Unit– V

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET)

 A MANET consists of a number of mobile devices that come together to form a network
as needed, without any support from any existing internet infrastructure or any other kind
of fixed stations.
 A MANET can be defined as an autonomous system of nodes or MSs (also serving as
routers) connected by wireless links, the union of which forms a communication network
modeled in the form of an arbitrary communication graph.
 This is in contrast to the well-known single hop cellular network model that supports the
needs of wireless communication between two mobile nodes relies on the wired backbone
and fixed base stations.
 In a MANET, no such infrastructure exists and network topology may be changed
dynamically in an unpredictable manner since nodes are free to move and each node has
limiting transmitting power, restricting access to the node only in the neighboring range.
 MANETs are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless networks in which information
packets are transmitted in a store and forward manner from a source to an arbitrary
destination, via intermediate nodes as given in the figure:

 As nodes move, the connectivity may change based on relative locations of other
nodes. The resulting change in the network topology known at the local level must be
passed on to other nodes so that old topology information can be updated.
 For example, as MS2 in the figure changes its point of attachment from MS3 to MS4,
other nodes that are part of the network should use this new route to forward packets to
MS2. In the figure, we assume that it is not possible to have all nodes within each
other's radio range. In case all nodes are closed by within each other's radio range, there
are no routing issues to be addressed.
 In figures raise another issue, that of symmetric and asymmetric (bidirectional) and
asymmetric (unidirectional) links. Consider symmetric links with associative radio
range; for example, if MS1 is within radio range of MS3, then MS3 is also within
 radio range of MS1. The communication links are symmetric. This assumption is not
always valid because of differences in transmitting power levels and the terrain.
Routing in asymmetric networks is relatively hard task. In certain cases, it is possible
to find routes that exclude asymmetric links, since it is cumbersome to find the return
path. The issue of efficient is one of the several challenges encountered in a MANET.

 The other issue is varying the mobility patterns of different nodes. Some other nodes
are highly mobile, while others are primarily stationary. It is difficult to predict a
node's movement and direction of movement and numerous studies have been
performed to evaluate their performance using different simulators.

Characteristics of MANET

Some characteristics of adhoc network are as follows:

o Dynamic Topologies: nodes are free to move arbitrarily; thus the network topology
may be changed randomly and unpredictably and primarily consists of bidirectional
links. In some cases where the transmission power of two nodes is different, a
unidirectional link may exist.
o Bandwidth-constrained and variable capacity links: wireless links continue to have
significantly lower capacity than infrastructure networks.
o Energy-constrained operation: some or all of the MSs in a MANET may rely on
batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. For these nodes or devices, the most
important system design optimization criteria may be energy conservation.
o Limited physical security: MANETs are generally more prone to physical security
threats than wireline networks. The increased possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, and
denial of services (DoS) attacks should be considered carefully. To reduce security
threats, many existing link security techniques are often applied within wireless networks.

Applications of MANET

Some specific applications of adhoc networks include industrial and commercial applications
involving cooperative mobile data exchange. There are many existing and future military
networking requirements for robust, IP-compliant data services within mobile wireless
communication networks, with many of these networks consist of highly dynamic
autonomous topology segments. Advanced features of Mobile ad hoc networks, including
data rates compatible with multimedia applications global roaming capability, and
coordination with other network structures are enabling new applications.

o Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly communications

set-up, and ad hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for use in battlefield
management.
o Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural
disasters in which the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray. Restoring
 communications quickly is essential.
o Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote
location must access medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video conference
assistance from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. In fact, the paramedic may
need to instantaneously relay back to the hospital the victim's X-rays and other
diagnostic tests from the site of the accident.
o Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical
Information Systems), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new type
of application referred to as tele- geo processing.
o Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of
building, streets, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also
"virtually" see the internally out of buildings, including an emergency rescue plan, or
find possible points of interest.
o Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet or
remote areas because of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive last-mile
wire line internet access in these areas to all subscribers.
o Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc
network in providing emergency services and other information. This is equally
effective in both urban and rural setup. The basic and exchange necessary data that is
beneficial in a given situation.

Routing

Routing is the process of finding the best path for traffic in a network, or across multiple
networks. The role of routing is similar to the roadmap for a hotel. In both cases, we need to
deliver messages at proper location and in an appropriate way.

Routing in a mobile ad-hoc network depends on many factors such as:

o Modeling of the topology,

o Selection of routers,
o Initiation of a route request,
o And specific underlying character is tics that could serve as heuristics in finding
the path effectively.

In a MANET, each node or device is expected to serve as a router, and each router is in
distinguishable from another in the sense that all routers execute the same routing algorithm to
compute paths through the entire network.

Need for Routing

There are following needs for routing:

o Since centralized routing in a dynamic and even for small networks is impossible
therefore routing computation must be distributed.
o Route computation should not add many more nodes.
o If any host demands for the route, they must have quick access.
o Maintenance of a global state should not involve in the route computation.
o Each node should care about their destination node to its route and should not be
involved in frequent topology updates for those portions of the network that have no
traffic.
o Since broadcast can be time consuming for MANETs, it must be avoided as much as
possible.
o In routing there must have a backup route when the primary route has become stale.

Routing Classification

Routing protocol can be classified as:

1. Proactive Protocol
2. Reactive Protocol
3. Hybrid Protocol

1. Proactive Protocol

Proactive protocols attempt to evaluate continuously the routes within the network. It means
proactive protocol continuously maintain the routing information, so that when a packet
needs to be forwarded, the path is known already and can be immediately used. The family of
distance vector protocols is an example of proactive scheme.

The advantage of the proactive schemes is that whenever a route is needed, there is negligible
delay in determining the route.

Unfortunately, it is a big overhead to maintain routing tables in the MANET environment.

Therefore, this type of protocol has following common disadvantages:

o Requires more amounts of data for maintaining routing information.

o Low reaction on re-structuring network and failures of individual nodes.

2. Reactive Protocols
Reactive protocols do not maintain routes but invoke a route determination procedure only on
demand or we can say reactive protocols build the routes only on demand. Thus, when a route
is required, some sort of global search procedure is initiated. The family of classical flooding
algorithms belongs to the reactive protocol group. Examples of reactive ad-hoc network
routing protocols include ad hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) and temporally ordered
routing algorithm (TORA).

These protocols have the following advantages:

o No large overhead for global routing table maintenance as in proactive protocols.

o Reaction is quick for network re structure and node failure.
Even though reactive protocols have become the mainstream for MANET routing,
they still have the following disadvantages:
o Latency time is high in route finding
o Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging.

3. Hybrid Protocols

Hybrid protocols attempt to take advantage of best of reactive and proactive schemes. The
basic idea behind such protocols is to initiate route discovery on demand but at a limited
search cost. One of the popular hybrid protocols is zone routing protocol (ZRP).

Routing protocols may also be categorized as follows:

1. Table-driven protocols
2. Source initiated on –demand protocols

1. Table-driven routing protocol

o These protocols are called table-driven because each node is required to maintain one
or more tables containing routing information on every other node in the network.
o They are proactive in nature so that the routing information is always consistent and
up to date.
o The protocols respond to changes in network topology by propagating the updates
throughput the network so that every node has a consistent view of the network.

The table driven routing protocols are categorized as follows:

Destination-sequenced distance vector routing

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is a table driven routing

protocol for MANET based on Bellman-Ford algorithm.
 o DSDV was developed by C. Perkins and P. Bhagwat in 1994. The main
contribution of the algorithm was that the algorithm works correctly, even in the
presence of the loops in the routing table.
o As we know, each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to every
possible destination in the network and the number of hops to the destination.
o Each entry in the table contains sequence number assigned by the destination node.
o The sequence numbers allow the node to distinguish stale routes from new ones, and
help avoid formation of routing loops.

A new route broadcast contains:

o The destination address.

o The number of hops required to reach the destination.
o The sequence number of the information received about the destination and a
new sequence number unique to the broadcast.
o If there multiple routes are available for the same destination, the route with the most
recent sequence number is used. If two updates have the same sequence number, the
route with smaller metric is used to optimize the routing.

For example the routing table of Node A from the above network is:

Destination NextHop No.ofHops Sequenceno. Install time

A A 0 A46 001000

B B 1 B36 001200

C B 2 C28 001500

Basically the tables to res description of all possible paths reachable by node A, along with the
hop, number of hops, sequence number and install time.

Advantages
 o Destination sequenced distance vector routing was one of the early algorithms
available. It is suitable for creating ad-hoc networks with small no. of nodes.

Disadvantage

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing requires a regular update of its routing
tables, which uses more battery power and a small amount of bandwidth even when
the network is idle.
o This algorithm is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.
:

Adhoc on demand Distance vector Routing (AODV)

o AODV is a routing protocol for MANETs (mobile adhoc networks) and other
wireless ad hoc networks.
o It is a reactive routing protocol; it means it establishes a route to a destination
only on demand.
o AODV routing is built over the DSDV algorithm. It is a significant
improvement over DSDV.
o The devices that are not on a particular path do not maintain routing
information, nor do they participate in the routing table exchanges.
o When a source requires sending a message to a destination and does not have
a valid route to the latter, the source initiates a route discovery process.
o Source sends a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbors, the latter
forward he request to all their neighbors, and so on, until either the
destination or an intermediate mobile (node) with a "fresh enough" route to
the destination is reached.

The above figure illustrates the propagation of the broadcast request (RREQs) across the
network. Since in DSDV, destination sequence numbers are used to ensure that all routes are
loop free and contain the most recent route information. Each node has a unique sequence
number and a broadcast ID, which is incremented each time the node, initiates RREQ.
The broadcastID, together with the IP address of node, uniquely identifies every RREQ.

Intermediate mobile reply only if they have a route to the destination with a sequence number
greater than or at least equal to that contained in the RREQ. To optimize the route
performance, intermediate nodes record the address.

From the above figure, since RREP (route reply packet) travels back on the reverse path, the
nodes on this path set up their forward route entries to point to the node from which RREP
had just been received. These forward route records indicate the active forward route. The
RREP continues traveling back along the reverse path till it reaches the initiator of the route
discovery. Thus, AODV can support only the use of symmetric links.

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

o Dynamic source routing is an on-demand routing protocol which is based on source

routing.
o It is very similar to AODV in that it forms a route on demand when a transmitting
computer requests one. But, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing
table at each intermediate device. Many successive refinements have been made to
dynamic source routing.
o This protocol works in two main phases:
o Route discovery
o Route maintenance
o When a node has a message to send, it contacts to the route cache to determine
whether is it has a route to the destination. If an active route to the destination exists,
it is used to send a message.
o Otherwise a node initiates a route discovery by broadcasting a route request packet.
The route request stores the destination address, the source address, and a unique
identification number.
 o Each device that receives the route request checks whether it has a route to the
destination. If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet and
then rebroadcasts the packet on its outgoing links.
o To minimize the no. of broadcasts, a mobile rebroadcasts a packet only if it has not
seen the packet before and its own address was not already in the route record.
Global State Routing: - basics
• Global State Routing (GSR) is based on Link State (LS) routing.
• In LSR, one of the node floods out single routing table information to its neighbors
and those neighbors floods out that table to further nodes. This process continues to
take place until the routing table is received by all the nodes throughout the
network.
• But in case of GSR, the routing table of a particular node is broadcast to its
immediate neighbors only. Then initial tables of those neighbors only. Then initial
tables of those neighboring nodes are updated. These updated tables are further
broadcast one by one and this process continues to take place until all the nodes
broadcasts their tables to each node in the network.

1. In GSR, Each node maintains 1 list and 3 table:

A. Neighbor List: It containing the list of nodes adjacent to the node ( hop=1 )
B. Topology Table: This table contains the information of link state data along
with the sequence number which can be used to determine when the
information is updated last.

C. Next Hop Table: It contains the information about the immediate neighbor
of particular node.
D. Distance Table: It contain the distance of a node from all the nodes in network

Working of Global State Routing

1. Initially, each node learns about its neighbors by examining each received packet
and thus builds up its neighbor list.
2. Each node updates link state information in its topology table by receiving link
state messages from its neighbors. LS packets with larger sequence numbers
replace the older ones with smaller sequence numbers. So every node learns the
entire network topology.
3. The entire topology map (link state table) is exchanged periodically with neighbors
only, meaning that there is no global flooding.
4. Then each node computes the shortest paths itself using the newly rebuild topology
map, based on Dijkstra’s algorithm.

1. Advantages
1. Higher accuracy of GSR in generating optimal path as compared to LSR.
2. Broadcasting reduces error rate as compare to flooding used in LSR.
2. Disadvantages
1. Large Bandwidth consumption
2. Higher operational cost
3. Large message size resulting in more time consumption
Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
• TORA is a source initiated on demand routing protocol.
• It was invented by Vincent Park and M. Scott Corson from university of Maryland
in 1997 for wireless ad hoc network.
• TORA is a highly adaptive, efficient, loop-free and scalable routing protocol based
on link reversal algorithm.
• Highly adaptive, loop-free, distributed routing algorithm based on the concept of
link reversal
• TORA decouples the generation of potentially far-reaching control messages from
the rate of topological changes.
• TORA works in three main phases:
• Route creation: Route creation from source to destination.
• Route maintenance: Maintenance of the route.
• Route erasure: Erasing of the route when the route is no longer valid.
 • TORA attempts to build a separate directed acyclic graph (DAG) by each node to every
destination. When a route to a particular destination is required, the source node
broadcasts a QUERY packet containing the address of the destination. The route query
propagates via the network till it reaches either the destination or an intermediate node
containing the route to the destination.
• TORA contains a quintuple metric which consists of:
• Logical time of link failure.
• Unique ID of the node that defines the new reference level.
• A reflection indicator bit.
• A propagation ordering parameter.
• Unique ID of the node.
• Advantages: provides loop free paths at all instants and multiple routes so that if
one path is not available, other is readily available. It establishes routes quickly so
that they may be used before the topology changes.
• Drawbacks: exhibits instability behavior similar to "count-to-infinity" problem in
distance vector routing protocols.
QoS MANET: Following are quality of service parameters in MANEt

Given the dynamic topology of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and the limited bandwidth available, supplying
quality of service (QoS) is a major challenge. Several research projects are currently underway with the aim of
providing QoS on the Internet and in other network architectures, but most of the proposed solutions are
incompatible with ad hoc networks. The study of QoS for ad hoc networks is important, as QoS would enable more
sensitive network administration and more equal resource sharing, optimizing network costs.

For QoS to be supported, link information such as delay, available bandwidth, cost, and error levels needs to be
available and controllable. However, it is difficult to obtain this kind of information in ad hoc networks as the radio
link changes according to environmental circumstances. Limited resources and node mobility complicate the task
still further.

The standardization of routing protocols for ad hoc networks has aroused growing interest among research groups
in the field, which aim to improve performance and satisfy application constraints. A number of drafts have
appeared on the subject, notably from the MANET, HIPERCOM, and Nokia searching center (NSC) groups. They
deal with different ad hoc protocols in great detail, including ad hoc on-demand distance-vector (AODV), dynamic
source routing, optimized link-state routing (OLSR), and TBRPF
Multiple Access Control : Issues

 Major issues that occur in MAC other than collision are:

Multiple Access Control: Issues

1. Mobility of Nodes

 This issue frequently occurs while transmitting the data through MAC channel as any
controlling while data is being exchanged among nodes might affect the mobility of nodes in its
environment.

2. Hidden Terminal Issue

 Another issue that occurs most frequently is the hidden terminal problem. The hidden
terminal issue occurs when:
 Consider three mobile nodes sharing a single MAC channel then:
o “A” & “B” and “B” & “C” can transmit data to each other but “A” is not in the
range to connect to “C” and “B” is the common node of transmission between
“A” and “C”.
o At a particular time, if “A” sends data packets to “B” and “C” sends data packets
to “B” collision will occur and this problem of non-coordination among the
nodes is known as hidden terminal issue. Here, “A”, “B” & “C” are mobile
nodes/devices.

3. Exposed Terminal Problem

 Exposed terminal problem arise when, for an on-going data transmission between two nodes and
other nodes want to share the data but due to unavailability of information of which nodes are
currently in connect, data transmission does not occur even if the other nodes are free.
 The problem is:
o “A” and “B” are transmitting the data.
o “A” can transmit data to “B” only and “C” wants to wants to share the data to “d”, it
might not be able to share data to “D” because it might think that “B” & “D” are
transmitting data but that will not be the actual case and it will result in prevention of
data transmission and delay.