Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Submitted by
S.M.Shihab Sharar
Roll No. 2004024
Session: 2020-2021

Submitted to
Sham Datto
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Contents

List of Experiments i

Experiment 1: Experimental Study of HOMER Pro: Operational Mechanisms,

Diverse Applications, and Strategic Impact Analysis 1

Experiment 2: Design and Simulation of an On-Grid PV-Wind Hybrid Power Sys-

tem to Meet the Electricity Demand in the South-East Part of Bangladesh
5

Experiment 3: Study of Microgrid Design and Cost Analysis Using HOMER Soft-
ware 14

Experiment 4: Experimental Study of KRON Bus Admittance Matrix Reduction

by ’Python’. 19

Experiment 5: Experimental Study of Power Flow Equation Using GAUESS-SEIDEL

using MATLAB. 25

Experiment 6: Experimental Study of Symmetrical Components. 31

Experiment 7: Experimental Study of Newton Raphson Method 37

i
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 1
Experimental Study of HOMER Pro: Operational Mechanisms, Diverse
Applications, and Strategic Impact Analysis

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 24/11/2024

Date of Submission : 29/012/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

1
1.1 Objectives

The main objectives of this experiment are

• To learn about different voltage levels of a AC Power System.

• To observe the voltage levels by ’MATLAB’ Code.

1.2 Theory

An electric supply system consists of three principal component.They are-

• Power Station

• Transmission Lines

• Distribution System

Electric power is produced at the power stations which are located at favourable places,
generally quite away from the consumers. It is then transmitted over large distances to
load centres with the help of conductors known as transmission lines. Finally, it is dis-
tributed to a large number of small and big consumers through a distribution network.[1]
So, here a list of all voltage levels in a table :

Serial No. Part of The System Line Voltage (kV) Phase Voltage (kV)
1 Primary Transmission 400 230
2 Secondary Transmission 110 66
3 Primary Distribution 33 22
4 Secondary Distribution 11 6.6
5 Tertiary Distribution 0.4 0.23

Table 1.1: Voltage Levels in AC Power Systems

Figure 1.1 Shows the Voltage levels for a AC Power supply system :
In Figure 1.1 G.S. represents the generating station where electric power is produced by
3-phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual generation voltage is 11 kV. For econ-
omy in the transmission of electric power, the generation voltage 11kV is stepped upto
132 kV or more. At primary transmission stage the electric power at 132 kV is transmit-
ted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to the outskirts of the city. This forms the pri-
mary transmission. The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station
(RS) which usually lies at the outskirts of the city. At the receiving station, the voltage is
reduced to 33kV by step-down transformers. The secondary transmission line terminates
at the sub-station (SS) where voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The
11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the city. The electric power from primary
distribution line (11 kV) is delivered to distribution sub-stations (DS). These sub-stations

2
 Figure 1.1: Typical AC Power Supply Scheme

are located near the consumers’ localities and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase,
4-wire for secondary distribution. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and be-
tween any phase and neutral is 230 V.

1.3 Required Softwares

• MATLAB R2022b.

1.3.1 Program

Program 1.1: Code for Exp1

1 clc ;
2 clear all ;
3 a =[400 ,230;110 ,66;33 ,22;11 ,6.6;0.4 ,0.23];
4 fprintf ([ ’ 1: Primary Transmission \ n ’ ...

3
 5 ’ 2: Primary Distribution \ n ’ ...
6 ’ 3: Secondary Transmission \ n ’ ...
7 ’ 4: Secondary Distribution \ n ’ ...
8 ’ 5: Tertiary Distribution \ n \ n ’ ])
9 b = input ( ’ Enter any serial number : ’) ;
10 fprintf ( ’ Line voltage : %.3 f KV \ n Phase Voltage : %.3 f KV \ n ’ ,
a (b ,1) ,a (b ,2) )
1.3.2 Output

1.4 Conclusions and Discussions

In this experiment, MATLAB code was utilized to observe various voltage levels in an AC
power system. The system comprised different voltage levels at each stage, including
transmission and distribution. The primary objective of this experiment was to analyze
the variations in voltage levels across these stages. Our code leveraged fundamental MAT-
LAB functions, such as array declaration using the matrix array syntax, defining array el-
ements representing voltage levels, and printing these levels using the fprintf function.
Additionally, the code facilitated the display of corresponding voltage levels for any given
serial number.

References

[1] (Principles of Power System. -V.K. Mehta)

4
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 2
Design and Simulation of an On-Grid PV-Wind Hybrid Power System to
Meet the Electricity Demand in the South-East Part of Bangladesh

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 24/11/2024

Date of Submission : 29/12/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

5
2.1 Objectives

The main objectives of this experiment are:

• To learn conversion of a given impedance matrix Z representing a power network

into its corresponding admittance matrix using MATLAB.

• To learn about Impalement of MATLAB code to construct the Y Bus matrix from the
computed admittance matrix Y

2.2 Theory:

The bus impedance matrix and admittance matrix are fundamental concepts in power
system analysis, particularly in the field of power flow studies. These matrices are used
to model the electrical properties of the interconnected power system network, enabling
engineers to analyze the flow of power and voltage across different buses (nodes) in the
system. Here’s a brief theoretical overview of both matrices:

2.3 Bus Admittance Matrix

Admittance represents the ease with which alternating current can flow through a circuit,
and it is the reciprocal of impedance. The bus admittance matrix captures the admittance
parameters between different buses in the power network. Similar to the impedance
matrix, each element of the admittance matrix represents the admittance between two
buses, considering the network components connecting them.
Mathematically, the bus admittance matrix [Y ] can be represented as:

Y =G + jB

Where:

• G is the conductance component.

• B is the susceptance component.

• j is the imaginary unit.

The elements of the admittance matrix are determined based on the conductance
(inverse of resistance) and susceptance (inverse of reactance) of the network components
connecting the buses. By incorporating the admittance values into the matrix, engineers
can effectively model the network’s electrical behavior, particularly in terms of power flow
and voltage distribution.

6
 In power system analysis, both matrices are crucial for solving the power flow equa-
tions, which describe the steady-state behavior of the network under various operating
conditions. These matrices enable engineers to analyze voltage profiles, power losses,
and system stability, ultimately ensuring the efficient and reliable operation of the power
system.

The bus admittance matrix, commonly referred to as the Y-Bus matrix, is a fundamen-
tal concept in power system analysis, particularly in the context of load flow studies. This
matrix plays a crucial role in representing the admittance (the inverse of impedance) rela-
tionships between different buses in a power system network. Here is a concise overview
of the theory behind the Y-Bus matrix.

2.4 Importance of Bus aAmittance Matrix

Power Flow Analysis: Ybus is a cornerstone for performing power flow studies. It allows
us to calculate the current injections at each bus in the system based on the bus volt-
ages. This information is essential for understanding how power is flowing throughout
the network and identifying potential bottlenecks or overload conditions.
System Stability Analysis: By analyzing the eigenvalues of Ybus, engineers can assess
the system’s stability. This helps predict how the system will respond to sudden changes
in load or generation, which is crucial for maintaining reliable operation.
Fault Analysis: Ybus plays a vital role in simulating fault scenarios. By incorporating
fault impedance into the matrix, engineers can analyze the impact of faults on system
voltages and currents. This helps design appropriate protection schemes to minimize
damage and ensure system safety.
State Estimation: Ybus is used in state estimation techniques to estimate the real-time
state of the power system, including bus voltages and phase angles. This information is
vital for system operators to make informed decisions about power dispatch and control.
System Planning and Expansion: Ybus is a valuable tool for planning future system
expansion. By modeling different expansion scenarios with the Ybus, engineers can eval-
uate the impact on system performance and identify potential issues before they arise.
Overall, the bus admittance matrix provides a powerful and versatile tool for analyz-
ing various aspects of power system behavior. It’s a key component for ensuring efficient,
reliable, and secure operation of the electrical grid

7
 If We consider this Circuit :

2.5 Related Equations and converting process:

It can be seen from the figure,

1
yi j =
zi j
From the circuit diagram,

I 1 = y 10V1 + y 12 (V1 − V2 ) + y 13 (V1 − V3 ) (2.1)

I 2 = y 20V2 + y 12 (V2 − V1 ) + y 23 (V2 − V3 ) (2.2)
0 = y 23 (V3 − V2 ) + y 13 (V3 − V1 ) + y 34 (V3 − V4 ) (2.3)
0 = y 34 (V4 − V3 ) (2.4)

From the equation we can write,

I 1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 + Y14V4

I 2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + Y24V4
I 3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 + Y34V4
I 4 = Y41V1 + Y42V2 + Y43V3 + Y44V4

[Admittance for Bus 1 to Bus 1] Y11 = y 10 + y 12 + y 13 (2.5)

[Admittance for Bus 2 to Bus 2] Y22 = y 20 + y 12 + y 23 (2.6)
[Admittance for Bus 3 to Bus 3] Y33 = y 13 + y 23 + y 34 (2.7)

8
 [Admittance for Bus 4 to Bus 4] Y44 = y 34 (2.8)
[Admittance for Bus 1 to Bus 2] Y12 = Y21 = −y 12 (2.9)
[Admittance for Bus 1 to Bus 3] Y13 = Y31 = −y 13 (2.10)
[Admittance for Bus 2 to Bus 3] Y23 = Y32 = −y 23 (2.11)
[Admittance for Bus 3 to Bus 4] Y34 = Y43 = −y 34 (2.12)

The bus admittance matrix Y for the given system is as follows:

 
Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14
 
Y Y Y Y 
 21 22 23 24 
Y = 
Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 
 
Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44
Substituting these values from equation (2.9) to (2.16) into the matrix, we get:

 
y 10 + y 12 + y 13 −y 12 −y 13 0
 
 −y 12 y 20 + y 12 + y 23 −y 23 0 
Y =
 


 −y 13 −y 23 y 13 + y 23 + y 34 −y 34 

0 0 −y 34 y 34
The diagonal elements of the Bus Admittance matrix are known as self-admittances and
the off-diagonal elements are known as mutual admittances.

Conversion of Impedance Matrix to Admittance Matrix and Y-Bus Construction

To convert the impedance matrix Z to the admittance matrix Y s:

• For each element in the impedance matrix Z , take the reciprocal to obtain the cor-
responding element in the admittance matrix Y .

• Since Z contains complex impedance, the reciprocal operation is performed by

simply taking the inverse of each impedance value.

• Infinite impedance values in Z , represented as "Inf" in MATLAB, result in zero con-

ductance in the admittance matrix Y , as infinite impedance implies an open cir-
cuit.

Construction of Y-Bus Matrix

Y-Bus matrix from the computed admittance matrix Y :

• For each bus a, calculate the self-admittance by summing the admittance values
connected to that bus.

9
 • If a = b (diagonal elements), sum all admittance values connected to bus a to ob-
tain its self-admittance.

• If a ̸= b (off-diagonal elements), assign the negative of the corresponding admit-

tance value to the Y-Bus matrix element to represent the conductance between
buses a and b.

• The diagonal elements of the Y-Bus matrix represent the total self-admittance of
each bus, while the off-diagonal elements represent the conductance between dif-
ferent buses in the network.

2.6 Required Softwares

• MATLAB R2022b

2.7 Program

Program 2.1: Code for Exp2

1 clc ;
2 clear all ;
3 close all ;
4 a1 = input ( ’ Enter the number of rows : ’) ;
5 b1 = input ( ’ Enter the number of coloumns : ’) ;
6 for i =1: a1
7 for j =1: b1
8 fprintf ( ’ Enter the element p [% d ,% d ] = ’ ,i , j ) ;
9 p (i , j ) = input ("") ;
10 end
11 end
12 p = reshape (p ,[ a1 , b1 ])
13

14 display (" Impedence Matrix ")

15

16 for a = 1: a1
17 for b = 1: b1
18 y (a , b ) = 1 / p (a , b ) ;
19 end
20 end
21 display (" Admittance Matrix ")
22 y

10
23 for a =1: a1
24 for b =1: b1
25 if a == b
26 sum = 0;
27 for i = 1:4
28 sum = sum + y (a , i ) ;
29

30 end
31 Y (a , b ) = sum ;
32 else
33 Y (a , b ) = -y (a , b ) ;
34 end
35 end
36 end
37 display (" Bus Admittance Matrix ")
38 Y

11
2.8 Output

MATLAB Command Window Page 1

Enter the number of rows: 4

Enter the number of coloumns: 4
Enter the element p[1,1] =1i
Enter the element p[1,2] =0.5i
Enter the element p[1,3] =0.3i
Enter the element p[1,4] =Inf
Enter the element p[2,1] =0.5i
Enter the element p[2,2] =0.7i
Enter the element p[2,3] =0.3i
Enter the element p[2,4] =Inf
Enter the element p[3,1] =0.2i
Enter the element p[3,2] =0.3i
Enter the element p[3,3] =Inf
Enter the element p[3,4] =0.07i
Enter the element p[4,1] =Inf
Enter the element p[4,2] =Inf
Enter the element p[4,3] =0.09i
Enter the element p[4,4] =Inf

p =

0.0000 + 1.0000i 0.0000 + 0.5000i 0.0000 + 0.3000i Inf + 0.0000i

0.0000 + 0.5000i 0.0000 + 0.7000i 0.0000 + 0.3000i Inf + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 0.2000i 0.0000 + 0.3000i Inf + 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0700i
Inf + 0.0000i Inf + 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0900i Inf + 0.0000i

"Impedence Matrix"

"Admittance Matrix"

y =

0.0000 - 1.0000i 0.0000 - 2.0000i 0.0000 - 3.3333i 0.0000 + 0.0000i

0.0000 - 2.0000i 0.0000 - 1.4286i 0.0000 - 3.3333i 0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 - 5.0000i 0.0000 - 3.3333i 0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 -14.2857i
0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 -11.1111i 0.0000 + 0.0000i

"Bus Admittance Matrix"

Y =

0.0000 - 6.3333i 0.0000 + 2.0000i 0.0000 + 3.3333i 0.0000 + 0.0000i

0.0000 + 2.0000i 0.0000 - 6.7619i 0.0000 + 3.3333i 0.0000 + 0.0000i
0.0000 + 5.0000i 0.0000 + 3.3333i 0.0000 -22.6190i 0.0000 +14.2857i
0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 +11.1111i 0.0000 -11.1111i

>>

Figure 2.1: Output

12
2.9 Conclusions and Discussions

The Experiment by MATLAB code is aimed at generating the bus admittance matrix (Y
bus) based on the given impedance matrix (Z matrix). The Z matrix represents the impedances
between different buses in the power system. The Y bus matrix, on the other hand, rep-
resents the admittances between these buses.
The code begins by defining the impedance matrix ’z’, which represents the impedances
between the buses in the power system. The elements of the ’z’ matrix are complex num-
bers, where Inf represents an infinite impedance, implying no direct connection between
the corresponding buses.
Next, the code calculates the admittance matrix ’y’ by taking the reciprocal of each
element of the impedance matrix ’z’. This is achieved through nested loops iterating over
each element of the ’z’ matrix. After obtaining the admittance matrix ’y’, the code pro-
ceeds to calculate the bus admittance matrix ’Y’. For each diagonal element (a = b), the
code sums the admittances connected to the corresponding bus. For off-diagonal ele-
ments (a b), the negative of the admittance between the corresponding buses is assigned.

References

[1]https://circuitglobe.com/bus-admittance-matrix.html

13
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 3
Study of Microgrid Design and Cost Analysis Using HOMER Software

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 24/11/2024

Date of Submission : 29/12/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

14
3.1 Objectives

1. To understand and implement the KRON reduction method for node elimination
in a network.

2. To verify the effectiveness of the KRON reduction method using MATLAB by trans-
forming the given admittance matrix.

3.2 Theory

Electrical networks can be made simpler by using the KRON reduction technique, which
lowers the node count while maintaining the admittance characteristics of the network.
Partitioning the admittance matrix and methodically removing nodes are the steps in the
process.
The steps for node elimination are:

1. Partition the admittance matrix.

2. Compute the inverse of the submatrix corresponding to the nodes to be eliminated.

3. Perform matrix multiplications to update the remaining matrix.

The general form of the admittance matrix after partitioning can be represented as:
 
Y11 · · · Y1 j Y1n }L
 . . . . 
 . .. .. .. 
 .  }L
Ybus =  
 k1 · · · Yk j Ykn  } L
 Y 

Yn1 · · · Yn j Ynn }M

Eliminating a node at a time prevents a matrix from inverting, and the procedure is quite
easy to follow. Renumbering can be necessary, and the node that has to be removed
needs to be the highest numbered node. The element M −1 is the reciprocal of the matrix
M , which becomes a single element. The reduced (n - 1) x (n - 1) matrix will be K , L, L ′ ,
and M once the original admittance matrix is divided into submatrices.
 
Y11 · · · Y1 j · · ·  

Y
 Y1n
 k1 · · · Yk j · · ·

1  h i
YBUS =  .. .. − Y
 Y  kn  n1
   Y · · · Y nj · · ·
 . . nn .
.

 . ..  .
.. .

and when the indicated manipulation of the matrices is accomplished, the element
in row k and column j of the resulting (n - 1) x (n - 1) matrix will be

Yk,n · Yn, j
Yk, j (new) = Yk, j (orig) − (3.1)
Yn,n

15
 3.3 Required Software

1. MATLAB R2023a.

3.4 Program:

Program to Display the bus admittance matrix using MATLAB.

Program 3.1: Code for the program

1 clc ;
2 clear ;
3 Y = [ -9.8 i , 0 , 4i , 5 i ;
4 0 , -8.3 i , 2.5 i , 5 i ;
5 4i , 2.5 i , -14.5 i , 8 i ;
6 5i , 5i , 8i , -18 i ];
7

8 disp (" Original Matrix :") ;

9 disp ( Y ) ;
10

11 m = input (" How many nodes to eliminate ( up to 3) : ") ;

12 if m < 1 || m >= size (Y , 1)
13 error ( ’ Error : Number of nodes to eliminate must be
between 1 and size (Y , 1) - 1. ’) ;
14 end
15

16 while m > 0
17 [a , b ] = size ( Y ) ;
18 n = a;
19 Z = zeros (a -1 , b -1) ; % Initialize the reduced matrix Z
20 for i = 1: a -1
21 for j = 1: b -1
22 Z (i , j ) = Y (i , j ) - ( Y (i , n ) * Y (n , j ) ) / Y (n , n ) ;
23 end
24 end
25 Y = Z;
26 m = m - 1;
27 end
28

29 disp (" Reduced Matrix :") ;

30 disp ( Y ) ;

16
3.5 Output:

3.6 Experimental Analysis:

 
− j 9.8 0.0 j 4.0 j 5.0
 
 0.0 − j 8.3 j 2.5 j 5.0 
Ybus = 
 

 j 4.0 − j 2.5 − j 14.5 j 8.0 
 
j 5.0 j 5.0 j 8.0 − j 18.0
To modify the element j 2.5 in row 3 , column 2 subtract from it the product of the ele-
ments enclosed by rectangles and divided by the element in the lower right corner. We
find the modified element
j 8.0 × j 5.0
Y32 = j 2.5 − = j 4.7222
− j 18.0
Similarly the new element in row 1 , column 1 is
j 5.0 × j 5.0
Y11 = − j 9.8 − = − j 8.4111
− j 18.0
Other elements are found in the same manner to yield
 
− j 8.4111 j 1.3889 j 6.2222
 
Ybus = 
 j 1.3889 − j 6.9111 j 4.7222 

j 6.2222 j 4.7222 − j 10.9444

Reducing the above matrix to remove node 3 yields

" #
− j 4.8736 j 4.0736
Ybus =
j 4.0736 − j 4.8736

which is identical to the matrix found by the matrix-partitioning method where two
nodes were removed at the same time.

17
3.7 Discussion and Conclusion:

The experimental study focused on the KRON reduction method’s application to sim-
plify electrical networks while maintaining their admittance properties. The KRON re-
duction method’s ability to systematically eliminate nodes from the network, followed by
partitioning the admittance matrix and updating the remaining matrix, was thoroughly
examined and verified through MATLAB simulations.
The results demonstrated that the KRON reduction method effectively simplifies the
network without compromising its key electrical characteristics. The partitioning of the
original admittance matrix into submatrices and the subsequent calculation of the re-
duced matrix accurately preserved the network’s original admittance properties. The
MATLAB simulations showed consistency with theoretical expectations, confirming the
method’s reliability and accuracy.
One significant advantage of the KRON reduction method is its efficiency. By reducing
the number of nodes in the network, the computational complexity is significantly de-
creased. This efficiency is particularly beneficial in large-scale power systems where di-
rect matrix inversion would be computationally prohibitive. Furthermore, the method’s
preservation of essential network characteristics ensures that the simplified model re-
mains a valid representation of the original system, making it highly useful for practical
applications in power system analysis and design.
Conclusion The KRON reduction method proved to be an effective and reliable tech-
nique for simplifying electrical networks. The MATLAB simulations validated the theo-
retical framework, demonstrating that the method preserves the network’s admittance
properties while reducing computational complexity. The step-by-step reduction pro-
cess facilitated an accurate and simplified representation of the original network, high-
lighting the method’s utility in practical power system analysis and design.
The success of the KRON reduction method in this study suggests its potential for
broader application in various power system analyses, including load flow studies, fault
analysis, and stability studies. Its ability to maintain the integrity of the network’s admit-
tance properties while simplifying the model makes it an invaluable tool for engineers
and researchers working with complex electrical networks. Future work could explore
the method’s application to even larger networks and its integration with other network
simplification techniques to further enhance its utility and efficiency.

18
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 4
Experimental Study of KRON Bus Admittance Matrix Reduction by
’Python’.

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 2/06/2024

Date of Submission : 17/09/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

19
4.1 Objectives

1. To know about the theory of Kron BAM reduction.

2. To implement Kron BAM reduction by Python coding

4.2 Theory

Kron BAM reduction

Kron BAM (Bus Admittance Matrix) reduction is a technique used in power system anal-
ysis to simplify the representation of electrical networks. It is named after Gabriel Kron,
who developed several methods for network reduction. The BAM reduction focuses on
the Bus Admittance Matrix (Y-bus), which is a fundamental matrix used to describe the
admittance (inverse of impedance) relationships between different buses (nodes) in a
power system.
Here is a step-by-step explanation of the Kron BAM reduction process:

1. Start with the full network represented by its Y-bus matrix. The Y-bus matrix is
constructed from the admittance values of all branches (transmission lines, trans-
formers, etc.) in the network.

2. Partition the Y-bus matrix into four submatrices based on the buses to be retained
and those to be eliminated. The matrix can be written as:

à !
Yr r Yr e
(4.1)
Yer Yee

where:

• Yr r is the submatrix corresponding to the retained buses.

• Yr e and Yer are the submatrices corresponding to the connections between

retained and eliminated buses.

• Yee is the submatrix corresponding to the eliminated buses.

3. Use the following formula to reduce the Y-bus matrix by eliminating the buses in
the Yee submatrix:

Yr′r = Yr r − Yr e Yee
−1
Yer (4.2)

Here, Yr′r is the reduced Y-bus matrix that includes only the retained buses.

20
 4. The reduced Y-bus matrix Yr′r provides a simplified representation of the network
with fewer buses, while maintaining the electrical characteristics and behavior of
the original network.

Techniques of Reduction

The general form of the admittance matrix after partitioning can be represented as:
 
Y11 · · · Y1 j Y1n
 . .. .. .. 
 . .
 . . . 

Ybus =   (4.3)
 Y
 k1 · · · Yk j Ykn 


Yn1 · · · Yn j Ynn

The reduced (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix will be

 
Y11 · · · Y1 j ···  

Y
 Y 1n
 k1 · · · Yk j · · ·
 − 1 Ykn  Yn1 · · · Yn j
  h i
Ybus = 
 .. ..  Y  ··· (4.4)
 . .

 nn ..
 . ..  .
.. .
and when the indicated manipulation of the matrices is accomplished, the element
in row k and column j of the resulting (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix will be

Yk,n · Yn, j
Yk, j (new) = Yk, j (original) − (4.5)
Yn,n
When Eq. (3.3) is compared to Eq. (3.5) we can see how to proceed. We multiply the ele-
ment in the last column and the same row as the element being modified by the element
in the last row and the same column as the element being modified. We then divide this
product by Ym and subtract the result from the element being modified. The following
example illustrates the simple procedure.

Example

For example:
 
− j 9.8 0.0 j 4.0 j 5.0
 
 0.0 − j 8.3 j 2.5 j 5.0 
Ybus =  (4.6)
 

 j 4.0 j 2.5 − j 14.5 j 8.0 
 
j 5.0 j 5.0 j 8.0 − j 18.0
To modify the element j 2.5 in row 3, column 2 subtract from it the product of the
elements enclosed by rectangles and divided by the element in the lower right corner. We
find the modified element

21
 j 8.0 × j 5.0
Y32 = j 2.5 − = j 4.7222 (4.7)
− j 18.0
Similarly, the new element in row 1, column 1 is

j 5.0 × j 5.0
Y11 = − j 9.8 − = − j 8.4111 (4.8)
− j 18.0
Other elements are found in the same manner to yield

 
− j 8.4111 j 1.3889 j 6.2222
 
Ybus = 
 j 1.3889 − j 6.9111 j 4.7222   (4.9)
j 6.2222 j 4.7222 − j 10.9444
Reducing the above matrix to remove node 3 yields

à !
− j 4.8736 j 4.0736
Ybus = (4.10)
j 4.0736 − j 4.8736
which is identical to the matrix found by the matrix-partitioning method where two
nodes were removed at the same time

4.3 Required Software

1. Spyder

4.4 Program:

Program 4.1: Code for Exp04(Python)

1 # -* - coding : utf -8 -* -
2 """
3 Created on Sat Jun 22 19:32:30 2024
4

5 @author : shoisob
6 """
7

8 import numpy as np
9

10 # Function to get matrix input from the user

11 def get_matrix_input ( size_matrix ) :
12 y = np . zeros (( size_matrix , size_matrix ) , dtype = complex )
13 print (" Enter the elements of the admittance matrix :")

22
14 for i in range ( size_matrix ) :
15 for j in range ( size_matrix ) :
16 y [i , j ] = complex ( input (f ’ Enter the value of y
({ i +1} ,{ j +1}) : ’) )
17 return y
18

19 # Main function
20 def main () :
21 size_matrix = int ( input (" Enter the size of the
admittance matrix : ") )
22 y = get_matrix_input ( size_matrix )
23

24 print (" Original Matrix :")

25 print ( y )
26

27 m = int ( input (" How many nodes do you want to eliminate :

") )
28

29 if 1 <= m <= size_matrix :

30 for k in range ( m ) :
31 a1 , b1 = y . shape
32 z = np . zeros (( a1 -1 , b1 -1) , dtype = complex )
33 for a in range ( a1 -1) :
34 for b in range ( b1 -1) :
35 z [a , b ] = y [a , b ] - (( y [a , size_matrix
-1] * y [ size_matrix -1 , b ]) / y [ size_matrix -1 ,
size_matrix -1])
36 print ( ’ Matrix after eliminating node : ’)
37 print ( z )
38 y = z
39 size_matrix -= 1
40 else :
41 print ( ’ Invalid input : Number of nodes to eliminate
must be between 1 and the size of the matrix . ’)
42

43 # Run the main function

44 if __name__ == " __main__ ":
45 main ()

23
Output

4.5 Discussion and Conclusion:

The study successfully demonstrates the Kron reduction of the bus admittance matrix
using Python. This method effectively simplifies power system models, making them
more computationally efficient while retaining the essential characteristics of the origi-
nal network. Python, with its robust scientific libraries, proves to be an efficient tool for
implementing Kron reduction. This approach is particularly useful for reducing complex
networks, helping in faster and more scalable power system analysis.

24
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 5
Experimental Study of Power Flow Equation Using GAUESS-SEIDEL
using MATLAB.

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 2/06/2024

Date of Submission : 17/09/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

25
5.1 Objectives

1. To implement the Gauss-Seidel method in MATLAB for solving power flow equa-
tions in electrical power systems.

2. To experimentally validate the power flow equations using the Gauss-Seidel method
implemented in MATLAB.

5.2 Theory

Power flow, or load flow analysis, is a fundamental calculation within the field of electri-
cal power systems. The goal is to determine the voltage magnitude and angle at each bus
(node) in a power system under steady-state conditions. The results help to assess the
performance of the system, identifying potential overloads and ensuring reliable opera-
tion.
The Gauss-Seidel method is an iterative algorithm used to solve the power flow equa-
tions in a power system. It is one of the oldest and simplest methods for solving systems
of linear equations and is particularly suited for power flow analysis due to its ease of
implementation.
In solving a power flow
 
N
Vi(k+1) =
1   P i − jQ i − (k+1) 
X 
Y i j V j
Yi i V (k)
 
i j =1
j ̸=i

problem, the system is assumed to be operating under balanced conditions, and a single-
phase model is used. Four quantities are associated with each bus. These are voltage
magnitude (|V |), phase angle (δ), real power (P), and reactive power (Q). The system
buses are generally classified into three types.

1. Slack Bus

2. Load Bus

3. Regulated Bus

Bus Types in Power Systems

• Slack Bus (Swing Bus):

– Serves as the reference bus in the power system.

– Voltage magnitude and phase angle are predefined.

– Balances the system by compensating for power losses, adjusting its generated
power to match the difference between total generation and total load.

26
• Load Bus (P-Q Bus):

– Known as a P-Q bus.

– Active power (P) and reactive power (Q) are specified.

– Voltage magnitude and phase angle are unknown and need to be calculated.

• Regulated Bus (Generator Bus or P-V Bus):

– Also called a voltage-controlled bus or P-V bus.

– Real power (P) and voltage magnitude (V) are specified.

– Reactive power (Q) and voltage phase angle are unknown and determined during
power flow analysis.

5.3 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW SOLUTION With Mathmetical Notation

In the power flow study, it is necessary to solve the set of nonlinear equations represented
by for two unknown variables at each node. In the Gauss-Seidel method is solved for Vi ,
and the iterative sequence becomes

P isch − jQ isch Pn (k)

Vi(k)∗
+ j =1 y i j V j
Vi(k+1) = Pn for j ̸= i (5.1)
j =0 y i j

( " #)
n n
P i(k+1) Vi(k)∗ Vi(k) y i j V j(k)
X X
=ℜ yi j − j ̸= i (5.2)
j =0 j =1

( " #)
n n
Q i(k+1) Vi(k)∗ Vi(k) y i j V j(k)
X X
= −ℑ yi j − j ̸= i (5.3)
j =0 j =1

The power flow equation is usually expressed in terms of the elements of the bus
admittance matrix. Since the off-diagonal elements of the bus admittance matrix Ybus ,
P
shown by uppercase letters, are Yi j = −y i j , and the diagonal elements are Yi i = y i j ,
(4.1) becomes

P isch − jQ isch
Yi j V j(k)
Pn
− j ̸=i
Vi(k)∗
Vi(k+1) = (5.4)
Yi i

( " #)
n
P i(k+1) Vi(k)∗ Vi(k) Yi i Yi j V j(k)
X
=ℜ + j ̸= i (5.5)
j ̸=i

27
 ( " #)
n
Q i(k+1) = −ℑ Vi(k)∗ Vi(k) Yi i + Yi j V j(k)
X
j ̸= i (5.6)
j ̸=i

5.4 Required Software

1. MATLAB R2023a.

5.5 Program:

Program to Display the bus admittance matrix using MATLAB.

Program 5.1: Code for the program

1 clc ;
2 clear all ;
3 fprintf ( ’z Matrix ’)
4 z =[0 ,0.02+0.04 i ,0.01+0.03 i ;0.02+0.04 i ,0 ,0.0125+0.025 i
;0.01+0.03 i ,0.0125+0.025 i ,0]
5

6 disp ( ’y Matrix ’)
7 for a =1:3
8 for b =1:3
9 y (a , b ) =1/ z (a , b ) ;
10 end
11 end
12 y
13

14 disp ( ’Y bus Matrix ’)

15 for a =1:3
16 for b =1:3
17 if a == b
18 sum =0;
19 for c =1:3
20 sum = sum + y (a , c ) ;
21 Y (a , b ) = sum ;
22 end
23 else
24 Y (a , b ) = - y (a , b ) ;
25 end
26 end

28
27 end
28 Y
29 V2 (1) =1+0 i ;
30 V3 (1) =1+0 i ;
31 A = -2.566+1.102 i ;
32 B = -1.386+0.452 i ;
33 V1 =1.05+0 i ;
34

35 for k =1:100
36 V2 ( k +1) =(( real ( A ) + i * imag ( A ) ) / conj ( V2 ( k ) ) -Y (1 ,2) * V1 - Y
(2 ,3) * V3 ( k ) ) /( -( Y (1 ,2) + Y (2 ,3) ) ) ;
37 l = V2 ( k +1) ;
38

39 V3 ( k +1) =(( real ( B ) + i * imag ( B ) ) / conj ( V3 ( k ) ) -Y (1 ,3) * V1 - Y

(2 ,3) * V2 ( k +1) ) /( -( Y (1 ,3) + Y (2 ,3) ) ) ;
40 m = V3 ( k +1) ;
41 if ( abs (( V2 ( k +1) ) -( V2 ( k ) ) ) <0.00001 && abs (( V3 ( k +1) ) -( V3 (
k ) ) ) <0.00001)
42 break ;
43 end
44 fprintf ( ’\ t % d \ t ’ ,k ) , disp ([ l , m ])
45 end

29
5.6 Output:

5.7 Discussion and Conclusion:

The Gauss-Seidel method is effective for solving power flow equations in small to medium-
sized power systems. This experimental study successfully demonstrated the implemen-
tation of the method using MATLAB, showing accurate results with a reasonable num-
ber of iterations for smaller systems. However, the method’s convergence rate is rela-
tively slow compared to other techniques like Newton-Raphson, making it less suitable
for large-scale power networks. Further exploration into more advanced methods or hy-
brid approaches could offer faster and more robust solutions for complex power systems

30
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 6
Experimental Study of Symmetrical Components.

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 2/06/2024

Date of Submission : 17/09/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

31
6.1 Objectives

1. To know about the theoretical background of symmetrical components.

2. To know how symmetrical components can be calculated from original Phasor by

MATLAB Code.

3. To obseve the output plot of Zero,Positive and Negative sequences of original pha-
sor.

6.2 Theory

Electrical values like voltages and currents in a three-phase power system are commonly
represented as three phasors, one for each phase (A, B, and C). These phasors are bal-
anced, or have equal magnitudes and 120 degrees of phase separation, under typical
operating conditions. Nevertheless, the phasors become imbalanced during faults or
unbalanced situations, which makes analysis more difficult. Charles Fortescue created
the idea of symmetrical components in 1918 to make the analysis of such unbalanced
systems easier. The three unbalanced phasors (voltages or currents) are broken down
into three sets of balanced phasors, referred to as sequence components, by symmetrical
components:

• Zero Sequence Components: All three phasors have the same magnitude and phase.

• Positive Sequence Components: Consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude,

displayed from each other 120 degree in phase and having the same phase se-
quences as the original phasors.

• Negative Sequence Components: Consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude,

displayed from each other 120 degree in phase and having opposite phase sequences
as the original phasors.

In a three-phase power system, the three-phase voltages can be represented as:

 
Va
 
V = Vb 


Vc

6.3 Required Software

1. MATLAB R2023a.

32
 Figure 6.1: Positive ,Negative and Zero Sequence Network

Figure 6.2: Summation of Positive ,Negative and Zero Sequence makes Original Phasor

6.4 Program:

Program 6.1: Code for the program

1 function phasor ( F )
2 rankF = length ( F (1 ,:) ) ;
3 if rankF == 2
4 mag = F (: ,1) ;
5 th = F (: ,2) * pi /180;

33
 6 Vr = mag .* cos ( th ) ;
7 Vi = mag .* sin ( th ) ;
8 elseif rankF == 1
9 mag = abs ( F ) ;
10 th = angle ( F ) ;
11 Vr = real ( F ) ;
12 Vi = imag ( F ) ;
13 end
14

15 Vscle = 1.2 * max ([ abs ( Vr ) ; abs ( Vi ) ]) ;

16 Z = 1.1547005 * mag / 10;
17 x1 = Vr - ( Z .* sin ( pi /3 - th ) ) ;
18 y1 = Vi - ( Z .* cos ( pi /3 - th ) ) ;
19 x2 = Vr - ( Z .* cos ( th - pi /6) ) ;
20 y2 = Vi - ( Z .* sin ( th - pi /6) ) ;
21

22 or = zeros ( length ( F (: ,1) ) ,1) ;

23 Vx = [ or Vr ];
24 Vy = [ or Vi ];
25 Ar1x = [ x1 Vr ];
26 Ar1y = [ y1 Vi ];
27 Ar2x = [ x2 Vr ];
28 Ar2y = [ y2 Vi ];
29

30 Arx = [ Ar1x ; Ar2x ];

31 Ary = [ Ar1y ; Ar2y ];
32

33 h = plot ( Vx ’ , Vy ’ , Arx ’ , Ary ’) ;

34 axis ([ - Vscle Vscle - Vscle Vscle ]) ;
35 grid on ;
36 end

Program 6.2: Code for the program

1 clc ;
2 clear ;
3 close all ;
4 va = [1 0];
5 vb = [1 -90];
6 vc = [2 135];

34
 7

8 vabc = [ va ; vb ; vc ];
9

10 magnitude = vabc (: ,1) ;

11 angle = pi / 180 * vabc (: ,2) ;
12

13 vabcr = magnitude .* ( cos ( angle ) + 1 j * sin ( angle ) ) ;

14

15 a = cos (2 * pi / 3) + 1 j * sin (2 * pi / 3) ;
16

17 A = [1 1 1; 1 a a ^2; 1 a ^2 a ];
18

19 va012 = inv ( A ) * vabcr ;

20

21 vabc0 = va012 (1) * [1; 1; 1];

22 vabc1 = va012 (2) * [1; a ^2; a ];
23 vabc2 = va012 (3) * [1; a ; a ^2];
24

25 figure ;
26 subplot (1 ,4 ,1) ;
27 phasor ([ vabcr ]) ;
28 title ( ’ Original Phasors ’) ;
29

30

31 subplot (1 ,4 ,2) ;
32 phasor ([ vabc0 ]) ;
33 title ( ’ Zero Sequence ’) ;
34

35

36 subplot (1 ,4 ,3)
37 phasor ([ vabc1 ])
38 title ( ’ positive Sequence ’) ;
39

40 subplot (1 ,4 ,4)
41 phasor ([ vabc2 ])
42 title ( ’ negative Sequence ’) ;

35
6.5 Output:

6.6 Discussion and Conclusion:

A thorough grasp of how balanced sequence networks can be used to investigate un-
balanced three-phase systems was obtained from the experiment on symmetrical com-
ponents.From a theoretical standpoint, it was noted that unbalanced systems might be
mathematically more easily managed if the original phasors were transformed into three
sets of symmetrical components: zero, positive, and negative sequences.An illuminating
graphical depiction of the three components and the The output plots for the positive,
negative, and zero sequences made it evident how these three elements can be added to
depict the original phasors.

36
 Heaven’s Light is Our Guide

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology

Laboratory Report on
ETE 3229 (Sessional Based on ETE 3230)

Experiment 7
Experimental Study of Newton Raphson Method

Submitted by: Submitted to:

S.M.Shihab Sharar Sham Datto
Roll No. 2004024 Assistant Professor
Session: 2020-2021 Dept. of ETE, RUET

Date of Experiment : 2/06/2024

Date of Submission : 17/09/2024

Report Writing (Teacher’s Section) Lab Viva

□ Excellent □ Excellent
□ Good □ Good
□ Average ——————————– □ Average
□ Poor Signature □ Poor

37
7.1 Objectives

1. To know about the theoretical background of symmetrical components.

2. To know how symmetrical components can be calculated from original Phasor by

MATLAB Code.

3. To obseve the output plot of Zero,Positive and Negative sequences of original pha-
sor.

7.2 Theory

Newton-Rapshon Method in Power Flow Analysis

In power system analysis, the Newton-Raphson method is one of the most widely used
techniques for solving the power flow problem. The power flow problem involves deter-
mining the voltages, power flows, and losses in a network of interconnected buses. Each
bus may either inject or absorb real (active) and reactive power. The goal is to compute
the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus in the system.

Bus Types

In power flow analysis, the buses in a power system are classified into three types:

• Slack Bus (Reference Bus): The voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified.

• P-V Bus (Generator Bus): The active power (P) and voltage magnitude (|V |) are
specified. The reactive power (Q) and voltage angle (θ) need to be calculated.

• P-Q Bus (Load Bus): The active power (P) and reactive power (Q) are specified.
Both the voltage magnitude (|V |) and angle (θ) need to be calculated.

Power Flow Equations

The power flow equations at a bus i are given by:

n
|Vk | (G i k cos(θi − θk ) + B i k sin(θi − θk )) ,
X
P i = |Vi | (7.1)
k=1
n
|Vk | (G i k sin(θi − θk ) − B i k cos(θi − θk )) ,
X
Q i = |Vi | (7.2)
k=1

where:

• P i and Q i are the real and reactive power injections at bus i ,

• Vi and θi are the voltage magnitude and angle at bus i ,

38
 • G i k and B i k are the conductance and susceptance of the transmission line between
bus i and bus k,

• n is the total number of buses.

Newton-Raphson Method

The Newton-Raphson method is an iterative method used to solve the non-linear power
flow equations. The general form of the iterative equation is:

xk+1 = xk − J−1 (xk )F(xk ), (7.3)

where:

• x is the vector of unknown variables (voltage magnitudes and angles),

• J is the Jacobian matrix, which contains the partial derivatives of the power flow
equations,

• F(x) is the vector of power mismatches.

The power mismatch at iteration k is given by:

∆P = Pscheduled − Pcalculated , (7.4)

∆Q = Qscheduled − Qcalculated , (7.5)

where Pscheduled and Qscheduled are the specified power injections at the buses, and Pcalculated
and Qcalculated are the power values computed from the current estimates of voltage mag-
nitudes and angles.
The Jacobian matrix J is structured as follows:

∂P ∂P
" #
∂θ ∂|V |
J= ∂Q ∂Q , (7.6)
∂θ ∂|V |

where:
∂P ∂P
• ∂θ and ∂|V | represent the partial derivatives of active power with respect to voltage
angles and magnitudes, respectively.
∂Q ∂Q
• ∂θ and ∂|V | represent the partial derivatives of reactive power with respect to volt-
age angles and magnitudes, respectively.

7.3 Required Software

1. MATLAB R2023a.

39
 7.4 Program:

Program 7.1: Code for the program

1 clc
2 clear all
3 n =3; % total number of buses
4 Y= [20.0000 -50.0000 i -10.0000+20.0000 i -10.0000+30.0000 i
5 -10.0000+20.0000 i 26.0000 -52.0000 i -16.0000+32.0000 i
6 -10.0000+30.0000 i -16.0000+32.0000 i 26.0000 -62.0000 i ]
7 V = [1.05+0 j 1.02+0 j 1.01+0 j ];
8 pqsch =[ -2.566; -1.386; -1.102; -0.452];
9 Ym = abs ( Y ) ; t = angle ( Y ) ;
10 Vm = abs ( V ) ; d = angle ( V ) ;
11 % dpq =1;
12 e =0;
13 c =0;
14 while ~ e
15 c = c +1;
16 disp ([ ’ Iteration : ’ num2str ( c ) ])
17 H = zeros (n -1 ,n -1) ;
18 L = zeros (n -1 ,n -1) ;
19 M = zeros (n -1 ,n -1) ;
20 N = zeros (n -1 ,n -1) ;
21 % -------P - - - - - - - -
22 P = zeros (n -1 ,1) ;
23 for z =2: n
24 for k =1: n
25 P (z -1 ,1) = P (z -1 ,1) + Vm ( z ) * Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * cos ( t (z , k ) -d (
z)+d(k));
26 end
27 end
28 % -------Q - - - - - - - -
29 Q = zeros (n -1 ,1) ;
30 for z =2: n
31 for k =1: n
32 Q (z -1 ,1) = Q (z -1 ,1) - Vm ( z ) * Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * sin ( t (z , k ) -d (
z)+d(k));
33 end

40
34 end
35 pq =[ P ; Q ;];
36 dpq = pqsch - pq
37 % ---------- off diagonal elements of H ,L ,M ,N - - - - - - - - - -
38 for z =2: n
39 for k =2: n
40 if z ~= k
41 H (z -1 ,k -1) = - Vm ( z ) * Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * sin ( t (z , k ) -d ( z )
+d(k));
42 L (z -1 ,k -1) = Vm ( z ) * Ym (z , k ) * cos ( t (z , k ) -d ( z ) + d ( k ) ) ;
43 M (z -1 ,k -1) = - Vm ( z ) * Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * cos ( t (z , k ) -d ( z )
+d(k));
44 N (z -1 ,k -1) = - Vm ( z ) * Ym (z , k ) * sin ( t (z , k ) -d ( z ) + d ( k ) )
;
45 end
46 end
47 end
48 % - - - - ------------- diagonal elements of H ,L ,M ,N - - - - - - - - - -
49 for z =2: n
50 for k =1: n
51 if z ~= k
52 H (z -1 ,z -1) = H (z -1 ,z -1) + Vm ( z ) * Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * sin ( t (
z , k ) -d ( z ) + d ( k ) ) ;
53 L (z -1 ,z -1) = L (z -1 ,z -1) + Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * cos ( t (z , k ) -d
(z)+d(k));
54 M (z -1 ,z -1) = M (z -1 ,z -1) + Vm ( z ) * Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * cos ( t (
z , k ) -d ( z ) + d ( k ) ) ;
55 N (z -1 ,z -1) = N (z -1 ,z -1) - Vm ( k ) * Ym (z , k ) * sin ( t (z , k ) -d
(z)+d(k));
56 end
57 end
58 L (z -1 ,z -1) = L (z -1 ,z -1) +2* Vm ( z ) * Ym (z , z ) * cos ( t (z , z ) ) ;
59 N (z -1 ,z -1) = N (z -1 ,z -1) -2* Vm ( z ) * Ym (z , z ) * sin ( t (z , z ) ) ;
60 end
61 J =[ H , L ;M , N ;]
62 ddv = J \ dpq
63 for z =1: n -1
64 d ( z +1) = d ( z +1) + ddv (z ,1) ;

41
65 end
66 for z =1: n -1
67 Vm ( z +1) = Vm ( z +1) + ddv (n -1+ z ,1) ;
68 end
69 e =1;
70 for a =1:2* n -2
71 e = e & abs ( dpq (a ,1) ) <=.00001;
72 end
73 Vm
74 d
75 end
76 disp ( ’ Bus Voltages are : ’)
77 for z =1: n
78 disp ([ ’V ’ , num2str ( z ) , ’ ’ num2str ( Vm ( z ) ) ’ < ’ num2str (180/
pi * d ( z ) ) ])
79 end

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7.5 Output

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7.6 Discussion and Conclusion:

In this experiment, a 3-bus power system’s load flow is analyzed using the Newton-Raphson
approach. Finding the bus voltages based on the given power demands and system ad-
mittances is the main goal. The iterative approach modifies the voltages until the power
disparity between the scheduled and calculated values is reduced (within a defined tol-
erance) based on the initial voltage predictions and the bus admittance matrix (Y). Ev-
ery iteration, voltage magnitudes and angles are updated using the Jacobian matrix (J),
which helps to improve the solution. Because of its rapid convergence and precision, this
method is frequently utilized and is crucial for power system planning and stability. In
this experiment, a 3-bus power system’s load flow is analyzed using the Newton-Raphson
approach.

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