In that of each state books might be written distinct
from the standard Italian; though only the Neapolitan, Sicilian, and
Venetian dialects have yet the honor of being acknowledged; and
that of Venice as the most original, most graceful of all. Corinne
pronounced it charmingly; and the manner in which she sung some
lively barcaroles proved that she could act comedy as well as
tragedy. She was pressed to take a part in an opera which some of
her new friends intended playing the next week. Since she had loved
Oswald, she concealed this talent from him, not feeling sufficient
peace of mind for its exercise, or, at other times, fearing that any
outbreak of high spirits might be followed by misfortune; but now,
with unwonted confidence, she consented, as he, too, joined in the
request; and it was agreed that she should perform in a piece, like
most of Gozzi's, composed of the most diverting fairy extravagances.
[1] Truffaldin and Pantaloon, in these burlesques, often jostle the
greatest monarchs of the earth. The marvellous furnishes them with
jests, which, from their very order, cannot approach to low vulgarity.
The Child of the Air, or Semiramis in her Youth, is a coquette,
endowed by the celestials and infernals to subjugate the world; bred
in a desert, like a savage, cunning as a sorceress, and imperious as
a queen, she unites natural wildness with premeditated grace, and a
warrior's courage with the frivolity of a woman. The character
demands a fund of fanciful drollery, which but the inspiration of the
moment can bring to light.

[1] Among the comic Italian authors who have described their
country's manners, must be reckoned the Chevalier Rossi, a
Roman, who singularly unites observation with satire.

CHAPTER II.

Fate sometimes has its own strange, cruel sport, repulsing our
presuming familiarity. Oft, when we yield to hope, calculate on
success, and trifle with our destiny, the sable thread is blending with
its tissue, and the weird sisters dash down the airy fabrics we have
reared.
It was now November; yet Corinne arose enchanted with her
prospects. For the first act she chose a very picturesque costume:
her hair, though dishevelled, was arranged with an evident design of
pleasing; her light, fantastic garb gave her noble form a most
mischievously attractive air. She reached the palace where she was
to play. Every one but Oswald had arrived. She deferred the
performance as long as possible, and began to be uneasy at his
absence; when she came on the stage, however, she perceived him,
though he sat in a remote part of the hall, and the pain of having
waited redoubled her joy. She was inspired by gayety as she had
been at the Capitol by enthusiasm. This drama blends song with
speech, and even gives opportunities for extempore dialogue, of
which Corinne availed herself to render the scene more animated.
She sung the buffa airs with peculiar elegance. Her gestures were at
once comic and dignified. She extorted laughter, without ceasing to
be imposing. Her talents, like her part, queened it over actors and
spectators, pleasantly bantering both parties. Ah! who would not
have wept over such a sight, could they have known that this bright
armor but drew down the lightning, that this triumphant mirth would
soon give place to bitter desolation? The applause was so continual,
so judicious, that the rapture of the audience infected Corinne with
that kind of delirium which pours a lethe over the past, and bids the
future seem unclouded. Oswald had seen her represent the deepest
woe, at a time when he still hoped to make her happy; he now
beheld her breathing stainless joy, just as he had received tidings
that might prove fatal to them both. Oft did he wish to take her from
this scene of daring happiness, yet felt a sad pleasure in once more
beholding that lovely countenance bedecked in smiles. At the
conclusion, she appeared arrayed as an Amazonian queen,
commanding men, almost the elements, by that reliance on her
charms which beauty may preserve, unless she loves; then, then, no
gift of nature or of fortune can reassure her spirit; but this crowned