Hardware

Monday, September 16, 2024 5:08 PM

 Hardware is the physical components of a computer system. There are two categories of Hardware:

 EXTERNAL HARDWARE:
○ Keyboard
○ Mouse
○ Camera
○ Monitor
○ Printer
○ Plotter

 INTERNAL HARDWARE:
○ Motherboard
▪ A printed Circuit board found in all computers.
▪ Connects the processor and other computer hardware, allowing them to communicate.
▪ Consists of a sheet of non-conductive material like hard plastic.
▪ Thin layers of copper or aluminum are printed onto this sheet which form the circuits b/w diff. components.
▪ Also contains: several sockets + slots to connect the other components.

○ Random-access memory (RAM)

▪ Stores data, files or part of Operating system currently in use.
▪ Internal chip where data is stored temporarily when running apps.
▪ Can be written to & read from.
▪ Contents lost when computer is turned off.
▪ Referred to as volatile or temporary memory.

○ Read-only memory (ROM)

▪ Stores info that needs to be permanent.
▪ Cannot be altered, only read from.
▪ Often contains configuration data for computer system.
▪ Adv. that data not lost when power turned off.
Referred to as non-volatile memory.
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 ▪ Referred to as non-volatile memory.

○ Central Processing Unit (CPU)

▪ An electronic circuit board that can Interpret and execute instructions from a computer hardware and software..
▪ Normally part of computer motherboard
▪ Used to be made up of discrete components & many small integrated circuits which were combined on one or more circuit boards
▪ Now, due to modern manufacturing techniques, is called a microprocessor
▪ It’s a single integrated circuit at the heart of most PCs
▪ Also found in household devices + equipment that require some control or monitoring like the engine management system in a car.
▪ It is made up of :
- a control unit which controls the input & output devices and takes, decodes & executes the instructions
- An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) which carries out calculations & makes logical decisions
- Small memory locations called registers

○ Graphics Card
▪ Allows computer to send graphical info to a video display monitor, television, or projector.
▪ It connects to the motherboard.
▪ Made up of :
- A processing unit
- A memory unit (mostly RAM)
- A cooling mechanism (mostly a heat sink)
- Connections to a display unit. (monitor, TV, projector)

○ Sound Card
▪ An integrated circuit board that provides a computer w/ the ability to produce sounds.
▪ Can be heard through speakers or headphones.
▪ Also allow user to record sound input via microphone connected to computer.
▪ Also allow user to manipulate sound stored on a disk.

○ Network Interface Card (NIC)

▪ Allows a computer or any device (e.g. printer) to be connected to a network (e.g. internet); can be wired or wireless.
▪ Is hard-coded with a unique MAC (media access control) address code

○ Internal Storage devices

▪ Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
- Of magnetic nature.
- One of the main methods for storing data, files and most of the system & application software.
▪ Solid-State drives (SSD)
Uses flash
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- Uses flash
- Used by more modern computers and all tablets.
- Replacing HDD.
- Same function as an HDD.

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Software
Saturday, October 5, 2024 4:38 PM

 Software is the programs that control the computer system and process data.
 Applications software provides the services that the user requires to solve a particular task.
 System software is designed to provide a platform on which all other software can run.
 The two main categories are:

 APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE :

○ Word Processing
▪ To manipulate a text document, like essays or reports.
▪ Text is entered using keyboard.
▪ Software provides tools for copying, deleting & diff. formatting.
▪ Functions include:
- Creating, editing , saving & manipulating text.
- Copy and paste functions.
- Spell checkers and thesaurus.
- Importing img. into structured page format.
- Translate into foreign language.

○ Spreadsheet
- Used to organise & manipulate numerical data.
- Numbers are organized on a grid of lettered columns & numbered rows.
- The grid is made of cells and each cell is identified by its unique combination e.g. B6.
- Functions include:
□ Use of formulae to perform calculations.
□ Ability to produce graphs.
□ Ability to do modelling and 'what if' calculations.

○ Database (management system)

- Used to organize, manipulate and analyse data.
- Typically made up of one or more tables.
- Tables consist of rows and columns.
- Each row is called a 'record' and each column is called a 'field'.
- They provide basic structure to organize the data in database.
- Functions include :
□ Ability to carry out queries on data & produce a report (DMBS).
□ Add, delete and modify data in a table.

○ Control and measurement software

- Control software controls the environment by comparing current recorded values to previously set values and uses the comparison data to
perform a necessary action.
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 perform a necessary action.
- Measurement software measures and stores data from the enviroment
- Allow a computer or microprocessor to interface w/ sensors so that it's possible to:
□ Measure physical quantities in real world (e.g. temperature)
□ Control apps by comparing sensor data w/ stored data + sending out signals to alter process parameters (e.g. open a valve to add acid
and change the pH).

○ Apps and applets

- Applets
□ Small applications that perform a single task on device (usually embedded in an HTML page on a website; can be executed from within
a browser).
- Apps
□ Software which can perform a fairly substantial task (e.g. video + music streaming, banking, social media)
□ Term originally used for software ran on a phone and could be downloaded via an app store.

○ Video editing
- Allows a user the ability to manipulate videos to produce new video.
- Enables addition of titles, colour correction, altering/adding sound to og video.
- Includes :
□ Rearranging, adding and/or removing sections of video clips and/or audio clips.
□ Applying colour correction, filters and other video enhancements
□ Creating transitions b/w clips in the video footage.

○ Audio editing
- Allows user to edit, manipulate and generate audio data on computer.
- Allows user to alter
□ Length of track.
□ Start/Stop time of track.
□ Conversion b/w audio file formats.
□ Volume of track.
□ Fading in/out.
□ Combine multiple sound tracks.
□ Noise reduction.
□ To create another version of the sound track (e.g. a continuous loop or ringtone).

○ Graphics Editing
- Allows bitmap & Vector images to be changed.
- Software chosen depending on format of og image.
- Bitmap :
□ Made up of pixels which contain info abt img brightness and colour.
□ Its graphics editors can change pixels to produce diff. image.
- Vector :
□ Its graphic editors operate in a different way & don’t use pixels.
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 □ Its graphic editors operate in a different way & don’t use pixels.
□ This software manipulates lines, curves, text to alter the stored img as required.

○ Computer-aided design (CAD)

- Used to help in creation, manipulation, modification & analysis of a drawing/design.
- Can be used to produce 2D or 3D diagrams which :
□ Can be rotated to any angle.
□ Can produce full dimensions.
□ Can be used to estimate manufacturing costs of the final product.
□ Predict any structural problems.

 SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

○ Compilers
- Computer program that translates high-level language (HLL) into machine code to be directly used by computer to do needed task.
- Og program called source code & code after compilation called object code.
- Once a program is compiled, the machine code can be used over and over to perform same task without recompilation.
- HLL includes Java, Python, Visual Basic, Fortran, C++ and Algol

○ Linkers
- Also known as Link editor.
- Combines object files produced by compiler into a single program.
- E.g. programmers write diff. pieces of codes (modules) separately to simplify programming task to be more manageable. Linkers combine
said modules to create the final program.

○ Device drivers
- Enables several hardware devices to communicate with O.S.
- Without them hardware devices (e.g. printers) wouldn't be able to work w/ computers.
- All hardware devices connected to computers have a driver.
- When device is plugged into computer, O.S looks for a driver for it, and gives error message if a driver not found.
- E.g. of hardware devices that need drivers : Printers, Mouse, CD driver, Memory sticks.

○ Operating System (O.S)

- Software running in background.
- Manages basic functions.
- Without, computers would not be user-friendly.
- They allow :
□ Input/Output operations
□ User to communicate w/ computer (e.g. Windows)
□ Managing security (e.g. user acc., log on passwords)
□ Error Handling
□ Loading and Running Programs

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○ Utilities
- Software designed to carry out specific tasks.
- Help manage, maintain and control computer resources.
- Examples include :
□ Antivirus
□ Anti-spyware
□ Backup of files
□ Disk repair
□ File management
□ Security
□ Screensavers
□ Disk Defragmenter

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Analogue and Digital Data
Saturday, October 5, 2024 4:39 PM

 ANALOGUE DATA

○ Physical data that changes from one value to the next smoothly, unlike the
discrete steps by digital data.
○ It is found in the real world.
○ If sent to a computer it has to be converted to digital data first using a
Analogue to Digital convertor (ADC) because computers understand
data in binary form.
○ Infinite values can exist between 2 values.

 DIGITAL DATA

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○ Digital data is in binary form, as in a base 2 no. system where only 1
& 0 can be used.
○ Computers can only understand data in binary format.
○ In digital data only exact values can exist.
○ If computer is connected to a device (like a motor) than output needs to be
converted from digital to analogue using digital to analogue convertor
(DAC).

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BIOS
Saturday, October 5, 2024 4:49 PM

 BIOS:
○ ROM contains some coding known as the boot file which tells computer what to do when it first starts up.
○ Often referred to as BIOS (basic input/output system)
○ When computer turned on, it carries out a hardware check to find if all devices are present and functional.
○ Then loads up the Operating System into the RAM
○ It stores the date, time and system configuration in non-volatile chip called a CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) which is
usually battery powered

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Input and output devices
Saturday, October 5, 2024 5:02 PM

 INPUT DEVICES:
○ Hardware that allow data to be entered into a computer
○ Use either manual entry (Keyboard or a mouse) or direct data entry (sensors or optical character readers)
○ These devices turn input into a form which computer can understand like a mouse turns hand movements into cursor movements
○ Sometimes data has to go through an ADC before the computer can make any sense of it

 OUTPUT DEVICES:
○ When a human operator wants to see results of computer processed data, the computer sends the data to an output device
○ Output device shows computers output in a way humans can understand like text on a printer or moving images on a monitor

Differences :

○ Sometimes devices can act as both input and output like a touch screen or a DVD writer/player but most are only capable of one.

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Backing Storage
Monday, October 7, 2024 10:54 AM

○ Backing storage (HDD and SSD)

▪ Main memories are RAM & ROM but to permanently store large amounts of data its necessary to use backing storage (HDD and SSD)
▪ computers main internal storage where app software, disk operating system and files (text, photos or music) are stored.
▪ They store data permanently so, non-volatile
▪ Unlike RAM or ROM, it's not directly addressable (can't be directly read by CPU)
▪ Data access time is shorter for RAM + ROM
▪ Its larger than RAM b/c its less expensive per byte
▪ can be fixed (internal to computer) or removable
▪ Removable advantage is that it can be used as backup in case of data loss or corruption
▪ Data from main HDD or SSD can be copied on another device (pen drive/portable HDD) & then stored in separate location
▪ If original data on HDD/SSD lost or corrupted, can be restored from backup device.
▪ E.g. of removable storage
- External HDD
- External SSD
- Blu-ray discs

Comparison:

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Operating Systems
Monday, October 7, 2024 11:03 AM

 OS
 To enable computers to function and allow users to communicate with computer systems, special software called operating systems (OS) have been
developed.
 General tasks include:
○ Control of operation of input, output & backing storage devices
○ Supervising loading, running & storage of app programs
○ Dealing w/ errors in apps
○ Maintaining security of whole computer system
○ Maintaining computer log (it details computer usage)
○ Allowing comm. b/w user & computer system (user interface)

 User Interfaces :
 Command Line interface (CLI)
○ Requires user to type in instructions to choose option from menus, open software, e.t.c
○ Often number of commands need to be typed in, for example, to save or load a file
○ User has to learn number of commands to carry out basic operations
○ Its slow, having to key in these commands every time an operation has to be carried out
○ Advantage that user is in direct communication w/ computer & not restricted to a number of pre-determined options
○ For example windows has a CLI called 'command prompt' and to open desktop folder %windir%\explorer.exe C:\Users\YourName
\Desktop command is required

 Graphical User Interface (GUI)

○ Allows user to interact w/ computer (or MP3 player, gaming device, mobile phone, e.t.c) using pictures or symbols (icons)
○ To open windows explorer, for example, just click on the icon
○ They use various diff. technologies to provide user interface, one of the most common being WIMP (windows icons menu & pointing device)
○ WIMP are the 4 main features of a GUI
○ A mouse is used to control a cursor and icons are selected to open/run windows
○ Each window contains an application and modern computer systems allow several windows to be open at the same time.
○ A window manager looks after the interaction b/w windows, the applications and window system (which handles the pointing devices and the
cursor’s position)
○ In recent years, touch screens, smartphones and tablets use post-WIMP interaction, where fingers in contact w/ screen allowing actions like
pinching and rotating which would have been difficult to do using single pointer & device such as mouse

* Advantages and disadvantages of CLI and GUI interfaces

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 Advantages and disadvantages of CLI and GUI interfaces

* Users of CLI vs GUI

○ CLI
▪ a programmer, analyst or technician; basically, somebody who needs to have direct communication with a computer to develop new
software, locate errors and remove them, initiate memory dumps (contents of the computer memory at some moment in time), and so on.
○ GUI
▪ the end-user who does not have to (or does not need to) have any great knowledge of how the computer works; a person who uses the
computer to run software, play games or store/manipulate photographs, for example.

 Dialogue-based user interfaces

○ Use the human voice to give commands to a computer system
○ Example of use is in some modern luxury cars where voice activation is used to control like the in-car entertainment system or satellite navigation
system.
○ By speaking certain commends, such as ‘Hey BMW, drive me to the nearest airport’, the system allows natural speech to enable the driver
to intuitively interact with the car.
○ This type of interface could also be used in the home; by using voice commands, it is possible to switch on/off lights, operate electronic
equipment and so on.
○ In recent years, devices such as Amazon Alexa, Google Now, Apple Siri and Microsoft Cortana have all been developed to interact with a
human by recognizing verbal commands. These devices act as a personal assistant.

 Gesture-based interfaces
○ Rely on human interaction by moving of hands, head or even feet
○ Allows humans to interface w/ a computer in more natural way w/o need for any mechanical devices
○ Uses techniques knows as computer vision & image processing
Example: to carry out certain function in car following gestures can be used.
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 ○ Example: to carry out certain function in car following gestures can be used.
□ moving the foot under the rear bumper of the car automatically opens the boot lid
□ moving a hand near a window switch automatically opens a window
○ Either a sensor or a camera is used to pick up the gesture & a signal is sent to an on-board computer to carry out the required action
○ Eliminates need for an array of buttons & dials on dashboard

* Advantages and disadvantages of dialogue-based and gesture-based interfaces

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Types of computers
Monday, October 7, 2024 12:20 PM

 Types:

 Desktop Computers
○ Refers to a general purpose computer
○ Made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse & processor unit
○ Distinguished from others by the fact that its several separate components making it not very portable

○ The advantages of desktop computers over laptop computers are:

▪ Spare parts and connections tend to be standardized, which usually results in lower costs
▪ Easier, & less expensive, to upgrade or expand
▪ Tends to have better specs (for example, faster processor) for a given price (often due to size &construction constraints in laptops)
▪ Power consumption not critical b/c they usually plug straight into a wall socket, & larger casings allow better dissipation of any heat build-up
▪ B/c usually fixed in one location, less likely of being damaged or stolen
▪ Internet access can be more stable because it's more likely to have wired internet connection (so user will always have same data transfer rate);
however, due to their portability, laptops usually use wireless internet connectivity where the signal can be very variable (giving variable data transfer
rate)

○ Disadvantages of desktop computers when compared to laptop computers:

▪ Not particularly portable because made up of separate components
▪ Tend to be more complicated because all components need to be hooked up by wiring, cluttering the desk space
▪ B/c not particularly portable, it's necessary to copy files on like a memory stick, when you want to work elsewhere (example, doing office work at
home); although cloud storage has diminished this disadvantage recently, still might be possible to save sensitive data files on the cloud

○ The main uses of desktop computers include:

▪ office and business work (mainly word processing, spreadsheets, finance software and databases)
▪ educational use (interactive software to teach or learn)
▪ gaming device (chess, crossword, fantasy games, etc.)
▪ general entertainment (live or ‘catch-up’ streaming of TV)

 Mobile Computers
○ They are a group of computers that are more portable than desktop computers
○ Have 4 categories:
▪ Laptop Computers
□ Refers to computers where the monitor, keyboard, pointing device and processor are all together in one single unit making them very portable

□ Features you would expect to find in laptops

 Lightweight (aids portability)
 Low power consumption (and also long battery life)
 Low heat output (cooling's important)

□ Laptops Advantages over desktop computers

Portability; can be taken anywhere b/c single unit
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  Portability; can be taken anywhere b/c single unit
 No trailing wires; single cord is used b/c single unit
 Take up less room on a desk so can be used in like a café
 Portability allows them to take full advantage of wi-fi
 Can link into any multimedia system b/c portable

□ Laptops disadvantages compared to desktop computers

 Easier to steal b/c portable
 Limited battery life; may need to carry heavy power adapter
 Keyboards & pointing device can be awkward to use
 Not always possible to upgrade them like adding more RAM

□ Main uses of Laptops (almost same as desktop computers)

 Office & business work (word processing, spreadsheets, finance software & databases)
 Educational Use (interactive software to teach and learn)
 Gaming device (chess, crossword, fantasy games etc.)
 General entertainment (live or 'catch up' streaming of TV)
 Control and monitoring (b/c they can be operated anywhere via their internal battery, it's possible to use them to gather data directly from
the environment - example can be plugged into a gas boiler during maintenance to monitor its performance)

▪ Smartphones
□ Allow normal phone cal.ls to be made but also have an OS (like ios, android, windows)
□ OS allows it to run several apps

□ Phones allow users to:

 Send/receive emails
 Use camera feature
 Run several apps
 MP3/4 players
 Etc.

□ They communicate w/ internet by using Wi-Fi hotspots or by using 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks

□ Some typical features of smartphones include

 high-definition, anti-glare displays
 front- and back-facing cameras (used to take photos, videos or act as a webcam when doing video calls over the internet)
 lower weight and longer battery life than laptops
 use Bluetooth for connection to printers and other devices
 make use of flash (solid state) memory and cloud storage facilities to back up and sync) data sources
 use a number of sensors to carry out the following functions:
◊ proximity sensors detect if device is close to, for example the ear, which allows it to block unintended ‘touches’
◊ accelerometers, detect movement & orientation of the device
◊ can use sophisticated speech recognitions systems (such as Siri) to enable the user to ask the device to look for things

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 □ New smartphone becoming thinner & lighter b/c they use OLED (organic light emitting diode) touch screens
□ Future smartphones will also use OLED screens that are coated w/ a crystalline layer allowing phones to be partially solar powered allowing
them to use LI-FI(comms use visible light rather than radio waves thus its faster)

□ Advantages of smartphones:
 Very small in size and lightweight thus very easy to carry and have at all times.
 can use them to make phone calls, but also connect to the internet while on the move
 b/c they use Wi-Fi and mobile phone networks they can be used almost anywhere
 They have apps which make use of sensor data provided by the smartphone, for instance location data for maps
 They have a reasonable battery life compared to laptops

□ Disadvantages of smartphones:
 The small screens and keyboards make pages difficult to read
 It is more difficult & slower when typing things in
 Web browsing and photography can quickly drain the battery
 Memory size in most phones is not very large when compared to laptops and desktops
 Not all website features are compatible with smartphone operating systems
 easier to lose a smartphone or for it to be stolen due to its size
 The data transfer rate using mobile phone networks can be slower than with Wi-Fi, making streaming of video or music, problematic

▪ Tablets
□ Work in a similar way to a smartphone
□ becoming an increasingly used
□ use touch screen technology and do not have a conventional keyboard.
□ keyboard is virtual; (part of the touch screen) & keys are activated by simply touching them with a finger or a stylus
□ possible to buy tablet cases which contain a normal-sized keyboard
□ Internet access is usually through Wi-Fi or 3G/4G/5G (mobile phone) connectivity
□ Like smartphones, tablets are equipped with a series of sensors which include camera, microphone, accelerometer and touch screen.
□ The typical features of tablets are identical to those of a smartphone

□ Advantages of tablets compared to laptops:

 very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the OS to load)
 fully portable –so lightweight that can be carried anywhere
 touch screen technology so simple to use and dont need any other input devices
 can use several apps as standard (such as built-in camera, MP3/4 players)
 not much heat – they use solid-state technology
 battery life of a tablet is a lot longer
 when the power button is pressed, it goes into standby, but remains connected to the internet so the user still hears alerts when emails or
other ‘events’ are received

□ Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptops:

 More expensive when compared to laptops
often have limited memory or storage when compared to a laptop

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  often have limited memory or storage when compared to a laptop
 if 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks are used, they can be expensive to run if the internet is being accessed frequently
 typing on a touch screen can be slow and error-prone compared to a standard keyboard
 transferring of files often has to be done through an ‘application store’; so no ‘drag and drop’ is irritating
 laptops tend to support more types of file format than tablets and are also better equipped to run different types of software.

□ Some of the latest smartphones have been designed as a hybrid between a tablet and a smartphone; these are referred to as a phablet.
□ They have larger screens than smartphone but smaller than a tablet
□ All the features of a smartphone also apply to phablets together with the typical features of a tablet

□ The main uses of smartphones, tablets and phablets include:

 entertainment (streaming music, videos and TV)
 gaming
 as a camera or video camera
 internet use
 sending/receiving emails
 global positioning system (use of maps to navigate to a location)
 calendar functions
 telephone banking (banking apps)
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – telephone network using the internet which also allows video calling
 instant access to social networks
 instant messaging
 office and business management (features that allow rapid voice and video communication)
 education use
 remotely control devices (possible to remotely operate devices in the home like microwaves which contain embedded microprocessors)

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emerging technologies
Monday, October 7, 2024 2:29 PM

 Artificial intelligence
○ AI is a machine or application which carries out a task that requires some degree of intelligence. For example:
▪ the use of language
▪ recognising a person’s face
▪ the ability to operate machinery, such as a car, aeroplane, train, and so on
▪ analysing data to predict the outcome of a future event, for example weather forecasting
○ AI duplicates human tasks which require decision-making and problem-solving skills
○ could lead to unemployment
○ However, the positive side includes improvements in safety and quality of services and products

○ The impact of AI on everyday life:

▪ An autonomous (driverless) vehicle – we already have driverless trains and autopilots on aeroplanes, but future developments
include driverless cars.
▪ Robotic research is leading to improvements in technology to help amputees and people with disabilities
▪ Robots are used to help people carry out dangerous or unpleasant tasks – for example, bomb disposal, welding of car bodies,
entering nuclear disaster areas (such as Chernobyl or Fukushima) where the radiation would kill a human in under two minutes

○ Negative impacts of AI:

▪ could lead to many job losses (new technical jobs would be created); many jobs could be lost in manufacturing and bus, taxi, lorry
and train drivers
▪ dependency on technology and the inability to carry out tasks done by robots, for example, could be an issue in the future
▪ loss of skills – even now, skills from previous generations have been lost as humans have been replaced by machines and software
applications

 Extended reality (XR)

○ refers to real and virtual combined environments, and is a ‘catch all’ term for all immersive technologies. The three most common
examples at the moment are:
1. augmented reality (AR)
2. virtual reality (VR)
3. mixed reality (MR)

▪ Augmented reality (AR)

□ Features of augmented reality include:
 allow the user to experience the relationship between digital (virtual) and physical (real) worlds
 virtual information and objects are overlaid onto real-world situations
 the real world is enhanced with digital details, such as images, text and animation
 user can experience the AR world through special goggles or via smartphone/phablet screens
user not isolated from real world and able to interact and see what is going on in front of them
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  user not isolated from real world and able to interact and see what is going on in front of them
 Examples: Pokémon GO game which overlays digital creatures onto real-world situations and apple vision pro

□ Future Impact areas of augmented reality:

 safety and rescue operations (possible to provide 3D images of area of rescue mission giving team try out rescue
procedures before doing the real thing)
 entertainment (AR takes users into virtual environment where it is possible to interact with the characters)
 shopping and retail (using your smartphone camera to try out make-up and see how it looks on you before buying it,
can experience a virtual tour of a new car where you can ‘sit’ in the interior and try out b4 buying the car)
 healthcare (doctors can use AR to have better understanding of a patient’s body)

▪ Virtual reality (VR)

□ features of virtual reality include:
 the ability to take the user out of the real-world environment into a virtual (unreal) digital environment
 in contrast to AR, the user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world
 users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a 360° view of the virtual world
 this technology can be used to good effect in: medicine, construction, engineering and the military

□ Future impact of VR:

 military applications (training to operate a new tank)
 education (looking inside an ancient building as part of a history lesson)
 healthcare (as a diagnostic tool to recommend treatment)
 entertainment (games where gloves, goggles or helmets are worn to fully immerse players and make it seem very real)
 fashion (do fashion shows before doing the real thing)
 heritage (allowing users to walk around and close up to monuments)
 business (training courses and role-playing scenarios for staff)
 engineering (seeing how new designs like will look in an existing environment)
 sport (a golfer can improve his swing and get feedback)
 media (interactive special effects in movies)
 scientific visualisation

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 Input Devices and their Uses
Monday, November 4, 2024 5:40 PM

2. Input and Output Devices Page 22

 Keyboards
Sunday, November 3, 2024 7:03 PM

• Keyboards
○ connected to computer via USB or wireless connection. In case of tablets and mobile phones, the keyboard is often virtual or a type of
touchscreen technology.
○ When character on keyboard is pressed, its converted to a digital signal, which the computer interprets
○ relatively slow method of data entry and also prone to errors
○ frequent use can lead to injuries, such as repetitive strain injury (RSI) in the hands and wrists

○ How it works?
▪ There is a membrane or circuit board at the base of the keys.
▪ In Figure 2.3, the ‘H’ key is pressed and this completes a circuit as shown
▪ The CPU in the computer can then determine which key has been pressed
▪ The CPU refers to an index file to identify which character the key press represents.

○ Uses:
▪ Input of data into applications software (like text into word processors numbers into spreadsheets).
▪ Typing in commands to the computer (Like Prnt, Ctrl+P to print ).
○ Advantages
▪ Fast entry of new text into a document
▪ Well-known method.
▪ Easy to use for most people
▪ Easier to do verification checks as data is entered (can immediately compare the source document with typed data on the screen).
○ Disadvantages
▪ Can be difficult to use if the user has limited arm/wrist use
▪ Slow method when compared to direct data entry (like Optical Mark Recognition)
▪ Fairly large device that uses up valuable desk space.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 23

 Numerical Keypads
Monday, November 4, 2024 5:40 PM

• Numerical Keypads

○ used to enter numbers only (although some have a function key to allow alphabetic
characters to be input)
○ Uses:
▪ Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where the customer can key in their PIN,
amount of money, etc.
▪ Mobile phones to allow phone numbers, etc. to be keyed in.
▪ Point of sale terminals (POS) in case the barcode reader fails to read the
barcode
▪ Chip and PIN devices when paying by credit/debit cards (key in PIN,
amount of money, etc.)
▪ Fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.
○ Advantages:
▪ Faster than standard keyboards when entering numeric data
▪ Because many are small devices (mobile phones) they are very easy to carry
around
○ Disadvantages:
▪ Sometimes have small keys which can make input more difficult
▪ Sometimes the order of the numbers on the keypad is not intuitive.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 24

2. Input and Output Devices Page 25
 Pointing Devices 1 : Mouses
Monday, November 4, 2024 5:47 PM

• Mouse

○ User controls the position of a pointer on the screen by moving the mouse around
○ Some have a scroll button, which speeds up the process of moving through a document.
○ usually two buttons which have different functions;
▪ left button is used to select items by double clicking
▪ right button brings up drop-down menus
• Optical Mouse and Wireless Mouses
○ movement is detected by reflected light rather than the position of a moving ball in optical
○ transmits signals to a USB wireless receiver plugged into the computer in wireless
○ in use on modern computers
○ advantage of an optical mouse is it has no moving parts and it also does not pick up any dirt
○ makes it more robust and improves its performance because the older type of mouse can ‘skid’ on certain surfaces reducing the control of
the pointer

○ Uses of Mouses:
▪ opening, closing and minimizing software
▪ grouping, moving and deleting files
▪ image editing, like, controlling size & position of a drawing pasted in document
▪ controlling position of a pointer on screen to allow selection from menu
▪ selecting an icon
▪ for scrolling up and down/left and right.
○ Advantages of Mouse:
▪ Faster method for choosing an option compared to keyboard.
▪ Very quick way of navigating through apps and the internet
▪ Does not need a large desk area compared to keyboard.
○ Disadvantages of Mouse:
▪ Can be more difficult for people with restricted hand/wrist movement than using a keyboard for data entry
▪ Easy to damage, and older type of mouse quickly becomes clogged up with dirt
▪ Difficult to use if no flat surface readily available (like on an aeroplane)

2. Input and Output Devices Page 26

 Pointing Devices 2 : Trackpad
Monday, November 4, 2024 5:57 PM

• Trackpad

○ used in many laptops

○ pointer is controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad and then gently tapping it to simulate the left-hand button of a
mouse (that is, selection)
○ also have buttons under the touchpad which serve the same function as buttons on a mouse
○ Uses:
▪ Same as Mouse
○ Advantages:
▪ Same as the mouse (faster than a keyboard for choosing options, used to navigate applications and the internet, etc.)
▪ no need for a separate mouse, b/c its integrated into laptop – aids the portability and big advantage if no flat surfaces available
○ Disadvantages:
▪ People with limited hand/wrist movement find it difficult to use
▪ Can be more difficult to control pointer compared to normal mouse
▪ More difficult to use when doing certain operations such as drag and drop.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 27

 Pointing Devices 3 : Trackerball
Monday, November 4, 2024 6:05 PM

• Trackerball

○ similar to a mouse, except that a ball is on the top or the side of the device
○ user controls the pointer on the screen by rotating the ball with their hand
○ Some trackerballs have two buttons, same function as mouse buttons
○ If third button, its equivalent to a double click
○ Uses:
▪ Can be a good alternative to a mouse for people with conditions such as RSI
▪ Used in an industrial control room environment where it is faster than a mouse to navigate through process screens

▪ Used in some luxury cars to select functions such as radio, telephone, music, satnav and so on
○ Advantage:
▪ Does not need the same fine control as a mouse
▪ Easier to use than a mouse if operator has problems with their wrist or hand
▪ More accurate positioning of the pointer on screen than mouse
▪ more robust than a mouse
▪ less desk space than mouse or keyboard.
○ Disadvantages:
▪ Not supplied with the computer as standard, therefore more costly
▪ User may need training because it is not standard equipment.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 28

 Remote Control
Monday, November 4, 2024 6:12 PM

• Remote Control

○ used for operation of other devices using infrared signals

○ buttons on the keypad are used to select options (such as television channels, sound levels on a Hi-Fi, etc.)
○ Uses:
▪ Televisions, satellite systems, DVD/Blu-ray players and Hi-Fi systems all use them to alter functions such as volume, on/off,
change channels, open the disc drawer, etc.
▪ To control multimedia systems
▪ In industrial applications to remotely control processes, stop and start machinery, etc.
○ Advantages:
▪ Can be operated from any reasonable distance, unlike like a wired mouse which is restricted by length of wire.
▪ Some industrial processes are hazardous, so big advantage to be able to select operations from a distance
○ Disadvantages:
▪ Difficult to use if the user has limited hand/wrist movement
▪ It is easier to block the signal if, for example, the walls in the building are very thick

2. Input and Output Devices Page 29

 Joysticks and Driving Wheels
Monday, November 4, 2024 6:22 PM

• Joysticks

○ similar functions to a mouse and a trackerball

○ By gripping the stick, a pointer on the screen can be controlled
○ Buttons are used to make
selections.
○ Often they have another button on the top of the stick that is used
for gaming purposes like to fire a weapon
○ Uses:
▪ Used in video/computer games
▪ Used in simulators (like flight simulators) to mimic actual controls
○ Advantages:
▪ Easier than a keyboard to navigate the screen
▪ Control is more realistic for some applications than using a mouse
○ Disadvantages:
▪ More difficult to control the on-screen pointer than with other devices, such as a mouse
• Driving Wheel

○ similar to a joystick in many ways

○ connects to a computer (or games machine), usually through a USB port
○ allows you to simulate the turning of a steering wheel
○ there are associated devices (like buttons or pedals) which allow you to accelerate and brake
○ Sensors used to pick up left/right movement so the user gets the sensation of steering a car around a circuit or on the road
○ Uses:
▪ Used in video/computer games (like car racing games)
▪ Used in simulators (like, car-driving simulators) to mimic actual vehicle controls.
○ Advantages:
Easier and more natural than keyboard or joystick to control steering movements
2. Input and Output Devices Page 30
 ▪ Easier and more natural than keyboard or joystick to control steering movements
▪ The ‘driving experience’ is nearer to how an actual steering wheel and other controls operate in real life.
○ Disadvantages:
▪ rather expensive input device compared to mouse or joystick.
▪ Movements in the steering can be too sensitive, giving an unrealistic ‘feel’
▪ Unless it is an expensive simulator, feedback to the driving wheel is non-existent

2. Input and Output Devices Page 31

 Touch screens - as an input device
Monday, November 4, 2024 7:36 PM

• Touch Screens

○ user can choose an option by simply touching a button/icon on the screen

○ selection is automatically made without the need for any pointing device
○ Uses:
▪ Self-service tills, like, petrol stations
▪ Automatic teller machines (ATMs)
▪ Point of sale terminals
▪ Public information systems at airports, railway stations, tourist offices, etc.
▪ Mobile phones, tablets and satellite navigation systems
▪ Interactive white boards in education
▪ Computer-based training (CBT) where answers are selected during on-screen testing
▪ They can obviously also be used as an output device because they also work as a flat-screen monitor
○ Advantages:
▪ Faster entry of options than using keyboard or mouse
▪ Very easy method for choosing options
▪ User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use
▪ Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.
○ Disadvantages:
▪ Limited number of input options
▪ Can lead to problems if an operator has to use the system frequently (straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc.)
▪ The screen can get very dirty with constant touching (giving a risk of spreading infections, and reduce its responsiveness which makes
it more difficult to read in strong sunlight).

2. Input and Output Devices Page 32

 Scanners
Monday, November 4, 2024 7:45 PM

• Scanner
○ used to enter information from hard copy into a computer
○ most common type is the flatbed scanner (see Figure 2.14), which is made up of a glass panel and lid
○ hard copy document or photo is scanned by a light source and produces a computer-readable image
○ image can then be manipulated using a drawing package
○ Uses:
▪ Scan in documents and convert into a format for use in various software packages
▪ Scan in old/valuable documents/books, (protecting originals & producing records in case the paper copies are lost/destroyed)
▪ Scan in photographs (for non- digital camera, photographs are still printed on paper, requiring conversion to computer format for
storage)
▪ Scan in barcodes at POS terminals
○ Advantages:
▪ Images can be stored for editing at a later date
▪ When used with OCR, much faster and more accurate (no typing errors) than typing in documents again
▪ possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning in and then using appropriate software to produce an acceptable
copy
○ Disadvantages:
▪ Quality can be limited depending on resolution the scanner is capable of (most scanners have a range of resolutions you can choose
from)
▪ can be fairly slow at scanning, especially if the colour scanning mode is chosen or if the chosen scanning resolution is high.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 33

 Digital Cameras
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 12:54 PM

• Digital Camera
○ Image Storage: Photos are saved on a memory card.
○ Transfer Methods: Images can be transferred by:
• Memory card reader
• USB connection
• Wireless (Wi-Fi or Bluetooth)
○ Post-Transfer Options: Once uploaded, images can be printed, used in slideshows, added to documents, or shared online.

○ Uses:
▪ Photography: Captures higher-quality images than smartphones due to advanced lenses and software.
▪ Data Capture: Used in cars (e.g., reversing cameras) for situational awareness.
▪ Dental Use: Helps dentists with diagnosis and color matching for fillings.
▪ Virtual Reality: Creates VR tours for houses, historical sites, and industrial locations.
○ Advantages:
▪ Higher Quality: Digital cameras make it easier to capture better-quality images.
▪ Quick Uploads: Photos can be directly uploaded to a computer without scanning.
▪ Cost & Eco-Friendly: No film development needed, saving money and reducing environmental impact.
▪ Ample Storage: Memory cards hold thousands of photos, no need for physical film.
○ Disadvantage:
▪ Computer Skills Required: Users need basic computer literacy for transferring, storing, and editing photos.
▪ Loss of Artistry: Software auto-corrects errors, reducing creative control.
▪ Memory Use: Images can be large, often needing compression to save storage space.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 34

 Microphones
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:14 PM

• How Microphones Work:

○ Sound to Electric Current: Sound waves cause air vibrations, which make the diaphragm vibrate.
○ Electric Current Creation: The diaphragm moves a cone and copper coil within a magnetic field, generating an
electric current.
○ Digital Conversion: A computer sound card converts the analogue current to digital for processing or storage.
• Uses of Microphones:
○ Audio Input: For presentations, sampling, sound effects, etc.
○ Voice Recognition: Converts speech to text or commands.
○ Sensors: Used in systems like intruder alarms.
○ Communication: Used in video conferencing and VoIP.
• Advantages:
○ Faster than Typing: Voice input is quicker than manual typing.
○ Real-Time Sound Editing: Special software allows real-time sound manipulation.
○ Hands-Free Control: Improves safety, like in cars with voice-activated controls.
• Disadvantages:
○ Memory Usage: Sound files require significant storage.
○ Accuracy Issues: Voice recognition may misinterpret similar-sounding words (e.g., "their" vs. "there").

2. Input and Output Devices Page 35

 Sensors
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:21 PM

Sensors Overview
• Definition: Devices that input data to a computer by measuring changing physical quantities (e.g.,
temperature, light).
• Analogue to Digital Conversion (ADC): Necessary because computers only process digital data (1s and
0s).
Types of Sensors & Applications
• Temperature: Used in washing machines, heating systems, glasshouses, ovens.
• Pressure: Used in alarms, washing machines, robotics, environmental monitoring.
• Light: Used in glasshouses, automatic doors, alarm systems, street lighting.
• Sound/Acoustic: Used in alarms, liquid/powder monitoring.
• Humidity/Moisture: Used in glasshouses, factories, environmental monitoring.
• pH: Used in glasshouses, chemical processes, environmental monitoring.
Advantages of Using Sensors
• Accuracy: More accurate than human readings.
• Continuous Monitoring: No gaps in data collection.
• Immediate Action: Prompt response in control or monitoring systems.
• Automation: Reduces human involvement, useful in hazardous or precise environments.
Disadvantages of Using Sensors
• Faulty Readings: Errors can occur if sensors are damaged or dirty.
• Analogue Data: Requires ADC for compatibility with digital systems.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 36

 Light Pens
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:22 PM

Light Pens Overview

• Function: Input device for CRT monitors; detects light changes and sends signals to the computer.
• Requirement: Works only with CRT monitors as it relies on the screen’s electron beam refresh.
Uses of Light Pens
• Object Selection: Selecting items on CRT screens.
• Drawing: Commonly used with CAD software.
Advantages of Light Pens
• Accuracy: More precise than touch screens.
• Compact Size: Useful in limited spaces.
• Ease of Use: Simple technology.
Disadvantages of Light Pens
• Lag Issues: Can experience delays during drawing.
• CRT Only: Not compatible with LCD monitors.
• Limited Drawing Accuracy: Less precise for detailed work.
• Outdated Technology: Largely replaced by newer devices.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 37

 Direct Data Entry Devices
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:23 PM

• Definition: Devices that input data into a computer with minimal human
interaction.
• Example: Barcode readers, where the only action required is pointing the
reader at the barcode.
• Automatic Data Transfer: Data is transferred to the computer automatically
after detection.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 38

 Card Readers 1 : Magnetic Stripe
Readers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:24 PM

Magnetic Stripe Readers

• Function: Reads information from the magnetic stripe on cards (e.g., credit/debit cards), which contains data
like account number and expiry date.
Uses of Magnetic Stripe Readers
• ATMs/EFTPOS: For credit/debit card transactions.
• Security: Access control for buildings, hotel rooms, etc.
Advantages of Magnetic Stripe Readers
• Fast Data Entry: Quick input compared to typing.
• Error-Free: No typing errors since no manual input is required.
• Secure: Data is not human-readable and prevents keylogging.
• Durable: Not affected by oil, water, or moisture; no moving parts.
• Robust: Physically tough and resistant to wear.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Stripe Readers
• Damage: Magnetic stripe damage (e.g., from strong magnetic fields) can result in data loss.
• Limited Range: Requires close contact with the reader.
• Not Human-Readable: Information on the stripe isn’t easily readable by humans, which can be a limitation in
some situations.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 39

 Card Readers 2 : Contactless Debit
card Readers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:27 PM

Contactless Debit Card Readers

• Function: Allows customers to make payments by holding the card close to a terminal, which uses a chip emitting
radio waves to process transactions.
• Steps:
1. Customer checks for the contactless symbol on the terminal.
2. The assistant enters the amount to be paid.
3. Customer presents the contactless card to the reader.
4. The terminal confirms the card has been read.
Advantages of Contactless Cards
• Faster Transactions: Takes around 10 seconds, faster than magnetic stripe readers (30 seconds).
• Encryption: 128-bit encryption protects transaction data.
• No Typing Errors: Eliminates the risk of mistakes in PIN entry.
• Secure: Retailers don’t have access to the cardholder’s card details.
• Unique Transaction Number: The chip sends a unique number for each transaction, further encrypted for security.
Disadvantages of Contactless Cards
• Higher Cost: Contactless cards are more expensive than regular cards.
• Potential Security Risk: A thief with the right equipment could intercept a transaction (though encryption reduces the
risk).
• Duplicate Charges: If used alongside a chip and PIN card, a transaction may be processed twice.
• Transaction Limits: Payments often limited to a small value (e.g., $50).
• Unauthorized Transactions: In rare cases, transactions may occur without the cardholder’s awareness, although
newer technologies have reduced this risk.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 40

 Card Readers 3 : Chip and PIN Readers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:28 PM

Chip and PIN Readers

• Function: Used at EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale) terminals. The card is
inserted into a slot, and the chip is read. The customer must enter a PIN using a keypad. Unlike
contactless cards, these do not use radio frequency technology.
Uses of Chip and PIN Readers
• Common in: Payments at restaurants, supermarkets, travel agents, etc.
Advantages of Chip and PIN Readers
• More Secure: Requires the customer’s PIN to match the one stored on the card chip, offering better
security than contactless payments.
• More Robust: Compared to magnetic stripe cards, chip and PIN systems are more durable and secure.
Disadvantages of Chip and PIN Readers
• Fraud Risk: The PIN must be entered carefully to avoid someone else observing and stealing it during the
transaction.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 41

 RFID Readers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:31 PM

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Readers

RFID readers use radio waves to read and capture information stored on RFID tags. These tags contain two
key components:
1. Microchip: Stores and processes the information.
2. Antenna: Receives and transmits data.
The tags can be:
• Passive: Use the reader’s radio wave energy to transmit information.
• Battery-powered: Use a small embedded battery for operation.
RFID technology is especially useful because it allows data capture over distances of several meters, which is a
major advantage over barcodes.
Uses of RFID
• Livestock Tracking: Tracks the location and ownership of animals on farms.
• Retail: Enables automatic reading of product information at checkouts, even for multiple items at once.
• Admission Passes: Used in places like theme parks to speed up entry, track visitors, and store data like height
or age for ride safety.
• Libraries: Books can be tracked in and out automatically without scanning barcodes, improving speed and
accuracy.
Advantages of RFID
• No Line-of-Sight Needed: Tags can be read without direct visibility, allowing for more flexible placement.
• Robust and Reliable: Works well in various conditions, offering a durable solution.
• Fast Read Rate: RFID can respond in less than 100 milliseconds.
• Bidirectional Data Transfer: Allows both reading and writing data.
• Bulk Detection: Multiple tags can be read simultaneously, making processes like inventory management faster.
Disadvantages of RFID
• Tag Collision: When signals from multiple tags interfere with each other.
• Vulnerability: Radio waves can be jammed or interrupted, and RFID signals can be hacked.
• Higher Cost: RFID systems are generally more expensive compared to barcodes.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 42

 Optical Mark Recognition
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:39 PM

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

• Definition: A device that reads marks made with pen or pencil on forms. These marks are positioned in specific
places on the form and are read by the OMR device to store data in the computer’s memory.
• Uses:
○ Reading multiple-choice exam papers, questionnaires, voting papers, and forms with responses in the form of
shaded areas or marks.
• Advantages:
○ Fast Data Entry: Documents are fed in automatically, reducing human input time.
○ Accuracy: More accurate than manual typing and Optical Character Recognition (OCR).
○ No Typing Errors: Since no manual data entry is involved, there are fewer chances of mistakes.
• Disadvantages:
○ Form Design: Forms must be carefully designed to ensure the marks are placed correctly for accurate data
collection.
○ Errors in Marking: If forms are incorrectly filled out, they may need manual checking, which is both time-
consuming and costly.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 43

 Optical Character Recognition
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:45 PM

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

• Definition: OCR is a device that converts text from hard copy documents into an electronic
format. The software then processes the data, making it usable in applications like word
processors or presentation software.
• Uses:
○ Processing passports and identity cards.
○ Converting hard copy documents into electronic form for storage.
○ Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) in car parks.
○ Digitizing historic newspapers and rare books for archiving, protecting the originals.
• Advantages:
○ Faster data entry compared to manual typing.
○ Fewer errors due to the lack of manual data entry.
• Disadvantages:
○ Struggles with reading some handwriting.
○ Accuracy is still limited.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 44

2. Input and Output Devices Page 45
 Barcode Readers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:54 PM

Barcode Readers
• Definition: Barcode readers scan information stored in the form of a barcode. These readers are often integrated
into POS terminals or handheld scanners.
• Uses:
○ Supermarkets for automatic stock control and itemized billing.
○ Libraries for tracking books on loan.
○ Safety function in companies for regular electrical equipment checks.
• Advantages:
○ Faster than manual data entry with fewer errors.
○ Automatic stock control.
○ Trusted technology.
• Disadvantages:
○ Expensive to administer.
○ Barcodes can be swapped, causing issues.
○ Easier to damage than RFID tags or magnetic stripes.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 46

 QR Codes
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 1:57 PM

QR Code Scanners
• Definition: QR codes are a type of barcode made of dark squares on a light background. They can store
more information than regular barcodes and can be scanned using smartphones and tablets.
• Description: QR codes consist of small squares (pixels) and can hold up to 4296 characters or 7089 digits,
which is much more than a regular barcode's 30 digits. The three large corner squares help with alignment.
• Uses:
○ Advertising products (e.g., web addresses, contact info).
○ Storing boarding passes electronically.
○ Wi-Fi authentication by storing network details.
○ Delivering augmented reality (AR) experiences.
○ Virtual online stores using QR codes for product delivery.
• Advantages:
○ Can hold more information than barcodes.
○ Fewer errors due to built-in error-checking.
○ Easier to read with smartphone cameras.
○ Can be encrypted for protection.
○ Easy to transmit via text messages or images.
• Disadvantages:
○ Multiple QR formats exist.
○ Potential for malicious code (attagging) embedded in the QR code, which can harm the user’s device or
direct them to a fake website.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 47

 Output Devices and their Uses
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:00 PM

Output Devices are devices that display or present the results of computer
processing in a way that can be understood by humans. Common output devices
include:
• Monitors (displays on screen)
• Printers (printed on paper)
Some output devices are used in control systems, where the computer sends signals
to control or influence a process, often used in automated systems or machinery.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 48

 Monitors
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:01 PM

Monitors (Screens): There are two main types of monitors:

1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors: These older monitors, which have
largely been phased out, are included here because they allow the use of light
pens, commonly used in CAD (Computer-Aided Design) environments.
2. LCD (or TFT) Screens: These are modern thin screens, with TFT
standing for "Thin Film Technology," which is used for many contemporary
displays.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 49

 Monitors 1 : CRT Monitors
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:02 PM

CRT Monitors (Cathode Ray Tube Monitors): These are now becoming rare due to the widespread use of LCD
monitors but are still used in some specialized applications.
Uses of CRT Monitors:
• Specialized Areas: Primarily used in fields like Computer-Aided Design (CAD), where large screens are
required for complex diagrams.
• Light Pens: CRT monitors can be used with light pens, which allows designs to be created directly on the
screen.
Advantages of CRT Monitors:
• Wide Viewing Angles: The screen can be viewed clearly from a wider range of angles compared to many
LCD monitors.
• Light Pen Compatibility: Suitable for applications like CAD/CAM, where precision drawing is needed.
Disadvantages of CRT Monitors:
• Heavy and Bulky: CRT monitors are heavy and take up significant space on a desk, making them less
practical for general use.
• High Power Consumption: They consume more power compared to LCD monitors.
• Heat Generation: CRT monitors generate a lot of heat, which can be a fire hazard if left unattended,
especially as they age.
• Flickering: Prolonged use of CRT monitors can cause flickering, leading to headaches and eye strain.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 50

 Monitors 2 : LCD and LED
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:04 PM

LED and LCD Screens

LED Screens:
• Technology: LED screens are made up of tiny Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), which can be red, green, or
blue. By adjusting the electric current sent to each LED, its brightness is controlled, allowing for a wide range of
colors.
• Uses: Common in large outdoor displays due to their brilliant colors. OLED (Organic LED) screens, a recent
advancement in LED technology, are also gaining popularity.
• Confusion: Some monitors and TVs are marketed as "LED" but are actually LCD screens with LED
backlighting rather than pure LED displays.
LCD Screens:
• Technology: LCD screens are composed of tiny liquid crystals that form an array of pixels. These crystals are
affected by electric fields, which control the display. LCD screens require backlighting to function, typically using
LED technology today.
• Backlighting: Early LCD screens used cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), but now LED backlighting is
preferred due to its efficiency and advantages.
• Advantages of LED Backlighting:
○ Immediate Brightness: LEDs reach full brightness instantly, unlike CCFLs that take time to warm up.
○ Sharper, Vivid Colors: LEDs provide a whiter light compared to the yellowish tint from CCFL, improving
image sharpness and color vibrancy.
○ Thinner Design: LED-backlit LCD screens are thinner than those with CCFLs.
○ Durability: LEDs last longer and are more reliable, ensuring consistent performance.
○ Energy Efficiency: LEDs consume less power, generating less heat.
Uses of LCD Screens:
• Primary Use: LCDs are the main output device for most modern computers.
• Portable Devices: Found in mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and portable gaming consoles.
• Touchscreen: Many LCD screens now offer touch-screen input.
Advantages of LCD Screens:
• Efficiency: Low power consumption.
• Lightweight: LCD screens are thinner and lighter than CRT monitors.
• No Burn-In: Unlike CRT monitors, LCDs do not suffer from screen burn-in (where static images leave a
permanent mark).
2. Input and Output Devices Page 51
 permanent mark).
• Variety in Size: LCD screens come in a wide range of sizes.
• Flicker-Free: They do not suffer from flickering, unlike CRT monitors.
• Sharp Resolution: Provide high image resolution with a vast color range.
• Low Electromagnetic Fields: Produce less radiation compared to CRTs.
Disadvantages of LCD Screens:
• Viewing Angle: The color and contrast can be inconsistent from various angles.
• Motion Blur: LCDs may experience motion blur, especially in fast-moving images.
• Lower Contrast: It is harder to achieve deep blacks, leading to lower contrast compared to CRTs.
• Dead or Stuck Pixels: Some pixels may be permanently stuck on or off, causing inconsistencies.
• Uneven Backlighting: The backlighting may not be uniform across the entire screen, leading to uneven brightness
and shading.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 52

 Touch Screens
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:08 PM

Touch Screens (as an Output Device)

A touch screen is unique because it can function as both an input and output device. It allows users to interact with the
screen by touching it, which can lead to immediate visual feedback or changes on the screen based on those interactions.
• Input Example: A user may select an option from a menu displayed on the screen, like choosing food at a fast food
outlet.
• Output Example: After the initial selection, a new set of options may appear (e.g., selecting a drink), which is the
output based on the input.
Uses of Touch Screens (Acting as Both Input and Output):
• Smartphones and Tablets: Used for interacting with apps and navigating interfaces.
• ATMs: On-screen options change based on the user’s previous input.
• Ticket Machines: At locations like theatres, cinemas, and railway stations, the displayed options depend on prior
selections.
• Information Kiosks: Found in places like museums or art galleries, providing interactive information based on the
user’s actions.
Advantages of Touch Screens:
• Faster Input: Selecting options can be quicker than using a keyboard or mouse.
• Ease of Use: Touch screens are very user-friendly, and generally, no training is required.
• Expandability: The screen's size can be adjusted if necessary.
Disadvantages of Touch Screens:
• Limited Options: Typically, fewer options can be displayed at once compared to other input devices.
• Accuracy and Speed: Not ideal for situations requiring large data input or high-speed interactions, as they can lack
precision.
• Screen Smudging: Constant touching can make the screen dirty, affecting its responsiveness and visibility,
particularly in bright sunlight.
• Security Risks: Touch screens can make it easier for third parties to track a user’s interactions, such as entering
sensitive information like credit card details.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 53

 Multimedia Projectors
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:10 PM

Multimedia Projectors
Multimedia projectors display signals (usually digital) from sources like computers, TVs, or DVD players on a
large screen. They often come with a remote control that acts as a virtual mouse, enabling users to control presentations
from a distance.
Uses:
• Training: Displaying presentations for large audiences.
• Advertising: Showing large images or videos at exhibitions.
• Home Cinema: Projecting DVD or TV content at home.
Advantages:
• Enables group viewing without needing multiple screens.
• Allows people to see videos or presentations on one large screen.
Disadvantages:
• Image quality can sometimes be fuzzy.
• Expensive and difficult to set up.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 54

 Printers 1 : Laser
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:12 PM

Laser Printers
Laser printers produce high-quality printouts quickly, especially for large print jobs. They use a detailed process
involving a charged drum, toner, and heated rollers to transfer ink onto paper.
Uses:
• Used in offices where low noise is required.
• Ideal for fast, high-quality, high-volume printing.
Advantages:
• Fast printing (particularly for large jobs).
• High, consistent print quality.
• Long-lasting toner cartridges, making them cost-effective for high-volume printing.
Disadvantages:
• Slower for small print jobs compared to inkjet printers.
• Colour laser printers are expensive to operate.
• They can emit ozone and volatile organic compounds, potentially causing health hazards in enclosed spaces.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 55

 Printers 2 : Inkjet
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:12 PM

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers produce high-quality hard copies and are commonly used for tasks requiring good print quality.
They work by spraying ink droplets onto the paper, with two main technologies: thermal bubble and piezoelectric.
They can be used for photo-quality prints but are slower for high-volume printing due to limited buffer memory.
Uses:
• Ideal for low-output volumes or single-page, high-quality print jobs (e.g., photo prints).
• 3D inkjet printers are used in industry for prototyping.
Advantages:
• High-quality output.
• Affordable compared to laser printers.
• Compact and lightweight.
• No emissions of ozone or volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.
Disadvantages:
• Slow output for large print jobs.
• Ink cartridges deplete quickly, making them unsuitable for high-volume printing.
• Prone to smudging if not handled carefully.
• Expensive ink cartridges for frequent use.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 56

 Printers 3 : Dot Matrix
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:14 PM

Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printers use a print head with a matrix of pins that strike an inked ribbon to create characters on
paper. While slower and noisier than inkjet and laser printers, they are still useful in certain environments, such as
when multipart stationery is needed.
Uses:
• Used in noisy or dirty environments (e.g., factory floors).
• Ideal for multi-part stationery, such as carbon copies.
• Commonly used for printing till receipts.
Advantages:
• Works in dusty or moist environments.
• Can produce carbon copies or multi-part outputs.
• Low running and maintenance costs.
Disadvantages:
• Noisy, making it unsuitable for quiet office settings.
• Slow and poor print quality.
• Initial purchase cost higher than inkjet printers.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 57

 Graph Plotters
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:15 PM

(Graph) Plotters
Plotters are output devices that use pens, pencils, or markers to draw continuous lines on large sheets of paper. They
are commonly used for vector graphic drawings in CAD (computer-aided design) and CAM (computer-aided
manufacturing). Some plotters can also cut materials by replacing the pen with a cutting blade.
Uses:
• Producing architectural and engineering drawings.
• Drawing animation characters.
Advantages:
• High-quality output with precise accuracy.
• Capable of producing large, monochrome and color drawings.
• Can print on various materials such as aluminum, cardboard, plastic, and wood.
Disadvantages:
• Slow printing process.
• Expensive initial purchase cost, though low running costs.
• Large physical footprint compared to typical printers.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 58

 3D Printers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:16 PM

3D Printers
3D printers use computer-aided design (CAD) applications to create solid objects by building them layer by layer. This
process, known as additive manufacturing, contrasts with traditional subtractive methods, where material is removed to form the
object. Various types of 3D printers exist, from small ones like microwave ovens to larger models the size of a small car.
Technology Behind 3D Printing:
• Direct 3D Printing: Utilizes inkjet technology where the print head moves left to right and also up and down, layer by
layer, to create the object, often with layers less than 0.1 mm thick.
• Binder 3D Printing: A two-pass method where dry powder is sprayed first, followed by a binder (glue) to form each
layer.
• Laser/UV 3D Printing: Newer technologies that use lasers or UV light to harden liquid polymers, expanding the types
of objects that can be created.
Examples of 3D Printing:
• Alloy wheel made with binder 3D printing from powdered metal (Figure 2.36).
• Prosthetic limbs that can be made to fit the exact shape of the injured body part.
• Precision parts for aerospace, fashion, and art creations.
Uses of 3D Printers:
• Medical applications: Prosthetics, artificial organs, and precision-made items for reconstructive surgery.
• Manufacturing: Custom parts for items that are no longer produced (e.g., vintage cars).
• Aerospace: Lightweight, precision parts for airplanes.
• Fashion and Art: New creative designs.
• Rapid Prototyping: Quick conversion of designs into working prototypes.
How 3D Printers Create Objects:
1. Design Creation: A CAD model is created.
2. Preparation: The model is converted into a format the printer understands.
3. Layer-by-Layer Printing: The object is built up, often using materials like plastic or metal powder.
4. Post-Processing: The object is cleaned, with excess materials or supports removed.
5. Curing: Some objects may need time to harden or cure after printing.
Advantages of 3D Printers:
• Customization: Users can create their own designs and manufacture customized products.
• Rapid Prototyping: Quick production of prototypes for testing or development.
• Cost Efficiency: Lower cost for small-scale and mass production compared to traditional manufacturing.
• Medical Benefits: Precision in creating medical items such as prosthetics and artificial organs.
• Replacement Parts: Enables the creation of parts for outdated or rare machinery.
2. Input and Output Devices Page 59
 • Replacement Parts: Enables the creation of parts for outdated or rare machinery.
Disadvantages of 3D Printers:
• Counterfeit Risks: The ability to easily replicate objects could lead to counterfeiting and copyright infringement.
• Illegal Uses: The technology could be misused to create dangerous or illegal items.
• Job Losses: Automation through 3D printing could lead to a reduction in jobs in certain manufacturing sectors.
This technology is rapidly advancing and has the potential to revolutionize various industries, offering faster production times,
more customization, and even significant medical advancements. However, as with any disruptive technology, it also raises
concerns about misuse and job displacement.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 60

 Speakers
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:18 PM

Speakers
Speakers are output devices that convert digital data into sound. Here's how the process works:
1. Digital to Analog Conversion: The digital data (binary data) is passed through a Digital-to-Analog Converter
(DAC), which converts it into an electric current.
2. Amplification: The electric current generated by the DAC is very small, so it passes through an amplifier, which
increases the current enough to drive the speaker.
3. Sound Production: The amplified current is fed into the speaker, where it is converted into sound.
How Speakers Work:
• A coil of wire is wrapped around an iron core (making it a temporary electromagnet when an electric current flows
through it).
• A permanent magnet is positioned nearby.
• As the electric current fluctuates, the electromagnet moves towards or away from the permanent magnet, causing the iron
core to vibrate.
• The cone (usually made of paper or synthetic material), attached to the iron core, vibrates and produces sound waves.
Uses of Speakers:
• Found in phones, computers, and other multimedia devices.
• Used for audio output in multimedia presentations.
• Helpful for visually impaired individuals when used with speech generation software to read text aloud.
• Used to play downloaded sound files.
Advantages of Speakers:
• Loud sound output is essential in environments where many people need to hear (e.g., conferences).
• Can enhance atmosphere during presentations.
• Simple technology and can be very effective for communication.
Disadvantages of Speakers:
• Can disturb others in quiet environments (e.g., offices).
• High-quality speakers can be expensive.
• Some speakers can take up a lot of space on a desk.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 61

 Actuators
Wednesday, November 6, 2024 2:18 PM

Actuators
An actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical device that translates computer signals into physical movement.
For example, actuators can control devices like conveyor belts or valves. A common example of an actuator is a
solenoid, which uses an electrical signal to produce linear motion.
How Solenoids Work:
• A coil is energized by a current, generating a magnetic field.
• A plunger (e.g., a metal bar) inside the coil moves when the current is applied, creating linear motion that
can be used to operate physical devices like switches or valves.
Uses of Actuators:
• Controlling motors, pumps, switches, and other mechanical devices.
• Used in systems where analog inputs need to be controlled by a computer.
Advantages of Actuators:
• They allow remote operation of devices, which is critical for safety in environments like nuclear reactors.
• Cost-effective compared to other control devices.
Disadvantages of Actuators:
• They are an additional part of the system and can potentially fail.
• As most actuators are analog devices, a DAC is needed to convert digital signals into a form that can
control them.

2. Input and Output Devices Page 62

Storage Device and Media
Monday, January 27, 2025 2:57 PM

 What?
○ Storage devices are non-volatile secondary storage
○ Storage medium
▪ the physical device on which the data is actually stored (e.g. a CD).
▪ It’s a physical device that receives and retains electronic data
○ Storage device
▪ the hardware used to read data from or write data to the medium (e.g. CD
reader/writer).
▪ It can read and write data to and from a storage medium
○ There are 3 types of storage device/medium:
▪ Magnetic
▪ Optical
▪ Solid-State

3. Storage devices and media Page 63

Magnetic Media and Devices
Monday, January 27, 2025 11:10 AM

 What?
○ Uses properties of magnetism to store data
○ One of the oldest known methods to store data
○ 2 most common types are Magnetic Tape Drives and HDDs
 How?
○ An iron oxide coating is magnetised
○ Magnetised = binary 1-value
○ Demagnetised = binary 0-value
 Advantages:
○ Each magnetised area v.small so huge amount of data can be stored
○ Magnetic State of Iron Oxide is permanent unless written over again

3. Storage devices and media Page 64

Magnetic Tape Drives
Monday, January 27, 2025 4:13 PM

 What?
○ Consist of reels of plastic tape coated in a magnetic oxide layer (e.g. iron oxide).
○ The 1s and 0s, have different magnetic signatures, allowing a read/write head to read and write
data.
 How?
○ The tape moves over the read/write head
○ The head is a tiny, induced magnet that can magnetise the tape (to write data) or become ‘excited’
when magnetised tape passes over it (to read data).
 Uses:
○ In applications where batch processing is used (e.g. clearing bank cheques, utility billing, etc.). In
these applications there is no need for any specific processing order and speed of data access is not
essential.
○ Used as a backup media where vast amounts of data need to be stored. Data transfer rate is the
○ Used in long-term archiving of data; magnetic tapes have huge data storage capacities and are rate at which data can be
known to be very stable, which makes them ideal for long-term storage. sent from a storage device
 Advantages: to a computer (or vice
○ Generally less expensive (per byte) than the equivalent hard disk drive. versa). Data access time is
○ Very robust technology (they do not deteriorate much over time and remain stable). the time it takes to locate
○ They have a huge data storage capacity. specific data stored on the
○ The data transfer rate is actually fast (not to be confused with data access time). storage media.
 Disadvantages:
○ Very slow data access times (they use serial access, which means all the previous data needs to be
read until the required data is found) - the data transfer rate is still high.
○ When updating, another tape is needed to store the final updated version; this requires the use of a
master tape (the original tape) and a transaction tape (contains all the changes to be made) to produce
a new master tape. This is clearly a slow way of updating data, and can also introduce errors,
which is why magnetic tapes are no longer a common method of storing data.
○ They are affected by magnetic fields; a strong magnet (e.g.. in a loudspeaker) can corrupt data
stored on the tape.

3. Storage devices and media Page 65

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
Monday, January 27, 2025 5:01 PM

 What and How?

○ Data is stored on disk surfaces (called platters) that are coated in a magnetic material. The platters can
be made from aluminium, glass or ceramic coated in iron oxide, and a typical disk drive has several
platters.
○ Read/write heads (containing tiny magnets) hover close to each disk surface on an air cushion to allow
data to be written or read.
○ Actuators are used to move the read/write heads, which move back and forth across the disk surfaces
as the disks spin very fast.
○ There are two read/write heads per platter (front and back).
○ Data is stored in concentric circles (called tracks); these are broken up into sectors.
○ These sectors are mapped using a file allocation table (FAT) that shows which sectors are free and which
contain data.
○ Magnetic disk drives suffer from latency (the time taken for a specific block of data on a track to rotate
round to the read/write head).
 Uses:
○ To store the operating system, systems software and working data/files.
○ Storing applications software.
○ Used in real-time systems (e.g. robots, control of a chemical plant) and in online systems (e.g. booking
airline tickets, automatic stock control).
○ Used in file servers for computer networks
 Advantages:
○ They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.
○ They have very large memory capacities.
 Disadvantages:
○ They can be fairly easily damaged (e.g. if the correct shut-down procedure on a computer has not been
correctly carried out, it is possible to sustain a head crash).
○ They have many moving parts which can affect their overall reliability.
○ Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when compared to solid-state drives.

3. Storage devices and media Page 66

Portable Hard Disk Drives
Monday, January 27, 2025 5:58 PM

 What?
○ Essentially HDDs external to the computer and can be connected to the computer using one
of the Usb ports.
○ In this way, they can be used as a backup device or another way of transferring files between
computers.
 Uses:
○ They can be used as backup systems to prevent loss of data.
○ They can be used to transfer data/files/software between computers.
○ Same as HDDs
 Advantages:
○ The data access time and data transfer rate are very fast.
○ They have a large memory capacity.
○ They can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.
 Disadvantages:
○ As with fixed disk drives, they can be easily damaged if the user accidentally drops it or does
not correctly shut down the drive after use.
○ Data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard drives.

3. Storage devices and media Page 67

Optical Storage Devices and
media
Monday, January 27, 2025 7:42 PM

 What?
○ Optical media devices use lasers to read and write data onto plastic (polycarbonate) disks. The
media (disks) rely on the optical properties of certain chemical dyes and metal alloys to enable
the storage of 1s and 0s.
○ The data on the storage medium is read by bouncing the laser beam off the surface of the
medium. If the beam hits a dot it is reflected back differently to how it would be if there were
no dot. This difference can be detected, so the data can be read.

3. Storage devices and media Page 68

3. Storage devices and media Page 69
CD/DVD Optical Disks
Monday, January 27, 2025 7:42 PM

 What?
○ They are optical media that can be read from or written to by optical storage devices.
○ Laser light alters the optical properties when writing data
○ Can be designated as one of three:
▪ R - write only once
▪ RW - can be written to or read from many times
▪ ROM - read only
 Hardware?
○ Use a thin layer of metal alloy or a light-sensitive organic dye coating to store the data
○ Both use a single, spiral track, that runs from the center of the disk to the edge
○ When disk spins, an optical head in the drive unit moves to the start of the track
○ The laser beam follows the spiral track from the centre moving outwards
○ The read/write head does not actually touch the surface.
○ It is divided into sectors, allowing direct access of data.
○ The outer part of the disk runs faster than the inner part of the disk
 How it works?
○ The data is stored on the surface in pits (low points) and lands (high points) - the lands are the
gaps between pits.
○ A red laser is used to read and write the data.
○ The depth of pits is only 20% the wavelength of the laser light used to read the disk
○ The wavelength of the reflected laser light is slightly different to the original wavelength (due to the
pits and lands) causing destructive interference – this allows the pits and lands to be read and
converted to binary data.
 How DVD is different - Dual-Layering:
○ One main difference is the potential for dual-layering which increases the storage capacity - there
are two individual recording layers
○ Two layers of a standard DVD are joined together with a transparent (polycarbonate) spacer.
○ A very thin reflector also sandwiched between the 2 layers
○ Reading and writing of the second layer done by red laser focusing at a fraction of a mm
difference compared to the first layer
 How DVD is different - Standard:
○ Standard DVDs still have larger storage capacity than CDs as the pit size and track width are
smaller, thus more data space on DVD surface
○ DVDs use lasers with wavelength of 650 nanometers; CDs use lasers with wavelength of 780
nanometers - the shorter the wavelength of the laser light, the greater the storage capacity of the
medium.

CD-R AND DVD-R

 Uses:
Home recordings of music and films.

3. Storage devices and media Page 70

 ○ Home recordings of music and films.
○ Used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to another computer.
 Advantages:
○ Cheaper medium than RW disks.
○ Once burned (and finalised) they behave like a ROM.
 Disadvantages:
○ Can only be recorded once; if an error occurs then the disk has to be thrown away.
○ Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.

CD-RW and DVD-RW

 Uses:
○ Used to record television programmes which can be recorded over, time and time again (although
increasingly replaced by HDD recording systems).
○ Used in CCTV systems.
○ Can be used as a backup device for files and data.
 Advantages:
○ Can be written over many times.
○ Can use different file formats each time it is used.
○ Not as wasteful as R format because the files/data can be added at a later stage (with CD-
R/DVD-R it is only possible to do a write operation at the time and you cannot come back a
few days later to add more files).
 Disadvantages:
○ Can be relatively expensive media.
○ Possible to accidentally overwrite data.

CD-ROM/DVD-ROM
 Uses:
○ These optical disks are read-only memory (ROM) which means they cannot be written over and
can only be read. They are a permanent method of data storage.
○ CD-ROM is used to store music files and to store software, computer games and reference
software (such as an encyclopedia).
○ DVD-ROM has much larger storage and is used to store films; but now it is increasingly used
to store computer data and the evermore sophisticated games.
○ CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are used in applications where there is a real need to prevent
the deletion or overwriting of important data.
 Advantages:
○ They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems.
 Disadvantages:
○ The data transfer rate/data access time is slower than for hard disks.

3. Storage devices and media Page 71

Blu-Ray Disks
Monday, January 27, 2025 8:07 PM

 What?
○ An Optical storage media but different than DVDs in their construction and way to carry out
read/write operations.
○ Blu-ray discs are read from or written to using a Blu ray optical storage device.
 Differences between DVD and Blu-ray:
○ Use blue laser light. This light has a shorter wavelength(405 nm) than red laser light (650 nm),
thus increasing the storage capacity when compared to DVDs.
○ Using blue laser light means that the pits and lands can be much smaller; consequently, Blu-ray
can store up to five times more data than normal DVD.
○ Single-layer Blu-ray discs use a 1.2 mm thick polycarbonate disk; however, dual-layer Blu-
ray and normal DVDs both use a sandwich of two 0.6 mm thick disks (i.e. 1.2 mm thick).
○ They come with built-in secure encryption systems that help to prevent piracy and copyright
infringements.
○ The data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps and for a Blu-ray disc it is 36 Mbps (this
equates to 1.5 hours to store 25 GB of data).
 Comparison of the capacity and interactivity of DVDs and Blu-ray discs:

Single-layer DVD 4.7 GB - 2 hr standard def movie

Single-layer Blu-ray disc 27 GB 2 hr high def movie 13 hrs standard def movies
Dual-layer Blu-ray disc 50 GB 4.5 hrs high def movies 20 hrs standard def movies

○ Blu-ray devices allow greater interactivity than DVD devices. For example with Blu-ray, it is
possible to:
▪ record high definition television programmes
▪ skip quickly to any part of the disc
▪ create playlists of recorded movies and television programmes
▪ edit or re-order programmes recorded on the disc
▪ automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid over-recording
▪ access websites and download subtitles and other interesting features.
 Comparison of CD, DVD and Blu-ray
Disk Type Laser Color Wavelength of Disk Construction Track pitch
laser light (distance b/w)
CD red 780 nm single 1.2 mm Polycarbonate layer 1.60 µm
DVD (dual) red 650 nm two 0.6 mm Polycarbonate layers 0.74 µm
Blu-ray (single) blue 405 nm single 1.2 mm Polycarbonate layer 0.30 µm
Blu-ray (dual) blue 405 nm two 0.6 mm Polycarbonate layers 0.30 µm
3. Storage devices and media Page 72
Blu-ray (dual) blue 405 nm two 0.6 mm Polycarbonate layers 0.30 µm

 Uses of Blu-ray discs

○ Home video consoles.
○ Storing and playing back movies (one high definition movie of two hours duration uses up 25
GB of memory).
○ Computers can use this technology for data storage or backing up hard drives.
○ Camcorders can use this media (in cartridge form) to store movies.
 Advantages of Blu-ray discs
○ Very large storage capacity, therefore ideal for storing high definition movies.
○ Very fast data transfer rate.
○ The data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.
○ Blu-ray discs automatically come with a secure encryption system, which helps to prevent piracy
and copyright infringement.
 Disadvantages of Blu-ray discs
○ Relatively expensive discs.
○ Encryption problems (which are used to stop piracy) when used to store video.
○ Introduction of HD (high definition) DVD players has reduced the advantages of using
Blu-ray disc technology.

3. Storage devices and media Page 73

Solid State Media and Devices
Tuesday, January 28, 2025 11:57 AM

 What?
○ Solid-state media eliminates the issue of latency (as in HDDs) as it retrieves all data at the same rate
○ non-volatile, rewritable storage media
○ often referred to as flash memories or flash drives
○ They don’t rely on magnetic properties and have no moving parts
○ Most common types store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND chips to create and
read 1s and 0s in a massive grid in a very tiny space.
○ Data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors (at each junction one transistor is called a floating
gate and the other is called a control gate) within the chip.
○ They can operate at speeds much greater than HDDs or Optical disk drives but still operate at speeds
lower than RAM.
 Floating Gate and Control Gate Transistors:
○ Floating gate transistors and control gate transistors use CMOS and NAND technology.
○ Flash memories make use of a grid; at each intersection on the grid there is a floating gate and a control gate
arranged as follows:

○ A dielectric coating separates the two transistors, which allows the floating gate transistor to retain its charge
(which is why the memory is non-volatile).
○ The floating gate transistor has a value of 1 when it is charged and a value of 0 when it is not.
○ To program one of these ‘intersection cells’ a voltage is applied to the control gate and electrons from the
electron source are attracted to it.
○ But due to the dielectric coating, the electrons become trapped in the floating gate. Therefore, we have control
over the bit value stored at each intersection.

3. Storage devices and media Page 74

Solid-State Drives
Tuesday, January 28, 2025 1:50 PM

 What?
○ Solid-state technology is used to create secondary storage devices known as solid-state drives
(SSDs).
○ Solid-state drives have revolutionized computers over the last few years, and they are rapidly taking
over from HDDs as the main type of backing storage.
○ have enabled laptop computers to become thinner and much lighter.
○ given rise to the development of smartphones and tablets
 Uses:
○ Same as HDDs
 Advantages:
○ they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)
○ they are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
○ they do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
○ they have a lower power consumption
○ they run much cooler than HDDs (both these points again make them very suitable for laptop
computers)
○ because of no moving parts, they are very thin
○ Allow for permanent deletion of data
○ SSD data access time is only 0.1 milliseconds compared to 10 milliseconds for HDD
○ data transfer speed for SSDs is also much faster than for HDDs.
 Disadvantages:
○ the longevity of the technology - Most solid-state storage devices are conservatively rated at only 20
GB write operations per day over a three-year period, this is known as SSD endurance.
○ The memory chips in SSDs have a limited number of write cycles – this can lead to
unrecoverable data loss
○ Although data access is very fast, the rewriting of data can be slower than HDDs as SSDs
need to delete old data first before writing the new data
○ They are more expensive to buy (per GB) than HDDs
○ If the controller chip, memory cache or one of the NAND memory chips are damaged, it may
be impossible to recover the data

3. Storage devices and media Page 75

Pen Drives
Tuesday, January 28, 2025 2:03 PM

 What?
○ small portable devices that make use of solid-state technology
○ connect to the computer through a USB port.
○ Pen drives are examples of USB flash drives which draw their power from the
computer via the USB connection.
○ Some devices combine the functionality of a portable media player with USB flash
storage; such devices require a battery to play music on the go
○ any device that uses solid-state technology can be referred to as a flash drive; a pen drive
(memory stick) is a flash drive with a USB connector.
○ In other words, a pen drive is a type of flash drive with a particular purpose.
 Uses:
○ Transporting files between computers
○ using as a backing store.
○ Used as a security device to prevent software piracy (known as a dongle).
 Advantages:
○ Very compact and portable media.
○ Very robust.
○ Does not need additional software to work on most computers.
○ They are not affected by magnetic fields.
 Disadvantages:
○ Cannot write protect the data/files by making it ‘read-only’.
○ Easy to lose (due to the small physical size).
○ The user needs to be very careful when removing a memory stick from a computer –
incorrect removal (for example, while it is still doing a read/write operation) will corrupt the
data on the memory stick and make it useless.

3. Storage devices and media Page 76

Memory Cards
Tuesday, January 28, 2025 2:25 PM

 What?
○ memory card makes use of solid-state technology
○ can be inserted into a device which can read the card or allow data to be written to the card
○ cards come in various memory sizes.
○ many available memory card formats, for example:
▪ SD cards (secure digital card)
□ type of removable memory card
□ designed for use in digital cameras
□ can be written to or read from the camera or other suitable XD card reader
▪ XD cards (extreme digital cards)
□ type of very small card with a very high-capacity memory
□ primarily used in portable devices such as digital video recorders, digital cameras, audio
players, smartphones and tablets
▪ CFast card (compactfast card)
□ was developed to allow solid state technology to be used in a very small portable device
□ no moving mechanical parts and does not need a battery to retain data
□ primarily used as removable memory for higher-end digital photo and video cameras
 Uses:
○ Storing photos on digital cameras.
○ Used as mobile phone memory cards.
○ Used in MP3 players to store music files.
○ Used as a backing store in hand-held computer devices
 Advantages:
○ Very compact – can be easily removed and used in another device or for transferring photos
directly to a computer or printer.
○ Because they are solid-state memories (and have no moving parts) they are very durable.
○ They can hold large amounts of data.
○ Digital devices, such as compact cameras and smartphones, are able to read and write to memory
cards, allowing the user to transport large collections of photographs, songs or information with
them.
 Disadvantages:
○ Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to hard disk drives.
○ Have a lower storage capacity than hard disks.
○ Have a finite life regarding number of times they can be read from or written to.
○ Memory cards, specifically the micro SD card, are the smallest storage devices available; this
means they are more likely to be lost, stolen or damaged.
○ Not all computers come with memory card readers built in; users will often be required to purchase
a card reader or USB converter to view the data on a memory card.
3. Storage devices and media Page 77
a card reader or USB converter to view the data on a memory card.

3. Storage devices and media Page 78

The Future of Storage Devices
Tuesday, January 28, 2025 2:40 PM

 Future
○ both the CD and DVD are showing signs of becoming obsolete
○ computer systems now come only with USB connectors and no internal DVD or CD drive
○ main method of transferring files between devices has become the flash memory
○ Many people now store all their music in the following ways:
▪ on hard disk drive systems (set up as sound systems)
▪ in MP3 format on portable devices
▪ using the cloud to store all their files so they can access their music from anywhere in the world
▪ by streaming their music from the internet; provided the user has an internet connection, they can access
music through any receiving device.
 Future of Movies
○ streaming is becoming increasingly more common
○ television sets are now set up as smart televisions – this means it is now possible to simply stream movies or
television programmes on demand
○ meaning DVD and Blu-ray players are no longer needed

3. Storage devices and media Page 79

Common Network devices and
Terms
Wednesday, January 29, 2025 1:13 PM

 Network Interface card (NIC)

○ Its needed to allow a device to connect to a network.
○ Turns binary data to an electric signal that allows access to a network
○ Usually Integrated into the motherboard on modern computers but they can also be wireless (WNICs)
○ WNICs would normally plug into the USB port or be part of an internal integrated circuit
○ WNICs use an antenna to communicate with a network using microwaves
○ Each NIC is given a unique hard-wired media access control address.
 Media access control (MAC) address
○ a hexadecimal number that uniquely identifies a device.
○ sometimes referred to as the physical address
○ MAC addresses use 48 bits made up of six groups of hexadecimal digits

○ MAC addresses are useful in identifying network faults since they uniquely identify each device connected
to the network
 Internet protocol (IP) address
○ Whenever a device connects to the internet, it is given an Internet Protocol (IP) address supplied by
Internet Service Provider.
○ This will change each time a user connects (website servers keep the same IP value since they don’t log
off the network and are always connected) unlike the MAC address which remains constant
○ Protocols are necessary since they define the rules agreed by senders and receivers of data when
communicating over the internet.
○ There are presently two type of IP address:
▪ IPv4: this is based on 32 bits and is written as four groups of 8 bits (32 bits), for example:
254.25.28.77
▪ IPv6: since IPv4 no longer offers sufficient unique addresses on the internet as it continues to
expand, IPv6 is now being adopted; this uses 128 bits written as eight groups of four hexadecimal
digits, for example: A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
4. Networks Page 80
 digits, for example: A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
 Data packets
○ Data moved round networks is split up into data packets; each data packet travels from ‘A’ to ‘B’
independently.
○ The data packet has a header and a trailer.
○ The trailer indicates the end of the data packet and also contains an error-checking mechanism.
○ The header contains the following items:
▪ sender’s IP address
▪ receiver’s IP address
▪ sequence number (so packets can be reassembled in the correct order)
▪ packet size (number of bytes)
▪ number of packets in the whole message.
○ When a router receives a data packet, it checks the recipient IP address against a routing table and
determines the next stage in its journey.

4. Networks Page 81
Network Interface Card
Wednesday, January 29, 2025 3:46 PM

 Hubs:
○ hardware devices that can have a number of other devices connected to them.
○ usually found in local area networks (LANs)
○ They deliver all data packets received by a network to all devices on the network.

○ Because data packets are delivered to every device on the network:

▪ hubs are not very secure because every device will receive every data packet
▪ there will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results in reduced bandwidth.
 Switches:
○ Switches are ‘intelligent’ hubs.
○ They store the MAC addresses of all devices on the network.
○ Each port on the switch connected to a device will have a matching MAC address (called a
look-up table)
○ Using the look-up table, a switch matches the MAC address of an incoming data packet
arriving at one of its ports, and directs it to the correct device.

○ Thus, switches are more secure than hubs (because only the intended device is sent the data) and
do not waste bandwidth (because network traffic is reduced)
 Hubs vs Switches
○ hubs and switches are used to exchange data within their own local area networks. They are
unable to exchange data with outside networks (such as the internet)
○ In summary:
▪ both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN
▪ both hubs and switches use data packets
▪ hubs send data packets to every device on the network; whereas switches send data packets
to a specific device only
▪ security is lower with hubs than with switches
▪ a switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
▪ switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device.
○ Bridges
4. Networks Page 82
 ▪ a switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
▪ switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device.
○ Bridges
▪ Bridges are used to connect a LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol.

▪ They allow separate LANs to be joined to form a single LAN. Bridges cannot
communicate with external networks.

4. Networks Page 83
Routers
Thursday, January 30, 2025 11:32 AM

 What?
○ used to route data packets from one network to another network using IP
addresses.
○ Routers are used to join a LAN to the internet or to other external networks
○ When a data packet is received, the router inspects the IP address of the
recipient and determines whether the data packet is intended for its own network
or for another network; if the IP address indicates another network, the data
packet is sent to the next router.
○ Routers use a routing table that contains information about the router’s immediate
network and information about routers in the immediate vicinity helping them deal
with each packet
○ Routers don’t store MAC addresses; only IP addresses are stored
○ Many modern broadband routers combine the function of a router and a switch.

4. Networks Page 84
4. Networks Page 85
Bluetooth And Wi-Fi
Thursday, January 30, 2025 11:45 AM

 Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication between devices. They
both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier of data transmission.
Bluetooth
 How Bluetooth Works:
1. Pairing (Key Matching Encryption)
▪ When two Bluetooth devices want to connect, they go through a
pairing process.
▪ The devices exchange a temporary key (a short-term encryption
code) to establish a secure connection.
2. Encryption & Secure Connection
▪ Once paired, Bluetooth encrypts the data using the temporary key.
▪ After encryption is confirmed, a long-term key replaces the
temporary one to keep the connection secure.
▪ This means hackers can’t easily intercept the data being transferred.
3. Data Transfer in a WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network)
▪ A WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network) is a small, private
network created between the connected devices.
▪ Devices can send and receive files, music, calls, or commands
within this secure connection.
4. Channel Hopping
▪ Once Connected Bluetooth switches between the 79 channels in the
2.4 GHz band to avoid interference with other devices.
▪ It also improves security by making it harder for hackers to intercept
▪ Also prevents signal overlap (like a room full of people all talking)
▪ This is known as spread-spectrum frequency hopping
 Uses are:
○ when transferring data between two or more devices which are very close
together (less than 30 m distance)
○ when the speed of data transmission is not critical
for low-bandwidth applications (for example, when sending music files
4. Networks Page 86
 ○ for low-bandwidth applications (for example, when sending music files
from a mobile phone to a headset).
Wi-Fi
 How?
○ Wi-Fi uses radio waves to send and receive data wirelessly in different
frequency bands
○ When you open/request something, it sends the signal to the router and
then the router does its thing
○ 2.4 GHz = longer range, 5 GHz = faster speeds, 6 GHz = ultra-
fast
○ Like Bluetooth, each band is also further split into channels
○ best suited to operating full-scale networks because it offers much faster
data transfer rates
 Wi-Fi vs Bluetooth
○ Wi-Fi is best suited to operating full-scale networks because it offers much
faster data transfer rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth.
○ A Wi-Fi enabled device can access, for example, the internet wirelessly at
any access point (AP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100 m away.
○ can connect many devices to a network at the same time

4. Networks Page 87
Cloud Computing (Storage)
Thursday, January 30, 2025 12:25 PM

 What?
○ Cloud storage is a method of data storage using physical remote servers. The data is
frequently stored on more than one server in case maintenance/ repairs need to be
carried out (this is called data redundancy).
○ There are 3 common types of cloud storage:
▪ Public Cloud
□ Owned by a cloud company (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox,
OneDrive
□ Used by multiple businesses/individuals
□ Accessible via the internet from anywhere
▪ Private Cloud (Exclusive & Secure)
□ Owned by a single company or organization
□ Runs on dedicated servers (not shared with others)
□ Usually protected by a firewall for better security
□ Example: A bank storing customer transactions on its own private servers
▪ Hybrid Cloud (Best of Both)
□ Mix of public and private clouds
□ Sensitive or critical data is kept in a private cloud
□ Less sensitive data is stored in a public cloud
□ Example: A hospital stores patient records in a private cloud but keeps
general medical research in a public cloud.
 Advantages:
○ Client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any time, from any device,
anywhere in the world, provided internet access is available
○ There is no need for a customer/client to carry an external storage device with
them, or even use the same computer, to store and retrieve information
The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data to alleviate data loss/disaster
4. Networks Page 88
 ○ The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data to alleviate data loss/disaster
recovery
○ If a customer/client has a failure of their hard disk or backup device, cloud storage
will allow recovery of their data
○ The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a price!)
 Disadvantages:
○ Security aspects of storing data in the cloud
○ If the customer/client has a slow or unstable internet connection, they could have
problems accessing or downloading their data/files
○ Costs can be high if a large storage capacity is required; also high
download/upload data transfer limits with the customer/client Internet Service
Provider can be expensive
○ Potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible – this poses a risk
of loss of all backup data
 Advantages of Buying cloud storage as a user:
○ You do not need to carry memory sticks around with you if you want to access your
files away from home.
○ You do not have to pay for large storage capacity on your computer/tablet or
mobile phone.
○ Because the cloud is controlled by external companies, they will ensure that your files
are backed up and therefore reduce the possibility of losing irreplaceable data.
○ The ability to synchronise (sync) files ensures they are automatically updated across
all devices.
○ Cloud storage is also ideal for collaboration purposes; it allows several users to edit
and collaborate on a single file or document – there is no need to worry about
tracking the latest version or which user made the changes.
 Security worries:
○ Data Security:
▪ What physical security exists in the building housing the servers?
▪ How well protected are the servers against natural disasters or power cuts?
How secure is the data with regards to personnel who work for the cloud
4. Networks Page 89
 ▪ How secure is the data with regards to personnel who work for the cloud
provider?
○ Data Security:
▪ There have been cases of data loss through hacking (these breaches include the
leaking of Facebook accounts in 2019 and Capital One bank had 80,000
banks accounts hacked in 2019)

4. Networks Page 90
Network Types
Thursday, January 30, 2025 1:48 PM

 The 3 types of networks to study are:

○ local area network (LAN)
○ wireless local area network (WLAN)
○ wide area network (WAN)

4. Networks Page 91
Local Area Networks (LAN)
Thursday, January 30, 2025 1:51 PM

 What?
○ Covers a small area (like a home, school, or office).
○ Uses wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections.
○ Consist of a number of computers and devices (for example,
printers) which will be connected to hubs or switches.
○ One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to a router to
allow the LAN to connect to external networks, such as the internet.
 Advantages:
○ The sharing of resources, such as hardware (e.g. a colour laser
printer) and applications software (word)
○ Better communication between users of the LAN
○ A network administrator can control and monitor all aspects of the
network (e.g. changing passwords, monitoring internet use and so
on)
 Disadvantages:
○ Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
○ Queues can form for shared resources (such as a printer), which
can be frustrating
○ Slower access to external networks, such as the internet
○ Increased security risk when compared to stand-alone computers
○ If the main server breaks down, in many types of network
structures, the network will no longer function properly

4. Networks Page 92
Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN)
Thursday, January 30, 2025 2:01 PM

 What?
○ A type of LAN that uses Wi-Fi instead of cables.
○ Allows wireless devices (laptops, phones, tablets) to connect.
○ Uses a Wi-Fi router or access point to send signals.
○ APs, are connected into a wired network at fixed locations
 Access Points (AP):
○ An Access Point (AP) is a device that provides Wi-Fi by connecting to a wired
network (LAN) and broadcasting a wireless signal.
○ So it basically Expands Wi-Fi Coverage within a LAN
○ In home networks, the Wi-Fi router acts as both a router and an access point
○ In large networks (like schools, offices, malls, airports), multiple access points are
placed around the building so devices can stay connected while moving.
○ APs use either spread-spectrum technology (which is a wideband radio frequency
with a range of about 30 to 50 metres) or infrared, but this has a very short
range (about 1–2 metres) and is easily blocked, and therefore infrared has limited
use.

4. Networks Page 93
4. Networks Page 94
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Thursday, January 30, 2025 2:22 PM

 What?
○ Covers a large area (city, country, or even the whole world).
○ Uses telecom services (fiber optics, satellites, telephone lines, mobile
data).
○ The largest WAN is the internet.
○ if a number of LANs are joined together using a router, then they
can
○ The network of ATMs (automated teller machines) used by banks
is one of the most common examples of the use of a WAN. form
a WAN
○ Due to the large geographical distances, WANs make use of the
public communications infrastructure (e.g. telephone lines and
satellites)
○ but sometimes use private dedicated lines if greater security is
needed.
○ A typical WAN will consist of end systems and intermediate
systems:

○ 1, 3, 7 and 10 are known as end systems and the remainder are

known as intermediate systems.
○ The typical distances that define the type of network are:
▪ WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km
▪ MAN: 1 km to 100 km
LAN: 10 m to 1 km
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▪ LAN: 10 m to 1 km

4. Networks Page 96
Authentication Methods
Thursday, January 30, 2025 2:31 PM

 Many aspects of security (such as hacking, phishing, pharming and viruses) are covered
in depth in Chapter 8 (Section 8.3). This section covers some of the more general aspects
of internet security, together with how we use networks to communicate

4. Networks Page 97
4. Networks Page 98
Passwords
Thursday, January 30, 2025 2:32 PM

 Passwords are used in many instances when accessing the

internet.
 It is important that passwords are protected. Some ways of doing
this are described below:
○ Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your
passwords are not being relayed back to whoever put the
spyware on your computer
○ Change passwords on a regular basis in case it has come into
the possession of another user illegally or accidentally.
○ Passwords should not be easy to crack (e.g. your favourite
colour, name of a pet or favourite rock group); passwords
are grouped as either strong (hard to crack or guess) or
weak (relatively easy to crack or guess).
○ Strong passwords should contain:
▪ at least one capital letter
▪ at least one numerical value
▪ at least one other keyboard character (such as @, *, &
etc.).
○ An example of a strong password is: Sy12@#TT90kj=0
○ An example of a weak password is: GREEN1

4. Networks Page 99
Zero Login and Biometrics
Thursday, January 30, 2025 2:49 PM

 The Fast ID online (FIDO) Alliance and WWW Consortium

(W3C) announced a new technology standard that allows users to login to
computer systems without the need to type in a password.
 Passwords cant be relied on anymore so zero login relies on devices being
smart and secure enough to recognize a user by:
○ biometrics
○ behavioural patterns
 It builds up a complex user profile using the 2.
 Biometrics is already used on many smartphones as a way of logging
into the phone. Both by Fingerprints and Facial recognition
 Behavioural patterns include: how you walk, your typing speed, your
normal location, how you swipe the screen, and so on.
 The advantages of zero login are fairly clear: enhanced security (it is
difficult to copy biometrics and behavioural patterns) and an easier and
much quicker way to login to a system
 But there are certain disadvantages that need consideration:
○ How do users know when they are being monitored?
○ How do you know if and when you have been logged out?
○ How well protected is it in reality?

4. Networks Page 100

Magnetic Stripe Cards
Thursday, January 30, 2025 2:55 PM

 How?
○ The cards have a magnetic stripe on the reverse side(made up of
tiny magnetic particles on a plastic film)
○ Each particle can act as a north-pole or a south-pole (which
corresponds to the two binary values of 0 and 1)
○ stripe is read by swiping it through a card reader. Data such as
name, ID number, sex, and date of birth may be contained on a
magnetic stripe when used as a security device to allow entry to a
building, for example.
○ Some ID cards also use a holographic image (hologram) to make
forgery difficult
○ Another form of security is to etch the card users face onto the
card. This way stolen cards cannot be used as they don’t match the
perpetrator
 Advantages:
○ They are easy to use.
○ It is not an expensive technology.
○ Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or stolen).
○ The cards can be multi-purpose (for example, door key cards,
network access cards or used in vending machines to buy food or
drink).
 Disadvantages:
○ Less secure than, for example, biometric methods (no encryption is
used and the stripe contents can be copied fairly easily).
○ The cards wear out with a lot of use.
○ Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first attempt.

4. Networks Page 101

4. Networks Page 102
Smart Cards
Thursday, January 30, 2025 4:19 PM

 What?
○ By inserting a tag (chip and antenna) into a security card, it can act as a smart
contactless card
○ it can be read from a distance and does not have to be swiped through a card
reader
○ The chip on the smart card can store data such as name, security number, sex,
date of birth and a PIN
○ If the card is in a wallet or a pocket as the owner of the card walks up to a
security gate, readers on either side of the gate quickly scan the security data
stored on the RFID tag embedded in the card. The user will then be invited to
enter a PIN on the keypad. If all details match, then access will be allowed.

4. Networks Page 103

4. Networks Page 104
Physical Tokens
Thursday, January 30, 2025 4:22 PM

 What?
○ a form of authentication in the form of a physical, solid object.
○ user’s interaction with a login system is used to prove that the user has possession
of the token.
○ Physical tokens contain internal clocks and when a PIN and other authentication
details are entered, then a one-time password (OTP) is generated.
○ The OTP is shown on a small screen. The code changes on a regular basis and
is usually only valid for less than a minute.
○ This clearly enhances security, because a thief needs to have in their possession: the
token device, a cloned card and the PIN to allow them to gain access.
○ This is a classic example of a multi-factor authentication method. There are two
types of physical tokens:
▪ a disconnected physical token – this is the type described above, where a
separate device is used, requiring the user to key in data manually using a
keypad
▪ a connected physical token – this type of token transmits the generated one-
time password directly to a computer through a USB connection; the user
does not need to manually enter data.

4. Networks Page 105

Electronic Tokens
Thursday, January 30, 2025 4:28 PM

 What?
○ software installed on a user’s device, such as a smartphone.
○ If a user wants to log onto a website requiring electronic tokens when the website
asks for the token the user can enter the OTP which is valid for less than a
minute received on the software on his phone to authenticate herself
○ The website server runs the same software as the app. Because both the server and
smartphone have synchronised clocks, they will generate the same numbers. Once
the OTP and other form of authentication are verified by the website, the user will
be allowed access.

4. Networks Page 106

4. Networks Page 107
Anti-Virus software
Friday, January 31, 2025 12:06 PM

 What?
○ It is a type of anti-malware software
○ Used to protect devices against a possible virus attack
○ It should be loaded onto a computer and then run to allow software and devices to
be scanned for viruses
○ a virus check should be carried on a device before transferring data or software to
it.
○ Running it in the background will have it constantly check for virus attacks
○ Most anti software have the common features:
▪ They check software or files before they are run or loaded on a computer.
▪ Anti-virus software compares a possible virus against a database of known
viruses.
▪ They carry out heuristic checking – this is the checking of software for types
of behaviour that could indicate a possible virus; this is useful if software is
infected by a virus not yet on the database.
▪ Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into quarantine
which:
□ allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or
□ allows the user to make the decision about deletion (could be a false
positive and is one of the drawbacks of anti-virus software).
▪ Anti-virus software needs to be kept up to date because new viruses are
constantly being discovered.
▪ Full system checks need to be carried out once a week, because some viruses
lie dormant and would only be picked up by this full system scan.

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4. Networks Page 109
Electronic Conferencing
Friday, January 31, 2025 12:19 PM

 This section will consider three types of electronic conferencing:

○ video conferencing
○ audio conferencing
○ web conferencing.

4. Networks Page 110

4. Networks Page 111
Video Conferencing
Friday, January 31, 2025 12:20 PM

 What?
○ a communication method that uses both video and sound
○ substitute for face-to-face conferences between a number of people
separated by distance (diff. part of country or overseas)
○ carried out in real time and makes use of some form of network
○ Basic hardware needs are:
▪ webcams
▪ large monitors/television screens
▪ microphones
▪ Speakers
○ Few items to consider when conference is about to begin:
▪ It is essential to agree a time and date for the conference to take
place.
▪ The delegates in each conference room must log into the video-
conference system.
▪ The video-conference set-up needs to be checked before the meeting
goes live.
▪ Webcams need to be placed so that all the delegates in the room are
within visual contact (the webcams will capture the images and then
transmit them to the other delegates).
▪ Microphones need to be placed centrally so that all of the delegates
can speak – the sound is picked up by the microphones and is
transmitted to the other delegates through their speakers.
▪ It is important for one person to be the main contact in each
conference room to make sure each delegate is able to be heard; this
is particularly important if more than two video-conference rooms
are linked up at the same time.
4. Networks Page 112
 are linked up at the same time.
○ Software also plays an important role:
▪ Webcam and microphone software drivers
□ sometimes referred to as hardware drivers
□ It is vital that the correct software is used to ensure that the
webcam and microphone transmit their images and sound to the
other delegates
▪ CODEC
□ CODEC can stand for Coder - Decoder or
Compression - Decompression
□ first is used to encode or decode the digital data stream to allow
data to be transmitted (encoded) and played back (decoded)
□ second is used to compress the data before it is transmitted and
then decompress it again at the receiving conference room
▪ Echo cancellation software
□ allows talking to take place in real time and permits the
synchronisation of communication
□ Microphones can pick up sound from the speakers (creating
an echo)
□ this software copies received signals and checks for parts of the
signal that reappear but are delayed slightly
□ The reappearing parts are removed from the signal (the echo is
removed
 Advantages:
○ As people are in their own building, it is much easier to access important
documents or bring in ‘experts’ at key parts of the conference
○ It is possible to hold conferences at short notice (a conference date can be
set up within a few hours as no person needs to travel very far)
○ Not travelling physically to meetings reduces costs:
▪ reduced travelling costs
no need to pay for hotel accommodation or venue hire
4. Networks Page 113
 ▪ no need to pay for hotel accommodation or venue hire
▪ it also reduces the cost of taking people away from their work
(they're still paid their wage while not in office) for two or three
days to travel
○ It may be better to use video conferencing than have delegates travel to
potentially unsafe places around the world.
○ It is better for the environment – less travel means less pollution.
○ It connects people in an organisation who might be otherwise left out, for
example, people not based at the headquarters.
 Disadvantages:
○ There is potential time lag in responses/delays when talking.
○ Images can jerk – usually due to poor internet/network performance or
poor bandwidth.
○ It can be very expensive to set up in the first place (both the hardware
and the software are expensive to purchase and get set up correctly).
○ There can be problems if the delegates live in different countries where the
time zone differences are large.
○ Training people to use the system correctly can be both costly and time
consuming.
○ It can be demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the ‘perks’ of
their job is international travel.
○ The whole system relies on a good network connection – if it breaks
down or the signal strength is diminished in any way, then the video
conference can be almost unusable.

4. Networks Page 114

Audio Conferencing
Friday, January 31, 2025 12:41 PM

 What?
○ Audio conferencing refers to meetings held between people using audio (sound)
equipment.
○ can be done over the standard telephone network (a phone conference)
○ procedure to be carried out during a phone conference is:
▪ The organiser of the phone conference is given two PINs by the phone
company. One PIN is the personal PIN (e.g. 2151) given to the
organiser and the second PIN is the participant’s PIN (e.g. 8422)
▪ The organiser contacts all of the participants and informs them of their PIN
and the date and time of the phone conference.
▪ When the phone conference is about to start, the organiser dials the conference
phone number and, once they are connected, keys in their personal PIN
(2151 in this case)
▪ The participants then call the same conference number to join in – once they
get through they each input the PIN given to them by the organiser (8422
in this case). Without this PIN, it would be impossible to join the phone
conference.
○ Equipment for audio conference over a telephone is just a telephone
○ also possible to hold an audio conference using a computer, as long as a
microphone and speakers are connected
○ This makes use of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
○ also possible to connect an internet telephone, which usually plugs into the router or
other internet device
○ In this case equipment can include:
▪ a computer (with built-in microphones and speakers)
▪ external microphone and/or speakers
▪ an internet phone
▪ a standard phone.
○ Using VoIP allows an organiser to create a group of people to take part in the
conference call.
○ When the conference is to take place, the organiser clicks on the required group
and the conference is initiated.
○ VoIP allows communication using voice, instant messaging and video (by using an
attached webcam)
If some of the users do not have an internet connection or do not have access to a

4. Networks Page 115

○ If some of the users do not have an internet connection or do not have access to a
computer, it is possible to add actual telephone numbers (landline or mobile) to the
created group
○ drawback is the quality of the sound when using this technique because it is totally
reliant on a fast, stable broadband connection
○ otherwise ‘drop out’ (loss of voice on occasions), echoing or a very noisy line can
happen, making it difficult to understand.

4. Networks Page 116

Web Conferencing
Friday, January 31, 2025 12:54 PM

 What?
○ often referred to as a webinar or webcasts
○ uses the internet to permit conferencing to take place.
○ Multiple computers are used with this system, all connected over the internet
○ carried out in real time
○ allows the following types of meeting to take place:
▪ business meetings to discuss new ideas
▪ presentations
▪ online education or training
○ only requirement is a computer and a high-speed, stable internet connection
○ To carry out web conferencing each user either:
▪ downloads an application
▪ logs on to a website from a link supplied in an email from the
conference organiser
○ Delegates can leave or join the conference as they wish
○ organiser can decide on who can speak at any time using the control panel
on their computer
○ if a delegate wishes to speak, they raise a flag next to their name
○ Delegates can post comments using instant messaging for all delegates to see
at any time
○ Some of the main features include:
▪ Slide presentations using presentation software can be posted on the
conference website in advance of the meeting.
▪ The host’s computer screen can be shared for live presentations, or
other live demonstrations.
▪ It is possible for any delegate to draw or write on a ‘whiteboard’
using their own keyboard or mouse.
4. Networks Page 117
 using their own keyboard or mouse.
▪ It is possible to transmit images or videos using the webcam throughout
the conference.
▪ Documents can be shared by first uploading them to the website
before the conference begins.
▪ it is possible to chat verbally or by using instant messaging throughout
the conference.

4. Networks Page 118

Microprocessor-controlled
devices in the home
Friday, January 31, 2025 1:40 PM

 Using microprocessor-controlled devices in the home can have positive and negative effects on our:
○ lifestyle
○ leisure time
○ physical fitness
○ data security
○ social interaction
 Many common household devices are now fitted with microprocessors to control a large number of their functions. The
devices fall into two main groups:
○ Labor-saving devices (group 1):
○ labor-saving device allows people to get on with other things while the device carries out their tasks
▪ automatic washing machines
▪ microwave ovens
▪ cookers
▪ automatic dishwashers
▪ robotic vacuum cleaners
▪ bread-making machines
▪ smart fridges and freezers
○ Other devices (group 2):
○ Microprocessors within the second group of devices make them easier to use and gives them additional features, such as
‘intelligent tuning’ in television sets
▪ alarm clocks
▪ television sets
▪ central heating and air-conditioning systems
▪ home entertainment systems
▪ mobile phones and tablets
 the effects of microprocessor-controlled labor-saving devices on a person’s lifestyle,
leisure time and physical fitness:

5. The Effects of IT Page 119

 leisure time and physical fitness:

 some of the more general ways in which all microprocessor controlled devices can affect our lives. This table includes devices
which are not necessarily labour-saving, and simply use microprocessors to improve their functionality:

 Data Security issues

○ Any device fitted with a microprocessor is open to cybercriminal activity
○ If you are able to communicate remotely with devices in your home, then so can a hacker
○ For example, if a criminal hacks into a central heating controller, it is possible to find a family’s holiday dates so
knowledge of when to break into the house
○ it is therefore important to manage device passwords and install software updates when released since these will contain
important security updates
 Social Interactions
○ Devices, such as smartphones, smart TVs and tablets, allow people to communicate using VoIP, emails or chat rooms
○ positive aspects include:
▪ easier to make new friends using chat rooms
▪ easier to find people who share similar interests/hobbies
▪ less expensive to keep in touch using VoIP technology
○ negative aspects include:
▪ people do not meet face-to-face as much (social isolation)
▪ Lack of social interaction may make people more anxious about meeting people in real life
People behave differently online and cyberbullying is a real issue
5. The Effects of IT Page 120
▪ People behave differently online and cyberbullying is a real issue

5. The Effects of IT Page 121

Monitoring and controlling
transport
Friday, January 31, 2025 7:27 PM

○ Microprocessors are increasingly used in transport systems:

▪ traffic control on smart motorways
▪ congestion/low emission zone monitoring in cities
▪ automatic number plate recognition (ANPR)
▪ automatic control of traffic lights in traffic management
▪ air traffic control at airports
▪ railway signalling systems
○ As with any device containing a microprocessor, security is a big issue
 Control of smart road systems and smart signs:
○ Smart motorways allow the monitoring and control of traffic.
○ If there is an accident or traffic congestion, it is possible to quickly re-route the traffic.
○ smart motorway signs can control the traffic to keep it moving
○ In cities and towns, traffic lights are automatically controlled to ensure traffic moves smoothly.
○ It is important to maintain high security; imagine the chaos if a cybercriminal hacked into a traffic control system
and set all lights to red or green.
○ Somebody could then have control over a chosen section of the road network. That has huge safety and security
implications.
 Rail and airline network control systems:
○ Monitoring and control of trains and aeroplanes is very complex; the use of computers can improve overall safety
and improve punctuality.
○ journeys are also safer, because human error is removed – many rail accidents are caused by drivers making
mistakes.

5. The Effects of IT Page 122

5. The Effects of IT Page 123
Autonomous vehicles in
transport
Friday, January 31, 2025 7:37 PM

Driverless (autonomous) vehicles are increasing in number every year

○
are very complex robots, but the big problem is not really the technology
○
it is human perception - It will take a large leap of faith for humans to ride in an autonomous car or an aeroplane with no pilot.
○
We are already used to autonomous trains, These systems have been generally accepted; but that is probably because trains do not
○
overtake other trains and have a very specific track to follow (see later)
 Autonomous cars, buses and vans
○ These vehicles make use of sensors, cameras, actuators and microprocessors (together with very complex algorithms)
○ Sensors and cameras allow microprocessors to be aware of their immediate surroundings - they act as the ‘eyes’ and ‘ears’ of the
car
○ Cameras catch visual data from the surroundings, while radar and ultrasonics allow the vehicle to build up a 3D image of its
surroundings
○ Following feedback from sensors and cameras, microprocessors send signals to actuators to control brakes, change gears, steering
racks, accelerators and other systems
○ This is a very complex set of operations because the microprocessor must constantly check all sensors and cameras to ensure moving
off is safe
 Security and safety when using autonomous vehicles
○ These vehicles run using complex software systems and a large number of external sensors.
○ This makes such vehicles rather vulnerable to cybercriminals
○ A hacker may not even have to break into the vehicle’s control system; they could cause many problems by blocking sensor
information or sending false information back to the vehicle
○ the hacker probably is not really interested in gaining control of the vehicle; they may be more interested in knowing where the car is,
where it is going and finding personal information about the owner of the vehicle
○ the potential security and safety risks are vast

5. The Effects of IT Page 124

 Autonomous Trains
○ autonomous (driverless) trains have been around for a number of years in a number of large cities
○ driverless trains make considerable use of sensors, cameras, actuators and on-board computers/microprocessors
○ They make use of a system called LiDaR (Light Detection and Ranging); LiDaR uses lasers which build up a 3D image of
the surroundings
○ Other sensors (such as proximity sensors on train doors) and cameras (including infrared cameras) are all used to help control the
train and maintain safety
○ The control system in the train also uses global positioning satellite technology, allowing accurate changes in speed and direction to be
calculated
○ actuators pay a huge role here in controlling the train’s speed, braking and the opening and closing of the train doors

 Autonomous (Pilotless) airplanes

○ Aeroplanes have used auto-pilots for many years to control flights
○ Human pilots only take over during take-off and landing
They would make even more extensive use of sensors, actuators and microprocessors to control all stages of the flight
5. The Effects of IT Page 125
○ They would make even more extensive use of sensors, actuators and microprocessors to control all stages of the flight
○ Some main features of the control system would include:
▪ sensors to detect turbulence to ensure smooth flights
▪ an increase in self-testing of all circuits and systems
▪ sensors that would automatically detect depressurisation in the cabin, therefore allowing for quick stabilisation of the aeroplane
▪ use of GPS for navigation and speed calculations
▪ use of actuators to control, for example, throttle, flaps (on the wings) and the rudder.

5. The Effects of IT Page 126

Potential health problems
related to prolonged use of IT
equipment
Saturday, February 1, 2025 8:49 AM

 Using IT equipment for long periods of time can impact on a user’s health. Table 5.7 considers the most common health risks
and shows ways to eliminate or reduce the risk.

5. The Effects of IT Page 127

1. Communication
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 9:09 PM

 There are several communication systems that make use of ICT technology. For example:
○ newsletters and posters
○ websites
○ multimedia presentations
○ media streaming
○ e-publications.

6. ICT Applications Page 128

Newsletters and posters
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 9:12 PM

 How?
○ Newsletters and posters can be produced very easily using, most commonly, a word processor
○ Often, the newsletter or poster will have photos which have been taken specially or have been downloaded
from the internet (with the permission of the copyright holder).
○ The following is fairly typical of how such a document would be produced on a computer system. (No
order):
▪ First a word-processor application would be opened
▪ Photos could be obtained by:
□ using a digital camera and taking photos
□ searching for images/photos on the internet
□ or suitable photos could already be stored on the hard drive or cloud
□ using hard copy photos, which could be scanned in.
▪ If necessary, camera images would then be uploaded (either by connecting the camera or camera
memory card) to the computer via a USB port, or by using Bluetooth connectivity).
▪ Photos from all selected sources would then be saved to a file on the HDD or SSD.
▪ When the user is finally ready to produce the document, the photos would be imported from the file
stored on the HDD/SSD.
▪ Once imported, photos would need to be cropped, edited and/or resized.
▪ Text would be typed in using a keyboard.
▪ Alternatively, any previously saved text would need to be imported.
▪ Photos need to be placed in their correct position and the text wrapped.
▪ Finally, the whole document would need to undergo proofreading for errors and then saved, ready
for printing.
○ Very often, other features, such as a spell checker, would be used to make sure no mistakes had been
made.
○ Care needs to be taken when using a spell checker for the following reasons:
▪ The language used in checking the spelling could be different; for example, British English and
American English often have different spellings of words.
▪ Names or proper nouns might be highlighted as an error by the spell checker, but may be acceptable.
▪ Similar sounding words need to be checked; for example, where, were or wear all sound the same
but have very different meanings – these will not be picked up by the spell checker (but might be
picked up by a grammar checker).
▪ The (correct) highlighted word may not exist in the spell checker dictionary.
 Newsletters
○ very useful method for getting important information to a target group
○ for example, you are doing a fundraising exercise, a well presented newsletter to accompany the
fundraising would be invaluable.
○ can be either printed out or available online as an e-publication
○ the method used depends on who the target audience is
○ With a printed document handed personally to somebody, you can be certain they have seen the newsletter
○ in both cases it is nearly impossible to be certain that they have read it
○ A few of the common guidelines to produce an attractive newsletter include:
Do not try and squeeze too much information onto one page.
6. ICT Applications Page 129
 ▪ Do not try and squeeze too much information onto one page.
▪ Use very clear, easy-to-read fonts (for example, Arial or Trebuchet MS) and use a suitable font
size (11-, 12- or 14-point font size).
▪ Decide on whether to use columns (a useful feature if there are diagrams and photos).
▪ Avoid using capital letters as this appears to be ‘shouting’!
▪ Use bold text in headings rather than underlining text.
▪ Use real photos rather than clip art to make the newsletter more interesting.
 Posters
○ good way of publicising
○ for example, a sporting event or an advertisement for a forthcoming movie.
○ A sporting event poster would need to include at least the following information:
▪ what the event is and where it will take place
▪ date, time and place of event
▪ admission fees (if any)
▪ contact details
▪ other information (such as whether there will be facilities for people with disabilities)
○ The movie poster would need to include:
▪ an image taken from the movie to give some idea of the type of movie (that is, comedy, horror,
science fiction, and so on)
▪ the date of release
▪ a list of the main characters.
○ posters can be printed out using high-quality printers or can be posted online
○ Printed posters can be any size.
○ Large posters have the advantage that they are eye-catching and usually very difficult to miss.
○ They are used in many countries on the sides of roads so motorists see them on their way to work
○ By placing the posters in strategic positions, it is possible to target certain people rather than the general
public
○ The drawback is the cost of display (the advertising areas can only be rented)
○ and that they are subject to weather conditions, so only have a limited life.

6. ICT Applications Page 130

Websites
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 9:30 PM

 What?
○ Rather than producing newsletters and posters by printing them out, it is possible to
use websites for advertising.
○ This method of advertising requires a company to either
▪ develop their own website
▪ or pay another company to advertise on their website
○ Using the first option
▪ may require the company to either employ a team of web designers or go to a
specialist company with experience in website design.
▪ Might need to buy hardware and software to develop and store the website.
▪ This method can therefore be expensive.
▪ programmers will be needed to secure their website from hackers and from
pharming attacks.
○ It has, however, become much easier and cheaper for individuals or small
organisations to create and host their own website, using off-the-shelf content
management systems to organise content, and pay hosting fees to rent space on a
web server.
○ The main reasons for using websites, rather than newsletters or posters for
advertising products and services:
▪ Advantages
□ sound/video/animation can be added
□ links to other pages and websites can be added in hyperlinks and hot
spots
□ buttons to navigate/move around the website, leading to more
information
□ ‘hit counters’ allow the owner to see detailed information about how
many people have visited the website
6. ICT Applications Page 131
 many people have visited the website
□ can be seen by a global audience
□ cannot be defaced or thrown away
□ it is much easier to update a website (and there is no need to do a
reprint and then distribute the new version)
▪ Disadvantages
□ websites can be hacked into and modified or viruses introduced
□ risk of potential pharming
□ it is necessary for the potential customers to have a computer and internet
connection
□ it is not as portable as a paper-based system (although with modern
smartphones and phablets this is fast becoming untrue)
□ possible for customers to go to undesirable websites (either by accident or
as a result of a pharming attack) – this can lead to distrust from
customers
□ there is a need for the company to maintain the website once it is set
up – this can be expensive
□ because it is a global system, it is more difficult to target the correct
audience using website advertising
□ still need to find a way for people to find out about the website

6. ICT Applications Page 132

Multimedia Presentations
Thursday, March 6, 2025 2:56 AM

 What?
○ Presentations that use animation, video and sound or music are generally much
more interesting than static presentations done on slides or paper.
○ produced using one of the many software packages on the market
○ used with a multimedia projector so that the whole audience is able to see the
presentation
 Advantages
○ use of sound and animation/video effects which are more likely to grab the
attention of the audience, and can make the presentation easier to understand
○ possible to have interactive hyperlinks built into the presentation; this means the
presentation could access a company’s website or even key files stored on the cloud
(such as video footage, images, spreadsheets and so on)
○ use of transition effects allow a presentation to display facts in a key or
chronological order
○ can be interactive
○ more flexible; because of the links to websites and other external systems (for
example, the cloud), the presentation can be tailored to suit a particular audience.
 Disadvantages
○ a need to have special equipment which can be expensive
○ danger that equipment could fail while giving multimedia presentations
○ there may need to be internet access
○ danger when using multimedia in presentations that the focus is on the medium (that
is, the multimedia presentation) rather than the message or facts
○ very easy to make a bad presentation with too many animation effects and too much
text or images.

6. ICT Applications Page 133

Media Streaming
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:00 AM

 What?
○ when users watch movies/videos or listen to music on devices connected to the
internet
○ no need to actually download or save
○ Streaming is a continuous transmission of video or audio files from a remote server
where the files are stored
○ data is transmitted and played in real time
○ when downloading it is necessary for the user to store the entire file on the
computer’s HDD or SSD first, using up storage and download times.
○ With streaming, the file is sent as a series of packets of data. Each packet is
interpreted by the web browser.

○ Streaming only works well if the internet speed is stable, and at least 25
Mbits/second (for an HD video)
 Buffering
○ Because the playback of the media files is usually much faster than the rate at
which data is received over the internet, data packets are buffered in the computer
○ Buffering makes sure the video plays back smoothly without freezing
○ While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will be sending the data from the
previous data packets to the playback device
○ While the buffer is receiving data packets, it will be sending the data from the
previous data packets to the playback device
○ Obviously, having a large buffer will considerably reduce the possibility of freezing
the play back

6. ICT Applications Page 134

6. ICT Applications Page 135
e-publications
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:09 AM

 What?
○ Most material which is published on paper is also available in an electronic format.
For example:
▪ e-books
▪ digital magazines
▪ digital newspapers
▪ digital libraries
○ the publication can be downloaded to a device connected to the internet where it can
be read
○ Moving between pages is usually done by swiping a finger across the screen
○ have the advantage that pages can be expanded in size and it is possible to include
media
○ Specific devices, such as the Kindle, have been developed to allow a library of e-
books to be stored on the device
○ use a white background with black text to fully replicate reading a normal book
○ no printing costs are incurred, e-publications are usually cheaper

6. ICT Applications Page 136

Mobile Communication
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:15 AM

 Mobile phones communicate by using towers inside many cells networked together to
cover large areas
 The towers allow the transmission of data throughout the mobile phone network
 How?
○ Each tower transmits within its own cell. If you are driving a car and get to
the edge of a cell, the mobile phone signal starts to weaken.
○ This is recognised by the network and the mobile phone then picks up the
signal in one of the adjacent cells.
○ If a person is making a call or sending a text to somebody in a different
country, then satellite technology is used to enable the communication to take
place.
 What?
○ Mobile devices either use a SIM (subscriber identity module) card to allow it
to connect to the mobile phone cellular network, or they use wireless internet
connectivity
○ Together they allow all of the following features:
▪ SMS (short message service) messaging
▪ phone calls
▪ Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) communication
▪ video calling
▪ internet access.

6. ICT Applications Page 137

SMS
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:20 AM

○ Short message service or text messaging

○ allows a very quick way of communicating with another person by typing on a
keyboard (often virtual)
○ advantage is that the other person does not need to be available, and can answer
when convenient
○ SMS b/w the phones in the same cellular range may be free of charge
○ Some features of SMS:
▪ quicker and less expensive than making phone calls
▪ can be sent at any time of the day even if the recipient’s phone is switched off
▪ predictive texting, where the system completes a word from the first few letters
and remember frequently used words – together they increase typing speed.

6. ICT Applications Page 138

Phone Calls
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:26 AM

 What?
○ Because mobile phones are so small and they have their own power source, they
are an ideal way of keeping in touch anywhere, provided there is a network signal.
○ Mobile phone networks are still not as stable as landline systems and for that reason
alone, landline phones are still in common use
○ Using mobile phones to make phone calls has the following advantages:'
▪ There is no need to look for an operational public telephone in an emergency.
▪ It is possible to conduct business or personal phone calls on the move.
▪ It is easier to keep in contact with co-workers at the office no matter where
you are.

6. ICT Applications Page 139

VoIP and video calling
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:32 AM

 Voice over Internet Protocol

○ most common forms of internet telephony (that is, having a telephone conversation via
the internet) is VoIP
○ a method used to talk to people using the internet
○ How?
▪ VoIP converts sound, picked up by the mobile device’s internal microphone,
into discrete digital data packets that can be sent to their destination via the
internet
▪ The internet can be accessed via a mobile phone network or a broadband
network and the voice calls are sent over the internet using VoIP technology
○ big advantages is that phone calls themselves are free, no matter where in the world
the caller and receiver are
○ may be a cost to send lots of data over the internet via a mobile phone network,
however
○ Disadvantages:
▪ The main problems are usually sound quality (echo and ‘weird sounds’ are
both common faults)
▪ Security is also a main concern with VoIP, as it is with other internet
technologies.
▪ most prominent security issues over VoIP are:
□ identity theft
□ viruses and malware (malicious software)
□ spamming (unwanted emails)
□ phishing attacks (the act of sending an email to a user, falsely claiming
to be an established legitimate enterprise, in an attempt to scam the user
into surrendering private information that will be used for identity theft)
○ Advantages:
▪ the device’s built-in cameras can also be used so that it becomes a type of
video call
6. ICT Applications Page 140
 video call
▪ While this does not have the sophistication of a true video conference, it is
much cheaper as VoIP uses built-in microphones, speakers and cameras
▪ This relies on good broadband or mobile phone network coverage
 Video Calling
○ uses software such as FaceTime or Zoom
○ Both require the user to download an app
○ FaceTime makes use of the built-in smartphone cameras and microphone/speakers
○ A split screen allows you to see a number of people at the same time; although the
small screen size limits the potential of this feature
○ Zoom is a cloud-based video calling service that allows live video chatting on any
device
○ It is also possible to record sessions to be played back at a later date
○ Cloud-based video calling prevents the need for users to invest in expensive
infrastructure; users can simply dial into a virtual meeting room which makes it
much cheaper than conventional video conferencing
○ Video calls permit:
▪ live video and audio chat
▪ screen-sharing during the call
▪ recording during sessions

6. ICT Applications Page 141

Internet access
Thursday, March 6, 2025 3:42 AM

 Any mobile device can connect to the internet either using a wireless broadband connection
or via the mobile phone network
 Due to the use of smaller screens, internet pages displayed on mobile phones are often
different to those on desktop or laptop computers
 Software detects which type of device is connecting to a website, which then sends out the
web page optimised for that device
 Mobile devices also have a built-in feature which automatically selects wireless broadband
connectivity (if possible), instead of the mobile phone network, when connecting to the
internet. This has the following advantages:
○ less expensive (mobile phone company ‘data plans’ often have a cap on how much
data can be downloaded, and charge for exceeding this maximum)
○ lower power consumption (Wi-Fi routers are usually much closer than the mobile
phone towers; the longer the range, the greater the power consumption)
○ quality of service (Wi-Fi usually offers greater bandwidth than the mobile phone
network giving the possibility of downloading more data more quickly)

6. ICT Applications Page 142

2. Modelling Applications
Thursday, March 6, 2025 9:14 PM

 COMPUTER MODELLING
 A simulation is the creation of a model of a real system in order to study the behaviour
of the system
 The model is computer-generated and is based on mathematical representations.
 The whole idea is to
○ try and find out how a system behaves
○ predict the behaviour of the system in the future
○ see if it is possible to influence this future behaviour
 Advantages of using models
○ Using computer models is less expensive than having to build the real thing (for
example, a bridge!).
○ On many occasions it is safer to use a computer model (some real situations are
hazardous, for example, chemical processes).
○ Computer modelling allows you to try out various different scenarios in advance.
○ It is nearly impossible to try out some tasks in advance in real life because of the
high risk involved or the remoteness (for example, in space, under the sea, in
nuclear reactors, when crash testing cars, etc.).
○ It is often faster to use a computer model than do the real thing (some applications
would take years before a result was known, for example, climate change
calculations, population growth, etc.)
 Disadvantages of using models
○ A model is only as good as the programming or the data entered; the simulation will
depend heavily on these two factors.
○ Although building the real thing can be expensive, sometimes computer modelling is
also a very costly option, and the two costs need to be compared before deciding
which to use.
○ People’s reactions to the results of a simulation may not be positive; they may not
trust the results it produces (there will always be a difference between the results
from modelling and reality)
6. ICT Applications Page 143
 from modelling and reality)
 Examples where computer modelling is used include:
○ personal finance
○ bridge and building design
○ flood water management
○ traffic management
○ weather forecasting.

6. ICT Applications Page 144

Personal Finance
Thursday, March 6, 2025 9:18 PM

 The Figure below uses a spreadsheet to model the sales of a tuck shop in a school.

 The Formulae behind this spreadsheet are:

 By varying the values in column C or in column F, it would be possible to model the

shop’s profit or loss.
 This example shows the principal of using spreadsheets to carry out any type of modelling
that can be represented in a mathematical form.
 Spreadsheets are often used in some form to carry out financial modelling.

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Bridge and building design
Thursday, March 6, 2025 9:24 PM

 When an engineer or architect designs a new building or bridge, it is necessary to test the
design long before construction
 3D computer modelling is used to try out a number of scenarios to ensure the final design
meets critical criteria
 Simulation of the final structure is often done as a combination of computer modelling and
wind-tunnel tests on scale models of the final designs.
 when building a bridge, the modeller has to consider a number of scenarios:
○ the amount of traffic that might be caught in a traffic jam on the bridge in the event of
an accident; this could lead to very heavy loading on the bridge structure
○ the effects of strong winds; can the bridge design withstand the worst-case scenario?
○ the effect of earthquakes; is the bridge earthquake-proof?
○ the effect of tidal waves and ice floes during extreme weather conditions; can the pillars
supporting the bridge withstand these conditions?
○ the effects of vibrations – there have been cases over the years where bridges have
collapsed due to, for example, wind causing the bridge to sway at its ‘natural
frequency’.
 All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model
 The design can then be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused the
bridge to fail.
 To ensure the computer model gives good results, a scale model of the bridge would then be
constructed and subjected to wind-tunnel (and other) trials
 Similar methods are used when designing new buildings, particularly skyscrapers.
 when testing a building, a number of scenarios need to be considered:
○ The effect of natural phenomena such as
▪ hurricane winds
▪ Flooding
▪ Earthquakes
▪ any other potentially damaging phenomena
wind movement is a key issue with tall buildings
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 ▪ wind movement is a key issue with tall buildings
□ a 100-storey building may sway one metre to the left and then one metre to
the right, cycling every ten seconds, in strong winds
□ can the building survive such movement, will such movement be unpleasant or
frightening to human occupants, and so on)
○ the effect of a disaster, such as a fire – how does the structure stand up to such
scenarios?
○ how is it possible to move people around the building efficiently (some large structures
have over 5000 people working in them and there is a need to model elevator movements
to move people efficiently)?
 All of these scenarios can be tested using a computer model
 The design can then be modified on the computer if any of the above scenarios caused the
building to fail.
 To ensure the computer model gives good results, a scale model of the building would then be
constructed and subjected to wind-tunnel (and other) trials
 Computer modelling provides the following features:
○ It is possible to zoom into images so that fine details can be seen.
○ The design can be rotated in a number of different ways to allow different views of the
design to be made.
○ Building a bridge or building is expensive and dangerous if the final design had a
serious flaw; modelling should allow any potential design flaws to be detected before any
construction starts.
○ Various scenarios can be tried out to see the effect on the design (see earlier list of
scenarios).

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Flood water management
Tuesday, April 29, 2025 4:35 AM

 What?
○ Flood water management uses computer modelling to perform a risk assessment to identify sources of potential flooding, the
extent of flooding and how any mitigation or protection measures could work.
○ Computer models are used to predict water levels, water flows and potential flood depths.
 Input to the system could include:
○ cross-section of rivers and sea inlets (for example, bottlenecks)
○ dimensions of any bridges, weirs or sluices in the flood area
○ factors that can affect water flow rates (for example, tides are affected by the time of year and by strong winds)
○ boundary conditions (for example, upstream flows into rivers and downstream water levels)
○ the start and finishing date for the simulation
○ calibration data (observation of actual flooding in the past).
 Once a flood simulation model is created, a plan can be made to prevent future floods.
 After defences are built, new data is added to the model, possibly leading to more defences or changes to the current system.
 Over years of flooding, many barriers were built. Computer models help predict how these barriers will react to different flood
scenarios, allowing various solutions to be tested before building anything. Based on modeling, Venice chose a computer-based
flood system instead of a manual one, due to its advantages.
 Advantages of computer-based flood system over a manual one:
○ Sensors could be used out in the bay area to monitor sea height and wave height (and possibly other factors, such as
wind speeds); sensors would give a much faster response to any deteriorating conditions in the bay.
○ Using a computer system is safer, since using humans to monitor conditions could potentially put them at risk.
○ Data collection is continuous and more accurate than manual measurements (readings can also be taken more frequently).
○ Because of the faster response, city dwellers can be warned well in advance of any flooding.
○ Data from the sensors could also be fed into the simulation modelling the flood area; this could lead to further
improvements as more data is gathered, which means the simulation becomes closer to reality.
○

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Traffic Management
Wednesday, April 30, 2025 4:04 AM

 Computer modelling can be used in traffic management. We will consider two different
situations.
 Closure of motorway lanes
• Repairs are needed on the central barriers of an eight-lane motorway.
• A company must model how these roadworks will affect traffic flow.
• Two traffic control methods are being considered and need to be simulated.
• These two models will be shown on computer screens to represent the motorway
lanes.

• Models A and B will be tested with various traffic densities at different times of
day.
• Different speed limits through the roadworks will also be simulated.
• The effect of a vehicle breakdown will be included in the simulation.
• Changing conditions helps find the best traffic flow and quickest repair setup.
• This method is safer, cheaper, and faster than testing on a real motorway.
 Traffic Light Simulation
• Figure 6.11 shows a second use of computer modelling in traffic management – a
set of traffic lights are to be modelled at a Y-junction.

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• In this simulation it is necessary to consider:
▪ 1 how and what data needs to be collected
▪ 2 how the simulation is carried out
▪ 3 how the system would work in real life.
• How and what data needs to be collected?
▪ Accurate models need realistic data, collected over a long time at the Y-
junction.
▪ Induction loop sensors are best for counting vehicles; manual methods are
error-prone and hard to sustain for long hours.
▪ Data to collect includes:
• Vehicle count in all directions
• Time of day with each count
• Vehicle buildup at different times
• Data from weekends, holidays, etc.
• Time taken for vehicles to clear the junction
• Influence of nearby pedestrian crossings
• Time for the slowest vehicle to pass
• Other factors like turns and filtering.
• How is the simulation carried
▪ Collected traffic data is entered into the computer to run the model.
▪ The model is compared with real traffic data to check accuracy.
▪ Once validated, different scenarios can be tested, such as:
• Changing traffic light timings
• Adjusting vehicle stops and retiming lights
• Increasing or decreasing traffic flow
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 • Increasing or decreasing traffic flow
• Examining effects of emergency vehicles at various times.
• How the traffic system works in real life:
▪ Road sensors collect vehicle count data at junctions.
▪ Data is sent to a control box/computer (after conversion into a readable
format).
▪ It’s compared to stored model predictions to optimize traffic flow.
▪ The system decides what actions to take.
▪ Signals are sent to adjust traffic light timings if needed.

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Weather Forecasting
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:40 AM

 Automatic weather stations collect hourly data on:

• Rainfall
• Temperature
• wind speed
• Wind direction
• air pressure
• humidity.
 Weather data is gathered hourly, every day.
 This data is fed into a model that simulates weather patterns.
 The model uses complex equations to represent air movement and heat/moisture exchange.
 The atmosphere is divided into a 3D grid, and data is input into the relevant sections.
 The model runs forward in time to predict the weather for the next few days or more.
• Weather data is input into the model to predict the next few days.
• After the forecast period, predictions are compared with actual weather.
• The model learns from past forecasts to improve accuracy.
• Updated data is fed in, and a new forecast is generated.
• Powerful computers are required to handle the large amount of data and
calculations.
 Weather modelling is often shown in animated format where cloud, rain, sun and wind
are projected on top of a map of the country and shown in real time (Figure 6.12).

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3. Computer controlled
systems
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:47 AM

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Robotics in manufacturing
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:49 AM

 Robots are widely used in manufacturing for both heavy and delicate tasks.
 Examples include:
• Car body paint spraying
• Car bodywork welding
• Microchip manufacturing
• Electrical goods production
• Stock movement in automated warehouses.
 Robots are controlled via embedded microprocessors or connected computer systems.
 Programming methods:
1. The robot is directly programmed with a sequence of instructions for tasks (e.g.,
paint spraying).
2. A human performs the task manually, and the robot learns by:
○ i. Being guided by the human, with each movement recorded.
○ ii. Using sensors strapped to the human’s arm to record detailed movement
data, like position and rotation.
 Once instructions are saved, the robot arm automatically carries out tasks identically each
time (e.g., assembling TV parts), ensuring a consistent product.
Robots use sensors to gather information about their surroundings, preventing errors,
such as:
• Stopping if no car is present for spraying
• Halting the operation if the paint supply runs out.
 Robots excel at repetitive tasks but are less effective for complex or varied tasks (e.g.,
making specialist glassware), where human operators are often better.
 Disadvantages of using robots:
• They can work in hazardous environments for humans.
• They operate 24/7 without rest.
• Long-term cost-effective (no wages, though expensive to buy).
• Higher productivity (no need for holidays).
• Greater consistency in tasks (e.g., identical cars on a production line).
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 • Greater consistency in tasks (e.g., identical cars on a production line).
• Handle boring, repetitive tasks, freeing humans for skilled work (e.g., quality
control, design).
• Can perform various tasks by using different attachments (e.g., spray gun, welding
gun).
 Disadvantages of using robots:
• Robots struggle with "unusual" or one-off tasks (e.g., custom glassware).
• They can lead to higher unemployment by replacing skilled labor.
• Certain skills (e.g., welding) may be lost due to robot usage.
• Factories can be moved globally, causing unemployment in certain areas.
• Initial setup and maintenance of robots can be costly.

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production line control
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:55 AM

 Examples of production line control using robots:

• Filling bottles with liquid, capping, and labeling them.
• Filling metal cans with baked beans, sealing, and labeling them.
 Benefits of using robots in a continuous production line:
• Faster operations (e.g., 120 cans of baked beans filled per minute).
• Greater productivity (24/7 production).
• Consistency (e.g., each can contains the correct weight).
• Built-in quality control (automatic rejection of defective items).
• Reduced consumer costs (fewer staff needed, despite high initial robot costs).
 How robots could be used in a bottling plant:
• Sensor 1 (pressure, light, or camera) detects the presence of a bottle and sends
signals to the computer.
• When a bottle is detected, the computer signals an actuator to open the valve,
allowing liquid to flow into the bottle.
• Sensor 2 (level sensor) monitors the liquid height and continuously sends signals
back to the computer.
• When sensor 2 detects the bottle is full, the computer sends a signal to the actuator
to close the valve.
• The computer then signals a second actuator to operate the motor, moving the
conveyor belt to position the next empty bottle.
• The process continues automatically until stopped for maintenance, errors, or a
change in the process.

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4. School Management System
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:14 AM

 Tasks managed by schools:

• Registration and attendance records of students.
• Tracking student performance.
• Computer-aided learning.

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Registration and attendance
records of students
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:00 AM

 Registration and attendance records of students

• Traditional registration and attendance issues:
• Time-consuming (10-minute sessions at the start and end of each day).
• Prone to errors if a student's name is missed during registration.
• A Possible way to automate the registration process is to using hardware and
software to streamline the process like:
 Method 1: Automated Student Attendance System with ID Cards
• Student ID Cards:

• Magnetic stripe on the back, containing:

○ School name
○ Student’s name
○ Date of birth
○ Unique ID (registration number)
• Student signs the card and writes their unique ID.
• Morning Check-In:
• Students swipe their ID cards through a card reader when arriving at
school.
• The system records the student’s entry time and date in the database.
• Leaving Check-Out:
• When leaving (at lunchtime or end of the day), the student swipes their ID
card again.
• The system records their departure time and date.
• Benefits:
• Provides accurate and comprehensive attendance records (arrival and
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 • Provides accurate and comprehensive attendance records (arrival and
departure times).
• Secure system, ensuring attendance is logged, preventing students from leaving
without notice (useful for emergencies like fires).
• End of the semester or year, the database can be queried to generate an
accurate attendance record for each student, which can be shared with parents
or reviewed by teachers.
• Additional Features:
• PIN for security: Ensures students don’t use each other’s ID cards to
register attendance.
• GPS Tracking: Using an RFID chip to track the student’s exact location
within the school premises. (Note: Privacy concerns with location tracking)
 Method 2: Biometric Student Attendance System
• Each student’s fingerprints are recorded, along with their personal details (as in
Method 1), and stored in a database.
• When a student enters the school premises, they place their hand on a fingerprint
scanner.
• The scanner reads the student’s fingerprints, which are unique to each individual,
ensuring a high level of security.
• The time and date of the student’s entry or exit are accurately recorded in the
database, just like in Method 1.
 Advantages of Biometrics over Magnetic ID Cards:
• Unique fingerprints make it impossible for a student to sign in as someone else,
providing more accurate data and improved security. (Magnetic cards can be
passed on to someone else, which could lead to fraudulent attendance).
• Fingerprints can't be lost since they are part of the student, whereas ID cards can
be lost or misplaced.
• Magnetic cards can be affected by magnetic fields (e.g., near mobile phones),
which might cause them to stop working, but fingerprints are not affected by such
issues.
• Cloning fingerprints is much harder than cloning ID cards. While copying ID
cards is relatively easy, copying fingerprints is much more difficult and secure.
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 cards is relatively easy, copying fingerprints is much more difficult and secure.
 Advantages of Biometrics over Magnetic ID Cards:
• Time-consuming: Collecting fingerprints from every student can take a long time.
• Higher costs: The equipment required to capture and read fingerprints is more
expensive than the equipment used for magnetic stripe cards.
• Possible identification issues: If a student injures a finger (e.g., cuts), the
fingerprint may not be recognized, preventing them from entering the school.
• Privacy concerns: Storing fingerprints in a database raises invasion-of-privacy
issues, and some students and parents may object to having their fingerprints stored.

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Student performance
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:16 AM

 Teachers can use spreadsheets to track student performance efficiently by recording test
results over a term or year. Here are some of the key benefits of using spreadsheets in
this context:
• Track individual performance: Teachers can easily monitor each student's progress
and compare their performance against other students in the same subject.
• Data import: Spreadsheets allow easy integration of data into reports, helping
teachers create summaries of a student's performance over the academic year. This
makes it easier to analyze and communicate progress.
 School management systems are useful for recording students' performance, which
includes both academic achievement and behavior. To generate an end-of-term or end-
of-year report, the system requires access to data such as:
• Exam and test results in all subjects studied during the term or year
• Behavioral data, including attendance records and the number of times a student
was in detention
• CAT scores, which are standardized test results used to measure students against a
set standard.
 After processing the data, the system could produce:
• The average grades for all students in a class
• Class and year group reports showing both academic and behavioral performance

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Computer-aided learning
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:19 AM

 Computer-aided learning (CAL) is the use of computer-based systems to assist in the

academic teaching of students.
 CAL is designed to enhance, not replace, traditional classroom teaching.
 Students use computers as part of their learning and complete online tests to monitor their
performance.
 If a student encounters a problem, CAL might not always provide a solution.
 In such cases, students would need to seek additional help.
 Advantages of CAL to enhance the learning process
• Students can learn when they want to and at their own pace.
• It allows virtual reality (VR) learning to be used; with VR, the student is fully
immersed into the learning environment.
• The student can stop at any point and return later to continue where they left off.
• It is possible to re-take tests until the student reaches the required skills level.
• CAL can make learning more interactive.
• CAL makes use of various multimedia (e.g., short video clips, animation, music,
and interactive learning methods).
• The real goal of CAL is to stimulate student learning and not replace teacher-based
learning; CAL should be integrated into the student's learning process.
• CAL can use multiple-choice questions (MCQs) that are immediately marked by
the computer system, providing instant feedback to the student; other assessment
methods include fill-in-the-missing-words, crossword puzzles, linking correct terms
to descriptions, and gaming.
• It can deliver micro-learning, where a topic is broken down into small, easy-to-
learn modules, making CAL most effective.
 Disadvantages of using CAL to enhance the learning process:
• CAL cannot give students the experience of handling laboratory equipment;
experiments in CAL are virtual.
• It is expensive and time-consuming to integrate CAL properly into the learning
environment.
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 environment.
• Students can easily be distracted while online, such as visiting social media sites,
websites, or playing online games.
• It can lead to the isolation of a student since they spend time alone in front of a
computer screen; this needs careful management.
• CAL cannot answer unusual questions, and students will need to seek guidance
from a teacher, meaning CAL is not a self-contained learning system.

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5. Booking Systems
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:23 AM

 Online booking systems rely on the ability to update files immediately, thus preventing
double-booking, which could happen if the system response time was slow.
 They are used in:
• The travel industry
• For concerts (theatre and music events)
• For cinema tickets
• When booking sporting events

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Advantages and Disadvantages
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:24 AM

 Advantages:
• Prevents double-booking by updating files immediately.
• Provides immediate feedback on availability and booking status.
• Allows customers to make bookings at any time of the day.
• Enables booking companies to send special offers via email.
• Makes it easier to browse seating plans and select the best seats available.
• Allows seat reservation for a specific period, giving customers time to
finalize their decision.
• Eliminates postal costs by reducing the need for printed tickets, and
facilitates impulse bookings.
• Uses smartphone and tablet apps for easy booking with QR codes,
which can be scanned on arrival.
 Disadvantages:
• Setting up and maintaining the system is expensive.
• Customers need access to a computer or mobile phone and a reliable
internet connection.
• Cancelling bookings and getting refunds can be more difficult.
• If the server is down, no bookings can be made, and temporary paper-
based systems cannot prevent double-booking.
• Poorly designed websites can make booking difficult or lead to errors,
especially with flights where corrections may incur extra costs.
• Online bookings may not allow customers to build personal relationships
with travel agents, potentially missing out on free upgrades or special
offers.

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Travel Industry
Thursday, May 1, 2025 8:31 AM

 As an example, we will consider booking a flight online.

• The user fills in a form (similar to the one shown in Figure 6.17).
• The system automatically searches for available flights, makes
bookings, and transfers funds from the user's bank account.
• The process is automated, meaning there's no need to speak with a
human operator unless something goes wrong.

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Events such as concerts,
theatres and cinemas
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:45 PM

 Concert, theatre, and cinema bookings use the same system since they all involve choosing
seats in a building.
 The example assumes the customer is booking a music concert at a seated venue.
 The customer must first log on to the event’s booking website.
○ Customer selects the performance
○ enters date/time and number of seats.
○ A seating plan is shown
○ they choose seats and click CONFIRM.
○ The system checks seat availability in the database.
○ If available, the seat numbers and total price are shown.
○ If accepted, customer clicks CONFIRM again.
○ Seats are now temporarily marked as unavailable.
○ Customer enters personal details or logs in as a returning user.
○ Payment method is selected and transaction completed.
○ Seats are officially booked in the customer’s name.
○ Final details are displayed
○ an email is sent with a QR code as the e-ticket.
○ The database is updated to show seats as permanently booked.
○

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Booking sporting Events
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:53 PM

 Booking a sporting event is very similar to the example below. Again, depending on the
event, the online booking system will show a seating plan.

 Customer selects event, date(s), number of people, and preferred seats.

 Seats are often sold in blocks, so the system checks for block availability.
 Unavailable seats won’t show on the map (unlike concert/cinema bookings).
 If seats are available, the customer is offered a block; if accepted, payment is made
online.
 Confirmation is sent by email and/or as a QR code for smartphone use.
 For events without seats (e.g., golf), booking grants entry.
 Same pros and cons as concert/cinema online booking.
 Extra option: booking flights and hotels for overseas events.

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Magnetic Media and Devices
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:57 PM

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6. Banking Systems
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:57 PM

 The use of computer technology has revolutionized how we all do our banking
transactions.
 In this section, we will consider:
○ the use of automatic teller machines (ATMs)
○ electronic funds transfer (EFT)
○ credit/debit card transactions
○ cheque clearing
○ internet banking.

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Automatic teller machines
(ATMs)
Thursday, May 1, 2025 7:58 PM

 Automatic teller machines (ATMs) allow the customer to:

○ withdraw cash
○ deposit cash
○ deposit cheques
○ check the balance of their account
○ see a mini bank statement
○ pay a bill
○ do a money transfer.
 Example of withdrawing cash ATMs

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 Example of depositing cheques at an ATM
○ User inserts debit card and enters PIN.
○ A message asks for the required service.
○ Customer selects "deposit a cheque."
○ A drawer opens; cheque is inserted.
○ Drawer closes; OCR reads cheque details including amount.
○ Amount is shown on screen; customer confirms.
○ Account is updated with the amount (pending 24–48 hours for clearance).
○ Customer receives a printed receipt.
○ If no other service is needed, the card is returned.
 Advantages of using ATMs
○ Cash can be withdrawn anytime.
○ Offers banking services like balance checks, statements, and bill payments without
visiting a bank.
○ Account access is available worldwide.
○ Usually faster than queuing in a bank.
 Disadvantages of using ATMs
○ ATMs in isolated areas can be targets for theft at night.
○ Risk of shoulder-surfing and card-cloning scams.
○ Some banks charge fees for ATM use.
○ Cash withdrawal limits may apply.
○ Faulty debit cards prevent transactions.
○ Lack of personal interaction, which some users prefer.

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Electronic funds transfer
(EFT)
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:08 PM

 Electronic funds transfer (EFT) allows money to be moved between accounts using
computer systems.
 No physical cash is involved.
 The bank’s computer system automatically transfers the specified amount when an EFT
instruction is received.
 A common use of EFT is paying staff salaries.
 On payday, the company instructs the bank to transfer money from its account to
employees’ accounts.

 EFT is also used when paying by credit/debit card in a store.

 This type of transaction is called electronic funds transfer at point-of-sale (EFTPOS).
 Advantages
• Very secure payment method
• Very quick
• Cheaper than using cheques
• Customers can dispute a payment for up to 60 days
 Disadvantages
• Once transferred, the bank cannot reverse the transaction without a full dispute
investigation
• Funds must be available immediately (unlike cheques)
• Cannot guarantee the identity of the recipient (someone with fake ID could collect the
money)

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Credit/debit card transactions
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:13 PM

 Many credit/debit cards are equipped with a chip as well as a magnetic stripe – the
chip contains key information such as the PIN.
 Designed for better security than relying on just a signature
 Used for paying at places like restaurants
 Payment is made using a chip and PIN debit/credit card
 This is a form of electronic funds transfer (EFT), where money is moved directly
between bank accounts through secure electronic instructions
 example, suppose a customer goes into a restaurant to pay for a meal using a chip and
PIN card:
• Customer enters PIN on keypad
• Card is checked for validity (expiry, stolen, etc.)
• Entered PIN is compared to PIN stored on card chip
• If PINs match, transaction continues; if not, it stops
• Restaurant’s bank contacts customer’s bank
• System checks if there are sufficient funds and if card is valid
• If checks fail, transaction is terminated
• If all checks are successful, transaction is authorized
• Authorization code is sent to the restaurant
• Money is deducted from customer’s account
• Same amount is credited to restaurant’s account
• Receipt is printed as proof of purchase
 Credit card Advantages
• Customer protection if company shuts down or goods don’t arrive
• Accepted internationally as a payment method
• Interest-free loan if repaid within the agreed period
• Can be used to buy items online
 Credit card Disadvantages
• High interest rates may be charged
• Annual fees often apply
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 • Annual fees often apply
• Easy to build up debt and damage credit
• Security risks when used online (e.g., data theft)
 Debit card Advantages
• Money is taken directly from the customer’s current account, so no interest is
charged
• Safer than carrying cash
• Can be used to buy items online
 Debit card Disadvantages
• Less customer protection compared to credit cards if goods do not arrive or
company goes out of business
• No credit allowed; customers must have the funds available
• Security risks when using debit cards online

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Cheques
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:19 PM

 One of the oldest methods of payment for goods or services

 Relatively expensive, slow, and less secure
 Phasing out due to these drawbacks
 Advantages
○ more convenient and safer than cash
○ it is possible to stop payments if necessary
○ a cheque can be drawn any time (up to six months after it was dated and signed)
○ cheques can be post-dated
○ cheques can be traced if they are 'lost'
 Disadvantages
○ cheques are not legal tender and can be refused
○ it is a slow method of payment
○ easier for fraudsters than credit card or debit card payment methods
○ relatively expensive payment method
 Centralized clearing of cheques
○ Intro in 2017
○ Quicker than the previous method of clearing cheques
○ Adopted by many banks worldwide
○ How?
▪ Uses an image-based system to speed up cheque clearing
▪ When a cheque is paid in, an electronic image is captured using OCR
software
▪ The bank details and sum of money are read from the image
○ So, suppose someone uses a bank called Hodder Bank and they pay a cheque
for $50 to a company called H&S Ltd, who bank with the Smith Bank. How
is the H&S bank account credited with $50?
▪ Out Clearing:
• A camera takes an image of the cheque, and OCR software converts it
into an electronic format.
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 into an electronic format.
▪ Smith Bank's Process:
• Creates a digital record of the cheque details (money, sort code, account
number).
• Adds cheque images and data into separate files for each bank.
▪ File Transfer:
• Smith Bank sends these files to a central facility, which processes them.
▪ Central Facility Processing:
• The facility
 breaks files into individual payment messages
 validates payments
 and sends a ‘request to pay’ message to the relevant bank.
▪ Bank's Decision:
• The recipient bank (e.g., Hodder Bank) reviews and decides to
approve or decline the payment based on the account's status.
▪ Response:
• The decision is sent back to Smith Bank, and the process is usually
completed within 24 hours, much faster than the old paper-based
method.

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7. Computers in medicine
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:28 PM

 Computers are used in many areas of medicine, such as:

○ keeping patient records and pharmacy records
○ use of 3D printers in many areas of surgery and customised medicines.

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patient and pharmacy records
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:29 PM

 Database usage
• Accurate Records: Doctors and hospitals need to maintain precise patient records
for correct diagnosis and treatment.
• Medical History: An up-to-date medical history is vital for the diagnosis process.
• Data Sharing: Databases enable data sharing between medical practitioners and
pharmacies to ensure safe prescriptions, such as avoiding dangerous drug
interactions.
 Benefits of Database
• Quick Access: Databases allow quick searches for patient records, which is crucial
in emergencies.
• Efficiency in Medication: Prescriptions can be sent directly to pharmacies via
email, eliminating the need for paper prescriptions.
 Data Required on a Patient Database:
• Unique identification number
• Name and address
• Date of birth
• Gender
• Medical history (e.g., recent medicine/treatment)
• Blood group
• Known allergies
• Doctor's details
• Current treatment
• Current diagnosis
• Additional information like X-rays, CT scans, etc.

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6. ICT Applications Page 188
Use of 3D printers
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:34 PM

 Their use in a number of fields is rapidly progressing. One of the most innovative uses is
in the field of medicine. The following is just a small insight into the many developments
taking place across the world.

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surgical and diagnostic aids
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:35 PM

• 3D printers can create anatomical parts to aid in diagnosis and surgery.

• Scanning methods used:
• CT (Computed Tomography): Produces thin slice images (less than 0.1 mm) of
the body’s internal parts.
• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses strong magnetic fields and radio
waves to create images of internal organs.
 How?
• 3D printers create three-dimensional models of a patient’s internal organs, blood
vessels, arteries, tumors, etc.
• This model helps doctors and surgeons explain the issue to the patient and the
required procedures, facilitating patient engagement, which is often lacking in
traditional consultations.
• It aids surgeons in planning surgeries by allowing them to visualize the exact
requirements before the operation.
• 3D printing systems serve as diagnostic and pre-surgical aids.
• Some 3D printers use hard nylon to produce models used for pre-surgical
planning.
• For instance, if a patient has a bone break, surgeons can test and position screws
and plates in the 3D printed bone model before the actual surgery.
• This reduces the risk of errors during the actual surgical procedure.

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Prosthetics
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:37 PM

 3D printers are now used to produce prosthetics like artificial arms,

hands, and legs.
 State-of-the-art myoelectric prosthetics can cost tens of thousands of
dollars, but 3D-printed prosthetics can cost as little as $100.
 The field still requires further research, but the progress so far has been
promising.
 The use of 3D printing in prosthetics allows more people to afford limb
replacements at a significantly lower cost compared to traditional methods.

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Tissue engineering
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:40 PM

 3D bio-printing involves using bio-inks to create artificial cells and tissues within a 3D
printed object.
 This process is complex and requires collaboration among biologists, medical engineers,
physicists, and other specialists.
 It has already been successfully used to produce multi-layered skin tissue, bone tissue,
heart/artery grafts, and tracheal splints.
 While there is still a lot of research to be done, the goal of growing replacement organs
using cells from the patient is becoming increasingly feasible due to advancements in 3D
printing technology.


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artificial blood vessels
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:41 PM

 One type of tissue engineering involves 3D printing artificial blood vessels using
human cells.
 These bio-printed blood vessels mimic the function and structure of natural
blood vessels.
 Biomimetic blood vessels are created using 3D printing technology combined
with bio-inks, making them highly functional and similar to natural vessels.

 Biomimetic refers to imitating natural elements, like human cells, to create

solutions for anatomical issues.
 Bio-inks are specialized inks made from human cells and biopolymer gels,
designed for use in 3D printers. These inks enable the production of artificial
live tissues by using 3D layering techniques.


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Customized medicines
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:43 PM

 Patient-centric medicine: 3D printing allows for the customization of medicine tailored to

the individual’s needs, ensuring better effectiveness and personalized treatment.
 Printlets: 3D printed tablets (printlets) can be designed to provide controlled and
optimized release of medication. Multiple medicines can be incorporated into a single tablet
for fixed-dose combinations.
 Vapour printing: A new 3D inkjet technology used to print medicines. This process
involves evaporating powdered medicine and combining it with nitrogen gas. The resulting
gas is sprayed onto a cooled surface to form thin films, which are then stacked to create
the final tablet with controlled geometry.
 Benefits: This technique allows for precise control over the medicine release profile,
offering individualized dosing based on the geometry of the tablet, which is not possible
with traditional methods that rely on compressing powdered medicine into uniform shapes.
 Advantages
○ tailor-made medicines to suit the individual
○ better control of medicine release into the body
○ saves money (many modern medicines are very expensive)
○ better targeting of the medicine so its effects can be optimised
○ less chance of an overdose of the medicine, thus reducing harmful side-effects (for
example, chemotherapy medicines can have very unwelcome side-effects; by
reducing the release of the medicine to suit the individual, it will not only work better
but also cause fewer harmful side-effects).
 Blueprints for custom-made medicines: A detailed digital blueprint for a patient’s medicine
would be created and sent to pharmacies.
 Pharmacies print customized medicines: Using the blueprint, pharmacies would then print
the medicines on-site using the required materials, tailored to each patient’s needs.

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8. Expert systems
Thursday, May 1, 2025 11:50 PM

 Expert systems have been developed to mimic the expertise and knowledge of an expert in
a particular field. Examples include:
• Prospecting for oil and minerals
• Diagnostics (e.g., car engine or circuit board faults)
• Medical diagnosis
• Strategy games (e.g., chess)
• Tax and financial planning
• Route scheduling for delivery vehicles
• Identification of plants, animals, and chemical compounds
Advantages of Expert Systems:
1. High level of expertise
2. High accuracy
3. Consistent results
4. Ability to store vast amounts of knowledge
5. Traceable logical solutions and diagnostics
6. Can have multiple types of expertise
7. Fast response time (quicker than human experts)
8. Unbiased reporting and analysis
9. Provides the probability of the solution being correct
Disadvantages of Expert Systems:
1. Requires considerable user training
2. High setup and maintenance costs
3. Responses can be “cold” and may not be suitable in certain situations (e.g.,
medical)
4. The quality depends on the input data
5. Users may mistakenly assume the system is infallible

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6. ICT Applications Page 196
Components of an Expert
System
Friday, May 2, 2025 3:58 AM

 User interface
• is the way an expert system interacts with the user.
• Interaction can happen through dialogue boxes, command prompts, or other input
methods.
• The system usually asks yes/no questions.
• Each question depends on the responses given to previous questions.

 explanation systems
• It explains how the expert system reached its conclusion and what actions it
recommends.
• For example, if the system diagnoses mercury poisoning, it might explain that this is
due to symptoms like impaired vision, weak muscles, slurred speech, etc., and the
patient's past work in a paint factory.
• The user can dig deeper into the explanation if needed.
• The system also gives the probability of how accurate its conclusion is.
• For instance, it might say there's a 21% chance of finding oil in a certain location
based on the input data.

 Interference engine
• This is the main processing part of an expert system.
• It works like a search engine, examining the knowledge base for information that
matches user queries.
• It gathers data from the user by asking a series of questions.
• Each question is based on answers given to earlier questions.
• It is the problem-solving part of the system and uses inference rules stored in the
rules base.
• The knowledge base contains objects and their attributes, and the inference engine tries
6. ICT Applications Page 197
 • The knowledge base contains objects and their attributes, and the inference engine tries
to match user responses to one of these objects using the rules base.

 knowledge base
• A knowledge base is a collection of facts used by the expert system.
• It contains all the expert knowledge gathered from various expert sources in a specific
field.
• This knowledge is stored as a collection of objects and their attributes.

• For example, if the system asks the following:

• Is it a mammal? → YES
• Does it live in water? → YES
• Does it make sonic sounds? → YES
• Is its body covered in skin? → YES
• Does it have any legs? → NO
• The system would conclude: it is a WHALE.

 rules base (Inference Rules)

• Inference rules are used by the inference engine to reach conclusions.
• These rules are designed to follow human-like reasoning and logical thought
processes.
• They often use a series of “IF” statements to make decisions.
• Example:
• IF continent = “South America” AND language = “Portuguese”
• THEN country = “Brazil”.

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setting up an expert system
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:13 AM

 Information needs to be gathered from human experts or sources like textbooks, research
papers, or the internet.
 This information is used to populate the knowledge base, which must be created first.
 A rules base needs to be developed, consisting of inference rules that the inference engine
can use to draw conclusions.
 The inference engine must be set up as it’s the main processing element, responsible for
making reasoned conclusions based on the knowledge base.
 A user interface must be developed to facilitate communication between the user and the
expert system.
 After setup, the system needs to be fully tested by running it with known outcomes to
compare results and make necessary changes.


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examples of expert systems
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:14 AM

 Example 1: medical diagnosis

○ Input screen
• An interactive screen is presented to the user.
• The system asks a series of questions about the patient’s illness.
• The user answers the questions (either multiple-choice or yes/no).
• Additional questions are asked based on the user’s previous responses.
○ Expert System
• The inference engine compares the symptoms entered with those in the
knowledge base for matches.
• The rules base is used in the matching process.
• Once a match is found, the system suggests the probability of the patient’s
illness being accurately identified.
• The expert system also suggests possible solutions, remedies, or
recommendations on what to do next.
• The explanation system provides reasons for the diagnosis so the user can
assess its validity and the suggested treatment.
○ Output screen
• The diagnosis can be presented as text or images of human anatomy to
indicate the location of the problem.
• The user can request further information from the expert system to narrow
down the possible illness and its treatment.
 Example 2: oil prospecting
○ Input Screen
• An interactive user screen is presented (often with multiple-choice or yes/no
questions).
• Questions are asked about geological profiles.
• Answers to questions/geological profiles are typed in by the operator.
• The next questions are based on previous responses from the operator.
Expert System
6. ICT Applications Page 200
 ○ Expert System
• The inference engine searches the knowledge base using the rules base.
• The system suggests the probability of finding oil as an output.
• It indicates the probable depth of deposits, usually with a % probability.
• The explanation system explains how the expert system arrived at its
conclusions.
○ Output Screen
• The system makes predictions about geological deposits above the soil.
• It produces contour maps showing concentrations of minerals, rocks, oil, etc.
 Example 3: route scheduling for delivery vehicles
○ The expert system finds the most efficient route for a parcel delivery van.
○ It determines the fastest and least expensive route, along with the number of vehicles
and drivers needed.
○ For complex national and international routes, the system can handle more intricate
scenarios.
○ Inputs needed for the delivery system:
• Number of drop-off points and their locations.
• Distance between the drop-off points.
• Type of vehicle used.
• Expected delivery times at each drop-off point.
• Layout of the road network.

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9. Computers in the retail
industry
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:23 AM

 Computers are used in the retail industry at point-of-sale (POS) terminals, where they
are also used in the automatic stock control systems.

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6. ICT Applications Page 204
point-of-sale (pos) terminals
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:24 AM

 What?
• Barcodes are present on most products sold in shops for quick identification of
product details.
• They are scanned by a barcode reader to retrieve product information.
• Supermarkets use POS terminals that incorporate barcode readers.
• The barcode reader scans the barcode and retrieves the price of the item.
• The system also updates its files by relaying information back to the computer
system.
 Barcode Structure
• Barcodes consist of alternating dark and light lines of varying thickness.
• Underneath the barcode, there is usually a number with four parts:
1. Country code
2. Manufacturer’s code
3. Product code
4. Check digit
• The check digit is used for error validation, ensuring no errors occurred during the
barcode reading process.
 Automatic Stock Control System with Barcodes and POS Terminals
• Barcodes attached to all items in the supermarket.
• Each barcode is linked to a stock file, containing details like price, stock levels, and
product description, with the barcode acting as the primary key.
• Customer shopping process:
• Customer brings their trolley/basket to the POS terminal.
• Barcode of each item is scanned; if unreadable, the EPOS operator enters
the number manually.
• Barcode search is conducted on the stock file for a match.
• Once a match is found, the appropriate record is accessed.
• Price and product description are sent back to the POS.
• Stock level is reduced by one, and the updated stock level is written back to the
6. ICT Applications Page 205
 • Stock level is reduced by one, and the updated stock level is written back to the
stock file.
• Re-order process:
• If stock is low (less than or equal to re-order number), the computer
automatically orders items from suppliers.
• Supplier information is stored in the order file (linked with barcodes).
• An order flag is placed on the item’s file to prevent duplicate orders until stock
arrives.
• When new stock arrives, barcodes on cartons update stock files and remove
the order flag.
• Final steps:
• The process repeats until all items in the basket are scanned.
• Itemized bill with prices is given to the customer.
• Daily takings are updated in the files.
• If the customer has a loyalty card, their points total is automatically updated.

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Electronic funds transfer at
point-of-sale (EFTPOS)
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:30 AM

• Electronic Funds Transfer at Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS) is used when payment is

made by card or electronic device (like a mobile phone) at the POS terminal.
• The process of checking credit/debit cards is similar to the restaurant payment process,
with secure communication between the supermarket EFTPOS terminals and the bank via
the internet.
• Payment methods include:
• Chip and PIN
• Contactless cards
• Near Field Communication (NFC) devices

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6. ICT Applications Page 208
 Chip and Pin
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:31 AM

 How?
• The chip and PIN method is used by inserting the card into a reader.
• The procedure involves:
• Reader connection with the chip embedded in the card.
• Entering the PIN for a security check.
• Encrypted data from the chip and PIN are sent to the customer’s bank.
• Security checks include verifying if the card is stolen or expired.
• If the checks are OK and there are sufficient funds, an authorization code is
sent back to the terminal.
• The funds are transferred to the supermarket’s bank.
 Advantages
• Chip and PIN is more secure than magnetic stripe cards because the PIN must
match the one stored on the chip.
• It is quicker, as it allows for contactless payments and doesn’t need an internet
connection to start the transaction.
• No Bank Contact for Initial Transaction unlike for magnetic stripe cards

 Disadvantages
• The risk of fraud when typing in the PIN – the customer needs to be careful to
ensure the PIN is not being read by somebody else while typing it in.
• Some countries do not accept chip and PIN cards.

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Contactless cards
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:37 AM

 The use of contactless card payments was discussed in Section 2.2, together with their
advantages and disadvantages.

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Near field communication
(NFC) devices
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:39 AM

 When using NFC payment at a POS terminal the sequence of events taking place is:
• NFC payment involves holding an electronic device close to the POS terminal
(within 5 cm).
• The NFC terminal and the device exchange encrypted data back and forth, when
payment is initiated
• The communication is secure, with dynamic encryption changing for each
transaction(which means encrypted data being shared changes every time a
transaction takes place)
• Mobile phone manufacturers use tokenisation to improve security.

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Use of tokenization with
mobile phones
Friday, May 2, 2025 4:43 AM

 Tokenisation is used when setting up a mobile wallet.

 The user takes a photo of their credit card with their smartphone camera.
 The card details are sent securely to the bank by the mobile wallet company.
 The bank replaces the card details with randomly generated tokens.
 The mobile phone manufacturer receives the token and programs them in the users phone
 These tokens are used for transactions instead of the actual credit card details.
 Retailers and third parties do not have access to real credit card details, protecting against
hacks.
 Smartphones are often protected by touch ID or face ID, preventing unauthorized use
if the phone is stolen.

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Internet Shopping
Friday, May 2, 2025 6:04 PM

 What?
• Internet banking enables users to manage their bank accounts online.
• Users can perform tasks like transferring money between accounts, paying bills,
and ordering bank statements.
• It’s especially useful for people who cannot visit a bank during regular hours or
who find it hard to travel.
• Online shopping and banking allow people to stay at home and still purchase goods,
manage finances, and book services like holidays.
• These services only require a computer with internet access and a form of electronic
payment (e.g., debit or credit card).
• There are both advantages and disadvantages to internet banking and shopping,
which are becoming more evident as usage increases.
• The effects of these technologies on society are growing, especially with more people
relying on them.
• Since many of the pros and cons overlap between online banking and shopping,
they are considered together.
 Advantages of online shopping and banking
• No need to travel, which saves time, money (e.g. fuel, fares), reduces congestion
and pollution.
• Access to a global market makes it easier to find cheaper goods and a wider
variety.
• Very beneficial for elderly people and those with disabilities who can’t easily go out.
• Services are available 24/7, which is convenient for people with busy schedules.
• Saves time that can be spent on other activities (e.g. online grocery shopping).
• Paying bills online is faster than doing it by post or in person.
• Some users feel more comfortable applying for loans online rather than in person.
• Internet banking avoids long queues at banks.
• Businesses save money on staff and building costs, which may lead to cheaper
prices or better interest rates for customers.
6. ICT Applications Page 215
 prices or better interest rates for customers.
 Disadvantages of online shopping and banking
• Can lead to social isolation and less physical activity.
• Health concerns due to less movement and exercise.
• Security risks like hacking, phishing, and malware.
• Risk of using fake or fraudulent websites.
• Requires a computer or device and a stable internet connection.
• Can’t physically inspect or try on items before buying; delivery takes time and
returns can be a hassle.
• Increased delivery traffic adds to pollution.
• High-street shops and banks are closing, damaging local economies.
• Small, local retailers struggle to compete with large online companies.
• Easier to make costly mistakes, such as sending money to the wrong account.
 Effects on companies due to the spread of online shopping and banking
• Companies save money by hiring fewer staff and needing fewer physical branches.
• They gain access to a global customer base via the internet.
• Extra costs arise from staff retraining and expanding delivery departments.
• Setting up and maintaining websites also adds to expenses.
• Less customer interaction can reduce loyalty and satisfaction.
• Fewer high-street banks mean fewer robberies.
• Banks can cut back on security staff, reducing costs.

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10. Recognition Systems
Friday, May 2, 2025 10:26 PM

 Recognition systems include OMR, barcode readers, QR code readers, OCR,

RFID and biometric recognition systems. Many of these were discussed in Chapter 2
and earlier on in this chapter.
 This section will consider a number of applications which make use of these data
recognition systems.

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optical mark recognition
(OMR)
Friday, May 2, 2025 10:28 PM

 Use of OMR to read school registers

• Student attendance can be recorded using magnetic stripe cards, biometrics, or
paper-based systems.
• However, paper-based systems are still used in many schools.
• Paper registers are often scanned using OMR (Optical Mark Recognition).
• The attendance data is then saved in a central database.
 Use of OMR to read multiple-choice question (MCQ) papers
• OMR (Optical Mark Recognition) is used to scan and mark multiple-choice
question (MCQ) papers.
• Forms have timing marks on one side:
• These marks pass under the first column sensor.
• They help identify the position of each question.
• OMR software:
• Uses a template to map the X-Y coordinates of each lozenge (bubble).
• Each lozenge is assigned a value.
• Scanning process:
• A light sensor detects which lozenges are filled with pencil or ink.
• The filled-in lozenges are compared to the template.
• If the filled lozenge matches the correct position, the answer is recorded as
correct.
• Invalid answers:
• If more than one lozenge is filled for a question, the software discards the
answer.
• Advantages:
• Faster and more accurate than manual marking.
• Results are exported directly to a database or spreadsheet.
• Easier to analyse the data afterwards.
Advantages of OMR devices
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 Advantages of OMR devices
• Very fast method of inputting results (e.g., surveys); documents are fed in
automatically without user input.
• No typing involved, so fewer errors than manual data entry.
• More accurate than OCR (Optical Character Recognition) methods.
 Disadvantages of OMR devices
• Forms must be carefully designed so marks/shading are correctly positioned to
ensure accurate data collection.
• Incorrectly filled forms can cause problems and may need to be manually
checked — time-consuming and costly.
• Often only compatible with black pen or pencil.
• Limited to fixed-response questions; cannot record extended answers or explanations
(e.g., in questionnaires).

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Barcode readers
Friday, May 2, 2025 10:47 PM

 Please refer to Chapter 2 (Section 2.2.5) for information about barcode readers,
including their advantages and disadvantages.

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QR code readers
Friday, May 2, 2025 10:48 PM

 Please refer to Chapter 2 (Section 2.2.6) for information about QR code readers,
including their advantages and disadvantages.

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optical character recognition
(OCR)
Friday, May 2, 2025 10:49 PM

 Use of OCR (Optical Character Recognition):

• OCR was previously discussed for uses like bank cheque clearing.
• Another important application of OCR is introduced here

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6. ICT Applications Page 223
Automated Number Plate
Recognition (ANPR) Systems:
Friday, May 2, 2025 10:51 PM

 What?
• ANPR systems are used to read the number plates of cars.
• They have various applications, including controlling entry and exit in car parks
through an automated system.
 Process Example
 In the example that follows, we will describe how ANPR is used in a car park to
enable entry and exit to be automatically controlled by a computer system.
1. Detection and Image Capture:
• A sensor detects a vehicle and sends a signal to the camera to capture an
image of the vehicle's front.
• An infrared camera is often used to capture clearer images, especially at
night.
2. Image Processing:
i. An algorithm locates and isolates the number plate from the image, accounting
for size, damage, or orientation.
ii. The brightness and contrast of the number plate are adjusted for clarity. The
characters are then segmented.
iii. Each character is recognized using OCR software, converting it into an
editable text string.
iv. The text string is stored in a database.
3. Entry and Ticket Issuance:
• After processing, the car park barrier is raised, and the motorist is issued a
ticket with the date and time of entry.
4. Exit and Payment Verification:
• When the motorist returns, they insert the ticket into a machine, and the car
park charges are calculated and registered in the database.
• At the exit, the ANPR system reads the number plate, checks the database,
and raises the barrier if payment is confirmed.
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 and raises the barrier if payment is confirmed.
 Advantages of ANPR
• Traffic Management: Can monitor the average speed of vehicles over a stretch of
road, aiding in smart traffic management systems.
• Cost-saving: Eliminates the need for car park security guards, reducing costs.
• Efficiency: Faster than manually checking tickets at exits, linking payment to the
vehicle's number plate.
• Access Control: Enables automatic control of entry and exit to car parks or private
roads.
• Security: Helps prevent illegal parking and unauthorized access to private car parks.
• Driver Behavior Analysis: Can analyze driver behavior (route choice and
destinations) for transport planning.
• Congestion Charging: Can be used in congestion charging systems to automatically
charge vehicles entering a congestion zone while allowing permitted vehicles (e.g.,
emergency, buses, electric vehicles) without charge.
 Disadvantages of ANPR
• Lack of Manned Surveillance: Absence of regular human security could lead to
increased vandalism or other crimes, as CCTV is typically used only after incidents
occur.
• Privacy Concerns: The recording of number plates may raise invasion of privacy
issues.
• Recognition Issues: Damaged or dirty number plates may not be correctly
recognized by the system.
• Number Plate Cloning: ANPR systems only recognize the number plate, not the
car itself, making it possible for a vehicle to bypass security using a cloned number
plate.

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6. ICT Applications Page 226
Radio frequency identification
devices (RFID)
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:03 PM

 Radio frequency identification devices (RFID) were covered in Chapter 2 (Section

2.2).
 This section will look specifically at four uses of RFIDs:
○ tracking of stock
○ passports
○ automobiles
○ contactless payments.
 First of all, we will consider the advantages and disadvantages of using RFID.
○ Advantages of RFID
• No need for line-of-sight contact; tags can be read from a distance.
• Reliable and robust technology.
• Tags are harder to forge compared to barcodes, which can be altered or
damaged.
• Can reduce staffing requirements in settings like warehouses through automatic
tracking, lowering costs.
• Fast read rate (typically under 100 milliseconds).
• Supports bi-directional data transfer (allows both read and write operations).
• Bulk detection allows multiple RFID tags to be detected at the same time.
○ Disadvantages of RFID
• Tag collision: Occurs when signals from multiple tags overlap, causing
interference.
• Vulnerability to jamming: RFID signals, using radio waves, can be easily
jammed or interrupted.
• Data hacking: The data or signal transmitted by RFID tags can be
relatively easy to hack.
• High initial cost: Although RFID can save on staff wages, the initial setup
cost is higher than barcode systems.

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6. ICT Applications Page 228
Tracking of stock
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:09 PM

• Components: RFID tags consist of a microchip (stores and processes information) and
an antenna (receives/transmits data).
• Types of tags:
• Passive tags: Use the reader’s radio wave energy to transmit information; more
common, smaller, and cheaper.
• Active tags: Have a battery to power the tag and can be read from up to 50
meters away.
• Reading distance:
• Passive tags: Typically have a shorter range (a few millimetres).
• Active tags: Can be read from several metres away (e.g., used in livestock
tracking).
• Livestock Tracking:
• Purpose:
○ Track the whereabouts of animals on a farm using active tags.
○ Identify animal ownership, particularly in cases where animals roam freely on
large farms.
○ Store data on each animal’s tag, such as medical history, birth date,
identification number, etc.
• Retail Use:
• Comparison to Barcodes:
○ RFID tags can hold much more information and don't require manual
scanning.
○ Can store details like price, description, etc.
○ Tags can be read simultaneously, speeding up the checkout process.
• Distribution Centres:
○ Tags help easily locate items by storing their exact warehouse location.
• Tracking from Warehouse to Customer:
○ RFID allows for automatic tracking of items throughout the supply chain.
Customers can be updated on the status of their orders at all stages.
6. ICT Applications Page 229
 ○ Customers can be updated on the status of their orders at all stages.


6. ICT Applications Page 230

passports
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:13 PM

 Passive Tags: No power supply; they rely on energy from the RFID scanner to function.
 Function: When presented to an RFID scanner, the chip broadcasts its stored information to
the computer.
 Security Features:
• Can contain security data like photographs and fingerprints, making identity falsification
difficult.
• The data is encrypted, enhancing the security of the system.
 Range: RFID in passports can be read from up to six metres, which poses a security risk.
• Mitigation: The risk is reduced by encrypting the data.

6. ICT Applications Page 231

vehicles
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:16 PM

 Parking Access: RFID tags control access to secure, private car parks.
 Weigh Stations: Used in lorries and delivery vans to ensure vehicles are not overweight.
 Toll Roads: Tags are attached to the windscreen; transponders read the tag at barriers,
allowing tolls to be paid automatically without stopping.
 Car Production: RFID tags track a vehicle's progress through the assembly process.


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Contactless credit/debit cards
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:18 PM

 Use an embedded passive RFID tag.

 The passive chip emits a low-powered radio wave when it comes into contact with an
RFID reader.
 An antenna is built into the card to enable connection with the reader.
 The RFID reader picks up the signal from the chip, initiating the payment process.


6. ICT Applications Page 233

Near field communication
(NFC)
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:20 PM

 NFC can be used by smartphones for making payments.

 It is a subset of RFID technology, operating at a specific frequency.
 NFC is a standard for wireless data transmission.
 Unlike general RFID:
• NFC requires very close proximity between sender and receiver, making
communication more secure.
• NFC devices can act as both a receiver (passive) and a reader (active).
 These features distinguish NFC from general RFID technology.
 How?
Modes of Operation:
1. Peer-to-Peer Mode (used by smartphones):
○ Two NFC-enabled devices exchange data (e.g. links, photos, contacts).
○ Devices switch roles between active (sending) and passive (receiving).
○ Example: Tapping two phones together to share files.
2. Read/Write Mode:
○ One-way data transmission.
○ An active device (e.g. smartphone) reads data from a passive device (e.g.
tag, tablet).
○ Example: A phone reading advertising info from a smart poster.
3. Card Emulation Mode:
○ An NFC device acts like a contactless card (e.g. smartcard, debit card).
○ Used for making payments or entering transport systems.
○ Example: Tapping a phone at a metro turnstile to gain access.
Other Details:
• Range: Up to 5 cm.
• Transmission speed: Around 420 kbps, slower than Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.
• Connectivity: Very quick, as it does not require pairing like Bluetooth.

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6. ICT Applications Page 235
Biometric recognition systems
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:23 PM

Examples of biometric systems:

• Face recognition (covered in Chapter 8)
• Finger and thumb recognition (covered in Chapter 8)
• Hand recognition (gesture control) (covered in Chapter 1)
• Voice recognition (covered in Chapter 1)
• Retina recognition
• Iris recognition
Each system uses unique human characteristics to verify identity.
 Retina recognition
• The retina is a light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye with a unique pattern
of blood vessels, making it ideal for identification.
• A specialized infrared camera is required to photograph the retina, making the
technology secure but expensive.
• The process is invasive: the person must sit still and look directly into the light
source.
• Scanning and verification are slow, which limits usability.
• Due to cost, complexity, and intrusiveness, it is used only in high-security
environments.
 Iris recognition
• The iris is the coloured part of the eye around the pupil.
• A digital camera using visible and near-infrared light captures a sharp image
of the iris.
• The system identifies unique iris patterns by locating:
• the centre and edge of the pupil
• the edge of the iris
• the eyelids and eyelashes
• It works with glasses, contact lenses, and even blind individuals.
• Fast verification (under 5 seconds) makes it practical for real-world use.
• Common applications include:
6. ICT Applications Page 236
• Common applications include:
• Immigration control
• Bank security systems in certain branches
•

6. ICT Applications Page 237

11. Satellite systems
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:29 PM

 In this final section, we will be considering:

○ global positioning systems and satellite navigation
○ geographic information systems (GIS)
○ media communication systems (satellite television and satellite phones).

6. ICT Applications Page 238

Global positioning systems and
satellite navigation
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:30 PM

 GPS is used to find the exact location of transport modes like aeroplanes, cars, and ships.
 In cars, it's often called a satellite navigation system (satnav).
 Satellites orbiting Earth constantly send signals with their position and exact time.
 GPS receivers in vehicles pick up these signals and use the data from at least 3 satellites
to calculate their precise location.
 Satellites use atomic clocks, accurate to a billionth of a second, to maintain time precision.
 Car satnavs also contain stored road maps, combining this with GPS to:
• Show exact position on the map
• Provide spoken directions (e.g. “Take the next left”)
• Display the car’s route and movement visually on a screen
 Advantages of GPS and satnav
• Safer driving – no need to use paper maps while driving.
• Reduces navigation errors – can warn about one-way streets, road closures, etc.
• Provides estimated time of arrival (ETA).
• Allows users to customize routes – e.g. avoid towns, take the fastest route.
• Gives additional useful info – like locations of petrol stations, services, etc.
 Disadvantages of GPS and satnav
• Outdated maps can lead to incorrect directions.
• Basic systems may not account for temporary road closures (e.g. accidents or
construction).
• Signal loss (e.g. in tunnels or remote areas) can interrupt navigation.
• User input errors (e.g. wrong start or destination) result in misleading routes.

6. ICT Applications Page 239

6. ICT Applications Page 240
Geographic information system
(GIS)
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:39 PM

 A computer system that allows users to map, model, query, and analyze large amounts of
data based on location.
 Allows users to:
• Create interactive queries
• Edit map data
• Analyze spatial information (i.e. how objects relate and fit together in space)
 Combines maps, computer graphics, and databases to present data.
 Enables:
• Amalgamation of information into easily understood maps
• Performing complex analytical calculations and presenting results as maps, tables,
graphics, or combinations
• Professionals (geographers, scientists, engineers) to view data in different ways to
identify patterns and relationships
• Use of anything that can be placed on a map as a GIS data source
 The following example shows how these layering techniques are used to produce a visually
effective answer to a query made in the GIS system:

 Examples of GIS Use

• Emergency services: GIS helps dispatch the closest emergency personnel to a
location.
6. ICT Applications Page 241
 location.
• Biologists and environmentalists: Used to protect vulnerable animal species and plants
by identifying critical areas based on search criteria in a database.
• Teachers: Can use GIS for lessons in geography, science, or engineering.
• Crime mapping: GIS is used for mapping crime in regions or countries to analyze
trends.
• Route monitoring: Works in conjunction with route scheduling software to track and
optimize routes.
• Agricultural management: Helps in managing crop data for better farming practices.
• Public health: Used to track disease spread, like during the Covid-19 pandemic in
2020-2021, combining data (age, ethnicity, density) to gain insights into transmission
patterns.
• Wildfire monitoring: Used in Australia in 2019 to map and track the spread of
wildfires.
 Advantages of GIS
• Combining data: GIS allows geographical and thematic data of any kind to be
merged, showing connections between them.
• Data handling: It can handle and explore large amounts of data, enabling massive
number crunching.
• Data integration: GIS integrates data from diverse sources, even if those sources
initially seem unrelated.
 Disadvantages of GIS
• Learning curve: GIS software has a long learning curve, requiring significant time
to master.
• Cost: GIS software can be very expensive to acquire and maintain.
• Data input: It requires enormous amounts of data to be input, increasing the
likelihood of errors.
• Complexity: It is challenging to create GIS programs that are both fast and user-
friendly, as they require complex command language interfaces.
•

6. ICT Applications Page 242

6. ICT Applications Page 243
Media communication systems
Friday, May 2, 2025 11:49 PM

• Definition: Communication media refers to the methods of delivering and receiving

data/information using telecommunications.
• Types of Media: There are various types of media, such as fibre optics, copper cables,
and Wi-Fi, but satellites are the focus here as a global communication method.
• Satellite Components:
• Antennas: To receive and send signals.
• Transponders: To facilitate data transmission between Earth and satellite.
• Solar Panels: To generate power from the Sun.
• Propulsion: To maintain the satellite's position in the correct orbit.
• Signal Transmission Process:
• Signals are beamed from Earth to the satellite via a satellite dish.
• Carrier waves are used to transmit the signals, each with its own frequency and
bandwidth.
○ The higher the bandwidth, the more data can be transmitted.
• The satellite boosts the signal before retransmitting it back to Earth.
• The frequency may be changed on retransmission to avoid confusion between the
received and transmitted signals.
• Long-distance communication: Satellites allow data to be transmitted over great
distances, which is difficult or costly with cables due to signal degradation.
• Advantages of media communication systems
• Global Coverage: Satellites provide wide coverage, covering most of the Earth's
surface, ensuring broad communication reach.
• Cost-effective for Difficult Terrain: They are cheaper, faster, and safer
compared to laying cables in challenging terrains, such as mountains or oceans.
• High Bandwidth: Satellites offer very high bandwidth, enabling the transmission
of large amounts of data.
• Easy Network Expansion: Expanding the satellite network is relatively easy, as
numerous companies manufacture satellites for different uses.
• Strong Security: Satellite transmission is secure because data is coded, and the
6. ICT Applications Page 244
 • Strong Security: Satellite transmission is secure because data is coded, and the
receiver needs decoding equipment to read it, ensuring confidentiality.
• Flexibility in Emergencies: In emergencies, ground stations can be moved, and
satellites can adjust their orbits using built-in boosters to maintain connectivity.
• Broadcasting Capability: Satellites are ideal for broadcasting, as one signal can be
picked up by multiple receivers on the ground.
• Portability: Satellite receivers on the ground can be portable, allowing mobile
communication in remote and isolated locations.
• Disadvantages of media communication systems
• Time Delay: There is a time delay in receiving signals, especially noticeable in voice
communications, where even a 0.5-second delay can cause sound and video to be
out of sync or lead to an echo effect.
• Weather and Obstruction Sensitivity: Bad weather (such as heavy rain or
hailstones), physical obstructions (like tree branches), and misalignment of the
satellite dish can disrupt the signal reception.
• Sunspot Activity: Sunspot activity can interfere with satellite performance, causing
signal disruption.
• Need for Monitoring and Control: Satellites not in a fixed position relative to Earth
require constant monitoring and adjustments to ensure they stay in the correct orbit.

6. ICT Applications Page 245

Systems Life Cycle
Monday, March 3, 2025 9:12 PM

In this chapter we will consider the stages and processes involved when replacing computer
systems, from analysis of an existing system right through to evaluation of the new system.
 Suppose a company wants to replace the current system (used for several years) with a
new one.
 What would Initiate this need to upgrade i.e. Why?
○ The existing computer equipment is now obsolete (it cannot be repaired anymore).
○ Changes to laws or taxes requiring radical overhaul of software.
○ More suitable hardware is now available to improve efficiency and reliability.
○ There is a need to expand the company. etc.
 These changes involve an ICT solution so a systems analyst needs to be brought in. Who
will first, analyze the current system to suggest improvements
 Improvements need to be costed and their advantages reported back to the company’s
management team.
 Once a new system is decided and tested it is installed
 It needs to be fully evaluated and any changes made where necessary.
 Therefore, a cycle of events take place until a fully-working system is signed off and
handed over to the management team.
 This whole process is called the systems life cycle.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 246

1. Analysis
Monday, March 3, 2025 10:39 PM

 The first stage in the process is the analysis of the current system. Figure 7.2 shows the
stages in analysis.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 247

7. The Systems life cycle Page 248
Research the current System
Monday, March 3, 2025 10:46 PM

 There are four methods used to research the current system. The four methods used are:
○ observation
▪ Description
□ This involves watching personnel using the existing system to find out
exactly how it works
▪ Advantages
□ The analyst obtains reliable data
□ It is possible to get a better overall view of the system
□ Relatively inexpensive method because it only involves the analyst
□ All inputs and outputs of the current system are seen
▪ Disadvantages
□ People are generally uncomfortable being watched and may work in a
different way (known as the Hawthorne effect)
□ If workers perform tasks that contravene standard procedures, they may
not do this while being watched
○ questionnaires
▪ Description
□ This method involves a one to-one question-and-answer session between
the analyst and the user. It is a good method if the analyst wants to
probe deeply into one specific aspect of the existing system.
▪ Advantages
□ It gives the opportunity to motivate the interviewee into giving open and
honest answers to the analyst’s questions
□ The method allows the analyst to probe for more feedback from the
interviewee (questions can be extended)
□ It is possible to modify questions as the interview proceeds and ask
questions specific to the interviewee
□ Analyst can watch body language and facial expressions
Disadvantages
7. The Systems life cycle Page 249
 ▪ Disadvantages
□ It can be a rather time consuming exercise
□ It is relatively expensive (team of interviewers and analyst needed)
□ The interviewee cannot remain anonymous with this method, and may
hide information or not be honest with their answers
□ Interviewee can give answers they think the interviewer wants to hear
□ Interviewees may not be available at times to suit the analyst
○ interviews
▪ Description
□ This method involves distributing questionnaires to the workforce, clients or
system users to find out their views of the existing system and to find out
how some of the key tasks are carried out.
▪ Advantages
□ The questions can be answered fairly quickly
□ It is a relatively inexpensive method (only need to produce questionnaires)
□ Individuals can remain anonymous if they want (therefore give more
truthful answers)
□ Allows for a quick analysis of the data
□ Interviewees can fill in questionnaire in their own time
□ Allows a greater number of people to take part
▪ Disadvantages
□ The number of returned questionnaires can be low; not always a popular
method
□ The questions are rather rigid because they have to be generic; it is not
possible to ask follow-up questions
□ No immediate way to clarify a vague answer to a question; it is not
possible to expand their answers
□ Users tend to exaggerate their responses as they are anonymous
□ Because anonymous, the interviewees may not take it seriously
○ examination of existing documents
▪ Description
□ This method allows the analyst to see how existing files are kept, look at
7. The Systems life cycle Page 250
 □ This method allows the analyst to see how existing files are kept, look at
operating instructions and training manuals, check the accounts, etc. This
allows the analyst to get some idea of the scale of the problem, memory
size requirements, type of input/ output devices needed, etc.
▪ Advantages
□ This method allows information to be obtained which was not possible by
any of the other methods
□ The analyst can see for themselves how the current system operates
▪ Disadvantages
□ It can be a very time consuming exercise
□ Because of the analyst’s time needed, it is a relatively expensive method
to use

7. The Systems life cycle Page 251

Record and analyse
information about the current
system
Monday, March 3, 2025 10:55 PM

• Inputs, outputs, processing and current problems

• The next stage in the process requires the analyst to find out:
▪ what input and output takes place
▪ what processing is done
▪ what problems exist with the current system
▪ user and information requirements for the new system
• One method the analyst can use is a data flow diagram (DFD). Figure below shows
an example of a DFD that follows the reservation system when booking a flight on an a
aeroplane.

○ From the DFD, we can get the following information:

▪ what inputs take place during the customer enquiry (in this case, a customer
keys in their flight details, such as names of passengers, passport numbers,
dates of flight, and so on)
▪ what outputs are produced (in this case, on-screen and e-ticket (QR code)
sent to customer’s smartphone)
▪ what processing is done (check flights, process customer data, allocate flight
reference number and access booking database; customer flight booking has to
be added to database once all processing completed)
▪ what storage may be needed (a database is needed to store all the flight booking
details).
○ As the analyst looks at each stage in the DFD process, they will then identify:
▪ any problems that occur in the current system (this is done by looking at the
data flows in each stage of the process and looking for bottlenecks and other
potential areas where errors do or could occur)
▪ user and information requirements (see below)
 User requirements
○ The problem to solve is this: computer system developers do not really understand how
a business works: business managers do not really know how computer systems could
help them.
7. The Systems life cycle Page 252
 help them.
○ The user requirements are designed to help with this problem:
▪ User requirements are therefore written by the analyst for the business
managers (who are the customers).
▪ They are written in natural language with very few technical details or jargon.
▪ Their purpose is to allow the customers to check that what the analyst proposes,
following the investigations, is exactly what they originally specified; for example,
if the company employs people with disabilities, does the new hardware take that
into account?
▪ The user requirements will also describe what the analyst thinks the customer
does with their system.
 Information Requirements
○ This is the information needed to support the business.
○ The information requirements are made up of:
▪ what? (that is, the data)
▪ when? (that is, the timing)
○ A systems analyst turns the information and user requirements into a functional
requirements specification (that is, how the new system will be developed and
implemented, including timescales)
○ The requirements are typically defined as a list of, for example:
▪ who the customers are and how they interface with the system
▪ who the vendors are (the sellers of the products), and how they interface with
the system
▪ who the employees are and how they interface with the system

7. The Systems life cycle Page 253

System Specification
Tuesday, March 4, 2025 1:21 AM

 The DFD and other information gathering processes allow the analysis team to identify
what hardware and software is needed to run the new system.
 Identify and justify hardware
○ Identification and justification of which input devices are needed might be, for
example:
▪ barcode readers
□ using barcode readers avoids the need to manually input data about
goods, which is more efficient, less error-prone and less expensive in the
long run
▪ scanners
□ these could be used if it is necessary to convert any existing paper
documents into an electronic format during the implementation stage
▪ touch screens
□ this may be the best and most cost-effective way of gathering
information from a business customer, for example, and to ensure an
employee does not miss any important data during a customer
conversation
○ Identification and justification of which output devices are needed; for example:
▪ 3D printer
□ if the company are manufacturing toys, for example, it is much more
cost-effective to do a ‘one off’ using a 3D printer than making a toy
in the conventional way
▪ very large 60” monitors
□ the company may be using CAD software and the need for very
large, expensive monitors, may be justifiable
▪ speakers
□ the company may employ people with disabilities, so the need for verbal
outputs from the computer may be a necessary requirement
Identify and justify software
7. The Systems life cycle Page 254
 Identify and justify software
○ Identification and justification of which software is required; for example:
▪ operating system
□ which operating system is the most appropriate to meet the company needs
▪ applications software
□ off-the-shelf software
 which would save a lot of development time and costs, but may
require compromises in how the company runs; off-the shelf
software (such as Word or Excel)
 also has a huge user-base in case of problems and a minimum of
training will be required, because the software is well known–
□ bespoke software (written specifically for the company)
 this will require considerable time and money to develop, but will
exactly meet the company’s requirements;
 it will also require considerable training in using software unknown
to the employees, and there will be no user base to seek help (they
will have to rely on the software development technical team, which
could be expensive)
○ Storage requirements also need to be considered; for example:
▪ size of storage
□ how many bytes of storage are required for the systems to run now,
and in the future
▪ type of storage
□ which storage type is the most suitable for the company: hard disk
drives, solid-state drives or even magnetic tape drives) – the choice
could depend on:
 data access and data write speeds
 number of read-write operations (there is still some doubt about the
longevity of SSD if it has to endure large numbers of read-
write operations
 type of access – can it be serial access to the data (all read in
order) or does it need to be direct (no need to read all the data in
7. The Systems life cycle Page 255
 order) or does it need to be direct (no need to read all the data in
order)
 if huge amounts of storage are required and data access time is
not that important, magnetic tape may still be the best option.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 256

2. Design
Tuesday, March 4, 2025 1:31 AM

 Once the analysis of the existing system has taken place, and the systems analyst has a
better idea of the scale of the problem, then the next stage in the process is design. Figure
below summarizes the design stage.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 257

7. The Systems life cycle Page 258
File structures and data
structures + Types
Tuesday, March 4, 2025 1:34 AM

 File structures and data structures

○ How the files containing data will be structured:
▪ A file is made up of a number of records, and each record is broken up
into fields.
▪ One of the fields must be unique and will act as the primary key field –
this is to allow each record to be uniquely identified.

▪ Each field in the record now needs to be totally defined as follows:

□ field name (for example, product _ code)
□ field length (what is the maximum number of characters that need to
be stored)
□ data type (see below)
□ is any code being used (in this example, the codes T, A and B are
being used – coding saves space in the file because only a single
character is being used; this also speeds up entry and also reduces
errors)
□ the primary key field here will be product _ code because it is unique
 Data Types
○ The data types below are the ones you are most likely to come across:
▪ Alphanumeric
□ This type of data can store alpha characters (letters or text) and
numeric data (numbers)
□ A345FF or 07432011122
Character
7. The Systems life cycle Page 259
 ▪ Character
□ This is just a single letter (or text)
□ X or d
▪ Text
□ This can be a string of letters or numbers or other symbols
□ example_of_text_ string
▪ Boolean
□ This data type stores data in a Yes/No or True/False format
(logical options)
□ Y or N
▪ Numeric
□ This data type is used to store numeric data which is used to perform
calculations (this does not include telephone numbers, for example,
because these have to be stored as alphanumeric data)
□ There are several different types of numeric data:
 Integer (whole numbers)
◊ 234 or −1245
 Decimal/real (non-integer values)
◊ 25.54 or −150.22
 Currency (allows inclusion of currency symbols)
◊ $24.55 or €123.50
 Date/time (allows dates and time to be stored)
◊ 14/05/2020 or 12:45
○ It is now possible to complete the file structure for the example above

○ Please note that the field lengths given in this table are just ‘possible’ values.
When assigning field length, it is important to give a good estimate to save
7. The Systems life cycle Page 260
When assigning field length, it is important to give a good estimate to save
memory.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 261

Validation Routines
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 2:40 AM

 Validation is the process where data entered into a computer is checked to see if it satisfies
certain criteria.
 It is an automatic check carried out by the computer as part of its programming.
 For example, validation criteria could be that only positive numbers entered, or eight
characters must be entered; any data failing these criteria should be rejected.
 Validation is not a check on whether the data is correct or accurate; it is only a check to
see if it is reasonable.
 There are a number of validation routines that can be used. Some of the more common
ones are:
○ Range
▪ This checks to see if the data input lies between an acceptable upper value and
an acceptable lower value
▪ Limiting a temperature range from 10 to 50 degrees Celsius
○ Type/Character
▪ This checks to see if the data entered is of the correct type (i.e. letter or
number only)
▪ A person’s name should not contain numbers A person’s height should not
contain letters
○ Length
▪ This checks to see if the data input contains only the required number of
characters
▪ If a password contains eight characters, then an input with seven characters
or nine characters, for example, should produce an error message
○ Format
▪ This checks to see if the data input is in the correct format
▪ Ensures the date is entered in a format such as dd/mm/yyyy (e.g.
10/12/2023)
○ Presence
This checks that data has been entered into a field and it has not been left
7. The Systems life cycle Page 262
 ▪ This checks that data has been entered into a field and it has not been left
empty
▪ For example, when using an online form, a person’s telephone number may
be a ‘required field’; if no data is entered, this should give rise to an error
message
○ Check digit
▪ This is an extra digit added to a number which has been calculated from the
other digits
▪ Check digits can identify three types of error:
□ if two digits have been transposed during input; for example, 13597
instead of 13579
□ an incorrect digit has been entered; for example, 13559 instead of
13579
□ a digit has been missed out or extra digit added; for example, 1359 or
135799 instead of 13579
□ (in all three cases, the check digit (usually the last digit) would not be 9
if an error had been made)

7. The Systems life cycle Page 263

Input Formats (data capture
forms)
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 2:48 AM

 Data capture forms are often used to input data into a computer.
 These forms ensure data is input into the computer in the correct format.
 They need to be designed very carefully to ensure that the format of the data matches, for
example, the database where the data is being stored.
 Data capture forms will be either paper-based or electronic-based depending on the
application.
 Paper-based forms need to:
○ have a heading to make the purpose of the form clear
○ make it clear to the person filling in the form where they must place their answers
○ make use of text boxes which will limit the amount of information collected
○ make use of character boxes for data such as surnames, telephone numbers, and so
on (each box allows one character only)
○ make use of printed text boxes to allow for easy input of items such as date of birth
○ make use of tick boxes to make choices easier (such as sex – male or female)
○ make sure there is sufficient space to write answers
○ make use of clear fonts and clear text colors to ensure the form is easy to read

 A computer-based data capture form is slightly different. These often have the following
features:
○ use of text boxes to capture key data clearly
○ use of on-screen help when completing the form
○ use of drop-down/combo boxes where there are limited choices
use of radio buttons and tick boxes requiring a single click of a mouse to select
7. The Systems life cycle Page 264
 ○use of radio buttons and tick boxes requiring a single click of a mouse to select
○automatic validation of data as it is entered
○control buttons (such as next form, clear entry, save, etc.)
○double entry boxes (with verification rules) to check correctness of key data (for
example, when keying in an email address).
 In the car sales example shown above, the following differences could be used with a
computer-based data capture form:
○ registration number: same as paper-based form
○ make of car: make use of a drop-down box as there are a limited number of
manufacturers
○ model of car: same as paper-based form
○ date first registered: use of drop-down boxes for day, month and year
○ price: use boxes as shown but include a validation check
○ new or used: use of tick box or radio button to indicate option
○ other features: a back and forward button (to complete details of all cars), and a
save button when the form is complete for each car.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 265

Output formats - screen
layouts and report layouts
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 2:57 AM

 The output from any system needs careful consideration because this is part of any user
interface, and is the result of some form of processing. Screen outputs should be designed:
○ to make sure the size of all the output fields is correct
○ so that any instructions/descriptions are clear
○ so that the full screen is utilized (avoiding large areas of ‘nothing’)
○ so that colors and fonts (size and type) make the output clear.
 If the output is on paper, then consideration must also be given to the type of output. Items
such as:
○ headers and footers
○ fitting the page correctly
○ whether it should be in colour, and so on, all have to be carefully planned.
 Reports (often the output from a database search) should clearly show all the fields that
were included in the search criteria. The output is usually in the form of a table – the
example below outputs a list of all sales managers over 40.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 266

7. The Systems life cycle Page 267
3. Development and Testing
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:02 AM

7. The Systems life cycle Page 268

7. The Systems life cycle Page 269
The need for testing
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:03 AM

 Once the design stage is completed, it is then necessary to create the system and fully test it. This section
considers some of the development stages and testing strategies which are often adopted by systems
analysts.
○ If the system contains files (for example, a database) then the file structure would need to be
finalised at this stage for example,
▪ what type of data is being stored in each field
▪ length of each field
▪ which field will be the key field
▪ how will the data files be linked, etc.
○ Once the file structure has been determined it is then created and needs to be fully tested to make
sure it is robust when the system actually goes live
○ .To ensure correct data is stored in files (etc.) certain techniques need to be adopted to ensure the
data populating the files/database is at least of the right type and that it conforms to certain rules.
▪ Validation routines and verification methods are used to ensure this happens.
▪ Again, these routines have to be fully tested to ensure they do trap unwanted data, but also to
make sure any data transferred from a paper-based system to an electronic system has been
done accurately.
○ Obviously, any system being developed will have some form of user interface.
▪ The types of hardware have already been considered; how these are used to actually interface
with the final system now needs to be identified.
▪ For example, how the screens (and any other input devices) will be used to collect the data
and the way the output will be presented.
▪ If specialist hardware is needed (for example, for people with disabilities) then it will be
necessary to finalize how these devices are used with the system when it is implemented.
▪ This will be followed by thorough testing to ensure the user screens are user friendly and that
the correct output is associated with the inputs to the system.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 270

Test Designs
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:12 AM

 Test designs cover how a system is to be tested.

 the test designs that need to be considered are below, and how we can ensure the testing them can be achieved:
 Testing Designs:
○ Data Structures
▪ The test design should determine how we can test that all data is in a correct format or has been stored
in the correct way
▪ for example, whether tables hold data correctly
○ File Structures
▪ The testing design should test that the file structures function correctly
▪ i.e. data is stored in the correct format and can be correctly retrieved when required
○ Input Format
▪ The testing design should determine how we can test that all data can be entered into the system correctly
▪ for example, if a date is to be entered does the input format permit this date to be entered correctly
○ Output Format
▪ The test design should determine how we can test that screen outputs and reports are all in the correct
format
▪ for example, are the output results clear, complete and correctly match the input data
○ Validation Routines
▪ The test design should determine what data is needed to test to see if all the validation rules work
▪ for example, does the system correctly reject unreasonable data being input

7. The Systems life cycle Page 271

Test Strategies
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:18 AM

 Software is often developed in modular form.

○ This method allows it to be broken down into smaller parts (known as modules).
○ Each module is developed separately by a programmer (or team of programmers).
 Each module needs to be tested separately to see if it functions correctly.
○ Any problems resulting from the testing require the module to be modified and then tested again.
 Once the development of each module is completed, the whole system needs to be tested as a whole (with all
modules functioning together)
○ . Even though each module may work satisfactorily, when they are all put together there may be data clashes
or incompatibility, memory issues, etc.
 All of this may lead to a need to improve:
○ the:
▪ input and output methods
▪ file/ database structures
▪ validation and verification methods etc.
○ and then fully test everything again.
○ It is a very time-consuming process, but has to be as perfect as possible before the system uses live data.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 272

Test Plan, Test data and live
data
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:23 AM

 Once the testing designs and strategy have been determined, it then becomes necessary to formulate a test plan for
each module. The test plan should include:
○ a list of all the tests to be performed
○ what data is to be used in the testing
○ what type of testing the data is designed to check (i.e. normal, abnormal or extreme – see below)
○ what live data should be used
○ what the expected outcomes are from the testing
○ do the actual outcomes match what is expected?
 Three types of data: (The example we will use is inputting a date into a database field. The entered data must take
the format dd/mm/yyyy and all data must be numeric)
○ normal
▪ this is data which is acceptable/valid and has an expected (known) outcome
▪ for example, the month can be any whole number in the range 1 to 12
○ extreme
▪ this is data at the limits of acceptability/validity
▪ for example, the month can be either of the two end values i.e. 1 or 12
○ abnormal
▪ this is data outside the limits of acceptability/validity and should be rejected or cause an error message
▪ for example, none of the following values are allowed as inputs for the month:
▪ any value less than 1 (for example, 0, −1, −15, etc.)
▪ any value greater than 12 (for example, 32, 45, etc.)
▪ letters or other non-numeric data (for example, July, etc.)
▪ non-integer values (for example, 3.5, 10.75, etc.).
 Live data
○ Once a system has been fully tested, it is then tested with live data.
○ This is data with known outcomes.
○ Live data is entered into the new system and the results compared with those produced from the existing
system.
If the two outcomes do not match, then further modifications to the system may be needed.
7. The Systems life cycle Page 273
 ○ If the two outcomes do not match, then further modifications to the system may be needed.

 Example test plan

○ The test plan shown below is designed to test a module where temperatures are input which must be in the
correct range (21 °C to 50 °C).
○ Any temperatures outside this range should be rejected. The input temperatures can be integer or real
(decimal).

7. The Systems life cycle Page 274

4. Implementation
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:38 AM

 Once the system is fully tested, the next stage is to fully implement it. Some of the stages in this process are
shown below:

 Implementation Methods:
○ Direct
▪ Design of method
□ With this method the old system is stopped overnight and the new system introduced
immediately
▪ Advantages and disadvantages of the method
▪ This method can be disastrous if the new system fails because the old system is no longer available
▪ The benefits are immediate
▪ Costs are reduced (because only one system is used there is no need to pay for two sets of staff)
○ Parallel
▪ Design of method
□ With this method, the old and new systems are run side by side for a time before the new
system takes over altogether
▪ Advantages and disadvantages of the method
□ If this new system fails, the old system is still available as a backup
□ It is possible to gradually train staff
□ It is more expensive than direct because extra staff are needed to run both systems together
□ It is also more time consuming than direct because data needs to be entered into two systems
7. The Systems life cycle Page 275
 □ It is also more time consuming than direct because data needs to be entered into two systems
○ Pilot
▪ Design of method
□ With this method, the new system is introduced into one branch or office of the company
and its performance assessed before being introduced elsewhere in the company
▪ Advantages and disadvantages of the method
□ If the new system fails, only one part is affected; the remainder is unaffected
□ It is possible to train staff in one area only, which is much faster and less costly than
parallel
□ The costs are also less than parallel because only one part of the system is being used in the
pilot warehouse
○ Phased
▪ Design of method
□ With this method, only part of the new system is introduced and, only when it proves to
work satisfactorily, is the next part introduced, and so on, until the old system is fully
replaced
▪ Advantages and disadvantages of the method
□ If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to the point of failure;
hence failure is not disastrous
□ More expensive than direct because it is necessary to evaluate each phase before moving to the
next stage
□ Very time consuming because each part needs to be fully evaluated before making any
further changes to the system
□ It is possible to ensure the system works properly before expanding

7. The Systems life cycle Page 276

5. Documentation
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:46 AM

 Once the new system is fully developed, a considerable amount of documentation also needs to be produced for:
○ people who may need to modify or develop the system further at some later stage
○ the end-user
 There is some overlap between the two types of documentation, but the basic requirements are shown below.
 Technical documentation
○ Technical documentation is designed to help programmers/analysts to make improvements to the system or
repair/maintain the system.
○ This can consist of any of the following:
▪ program listing/coding
▪ programming language used
▪ program flowcharts/algorithms
▪ system flowcharts
▪ purpose of the system/program/software
▪ limitations of the system
▪ input formats
▪ hardware requirements
▪ software requirements
▪ minimum memory requirements
▪ known ‘bugs’ in the system
▪ list of variables used (and their meaning/description)
▪ file structures
▪ sample runs (with results and actual test data used)
▪ output formats
▪ validation rules
▪ meaning of error messages.
 User documentation
○ User documentation is designed to help users to learn how to use the software or system.
○ This can consist of any of the following:
▪ how to load/install/run the software
how to save files
7. The Systems life cycle Page 277
▪ how to save files
▪ how to do a search
▪ how to sort data
▪ how to print out
▪ how to add, delete or amend records
▪ the purpose of the system/program/software package
▪ limitations of the system
▪ screen layouts (input format)
▪ print layouts (output format)
▪ hardware requirements
▪ software requirements
▪ sample runs (with results and actual test data used)
▪ error handling/meaning of errors
▪ troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs (frequently asked questions)
▪ how to log in/log out
▪ tutorials
▪ error messages/meaning of error messages
▪ glossary of terms.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 278

6. Evaluation
Wednesday, March 5, 2025 3:51 AM

 Once a system is up and running it is necessary to do some evaluation and carry out any maintenance if necessary.
 The following is a list of some of the things to be considered when evaluating how well the new system has worked; this can
ultimately lead to a redesign of part of the system if there is strong evidence to suggest that changes need be made.
○ Compare the final solution with the original task requirements.
○ Identify any limitations of the system.
○ Identify any necessary improvements that need to be made.
○ Evaluate the users’ responses to using the new system.
○ Compare test results from the new system with results from the old system.
○ Compare performance of the new system with performance of the old system.
○ Observe users performing set tasks (compare old with new).
○ Measure the time taken to complete tasks (compare old with new).
○ Interview users to gather responses about how well the new system works.
○ Give out questionnaires to gather responses about the ease of use of the new system
 Overall, is the new solution:
○ more efficient? (this might mean ‘more efficient to use’ or ‘more efficient for the business
○ easy to use
○ appropriate for the task it was designed for?
 Some results from the evaluation may lead to two things happening:
○ update of hardware because
▪ of feedback from end-users
▪ new hardware comes on the market, necessitating change
▪ changes within the company require new devices to be added or updated.
○ update of software because
▪ of feedback from end-users
▪ changes to the company structure or how the company works that may require modifications to the software
▪ changes in legislation that may require modifications to the software.

7. The Systems life cycle Page 279

Physical safety
Saturday, May 3, 2025 1:36 AM

Physical Safety vs Health Risk

• Health risks involve problems like eye strain or repetitive strain injury (RSI) from regular computer use.
• Physical safety involves serious risks that can lead to injury or death, often due to hardware setup or environment.

Common Physical Safety Risks, Causes & Prevention

1. Trailing cables
○ Cause: Power or peripheral cables lying across floors.
○ Risk: People could trip and fall.
○ Prevention: Use cable management, secure or cover cables properly.
2. Heavy equipment falling
○ Cause: Unstable placement of monitors or CPUs.
○ Risk: Can fall and injure people.
○ Prevention: Place equipment on sturdy surfaces; avoid overstacking.
3. Electrocution
○ Cause: Faulty or exposed wiring, use of equipment with damaged plugs.
○ Risk: Shock or severe injury.
○ Prevention: Regular safety checks; don’t use damaged equipment; ensure correct fuse and wiring.
4. Fire
○ Cause: Overloaded power sockets, poor ventilation, electrical faults.
○ Risk: Fire hazards.
○ Prevention: Avoid overloading sockets; ensure proper ventilation; maintain equipment.
5. Spilled drinks
○ Cause: Drinks near computers.
○ Risk: Damage to equipment, short circuits, electric shock.
○ Prevention: Keep food and drinks away from computers.

8. Safety and Security Page 280

8. Safety and Security Page 281
E-Safety
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:00 AM

8. Safety and Security Page 282

Data protection
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:01 AM

 Data Protection Act (DPA)

• Purpose: To protect individuals and ensure data about them is stored and used
correctly.
• Applies to: Both computerised and paper records.
• Covers:
• Data collection
• Data storage
• Data processing
• Data use and disclosure
• Data destruction
• Data security and holding
• Main Goal: To safeguard individuals’ rights regarding their personal data.
• Consequence of Breach: Can result in heavy fines or imprisonment.
 Data Protection Principles:
1. Data must be fairly and lawfully processed.
2. Data can only be processed for the stated purpose.
3. Data must be adequate, relevant and not excessive.
4. Data must be accurate.
5. Data must not be kept longer than necessary.
6. Data must be processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights.
7. Data must be kept secure.
8. Data must not be transferred to another country unless they also have adequate
protection.
 General Guidelines to Prevent Unlawful Access to Data
• Do not leave personal information unattended on desks.
• Lock filing cabinets when rooms are unoccupied or at the end of the day.
• Log off computers if leaving the desk for any length of time; don’t leave data visible
on the screen.
• Use secure passwords and user IDs:
8. Safety and Security Page 283
• Use secure passwords and user IDs:
• Passwords should be hard to guess.
• Change them frequently.
• Be cautious with emails and faxes:
• Avoid sending sensitive information or attachments unless necessary and
secure.

8. Safety and Security Page 284

Personal data
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:06 AM

 What?
• Definition: Any data related to a living person who can be identified:
• From the data alone, or
• From the data combined with other available information.
• Example:
• “Peter Smith has long purple hair and lives at 40 Green Street”
→ Clearly identifies the individual.
• Examples of personal data include:
• Name
• Address or email address (e.g., myname.lastname@mycompany.com)
• ID card number / Passport number
• IP address
• Cookie ID
• Advertising identifier on a mobile phone
• Date of birth
• Banking details
• Photographs of the individual (e.g., in full school uniform)
• Sensitive personal data requires extra protection due to its potentially high impact on
an individual’s privacy.
• Examples of sensitive personal data include:
• Ethnicity or race
• Political views
• Membership of a political party
• Membership of a trade union
• Religion/philosophical beliefs
• Sexual orientation/gender
• Criminal record
• Medical history
• Genetic data/DNA
8. Safety and Security Page 285
 • Genetic data/DNA
• Biometric data
• Protection Measures of sensitive personal info
• Confidentiality: Ensure sensitive data remains private and secure.
• Encryption: Encrypting data protects it from unauthorized access, particularly
if it is accidentally disclosed.
• Preventive Measures: Ensure data is stored and transmitted in ways that
minimize the risk of accidental or malicious disclosure, including securing it
from hackers.
•

8. Safety and Security Page 286

E-Safety
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:12 AM

 E-safety is about ensuring safe and responsible behavior when using technology. It
focuses not only on electronic security but also on how users interact with technology.
 Key areas of e-safety include:
• Using the Internet: Ensuring safe browsing, avoiding malicious sites, and protecting
personal information.
• Sending and Receiving Emails: Being cautious with attachments, links, and
avoiding phishing scams.
• Social Media: Protecting privacy settings, being mindful of what is shared, and
avoiding cyberbullying.
• Online Gaming: Understanding risks like cyberbullying, inappropriate content, and
ensuring secure communication with others.

8. Safety and Security Page 287

Using the internet
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:13 AM

 Precautions for Using the Internet:

• Trustworthy Websites: Ensure the websites you visit are secure by looking for https
in the URL or a green padlock symbol next to the address bar, which indicates a
secure connection.
• Secure Purchases: Only buy items from websites that offer secure, encrypted
connections. Look for https in the URL and make sure they provide encryption for
payment information.
• Safe Search Settings: Always enable 'safe search' in your device settings when
using search engines and ensure the highest possible security levels are activated for
safer browsing.
• Trusted Sources: Stick to websites that have been recommended by reliable sources
such as teachers, parents, or verified platforms.
• Be Cautious of Downloads: Be wary of what you download from the internet. Is
the file potentially harmful? Could it contain malware? Always have anti-virus or
anti-malware software running and updated in the background.
• Log Out After Use: Always log out of websites when you're finished, especially on
sites that store sensitive information like bank or credit card details. Be aware of
cookies that track login data.

8. Safety and Security Page 288

Sending And Recieveing emails
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:20 AM

 Emails:
• Open Emails From Known Sources:
• Only open emails or attachments from trusted sources.
• Email Filtering:
• Ensure your ISP has effective email filtering to send emails from unknown
sources to your spam folder.
• Verify Email Authenticity:
• Only reply to emails if you know the sender or are 100% certain the
organization is genuine.
• Check Email Addresses:
• Verify email addresses and ensure they match the official website of the
company (e.g., customer_accounts@gmail.com is suspicious, while
customer_accounts@amazon.com is likely legitimate).
• Be Cautious with Personal Data:
• Do not reply with personal information or the name of your school/college.
• Avoid Sending Personal Photos:
• Never send photos, especially in school uniform, which could reveal your
identity.
• Beware of Scams:
• Watch out for phishing and pharming scams (see Section 8.3).
• Password Protection:
• Protect your email account by using strong, hard-to-guess passwords and
changing them regularly.
• Careful When Forwarding Emails:
• Be cautious when forwarding emails (see Chapter 10).
• Manually Type Email Addresses:
• Type email addresses manually to avoid errors or fraudulent addresses.
• Avoid Clicking Hyperlinks:
• Don’t click on links in emails, as they could be phishing scams.
8. Safety and Security Page 289
 • Don’t click on links in emails, as they could be phishing scams.
• Unsubscribe Links:
• Be cautious with unsubscribe links; they could be fraudulent.
• Use Bcc for Multiple Recipients:
• Use the Bcc box when sending to multiple recipients to protect everyone’s
privacy; send the email to yourself in the To box.
○

8. Safety and Security Page 290

Social Media
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:32 AM

 Using Social Media Safely:

• Avoid Posting Personal Information:
• Do not publicly share personal details like email addresses or home
addresses, as this can be used for identity theft.
• Be Cautious with Photos:
• Never send photos of yourself to people you don’t know, as it could lead to
identity theft or impersonation.
• Use Privacy Settings:
• Always use privacy settings to ensure only trusted people can view photos and
information you post.
• Be Careful with Identifiable Information:
• Avoid posting photos that reveal specific details, like your car's number plate,
which could potentially be used to trace your address.
• No School Uniform Photos:
• Don’t post photos in school uniforms, as this could reveal where you go to
school and where to find you.
• Control Profile Access:
• Set privacy settings to limit who can contact you and who can view your
profile.
• Accept Friends You Know:
• Only accept friend requests from people you know, or who are well-known to
your other friends.
• Avoid Inappropriate Language:
• Do not use or forward messages with inappropriate language.
• Be very vigilant when using social networking sites, instant messaging or chat rooms:
• Block or report anybody who acts suspiciously or uses inappropriate
language.
• Be very careful with the language used in chat rooms
□ Always use a nickname and NEVER your real name
8. Safety and Security Page 291
□ Always use a nickname and NEVER your real name
□ Keep private and personal data secret.
□ Do not enter private chat rooms – stay in public spaces (the danger
signs are if someone wants to enter a private chat room, asks you to
instant message or email, requests your telephone number or even
suggests that you meet).
□ Never arrange to meet anyone on your own, always tell an adult first
and meet the person in a public place.
□ Avoid the misuse of images, including forwarding on other images from
other people.
□ Always respect people’s confidentiality.

8. Safety and Security Page 292

Online Gaming
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:35 AM

 Risks:
• Predators:
• Some users may prey on others they see as vulnerable.
• Cyberbullying:
• Electronic communication may be used to intimidate or threaten others.
• Use of Webcams:
• The risks of using webcams in online games are significant, as personal
images can be misused.
• Voice-Masking Technology:
• Technology that disguises voices, making it hard to determine a person's real
age, sex, or accent.
• Cyber Attacks:
• Online games can be a source of viruses, phishing, and spyware that can
infect your computer or mobile device.
• Violence in Games:
• Some games may contain violent content that could potentially influence players'
behavior in real life.
 Safety tips:
• Never share personal information, including your real name, with anyone while
gaming.
• Stay cautious of any attempt to gain personal details during gaming sessions.
• Be aware of the potential for inappropriate behavior or harmful content in games.

8. Safety and Security Page 293

Security of Data
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:42 AM

8. Safety and Security Page 294

Data Threats
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:37 AM

 There are a number of security risks to data held on a computer/smartphone or data

being transferred around networks.
 This section covers a large number of these risks:
○ hacking
○ phishing
○ vishing
○ smishing
○ pharming
○ viruses
○ malware
○ card fraud.
 Each security risk together with its description, possible effects and risk mitigation will be
set out like:

8. Safety and Security Page 295

Hacking
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:39 AM

8. Safety and Security Page 296

Phishing
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:40 AM

 Malicious Use of Data:

 Malicious use involves exploiting data for harmful or illegal purposes.
This includes:
• Data deletion – intentionally erasing important information.
• Fraud – using false data or identities to gain money or services.
• Identity theft – pretending to be someone else using their personal
information.
• Selling personal data – passing on data to third parties without
consent.

8. Safety and Security Page 297

8. Safety and Security Page 298
Smishing
2:40 AM

 Definition: Smishing is a type of phishing attack carried out through SMS (text
messages) on mobile phones.
 Method:
• A fake SMS message is sent.
• It usually contains a URL or phone number.
• The user is prompted to click the link or call the number.
• They are then asked to provide personal details, such as:
○ Credit/debit card numbers
○ Passwords
○ Bank account information
 Deceptive Tactics:
• The message often appears to come from a trusted source (e.g., a bank or delivery
service).
• It might claim:
○ You’ve won a prize
○ There's an urgent banking issue
○ You need to confirm an order
 Danger:
• Many people wrongly believe only computers are vulnerable to security threats.

8. Safety and Security Page 299

Vishing
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:40 AM

 A variation of phishing
 Uses a voicemail message
 Tricks the user into calling a telephone number
 User is asked to supply personal data
 The attacker pretends to be from a legitimate company

8. Safety and Security Page 300

Pharming
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:40 AM

8. Safety and Security Page 301

8. Safety and Security Page 302
Malware
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:40 AM

 A major risk to the integrity and security of data on computer systems

 Can often be detected and removed by anti-virus software
 Comes in many forms
 Only a selection of types is covered in this section

8. Safety and Security Page 303

1. Viruses
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:40 AM

 Programs or code that replicate themselves

 Designed to delete or corrupt files and cause the computer to malfunction
 Examples of damage:
» Deleting .exe files
» Filling hard drives with useless data
 Require an active host program or an already infected operating system to run
 Need to be executed by a trigger to begin causing harm
How Viruses Spread
• Often sent as email attachments
• Found on infected websites
• Can be part of infected or non-original downloaded software
Precautions Against Viruses
• Do not open emails from unknown sources
• Avoid installing non-original or pirated software
• Always use an up-to-date virus scanner to detect and remove threats

8. Safety and Security Page 304

8. Safety and Security Page 305
2. Worms
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:01 AM

 What?
• Stand-alone viruses that self-replicate
• Spread to other computers and corrupt whole networks
• Do not need an active host program to do damage
• Stay inside applications and move through networks
• Spread due to security failures in networks
• Often arrive as email attachments
• Only one user opening a worm-infected email can infect the entire network
 Precautions
• Same as for viruses: avoid suspicious emails, don’t install unknown software
• Run an up-to-date anti-virus program
 Key Difference from Viruses
• Worms spread without user action
• Viruses require the user to initiate them
 Example
• “I love you” worm – affected almost every email user, disrupted phone and TV
networks
• More dangerous than viruses due to rapid, autonomous spread

8. Safety and Security Page 306

3. Trojan horse
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:05 AM

 What?
○ Trojan Horse
• Malicious program disguised as legitimate software
• Replaces all or part of real software to cause harm to the user’s system
• Must be executed by the end-user to work
○ How It Spreads
• Comes as email attachments or via infected websites
• Common trick: fake anti-virus pop-up offering a “free trial”
• Once run, malware is activated
○ After Installation
• Gives cyber criminals access to:
– IP addresses
– Passwords
– Personal data
• Often installs spyware (e.g., keyloggers) or ransomware
○ Security Note
• Firewalls and antivirus may not stop it if the user approves its execution
• Trojans rely on tricking the user, not exploiting software vulnerabilities

8. Safety and Security Page 307

4. Key logging software
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:08 AM

 What?
• Type of spyware that monitors a user’s keyboard activity
• Records keystrokes and stores them in a file, which is then emailed to
cybercriminals
• Designed to capture personal data like:
– Bank account numbers
– Passwords
– Credit/debit card details
Detection and Prevention
• Anti-spyware software can detect and remove key loggers
• Banks combat key loggers by asking for different parts of a password during
each login (e.g., specific characters)
• Drop-down boxes are used to select data on-screen (making it hard for key
loggers to capture)
Advanced Key Loggers
• Some screen recorders capture random screenshots, bypassing typical key logging
methods.

8. Safety and Security Page 308

5. Adware
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:08 AM

 What?
• Type of malware designed to display unwanted advertising
• At its least harmful, redirects browsers to fake websites with promotional ads or
creates pop-ups
• Can appear in the browser’s toolbar, redirecting search requests
 Potential Risks
• Can highlight weaknesses in a user’s security defenses
• Difficult to remove, often evading anti-malware software
• Can hijack browsers, setting its own default search settings and requests

8. Safety and Security Page 309

6. Ransomware
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:08 AM

 What?
• Programs that encrypt data on a user’s computer, holding it hostage until a
ransom is paid
• Cybercriminals wait for the ransom money before sending decryption keys,
sometimes causing considerable damage
How It Works
• Locks the computer screen, restricting access and encrypting all data
• May be installed via Trojan horses or social engineering
• Waits before encrypting or demands immediate ransom
• Difficult to reverse damage once executed
Prevention
• Use standard security methods, such as avoiding phishing emails
• Regular backups of key files to prevent paying the ransom

8. Safety and Security Page 310

Card Fraud
Saturday, May 3, 2025 2:40 AM

 Card fraud is the illegal use of a credit or debit card.

 This can be due to:
○ shoulder surfing when using the card on any device that requires keyboard entries
(for example, an ATM or a handheld POS terminal)
○ card cloning
○ key logging software.

8. Safety and Security Page 311

1. Shoulder surfing
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:14 AM

 What?
• A form of data theft where criminals steal personal information by observing the
victim when entering sensitive data (e.g., at an ATM, POS device, or using a
smartphone)
Examples
• Watching while you enter data (e.g., PIN)
• Listening in when providing card details over the phone
• Sophisticated methods such as using digital cameras to capture key presses
Prevention
• Shield the keyboard when using ATMs, use mirrors to check for people behind
you
• Avoid public places when entering data on mobile devices
• Avoid security cameras in public places and use biometrics (e.g., Touch ID or
Face ID) on smartphones or tablets

8. Safety and Security Page 312

2. Card cloning
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:14 AM

• Definition: Copying data from a credit or debit card (magnetic stripe)

using a skimmer.
• Skimmer Device:
○ A device used to record data from a card's magnetic stripe.
○ Often placed over or inside ATM card slots.
○ Records card information like card number and name, including the
security hologram.
• How It Works:
○ When you swipe your card, the skimmer captures the data from the
magnetic stripe.
○ The data is copied onto the magnetic stripe of a fake card.
• PIN Theft:
○ Shoulder surfing: Criminals watch you input your PIN at ATMs
or during transactions.
○ Hidden cameras: Can be used to capture PIN information during
card usage.

Smart Card Security

• Introduction of Smart Cards:
○ Use of microchips instead of magnetic stripes for added security.
○ More difficult to clone compared to traditional magnetic stripe cards.
• Shimmer Technology:
○ A shimmer is a thin device containing a chip and a flash drive.
○ Inserted into card reader slots to capture data from the card's
magnetic stripe (not the chip).
○ Data Capture: The shimmer records information from the magnetic
stripe, which is then copied to a fake card.
○ The chip cannot be cloned, but the magnetic stripe data can be
replicated onto a fake card.
8. Safety and Security Page 313
 replicated onto a fake card.
• Fake Card Creation:
○ Fake cards are made using magnetic stripe data captured by the
shimmer.
○ Fake cards can be used for online transactions or in places that still
accept magnetic stripe cards.

How to Prevent Card Cloning

• Monitor Spending:
○ Regularly check bank statements and track spending.
○ Report suspicious transactions immediately.
• Stay Vigilant:
○ Be cautious when using ATMs or card readers, especially in public
areas.
○ Check for any strange attachments or changes to card reader slots
(possible skimmers or shimmers).
• Use Smart Cards:
○ Prefer cards with chip technology over magnetic stripe cards for
added security.
○ Avoid swiping cards that only use magnetic stripes, as they are more
vulnerable.
• Protect Your PIN:
○ Shield your PIN when using ATMs or POS devices.
○ Avoid public places when entering PINs or card details.
○ Use biometric security (e.g., touch ID, face ID) where available.

8. Safety and Security Page 314

3. Key logging software
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:14 AM

 The use of key logging software has been discussed earlier.

 This is used to detect all key presses, such as when entering a credit or debit card:
○ number
○ security code (card verification value – CVV)
○ PIN.
 Because all this data can be obtained by key logging software, illegal use of a credit or
debit card to buy things online is a continued risk.

8. Safety and Security Page 315

Protection of data
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:20 AM

 Authentication is used to verify that data comes from a secure and trusted source.
 Along with encryption it strengthens internet security.
 We will be considering all of the following methods to protect the security of data:
○ biometrics
○ digital certificates
○ secure sockets layer (SSL)
○ encryption
○ firewalls
○ two-factor authentication
○ user ID and password.

8. Safety and Security Page 316

Biometric authentication
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:21 AM

 Biometrics relies on certain unique characteristics of human beings.

 Examples include:
○ fingerprint scans
○ signature recognition
○ retina scans
○ iris recognition
○ face recognition
○ voice recognition.
 Biometrics is used in various security applications.
 Example applications:
• Mobile phones: require fingerprint matching for operation.
• Pharmaceutical companies: use face recognition or retina scans for secure area access.
 One drawback common to all biometric techniques is the need for the systems to store very personal data about users.
 Some people are uncomfortable with this idea.
 The table below shows a comparison of some of the other advantages and disadvantages of the six most common
biometric techniques.

8. Safety and Security Page 317

8. Safety and Security Page 318
1. Fingerprint scans
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:25 AM

• Fingerprint scans:
• Images of fingerprints are compared to previously scanned fingerprints stored in a
database.
• The system compares unique patterns of ‘ridges’ and ‘valleys’.
• Advantages:
• Fingerprints are unique, improving security as they are hard to replicate.
• Unlike magnetic cards, fingerprints cannot be lost or stolen.
• It’s impossible to ‘sign in’ for someone else because fingerprints are unique to one
person.
• Fingerprints cannot be misplaced, as everyone has them.
• Disadvantages:
• It is relatively expensive to install and set up.
• Damaged fingers (due to injury) may affect scanning accuracy.
• Some people may see it as an infringement on civil liberties.


8. Safety and Security Page 319

2. Face Recognition
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:27 AM

• Face recognition:
• Used to identify someone by their facial features.
• Commonly used in modern smartphones for identifying the phone owner and
authorizing purchases.
• How it works:
• The position of various facial features is calculated by the software.
• These values are then compared to values stored in a database.
• If the values match, the face is recognized.
• Data used to identify a face:
• Distance between the eyes.
• Width of the nose.
• Shape of the cheekbones.
• Length of the jawline.
• Shape of the eyebrows.
• Potential limitations:
• Can be ‘fooled’ by wearing spectacles or changing hairstyle/color.
• Technology is improving to address these issues.

8. Safety and Security Page 320

Digital Certificates
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:29 AM

• Digital certificate: A pair of files stored on a user’s computer used to ensure the security
of data sent over the internet.
• Components of digital certificate:
• Public key: Accessible by anyone.
• Private key: Known only to the computer user.
• Use case:
• Example: When sending an email, a digital certificate is attached to secure the
message.
• The recipient can verify that the message comes from a known or trusted source by
viewing the public key information (usually in the email attachment).
• Parts of a digital certificate:
• Sender’s email address.
• Name of the certificate owner.
• Serial number.
• Expiry date (valid date range).
• Public key (used for encrypting messages and for digital signatures).
• Digital signature of the certificate authority (CA), such as VeriSign.
• Security management:
• Operating systems and web browsers maintain lists of trusted certificate authorities
(CAs).


8. Safety and Security Page 321

Secure sockets layer (SSL)
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:29 AM

• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL):

• A protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet.
• SSL encrypts data, ensuring that only the user’s computer and the web server can
make sense of the transmitted information.
• Identification of SSL:
• Users can identify SSL encryption by:
○ Seeing https in the website address.
○ Noticing a small padlock icon in the status bar at the top of the screen.
• Difference between http and https:
• https: Secure connection (e.g., https://www.xxxx.org/documents).
• http: Non-secure connection (e.g., http://www.yyyy.co.uk/documents).
• SSL Certificates:
• Small data files that digitally bind an encryption key to an organization’s details.
• When installed on a web server, it shows as the green padlock and https protocol,
ensuring secure connections between the web server and web browser.
• when a user wants to access a secure website and receive and send data to it:

• Examples of where SSL would be used:

• Online banking and all online financial transactions
• Online shopping/commerce
• Sending software to a restricted list of users
• Sending and receiving emails
• Using cloud storage facilities
• Intranets and extranets (as well as the internet)
8. Safety and Security Page 322
• Intranets and extranets (as well as the internet)
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) for video chatting and/or audio chatting
• Within instant messaging
• When using a social networking site
•

8. Safety and Security Page 323

Encryption
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:29 AM

 What?
• Used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked or accessed illegally.
• Does not prevent hacking but makes data meaningless without the necessary
decryption tools.
• Uses a secret key that alters the characters in a message, making it unreadable
unless the recipient has the same secret key.
• Encryption key: Used to encrypt (encode) the message.
• Decryption key: Used to decrypt (decipher) the message.
• When encrypted, the message is known as cipher text, and the original message is
known as plain text.

Applications of Encryption:
• Protecting data on HDDs or SSDs:
○ Data encryption is essential due to risks of pharming, hacking, spyware, and other
forms of malware.
If data is accessed illegally, it will be unreadable to cybercriminals.
8. Safety and Security Page 324
 ○ If data is accessed illegally, it will be unreadable to cybercriminals.
• Encryption of emails:
○ Protects sensitive information from being read by unauthorized individuals.
○ Encrypted messages are meaningless without the decryption key.
○ Prevents hackers from accessing email content, attachments, or even the whole email
account if they gain unauthorized access.

• Bad Practice of Selective Email Encryption:

• Encrypting only sensitive or confidential emails is not advisable.
• It signals to hackers which emails are worth targeting.
• Encrypting all emails forces hackers to try and decrypt every message, making it more
challenging for them.
• Encryption for Cloud Storage:
• Always encrypt data before uploading to cloud providers.
• Encrypting ensures data remains secure, even if cloud servers are compromised.
Recent examples:
• Celebrity Photos Cloud Hacking:
○ Hackers accessed cloud accounts and leaked over 100 private photos and personal
information of celebrities.
○ These were sold and published on social networks.
• National Electoral Institute of Mexico:
○ A cloud breach compromised 93 million voter registrations.
○ The data was publicly exposed, with some linked to a cloud server outside Mexico.
• https and SSL:
• Both provide protection for data transferred across the internet.
8. Safety and Security Page 325
• Both provide protection for data transferred across the internet.

8. Safety and Security Page 326

Firewalls
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:29 AM

• Firewall Types:
• Can be either software or hardware.
• Function:
• Sits between the user's computer and an external network (like the internet).
• Filters incoming and outgoing network traffic.
• Helps protect the computer from potentially destructive forces.
• User Control:
• Users can set the criteria for allowing or denying access to the computer.

• Firewall Tasks:
• Examines traffic between the user’s computer (or internal network) and a public
network (e.g., the internet).
• Checks data to see if it meets a given set of criteria.
• Blocks traffic that fails the criteria and gives the user (or network manager) a
warning.
• Logs traffic to allow later interrogation by the user or network manager.
• Prevents access to undesirable sites by maintaining a list of undesirable IP
addresses.
• Prevents viruses or hackers from entering the user’s computer or network.
• Warns the user if software is trying to access an external data source (e.g.,
automatic software updates), allowing the user to allow or deny the access.
• Firewall Types:
• Hardware: Located between the computer and the internet connection, often referred
to as a gateway.
• Software: Installed on the computer, sometimes as part of the operating system.

8. Safety and Security Page 327

 Two-factor authentication
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:29 AM

• Authentication:
• Refers to the process of verifying the identity of a user.
• Common authentication factors:
○ Something you know: (e.g., a password or PIN code)
○ Something you have: (e.g., a mobile phone or tablet)
○ Something unique to you: (e.g., biometrics)
• Two-factor authentication:
• A verification method that requires two authentication factors.
• Used mainly for online purchases (e.g., when using a credit/debit card).
• Example of two-factor authentication:
 Kate logs into a website using her username and password (Step 1).
 She receives an eight-digit PIN (one-time passcode) via email or text message to her
registered mobile phone (Step 2).
 Kate enters the PIN into her computer, completing the authentication process and being
authorized to make the purchase.

 Using the definitions of authentication at the start of this section, the mobile phone is
something she has and the password/PIN code is something she knows.

8. Safety and Security Page 328

8. Safety and Security Page 329
User ID and password
Saturday, May 3, 2025 3:29 AM

• Passwords:
• Used to restrict access to data or systems.
• Should be:
○ Hard to guess or break.
○ Changed frequently to maintain security.
• Common uses of passwords on the internet:
• Accessing email accounts.
• Performing online banking or shopping.
• Logging into social networking sites.
• Protecting Passwords
• Use anti-spyware software to prevent password theft via spyware.
• Change passwords regularly in case they are compromised.
• Avoid easy-to-guess passwords (like pet names or favorite colors).
• Passwords are classified as:
▪ Strong – hard to guess or break.
▪ Weak – easy to guess or break.
• Creating strong but memorable passwords:
▪ Use memorable phrases to generate strong passwords.
▪ Example: "The 3rd planet is Earth: the 8th planet is Neptune" becomes
T3piE:t8piN.
• Strong passwords should contain:
▪ At least one capital letter.
▪ At least one number.
▪ At least one special character (e.g., @, *, &, #).
• Examples:
▪ Strong: Sy12@#TT90kj=0
▪ Weak: GREEN
• When typing a password, it usually appears as asterisks (****) to prevent others from
seeing it.
8. Safety and Security Page 330
 seeing it.
• If the password doesn't match the user name, access is denied.
• Systems often require the password to be entered twice during creation to check for input
errors (verification check).
• Users are usually given a limited number of attempts (typically 3) to enter the correct
password.
• After the allowed attempts, the system will lock the user out until they reset their password.
• If a user forgets or needs to reset a password, an email with a reset link is sent as a
security precaution against unauthorized access.
• Passwords should be changed regularly to prevent misuse by others or hackers.
• Protect passwords from spyware or viruses.
• Accessing online services (e.g., bank websites) usually requires both a username and
password, adding an extra layer of security.

8. Safety and Security Page 331

Audience appreciation
Saturday, February 1, 2025 8:59 AM

 When planning and creating ICT solutions, it is important to consider the audience
who will either use or take part in the solution. We are going to use two different
examples to show what could be meant by audience appreciation:
○ In the first example, we are going to consider using presentation software to
make a presentation for an audience.
○ In the second example, we are going to consider the general audience
requirements when developing a new website

9. Audiences Page 332

9. Audiences Page 333
Giving a presentation to an
audience
Saturday, February 1, 2025 9:01 AM

 In this example, the ICT solution is a presentation aimed at a specific audience, using
presentation software.
 When writing a presentation, you need to consider all of the following factors:
○ The age of the target group (young children will have a different appreciation and
response compared to a more mature group of adults).
○ The experiences of the audience (a board of company directors would expect a
different approach compared to an audience composed of teenage school children).
○ The expectation of the audience (for example, if you are advertising or giving a
presentation on a new restaurant, an older audience might expect to see fine wines
and good waiter service; whereas a group of students might be more interested in
pizzas and fast counter service).
○ Knowledge of the audience (for example, graduates in math would be more
comfortable seeing equations in a presentation than a group of history students)
 To find out about the characteristics of your audience, some of the market research
techniques you might use are:
○ interviewing a cross section of the target group to find out how to engage the audience
○ giving out questionnaires or online surveys to people in the target group to find out
their background, interests, and so on, so that your solution can be tailored to meet
the full expectation of the audience.
 Giving a sample presentation to an audience:
○ A phone company has decided to produce two presentations, using an ICT solution,
regarding the sales and features of the four different mobile phones they market and
sell:
▪ one presentation is to be given to the mobile phone sales team who will receive
different bonus payments depending on the phone sold
□ the sales team, will have technical knowledge and will be interested in the
profitability of each sale.
▪ a second presentation is to be given to a potential group of mobile phone
customers
□ end-users will only be interested in the price and the features found on
each phone
 Key factors when writing the presentations include:
○ the language used
○ the need for multimedia
○ the length of the presentation
○ the need for audience participation (an interactive approach)
○ the examples used to illustrate certain points

9. Audiences Page 334

9. Audiences Page 335
Audience characteristics
(when developing a new ICT
solution)
Saturday, February 1, 2025 9:02 AM

 In this example we are setting out to develop a new website.

 You need to consider certain factors regarding the audience:
○ audience characteristics
○ the needs of the audience
○ why you need to consider the needs of your audience
 Audience characteristics
○ First, consider the characteristics of your target audience when using the new website:
▪ age range
▪ income levels
▪ interests
▪ disabilities or impairments

○ you could determine the characteristics of the audience who are likely to use the new website by:
▪ interviewing a cross section of the target group
▪ giving out questionnaires or surveys to people in the target group to find out their background,
interests, age range, and so on
▪ analysing this data and drawing conclusions about the audience
 Needs of the audience
○ it is necessary to understand their specific needs in a bit more depth, to ensure the final product is fit
for purpose
 Why we need to consider the needs of our audience:
○ If the audience is made up of older people, or people with disabilities, who have sight problems, then it is
important to make sure the website has clear to-read fonts.
○ Complex language can be a real turn off to children or for people who have English as their second
language; the text needs to be clear and easy to read for these reasons.
○ It is necessary to hold the attention of the users, otherwise they will give up using the website.
○ Good, attractive screen designs will attract users to the website.
○ Keeping interfaces clear and easy to use keeps people engaged.
○ Lots of typing can be very frustrating, as can badly designed websites where the user seems to go
‘round in a big circle’.
○ If you know your audience and understand their needs before starting to develop the new ICT solution,
then it is far more likely to be successful.

9. Audiences Page 336

9. Audiences Page 337
Copyright
Saturday, February 1, 2025 9:33 AM

 Software copyright
○ Software is protected by copyright laws in much the same way as music CDs, movies, and articles from magazines
and books are protected.
○ When software is supplied on CD, DVD or online there are certain rules that must be obeyed. It is illegal to:
▪ make a software copy and then sell it or give it away to a friend or colleague
▪ use software on a network or on multiple computers unless a license has been acquired to allow this to happen
▪ use coding from the copyright software in your own software and then pass this software on or sell it as your
own without the permission of the copyright holders
▪ rent out a software package without permission to do so from the publishers
▪ use the name of copyrighted software on other software without agreement to do so.
 Software Piracy
○ Software piracy(copying of software) is illegal and companies take many steps to protect their products.
○ The installer will be asked to agree to certain conditions or to methods that require the original software to be present
for it to work:
▪ When software is being installed, the user will be asked to key in a unique reference number or product key (a
string of letters and numbers) that was supplied with the original copy of the software (for example: 4a3c 0efa
65ab a81e).
▪ The user will be asked to click ‘OK’/‘I AGREE’ or put a cross in a box to agree to the license agreement
before the software installs.
▪ The original software packaging often comes with a sticker informing the purchaser that it is illegal to make copies
of the software; the label is often in the form of a hologram indicating that it is a genuine copy.
▪ Some software will only run if the CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or memory stick is actually in the drive; this
stops illegal multiple use and network use of the software.
▪ Some software will only run if a dongle (allows wireless communications with devices, can also be used to protect
software) is plugged into one of the USB ports.
○ The Federation Against Software Theft (FAST) was set up in the UK many years ago to protect the software
industry against piracy. They prosecute organisations and individuals who are involved in any copyright infringements -
similar organisations exist in many countries

9. Audiences Page 338

9. Audiences Page 339
Communication with other ICT
users via email
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:19 PM

10. Communication Page 340

10. Communication Page 341
Characteristics, uses and
constraints
Friday, February 7, 2025 6:38 PM

 Characteristics, uses and constraints

○ Emails are now one of the most common ways of communicating between people.
However, there many rules we need to follow to ensure the security of the messages
sent and also to prevent people writing anything which is regarded as unacceptable.

10. Communication Page 342

10. Communication Page 343
Legislation
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:22 PM

 Many countries have laws to protect people against misuse of emails:

○ Many countries require senders of emails to obtain ‘opt-in’ permission before emails
are sent out.
○ A company or individual must have a clear way for recipients to ‘opt out’.
○ Companies must provide subscribers with a very clear way to unsubscribe from their
listings.
○ Companies and organisations must make their privacy policy very clear to
subscribers – who must be made aware of such policies.
○ Many countries don’t allow companies or organisations to harvest email addresses
(this is the process of capturing lists of email addresses).
○ A valid postal address must accompany emails from companies or organisations.
○ It is important that emails are not sent out with false or misleading subject lines.

10. Communication Page 344

Acceptable language
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:26 PM

 The language used by people when writing emails should follow an acceptable code of
practice.
 Unacceptable content not to be used in emails, text and online forums:
○ obscene images
○ language that is regarded as abusive, profane, inflammatory, coercive, defamatory
or blasphemous
○ racist, exploitative or violent messages
○ use of illegal materials or messages
 It is essential that anyone writing emails, or posting messages on bulletin boards, etc. is
aware of the above constraints.

10. Communication Page 345

Guidelines set by an employer
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:30 PM

 Companies must set guidelines that all employees should follow when sending out emails
and they need to enforce these rules or face potential legal action.
 The rules and guidelines should cover:
○ All employees should only assume they can use a company’s email system for
business use; it is up to companies to decide if personal emails should be permitted
on their systems
○ Companies may specify which company devices are allowed to be used for sending
and receiving emails
○ The acceptable style and tone of emails should be made clear (see sections on
acceptable language and netiquette); there needs to be a company standard style
when sending emails
○ It must be made clear what email content is not permitted
○ Employees should be told to only use their own accounts when sending emails (and
these accounts should be password protected)
○ There must be clear rules regarding confidentiality of information and that all staff
must be aware of their contractual obligations
○ Staff need to be aware of the method and duration of storing emails
○ Incoming emails should only be read by the recipient; they can only be read by
another member of staff if so nominated
○ The company policy on how to deal with and prevent viruses (and other security
threats) must be clearly laid out (these could include use of anti-virus software,
filtering of incoming and outgoing email traffic, use of auto-responders when staff
are not in work, and so on)
○ Monitoring of emails may be carried out and staff must be aware that the company
has the right to read all emails
○ Suitable ongoing training will take place to ensure staff follow company policy at all
times and that the company policy on emails will be enforced at all times

10. Communication Page 346

Copyright and security of
emails
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:35 PM

 Emails, as with any electronic material, are subject to copyright laws. This includes attachments
 so it may break copyright laws if any attachments are forwarded or printed; the user needs to check first if it is
legal to do this
 It is generally not considered a breach of copyright unless the sender has indicated clearly that the message is
confidential or the subject of copyright law
 Most companies or organisations will clearly set out their policies on sending emails and the material that they
contain.
 When sending emails as a company employee, email addresses should contain the company name (e.g.
A.N.User@company_name.com).
 Emails and attachments from companies and organisations will usually contain some copyright statement, such as:
○ Any dissemination or copying of this email or attachment is strictly prohibited unless you are the intended
recipient or are responsible for delivering the message to the intended recipient. If you have received this email
in error, please let us know and then delete the original email and any attachments .

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Security and password
protection
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:41 PM

 Some methods of increasing the security of emails include:

○ using strong passwords when logging on to your email account
○ changing passwords on a regular basis
○ using spam filters to remove certain suspicious emails to a ‘junk folder’ or even to block the email entirely
○ running anti-virus and anti-spam software at all times on your computer, to protect against emails from unknown or malicious sources.
 Emails can be subject to passive and active attacks:
○ Passive attack:
▪ a security breach in which the system is not harmed but messages, settings or data (such as password data sent in an email) are
read by an unauthorized third party.
▪ the release of email material to other users without your consent.
○ Active attack:
▪ a security breach that involves changing or harming a system (e.g. malware that deletes files or phishing attacks).
▪ overloading your system by sending thousands of emails, which basically ‘clogs up’ your computer and makes internet access
almost impossible
▪ Can involve viruses or phishing attacks

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Netiquette
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:46 PM

 Netiquette (Internet etiquette) refers to the need to respect other users’ views and display common courtesy when
posting views in online discussion groups or when sending out emails.
 As they cannot see your facial expressions or body language, what may have been intended to be humorous could
offend somebody if they misunderstood your message, and they could draw the wrong conclusions.
 The rules of netiquette include:
1. Do not be abusive – do not threaten people or use personal violence.
2. Do not send spam – do not repeatedly send somebody the same information.
3. Be clear and succinct with your message – do not waffle.
4. Remember that posts are public in most cases and can be read by anyone.
5. Always check your spelling and grammar – give a good impression.
6. Respect people's privacy and do not discuss or publish information that might embarrass somebody.
7. Forgive people’s mistakes – do not be compelled to respond to an error.
8. Do not use CAPITAL LETTERS to highlight comments – this is seen as ‘shouting’ in emails, text
messages and online forums.
9. Do not plagiarise – always acknowledge quotes used in any messages you write.
10. Do not use too many emoticons as they might annoy your readers.

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Email groups
Friday, February 7, 2025 3:58 PM

 Emails are often grouped together for the following reasons:

○ It is easier to send out multiple emails if all the email addresses are grouped together
under a single name.
○ Marketing purposes – where companies send out the same emails to target groups
according to age, hobbies, favourite music and so on.
○ ‘Spammers’ use email grouping to target many users at the same time.
○ When setting up meetings, grouping people together makes sure everyone gets the
same information, meeting invitations and so on.

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Magnetic Media and Devices
Friday, February 7, 2025 4:02 PM

 There are a number of options regarding email recipients:

○ Carbon copies (Cc) and Blind carbon copies (Bcc):
▪ CC (Carbon Copy): This allows you to send a copy of the email to additional
recipients. All recipients (including those in CC) can see who else received the
email.
▪ BCC (Blind Carbon Copy): This also allows you to send a copy to
additional recipients, but their email addresses remain hidden from other
recipients.
▪ The difference between Cc and Bcc is that Bcc address details are invisible
to everyone receiving the email apart from the Bcc recipient; all those in the
Cc list can be seen by all recipients.
▪ Bcc is often used for security reasons as all email recipients are grouped
together under a single name and this name is used in the Bcc field.
○ Forwarding of emails
▪ If you decide to forward all emails from your work account to your personal
yahoo address. This means that all your emails, including spam, will be sent to
this yahoo address.
▪ Two problems exist here:
□ Some internet service providers (ISPs) do not recognise the true
source of emails and regard all emails as actually coming from the
hothouse-design.co.uk domain, including spam, because they will have
been forwarded from that domain.
□ Some ISPs have spam filters in place based on email volumes from
just one address.
▪ Both outcomes are undesirable, because there will now be an increased risk
that many of the emails sent to the Yahoo address will be spam.
▪ You could end up being blacklisted by your ISP.
▪ For this reason, many web hosts are now putting a ban on the email forward
feature.
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 feature.
○ Attachments
▪ Always treat attachments with great caution. Spam and phishing emails can
potentially contain malicious attachments.
▪ Your computer can become infected if the attachment contains an executable
file.
▪ ISPs have a limit on size of file transfers as emails arent meant for large
files
▪ While sending large files you can use:
□ file compression (zip files)
□ selecting a web service that allows files to be transferred: upload the
file(s) and then create a link. This link can be sent in an email and the
recipient can then easily download very large files by clicking on it
(google drive)

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Characteristics and effects of
spam
Friday, February 7, 2025 6:04 PM

 Any unsolicited email is regarded as spam.

 Often sent to multiple people
 can range from being simply annoying to dangerous, because spam can contain
viruses or be part of a phishing scam
 Software, known as ‘spambots’, is used to collect email addresses from the internet
and build up spam mailing lists (emails can be gathered from websites, forums,
chat rooms, social networking sites and so on)
 Spambots are easy to write since all email addresses have a very distinct format.
 Main disadvantages are:
○ It uses up people’s time.
○ It generally annoys people.
○ It uses up valuable bandwidth on the internet, slowing it down
○ It can have viruses attached or even be part of a phishing scam.
○ It can clog up users’ inboxes.
 it can also affect mobile phones.
 usually text messages being send to multiple phones
 sometimes referred to as ‘m-spam’, ‘mobile spamming’ or ‘spam SMS’
 At the basic level it just annoys people, but with some mobile phone providers users
are charged for each message they receive

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Effective use of the internet
Friday, February 7, 2025 6:08 PM

 Characteristics, uses, advantages and disadvantages of the internet:

○ The differences between the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)
○ Intranets and Extranets
○ Blogs, wikis, social Networking sites and forums

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Difference b/w the internet
and WWW
Friday, February 7, 2025 6:52 PM

 Internet:
○ word internet comes from Interconnected Network
○ it is basically a worldwide collection of interconnected networks
○ a concept rather than something tangible
○ but it relies on a physical infrastructure that allows networks and individual devices to connect to other networks and
devices

 World Wide Web

○ a way of accessing information using the internet
○ Only a part of the internet
○ users can access using web browser software
○ consists of a massive collection of web pages
○ has been based on the hypertext transfer protocol (http) since 1989
○ the Internet is the global network, while the WWW is one of the services that run on it
○ Other services that run on the internet include email, VoIP, Online Gaming etc.
 Summary of differences between the internet and the World Wide Web

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Intranets and Extranets
Monday, March 3, 2025 1:51 AM

 Intranets
○ = A private club where only employees can enter
○ Many companies use an intranet as well as the internet
○ Definition
▪ a computer network based on internet technology but designed to meet the internal needs for sharing
information within a single organisation or company
○ Access is usually confined to a company or organisation
○ Intranets reside behind a firewall and are only accessible:
▪ internally to members of the company, or
▪ to people given various levels of access who are external to the company
○ There are a number of reasons for adopting intranets rather than using the internet:
▪ Intranets are safer because there is less chance of external hacking or viruses.
▪ It is easier to prevent external links to, for example, certain websites.
▪ Companies can ensure that the information available is specific to their internal audience’s needs.
▪ It is easier to send out sensitive messages in the knowledge that they will remain within the company.
▪ Intranets offer better bandwidth than the internet, therefore there are fewer connection limits than with the
internet (that is, the number of bits per second that can be transmitted are usually higher within an
intranet).
 Extranet:
○ =A guest pass that lets certain outsiders access specific areas of the club but not everything
○ also possible to create extranets that allow intranets to be extended outside the organisation
○ same advantages as an intranet
○ Examples:
▪ Online Banking
▪ trading partners to have controlled access to some information (commercially-sensitive information is
password protected)

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 Differences between Internet and Intranet
○ internet: Interconnected Network.
○ intranet: Internal Restricted Access Network.
○ An intranet is used to give local information relevant to the company or organisation; whereas the internet covers
everything.
○ It is possible to block out certain websites using the intranet easier then on the internet
○ An intranet often requires a password and user ID, and can only be accessed from agreed
points/computers; whereas the internet can be accessed by anyone from anywhere in the world, provided the
user has an ISP account.
○ An intranet is behind a firewall, which gives some protection against hackers, viruses, and so on; much more
then the internet.
○ Information used in intranets is usually stored on local servers, which makes it more secure from outside users
for the same reasons as above.

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Blogs, wikis, social Networking
sites and forums
Monday, March 3, 2025 2:14 AM

 Blogs
○ Web logs (blogs)
○ personal internet journals where the writer (blogger) will type in their observations on
a topic (e.g. a review about a movie) and perhaps provide links to some relevant
websites.
○ Blogs tend to range from minor projects (a performance) through to important social
issues.
○ the comments made on blogs are NOT immune from the law; bloggers can still be
prosecuted for writing offensive material
○ Features of blogs:
▪ updated on a regular basis by the author
▪ usually organized in reverse chronological order (most recent to least recent)
▪ normally public – anyone can read them
▪ entries normally come from a single author
▪ other internet users cannot change blogs – they can only read them
○ Microblogs are similar to blogs, but are most often used on social networking sites to
make short, frequent posts.
○ instant messaging, emails or use other social networking vehicles (such as tweets)
○ Another version is a b-blog - short for business blog - which is used by businesses
to promote themselves on the internet.
 Wikis
○ web applications or websites that allow any user to create and edit their web pages
using any web browser
○ They support hyperlinks and uses a very simple syntax (known as wiki markup) to
create pages
○ They have often been described as ‘web pages with an button’
Features of wikis:
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 ○ Features of wikis:
▪ anyone can edit, delete or modify the content
▪ many authors can be involved in a wiki
▪ it is possible to organise a page any way the author(s) wish(es)
▪ shows/keeps track of all entries - that is, stores a document history
▪ can be easily edited using a web browser
▪ allows large documents to be seen by many people - it is easier than emailing
several people.
 Social networking sites
○ focus on building online communities of users who share the same interests and
activities.
○ enable people to share photos, videos and music, hobbies, favourite eating places, and
so on
○ members do this by creating public profiles and thus form relationships with other
users
○ Features of social networking sites:
▪ Each member is provided with free web space.
▪ Each member can build their own private and public profiles.
▪ It is possible to upload content such as text messages, photos and videos.
▪ It is possible to ‘write on each other’s walls’.
▪ Members are given free instant messaging and video chatting.
▪ It is possible to email other members within the community.
▪ Members can create pages where they can post photos, articles, and so on.
▪ It is possible to invite people to become friends.
▪ Members have control over who can access their private or personal data.
 Forums
○ moderated forum refers to an online discussion forum in which all the posts are
checked by an administrator before they are allowed to be posted
○ Many users prefer this type of forum, as the moderator can not only prevent spam,
but can also filter out any posts that are inappropriate, rude or offensive, or even
those that wander off the main topic
The internet is essentially a huge unmoderated forum. No one ‘owns’ the internet,
10. Communication Page 362
○ The internet is essentially a huge unmoderated forum. No one ‘owns’ the internet,
and it is essentially not policed
○ only real safeguards are a voluntary cooperation between the users and the network
operators
○ However, most social forums or networking groups on the internet have a set of rules
or protocols that members are requested to follow or they will be deleted

10. Communication Page 363

Functionality of the internet
Monday, March 3, 2025 2:37 AM

 This section will consider how it is possible to access the internet and use some of its
features:
○ Internet Service Providers (ISP)
○ Web addresses, URLs, hyperlinks and web browsers

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Internet Service Providers
(ISP)
Monday, March 3, 2025 2:39 AM

 What?
○ a company that provides users with access to the internet
○ normal to pay a monthly fee for this service
○ When a user registers with an ISP, an account is set up and they are given login
details that include a user ID and password
○ An ISP has the equipment and telecommunications lines required to access the
internet – usually broadband connections which, in many cases, use fibre optic
cables

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10. Communication Page 366
Web addresses, URL's,
hyperlinks and web browsers
Monday, March 3, 2025 2:41 AM

 Web Browsers
○ software that allows a user to display a web page on their computer screen
○ They interpret or translate the HTML from websites and show the result of the translation
○ This can often be in the form of videos, images or sound.
○ Most web browsers share the following features:
▪ They have a home page.
▪ They have the ability to store a user’s favourite websites/pages (known as bookmarks).
▪ They keep a history of the websites visited by the use (known as user history).
▪ They allow users to navigate backwards and forwards through websites.
▪ They have hyperlinks that allow users to navigate between web pages; these hyperlinks are shown as
blue_underlined_text or use a small picture, such as a pointed finger
 Opening a website via a URL
○ the URL contains the protocol, site address and file name. If you type in:
https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/ to a web browser, you will go to the home page for the website.
○ If you know the URL for a page within the website, you can type the full entry into the web browser to get
a particular page.
▪ For example, if you want the IGCSE ICT page within the website, you could type in the full URL:
https://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridge-igcse-it to get to the page
○ It is also possible to search through the website using the navigation tools until you find the web page you are
looking for
 Opening a website via a search engine
○ useful if:
▪ you do not know the URL of the website,
▪ or if you want to find some information but do not know where to look
○ Many search engines exist, and they search for websites using a variety of methods
○ they all have one common underlying feature: they look up the words entered in the search box in their
database of web pages to find out which of them match the search string or criteria
○ The more detailed or specific your search string, the more accurate the results (known as ‘hits’) will be.
○ The more specific your search the less hits so more refined results
They can be further refined via the advanced search option
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 ○ They can be further refined via the advanced search option
○ Once the information is found it can then be saved or used as follows:
▪ saved as a favourite and accessed when required
▪ added as a hyperlink in a document
▪ an image of web page can be saved by using ‘Print Screen’ in Windows (or the equivalent – it
varies between operating systems) and then pasted into a word-processor page
▪ information from the web page can be copied and pasted the into another document.
○ It is very important to acknowledge your sources of information when using information from a website in
your own work to:
▪ avoid plagiarism
▪ because the information will be subject to copyright.
 Advantages and disadvantages of using the internet to find information
○ Advantages of using the internet to find information
▪ Information on the internet tends to be up to date because it is quicker and easier to amend web pages
than it is to, for example, reprint books.
▪ The internet has vast, almost limitless, amounts of information.
▪ Searching for information using a search engine is fast and easy.
▪ People can look for information in the comfort of their own home – there is no need to travel to a
library to find required books.
▪ Information on the internet is essentially free of charge.
▪ Pages on the internet can have multimedia elements (for example, videos, animations, cartoons and
music/voiceovers) that make learning more interesting and often makes it easier to understand the topics.
○ Disadvantages of using the internet to find information
▪ The internet is not regulated – anything can be posted on a web page and, consequently, information
may be biased or totally incorrect (books, on the other hand, usually undergo some form of review
before being published).
▪ There is always the risk of accessing inappropriate websites when using search engines; these can take
many forms and can be very distressing to certain people.
▪ Easier to be distracted when searching on the internet – users can find computer games or enter social
networking sites instead of doing their work.
▪ the risk of ‘information overload’ if the user lacks the necessary experience or expertise when using
search engines.
▪ Because it is very easy to copy material from the internet, there is a huge temptation to plagiarise
material;more likely than books.
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 material;more likely than books.
▪ Some research skills are lost when using the internet as search engines do all the work for you.

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How internet searches can be
slow
Monday, March 3, 2025 2:58 AM

 Why internet searches are not always a fast way of finding information?
○ Information overload: Millions of matching websites can appear.
○ Need for specific searches: Broad searches take longer to find exact results.
○ Unclear queries: If the user is unsure what to ask, finding relevant information takes time.
○ Time-Consuming Process
○ search engines have to decide what they think is the most appropriate result for a search query
○ Exactly how each search engine decides on the rank of their search results is kept top secret
○ engines also rank the time it takes to load up pages from websites – the fastest are given priority when the results appear
on the screen
○ search results may not always contain exactly what the user is looking for – more appropriate websites might be hidden
deep within the search results
○ All of this means that the user may not find exactly what they are looking for when using the search engine. It is
common to assume that if the first page of search results does not contain what the user was looking for then it does not
exist
○ It might be that the search engine misunderstood what the user was looking for – or it might have listed the correct
website on the eleventh page of search result

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How to Evaluate Information
found on the Internet
Monday, March 3, 2025 3:08 AM

 There are six criteria to consider when evaluating information found on the internet:
1. Is it possible to verify the legitimacy of who wrote the material posted on the website? Does the information come from a reliable
source that can be verified?
2. Is there a way to check if the information is factually correct; can it be verified from another source; is it grammatically correct
and free of spelling mistakes?
3. Is the article objective? Is there any evidence of bias (for example, does it contain links to organisations to support the ‘bias’ in
the article and does it contain any advertising which reinforces the bias in the article)?
4. Is the information dated? When was it last reviewed and by whom?
5. Does the article cover all aspects and are all the arguments fully supported either by information supplied or references to
external experts, or external links to well-respected organisations (such as universities)?
6. Does the website look legitimate? Do all the links in the website still work?

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Internet protocols
Monday, March 3, 2025 3:11 AM

Protocols are sets of rules agreed by the ‘sender’ and ‘recipient’ when data is being transferred between devices.
 Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)
○ a set of rules that must be obeyed when transferring website data across the internet.
○ When a web page is being accessed, entering http:// at the front of an address tells the web browser that ‘http rules’ for
communication are to be obeyed
○ If HTTP is omitted from the address, most web browsers now default to HTTP
○ When some form of security (for example, SSL) certification or encryption is used (see below) then the protocol is changed to
HTTPS (this is often seen along with the padlock symbol )
○ The letter ‘S’ in https refers to secure(d).
 File transfer protocol (FTP)
○ a network protocol used when transferring files from one computer to another computer over the internet
○ is similar to HTTP, but the protocol is specifically for the transfer of files.
○ Web browsers can be used to connect to an FTP address, for example: ftp://username@ftp.example.gov/
 Secure sockets layer (SSL)
○ a protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely over the internet
○ SSL is designed to work with communication protocols like HTTP and FTP. When used with HTTP, a user logs onto a
website as normal, but SSL encrypts the data - only the user’s computer and the web server are able to make sense of what is
being transmitted
○ a user will know if SSL is being applied when they see HTTPS, or the small padlock in the status bar at the top of the screen

○ Examples of where SSL would be used:

▪ online banking and all online financial transactions
▪ online shopping/commerce
▪ when sending software out to a restricted list of users
▪ sending and receiving emails
▪ using cloud storage facilities
▪ intranets and (as well as the internet)
▪ Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) when carrying out video chatting and/or audio chatting over the internet » used in
instant messaging » when making use of a social networking site.

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10. Communication Page 373
Internet Risks
Monday, March 3, 2025 3:12 AM

 Unfortunately, the internet does contain inappropriate material, some of which is criminal in nature.
 Many users seem to think that because the internet is not policed, then they are unlikely to be prosecuted. This is of course untrue.
 To prevent inappropriate material finding its way on to the internet, should there be some form of control?
 YES:
○ It would prevent illegal material being posted on websites. People find it much easier to discover information, which can have serious
consequences (for example, how to be a hacker); although this can be found in books, it is much easier for a novice to find the required
information using a search engine.
○ Some form of control would prevent children and other vulnerable groups being subjected to undesirable websites, including criminal material.
○ Some form of control would stop incorrect information being published on websites.
 NO:
○ Material published on websites is already available from other sources
○ It would be very expensive to 'police' all websites and users would have to pay for this somehow.
○ It would be difficult to enforce rules and regulations on a global scale, as different countries have different laws.
○ It can be argued that policing the internet would go against freedom of information/speech.
○ Many topics and comments posted on websites are already illegal and laws already exist to deal with the offenders.
○ Who is to decide what is illegal or offensive? Many things are only offensive to certain people (for example, religious comments) but not
necessarily to the majority.
 There are additional precautions that can be taken:
○ ISP companies give the ‘bill payers’ some control over what can be accessed. It is possible for concerned parents, for instance, to put filters
onto the central router. This can prevent unnamed devices from accessing the internet through their router, or prevent named devices from
gaining access to certain websites.
○ Similarly, mobile phone companies offer a similar service and can block access to certain websites. It is not fool-proof, but is an additional
safety net.
○ Schools and textbooks can also play their part by educating users about the correct use of the internet – what to look out for and what
precautions to take. Teachers are an excellent source of information; if a student wishes to access a new website, it is always worth checking with
the teacher first to see if it is safe to go online and access the website.

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