Chapter Three

Thermal Analysis of Solar systems Applications

Note : Please fins the assignments to be submitted for this

chapter
3. Introduction : Solar collector

• A solar collector is a special kind of heat exchanger that

transforms energy from solar radiation into heat energy.
• A solar collector differs in several respects from more
conventional heat exchangers.
• The latter usually accomplish a fluid-to-fluid exchange with
high heat transfer rates and with radiation as an
unimportant factor.
• In the solar collector, energy transfer is from a distant source
of solar radiant energy to a fluid.
• Thus, the analysis of solar collectors presents unique problems
of low and variable energy fluxes and the relatively large
importance of radiation.
 3.1 Flat plate collectors
• What are flat plate collectors?
• Types of flat plate collectors
• Applications of flat plate collectors
• Thermal analysis of flat plate collectors

• A flat plate collector is a heat exchanger that uses solar irradiation to heat a
working fluid.
• The working fluid is usually liquid or air.
• The collector is a black surface that is placed at a convenient path of the sun.
• In flat plate collectors there is no optical concentration of sunlight, and they
are generally stationary.
• FPC can be designed for applications requiring energy delivery at moderate
temperatures where the outlet temperature capability is below 100 °C.
Flat plate collectors……
• The flat-plate collector is the heart of any solar energy collection
system.
• The general working principles is that the collector absorbs solar
energy, converts it into heat and then transfers this heat to a stream
of liquid or gas.
• They use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not require
tracking of the sun, require little maintenance ,and are mechanically
simpler than concentrating collectors.
The major applications of solar collectors are in
 Solar water heating
 building heating,
 air conditioning and
 industrial process heat.
Domestic hot water
Solar pool heater
Water heating
Space heating
• A flat-plate collector, usually consists of the following components:
• Glazing (Cover plate) - one or more sheets of glass or some
other radiation transmitting material, see Fig next slide;
• Tubes ,fins or passages for conducting or directing the heat
transfer fluid from the inlet to the outlet;
• Absorber plate -flat, corrugated or grooved plate with tubes,
fins or passages attached to it;
• Header or manifolds to admit and discharge the fluid;
• Insulation –to minimize heat loss from the back and sides of the
collector; and
• Container or casing which surrounds the various components
and protects them from dust, moisture, etc
The role of glazing is to admit the maximum possible radiation
and to minimize the upward heat losses.
Figure: A typical liquid flat plate collector
Figure: A typical liquid flat plate collector
Figure: Exposed cross section through double glazed flat plate collector
Cover plate (glazing)
• To reduce convective and radiative heat losses from the absorber,
one or two transparent covers (glazing) are generally placed above
the absorber plate.
• They usually be made from glass or plastic.
 Insulation
Enclosure
A box that encloses the collector to:
• Hold all the components together
• Protect them from weather
• Facilitate installation on a roof or
appropriate frame.

• These are materials such as

fiberglass and they are placed at
the back and sides of the
collector to reduce heat losses.
3.2. Energy Absorbed by a Flat Plate Collector
• The irradiation incident on a collector (S or (I) is not all absorbed.
• Once the irradiation penetrates the glass cover, part of it is
absorbed by the collector, but another part is reflected , diffusely to
the glass cover.
• The glass cover then reflects diffusely to the absorber, and so on.
• The useful energy output of a collector of area Ac is the difference
between the absorbed solar radiation and the thermal loss:

3.1

Where :
S is the solar radiation absorbed by a collector per unit area of absorber. it
is equal to the difference between the incident solar radiation and the
optical losses
Processes in a Flat-plate Collector
• The net energy absorbed by the collector can be expressed in terms of a quantity
called (I or τ).
• Theoretically, the net energy absorbed by the collector per unit area is:
• The useful energy gain of a flat plate collector is given by:
Qu = S x Ac – Qloss (thermal loss ) Qloss = UL Ac (Tp – Ta) 3.2
Qloss can be due to energy loss through: where,
• Top of the collector • Tp: mean temperature of the absorber plate
• Bottom of collector • Ta: ambient temperature
• UL: overall heat transfer coefficient based on
• Edges of collector
collector area
• The problem with equation (3.1) is that the mean absorber plate
temperature is difficult to calculate or measure since it is a function
of the collector design, the incident solar radiation, and the entering
fluid conditions.
• We can reformulate the equation so that the useful energy gain can be
expressed in terms of the inlet fluid temperature and a parameter
called the collector heat removal factor, which can be evaluated
analytically from basic principles or measured experimentally.
• A measure of collector performance is the collection efficiency,
defined as the ratio of the useful gain over some specified time period
to the incident solar energy over the same time period:

If conditions are constant over

a period of time
Temperature distributions in flat-plate collectors
• It is desirable to have an understanding of the temperature distribution
that exists in a solar collector constructed as shown in Figure.

Figure : Sheet-and-tube solar collector.

Collector overall heat loss coefficient
It is useful to develop the concept of an overall loss coefficient for a solar collector to
simplify the analysis. Consider the thermal network for a two-cover system shown in
Figure . UL consists of Ut (top), Ub (bottom), and Ue (edges).

Ut involves the calculation of:

• hc,p-g: convective heat transfer coefficient
between plate and glazing
• hr,p-g: radiative heat transfer coefficient
between plate and glazing
• hc,g-a: convective heat transfer coefficient
between glazing and ambient air
• hr,g-a: radiative heat transfer coefficient
between glazing and ambient air

Figure : Thermal network for a two-cover flat-plate collector: (a) in terms of

conduction, convection, and radiation resistances; (b) in terms of resistances
between plates.
Calculations of all the components of UL is complicated. A relatively
simple alternative formula can be used:

Top loss 3.3

3.4

Ng = number of glass covers

Tp = absorber plate temperature
Ta = ambient temperature
s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
ep = emittance of absorber plate
eg = emittance of glazing
a = Tilt angle
V = Wind velocity
L = Collector length
Ub can be found from:

3.5

Ue can be found from:

3.6
 Energy Gain of a Flat Plate Collector
The useful energy gain of a flat plate collector is given by:
Qu = S x Ac – Qloss

Expanding all terms, 3.7

The useful energy gained by the collector is transferred completely to

the working fluid. Therefore,
3.8

Where,
•Ti : fluid inlet temperature
To : fluid outlet temperature

Calculating Tp accurately is difficult.

• It is more convenient to express Qu in terms of the fluid temperatures.
• A useful definition is the heat removal factor (FR)
 Heat Removal Factor

3.9

By using the heat removal factor (FR), the useful energy gain equation becomes:

3.10
• FR depends on many factors, and it can be found analytically.
• FR can also be found experimentally
Collector efficiency is defined as the
Efficiency = useful energy gain / irradiation incident on the collector

3.11

3.12
3.13
 Heat Transfer Coefficients
• These losses take place by conduction, convection and radiation
which are shown in Fig.a.
• The equivalent losses are represented by a thermal resistance
circuit in Fig.b.
(b)Equivalent Thermal Circuit Diagram of Fig. a.

(a) Various Heat Losses from Absorber to Ambient

Detailed heat losses from the absorber plate of a flat plate
Top Loss Coefficients
1. Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
From Plate to Cover ( =1//R3)
• R3 is the thermal resistance between the plate and cover.
• It's like an obstacle to heat flow — the higher the resistance,
the less heat flows (i.e., smaller ℎ ).
3.14
• Nu the Nusselt number - the ratio of the convective heat transfer to the
conductive heat transfer.
• The Nu can be obtained from the expression (Holland et.al.(1976)).

3.15

• “+” exponent means only the positive value of the term in square bracket is to
be considered,
• Zero is to be used for negative values, and
• The angle of inclination can vary between 0 – 75
The Rayleigh number Ra is given by:

3.16 3.17

From Glazing Cover to Ambient ( =1/R1)

= 2.8 + 3V 3.18

Where h= heat transfer coefficient [W/m2 K]

L= plate spacing [m]
k = thermal conductivity [W/m K]
g = gravitational constant [m/s2]
β = volumetric coefficient of expansion (for an ideal gas, β = 1/T ) [1/K]
T = temperature difference between plates [K]
ν = kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
α = thermal diffusivity [m2/s]
V= is the wind velocity in m/s over the collector
2. Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
From Plate to Cover ( =1/R4)

3.19

is the coefficient of radiative heat loss from collector plate toto the cover,
expressed as:

3.20

The effective emissivity of plate-glazing system is given by:

3.21
From Glazing Cover to Ambient ( =1//R2)
The sky temperature Tsky given by:
3.22

The radiative heat transfer coefficient is expressed as:

3.23

3. Top Loss Coefficient

The total heat transfer coefficient from collector plate toto cover is
expressed as the sum of h1cand
3.24
The total heat transfer coefficient from the cover to ambient is expressed
as and

3.25

• The effective top heat transfer coefficient from plate toto ambient is
given by:

3.26

• The rate of heat loss from the top per unit area can be given as:

3.27
• The value of Ut is calculated by the method of iteration.
• In general, the cover temperature, Tg is not known.
• An arbitrary value of Tg is assumed and then at the mean value of
temperature, h1c,h1r,h2r are calculated, and
• Then using these values, the top loss coefficient is calculated.
Substituting this value of Ut in the energy balance condition:

3.28

• A new value of Tg is obtained from above equation as:

3.29

• With this value of Tg the above calculations are repeated till the
two consecutive values of Tg obtained are nearly the same.
• The steady-state energy transfer between the plate at Tp and the first cover
at Tc1 is the same as between any other two adjacent covers and is also
equal to the energy lost to the surroundings from the top cover.
• The loss through the top per-unit area is then equal to the heat
transfer from the absorber plate to the first cover:

3.30

• where hc,p−c1 is the convection heat transfer coefficient between

two inclined parallel plates.
• If the definition of the radiation heat transfer coefficient is used, the
heat loss becomes
3.31

where

3.32

The resistance R3 can then be expressed as

3.33
• A similar expression can be written for R2, the resistance between the
covers. In general, we can have as many covers as desired, but the
practical limit is two and most collectors use one.
• The radiation resistance from the top cover accounts for radiation
exchange with the sky at Ts . For convenience, we reference this
resistance to the ambient temperature Ta, so that the radiation heat
transfer coefficient can be written as:
3.34

The resistance to the surroundings R1 is then given by

3.35

Where hw is heat transfer coefficient for heat loss from flat plates exposed to
outside winds.
For this two-cover system, the top loss coefficient from the collector plate to the
ambient is
3.36
 Radiation exchange between surfaces
• The net rate of radiation exchange between two surfaces is equal to the
overall potential difference divided by the sum of resistances, given by

3.36

• In solar energy applications, the following geometric orientations

between two surfaces are of particular interest.

3.37
• The procedure for solving for the top loss coefficient using the
different equation is necessarily an iterative process.

• First a guess is made of the unknown cover temperatures, from

which the convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients
between parallel surfaces are calculated.

• With these estimates, solve for the top loss coefficient.

• The top heat loss is the top loss coefficient times the overall
temperature difference, and since the energy exchange between
plates must be equal to the overall heat loss, a new set of cover
temperatures can be calculated.
• Begin at the absorber plate, a new temperature is calculated for the
first cover. This new first cover temperature is used to find the next
cover temperature, and so on.
• For any two adjacent covers or plate, the new temperature of plate
or cover j can be expressed in terms of the temperature of plate or
cover i as

3.38

• The process is repeated until the cover temperatures do not change

significantly between successive iterations
• The calculation of the top heat loss coefficient involves the air
properties which are functions of temperate. Because the iterations
required are tedious and time consuming, especially for the case of
multiple cover systems, straightforward evaluation of Ut is given by
the following empirical equation with sufficient accuracy for design
purposes (Klein,1975)

3.39
Problem 3.1
Calculate the overall top loss coefficient (Ut)from the absorber to
ambient through the glass cover for the following collector
specifications:
• Absorber-to-cover distance (L) = 0.025 m
• Absorber plate emittance = 0.95
• Glass cover emittance = 0.88
• Inclination of collector = 45°
• Wind heat transfer coefficient ( ) = 10 W/m2°C
• Ambient air temperature (Ta)= 16°C
• Mean absorber plate temperature (Tp) = 100°C

• Assume an initial value of Tg=35°C for the glass cover

 Solution : From Equation

With an initial value of Tg = 35 ℃ for the

glass cover, from

and from Equation

• In order to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient

between the absorber and the cover, the air properties will be
considered at mean temperature between the absorber and the glass
cover, i.e. 67.5 ℃. Air properties at 67.5 ℃ are:
ν =1.96 x 10-5 m2/s, K = 0.0293 W/m ℃, T = 340.5 K and Pr = 0.7.
From general Equation , the Nusselt number NU = 3.19. The convective
heat transfer coefficient is, therefore:

The first estimate of Ut can be obtained from Equation:

Air properties at mean temperature of Tp and the new Tg, ie. ≈75℃ are:
ν = 2.076 x 10-5 m2/s, K = 0.03 W/m ℃, T = 348 K and Pr = 0.697.
The Rayleigh number is:

With the above new value of Ut = 6.802W/m2 ℃, the new value of Tg will be:
• Again, with the above new value of Tg=50.5 OC, h1r and h2r are calculated to
yield:
h 1r = 8.087W /m2 ℃ and h2r = 6.563 W /m2 ℃ .
• At mean temperature = 75.25 OC, approximately same as considered earlier at
75°C is used to obtain air properties. Now, the Rayleigh number is Ra =3.524 x
104, and the Nusselt number is N u = 2.894.
The convective heat transfer is given by:
Practical Considerations
• The main factors influencing the top heat transfer loss
coefficient Ut are the number of covers and the emissivity of
the absorber plate.
• Fig.in the next slide shows the effect of the number of covers
on the top heat transfer loss coefficient Ut for different plate
temperature.
• The top heat transfer loss coefficient Ut reduces for higher
number of covers.
• As may be expected, the top heat transfer loss coefficient Ut
increases with increasing plate temperature.
Effect of Number of Covers on Top-Loss Coefficient
Assignment 3.1
• The effect of the emissivity of the plate on the top heat transfer loss
coefficient Ut is shown in Fig.
The top loss heat transfer coefficient and be estimated by applying Equation
below as given by Klein (1975)
The effect of the air-gap spacing on the top heat transfer loss
coefficient Ut is also shown in the following figures.

Assignment 3.2

Effect of Air-Gap Spacing on

Top-Loss Coefficient

Effect of Emissivity of the Plate on

Top-Loss Coefficient

Assignment 3.3
Example 2
Estimate the top loss coefficient of a collector that has the following
specifications.
 Assignment 3.4
Calculate the Overall loss coefficient for an absorber with a
single glass cover having the following specifications:
Plate-to-cover spacing 25mm
Plate emittance 0.95
Ambient air and sky temperature 20◦C
Wind heat transfer coefficient 10 W/m2 ◦C
Mean plate temperature 100◦C
Collector tilt 30◦
Glass emittance 0.88
Back-insulation thickness 50mm
Insulation conductivity 0.045 W/m ◦C
Collector bank length 10m
Collector bank width 2m
Collector thickness 75mm
Edge insulation thickness 25mm
Back Loss Coefficient
• Heat is lost from the plate to ambient by conduction through the
insulation and subsequently by convection and radiation from the bottom
surface casing.
The bottom loss coefficient is given by:
The magnitude of Kin and hb are such that the
second term in the Equation is negligible.
Therefore:

Edge Loss Coefficient

• Energy lost from the side of the collector casing may be taken to have
exactly the same value as that from the back, if the thickness of the edge
insulation is the same as that of the back insulation (Tabor, 1958).
The edge loss is given as:

Overall Heat Loss Coefficient

• The overall heat loss coefficient UL is the sum of the top, bottom
and edge loss coefficient. That is:

• The overall heat lost by the absorber to the ambient per unit area
per unit time can be expressed as:
 Problem 3.2
• Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for a flat plate collector
system inclined at 45° to the horizontal and facing south.
• The average ambient air temperature for the day is 20°C and the glass
and absorber plate temperatures are 45°C and 69°C, respectively.
• The system is provided with 6cmcm thick insulation, with thermal
conductivity of 0.0404 W/m ℃, at the bottom.
• The wind velocity is 5m/s.
• The air space between the absorber plate and glass cover has optimum
thickness of 7.5cm and the emissivities of the glass and plate are 0.88 and
0.95 respectively
Applications: Solar Water Heating Systems (SWHS)
• In the applications of SWHS flat plate collectors (FPCs), are
commonly (most widely) used types. A flat plate collector can be
used for heating liquid/air for different applications.
• Domestic Hot Water Supply, Space Heating, Solar Air
Heating, Swimming Pool Heating etc.
• Liquid (say water) circulating through the tubes of a flat plate
collector receives heat from the solar energy absorbed and the
heated water is stored in an insulated storage tank.
• The mode of circulation of heated water from the collector to an
insulated storage tank can be either by natural circulation
(thermosiphon) or forced circulation.
• A solar water heating system shown in Fig below has the following
main components: flat plate collector; heat exchanger, and insulated
storage tank.
Schematic View of Solar Water Heating System

Pump 1 is used in the collector loop (primary stream) to circulate the fluid
through the collector and another pump 2 is used to circulate the water in
the outer loop (secondary stream) between the storage tank and a heat
exchanger.
Different Heat Loss Mechanisms of a Solar Water Heater :
i) Swimming Pool Model
System Schematic : ii) for Typical Solar Domestic Water Heater
The main components of a solar water heating system

• Solar Collector (Flat Plate or Evacuated Tube)

• Absorber Plate
• Transparent Cover (Glazing)
• Insulated Collector Housing
• Pipes or Tubes
• Storage Tank
• Pump (for active systems)
• Heat Exchanger (for indirect systems)
• Controller
• Expansion Tank
• Check Valve / Non-return Valve
• Temperature and Pressure Relief Valve (TPR Valve)
Solar Air Heaters system
• Devices /system that use solar energy to heat air for various
applications like space heating or drying crops.
How They Work
• Sunlight hits a dark absorber surface inside the heater.
• The absorber converts sunlight into heat energy, which warms the air
inside the collector.
• A fan or natural convection then circulates the warm air into a space or
drying chamber.
Key Components
• Transparent Cover (Glazing): Lets sunlight in but reduces heat loss.
• Absorber Plate: Usually painted black to absorb maximum sunlight.
• Insulation: Prevents heat loss from the back and sides.
• Air Duct/Channel: Where air flows and gets heated.
• Fan or Vent (optional): Helps move the heated air efficiently.
 Air heaters have certain disadvantages:
• Because of its poor heat transfer properties, special care is required to
improve the heat transfer of air.
• Due to its low density, large volume of air is needed to be handled.
• Since the thermal capacity of air is low, it not be used as a storage fluid.
• In the absence of proper design, the cost of air heater is very high.
Schematic Diagram of Air Heaters
Schematic Diagram Options for Solar Air Heaters

Single-Pass Air Heater – Front Flow (Over the Absorber Plate)

• Air flows above the absorber plate.
• Simple design but lower efficiency due to heat loss.
Single-Pass Air Heater – Back Flow (Under the Absorber Plate)
• Air flows under the absorber plate.
• Reduces heat loss and improves efficiency slightly.
Double-Pass Air Heater
• Air flows above and below the absorber plate.
• Increases heat transfer area and improves performance.
Porous Media Air Heater
• Absorber plate made of porous material (e.g., metal mesh).
• Allows air to flow through the material for enhanced heat transfer.
Transpired Solar Collector
• Uses a perforated metal plate mounted on a sun-facing wall.
• Outside air is drawn through the plate, heated, and delivered indoors.
V-Groove or Corrugated Absorber Type
• Uses V-shaped or corrugated surfaces to increase surface area.
• Enhances heat absorption and airflow.
Trombe Wall System
• Thick wall painted black with glazing on the exterior.
• Air channels at top and bottom allow air circulation using natural convection.
Transient Analysis
• The transient thermal performance of the solar collector is
evaluated by applying energy balance on its components.

• The solar radiation energy incident on the collector surface which

is inclined at an angle β to the horizontal, defined in terms of the
global radiation Gr, the beam radiation Br, the diffuse radiation Dr,
the beam radiation factor Rb, the diffuse radiation factor Rd, the
ground reflectivity factor Rr and the ground reflectivity ρ(=0.2), is
given by:

3.40
 The flux collected per unit time is given by:

3.41

Solar Air Heating Collector

• Energy balance on the absorber plate, the air stream and the glass
cover are performed based on the thermal circuit indicated in Fig.
Thermal Circuit of Solar Air Heater
A. Absorber Plate
Energy balance on the absorber plate is expressed as:

3.42

where: A1 = collector perimeter x depth of the edge = pxde

In Equation above , the overall heat transfer coefficient from the plate
to the glass, Upg, by convection and radiation is given by:

3.43

where the Grashof number GrL is defined by:

and the volume expansion coefficient βV as:

3.44 3.45
• The overall emittance factor εpg for the absorber plate and the glass
cover is obtained from the relation:

3.46

The heat transfer coefficient Ua (ambient) of the air is defined as:

3.47

All properties in the above equation are evaluated at the film temperature Tf given by:

3.48

• Due to the transient nature of the radiant and convective heat transfer
coefficients, of the general deferential equation is a non-linear and its
solution requires an integration scheme that linearises the given
differential equation within a given time step.
• The plate-temperature at time (t+∆τ) is evaluated from available
data at time t and incident solar radiation and thermal losses
during time interval ∆τ.
• The temperature of the plate at time(t+∆τ) in terms of the absorbed
useful incident radiation on the surface of the plate, the heat losses
through the glass cover and the collector edge, the quantity of heat
absorbed by the air stream and temperatures of the collector
components at time t is obtained from the general deferential
equation above as:

3.49
 3.50

3.51

B. Air Stream
• Considering heat transfer from the collector plate to the air-
stream, heat transfer from the air-stream to the glazing and heat
transfer to the air entering the collector, energy balance on the
stream yields:
 3.52

3.53

• The temperature of the air stream entering the solar collector at

the ambient conditions at time t gains energy from the incident
radiant energy on the collector plate. In relation to the inlet air-
stream temperature, the heat losses from the plate to the glass
cover and the collector edge, the temperature of the air-stream at
outlet from the collector at (t +∆τ) is determined from:
 3.54

3.55

C. Glass Cover
Energy balance on the glass cover yields:
3.56

• The glazing temperature at time (t+∆τ) in relation to the absorbed

incident radiation on the surface of the glass, the heat losses from
the collector plate to the glazing and heat losses from the glazing to
the surrounding at time t is given by:
3.57

3.58
 Applications : Solar Desalinator :Working Principle
• Solar desalination harnesses solar energy to convert saline water
into fresh water. This process can be direct, where saline water is
directly heated and evaporated and condense back.
• Common applications include providing drinking water in water-
scarce areas, irrigating crops, and supporting industrial processes,
says the IOP Science
 Applications : Solar Desalinator :Working Principle
• Fig. below shows various components of energy balance and thermal
energy loss in a conventional solar distiller unit.
• It is an airtight basin, usually constructed out of concrete/cement,
galvanised iron sheet or fiber reinforced plastic with a top cover of
transparent material like glass, plastic, etc.
• The inner surface of the rectangular base is blackened to efficiently absorb
the solar radiation incident at the surface.
• The distillate is collected at lower end of the glass cover.

Energy Flow Diagram in a

Conventional Solar Still
Working Principle ……
• The solar radiation, after absorption by the glass cover, is
transmitted inside an enclosure of the distiller unit.
• The transmitted energy is further partially absorbed by the
water mass.
• The attenuation of solar flux in water mass depends on its
absorptivity and depth.
• The solar radiation finally reaches the blackened surface
where it is mostly absorbed(Absorber plate).
• After absorption of solar radiation at the blackened surface,
generally known as the basin liner, most of the thermal energy
is convected to water mass and a small quantity is lost to the
atmosphere, by conduction through the back insulation
• Consequently, the water gets heated, leading to an increased
difference of water and glass cover temperatures.

• There are basically three modes of heat transfer, radiation

( ̇ ,̇ ), convection (( ̇ , ̇ ) and evaporation (( ̇ , ̇ )
from the water surface to the glass cover.

• The evaporated water gets condensed on the inner surface of

the glass cover after releasing the latent heat.
• The condensed water trickles into the channels provided at the
lower ends of glass cover, under gravity.
• The collected condensed water in the channel is taken out of
the system for further use.
• The thermal energy received by the glass cover, through
radiation, convection and latent heat of evaporation, is lost to
the ambient by radiation and convection.
• A solar still system can be modeled using energy and mass
balance equations on the system.
• Since the main energy source is solar intensity, which
depends on the time of the day, the basic energy and mass
balance equations must be time dependent transient.
• Transient basic energy and mass balance equations, and the
basic thermal resistance network for a basin type solar still
are presented in Fig below.
Thermal Resistance for Conventional Solar Still
 Energy balance equations for Conventional Solar Stil

• The theoretical model of a solar still is obtained by writing simple

energy balance equations for the glass cover, water and absorbing
base (basin liner).
• The total solar radiation incident on the absorber surface is
expressed in terms of global radiation Gr, the diffused radiation Dr,
the beam radiation factor Rb and the ground reflectivity factor ρ is
given by:

3.59

• For a horizontal collector (β = 0○) the beam radiation factor Rb =

1. Therefore, the above Equation reduces to:

3.60
The flux collected per unit time by the absorber plate is given by:
3.61

Energy Balance on Components of a Distiller Unit

• Energy balance equations for the

• glass cover,
• the water in the basin
• and the absorber plate (the basin liner) are given
below:
3.62

3.63

3.64
 Heat Transfer in a Distiller Unit
• The heat transfer in solar distillation systems can be
classified as external and internal modes.
• The external heat transfer mode is primarily governed by
conduction, convection, and radiation processes, which are
independent of each other.
• These heat transfer modes occur outside the solar distiller,
from the glass cover and the bottom and side insulation.
• Heat transfer within the solar distiller is referred to as
internal heat transfer mode which consists of radiation,
convection, and evaporation
In this case, convective heat transfer occurs simultaneously with
evaporative heat transfer-and these two heat transfer processes are
independent of radiative heat transfer.

Heat Transfer Modes in a Solar Still

3.65
 3.66

Simplifying the equations the heat loss from the glass cover to the ambient can
be represented

3.67
3.68
3.69

3.70
3.71

3.72
 3.73

3.74

3.75
3.76
 3.77

3.79

3.80
3.81

3.82

3.83
3.84

3.85
3.86

3.87

3.88
3.89

3.90

3.91
Assignment 3.5 : Task on solar dryer :

Transient thermal-analysis of a solar dryer is to be investigated using

the available hourly-averaged solar radiation data - global and
diffuse radiation intensities and ambient temperature - for a year,
applying the theoretical analysis given in the preceding sections.

Results of the thermal analysis are to be shown graphically for

representative days of each month. The following dimensions and
parameters are to be used for the system simulation.
Collector area [ m2 ] [L = 2 m, W=1 m] Ac 2.00
Collector perimeter [ m ] P 6.00
Collector slope (south facing) β 15 ○
Back insulation thickness [ m ] tbe 0.03
Edge insulation thickness [ m ] te 0.03
Depth of edge [ m ] de 0.05
Emissivity of panel [ - ] εP 0 .10
Emissivity of glass [ - ] εg 0 .88
Conductivity of insulation [ W/m K ] Ki 0.05
Absorptivity of panel [ - ] α 0.90
Transmisivity of glass [ - ] τg 0.96
Space between panel and glass [ m ] L 0.04
Mass x Sp. heat of panel [ J/K ] (m cp)p 16500.00
Mass x Sp. heat of air [ J/K ] (m cp)a 10050.00
Mass x Sp. heat of glass [ J/K] (m cp)g 18200.00
Wind velocity [m/s] Vm 2.50
 Drying Mechanism

• In the drying process, moisture is removed from material to be

dried until the required final moisture content is reached.
• The material to be dried is placed on a screen (wire-mesh) in the
drying chamber (cabinet) of the drier, Fig.
• Heated air is passed upward through the bed of material to be
dried.
• During the evaporation of moisture from the surface of the
material to be dried into the air stream, a quantity of heat equal to
the latent heat of evaporation plus the sensible heat necessary to
bring the water to the temperature of the air is abstracted from the
surrounding.
Experimental Setup of Indirect Type Solar Dryer
• A steady state is observed only when the two types of transport phenomena - the heat flow
into the wet surface and the mass flow of water from the surface of the material into the air
stream - are in balance.
• If ambient air at temperature Ta = 20 OC and relative humidity φ ϕ= 70% is used to
remove moisture from a material until an equilibrium of ϕ = 90% is reached, the
temperature of the drying air will reduce to Ta2 = 17.25 OC and the humidity ratio, ω,
would change from
• 0.0135 kgkg vapor/kg dry-air toto 0.0146 kgkg vapor/kg dry air, or ∆ω =0.0011 kgkg
vapor/kg dry air.
• If ambient air at temperature Ta = 20 OC and relative humidity φ ϕ = 70% is heated to
Ta1 = 40 OC, then the relative humidity would reduce to about φ ϕ = 22%.
• If this heated air is used to remove moisture from a material of φ= 70% until an
equilibrium of φ= 90% is reached, the temperature of the drying air will reduce to Ta2 =
22.5 OC and the humidity ratio, ω,would
• change from 0.0135 kgkg vapor/kg dry-air to 0.0207 kg vapor/kg dry air, or ∆ω=0.0072 kg
vapor/kg dry air.

• This means that the capability of the heated air for dehydration is over 6.5 times greater
than ambient or unheated air.

• The drying paths for unheated air are represented by 1-2 Fig. (b) and by 1*-2*-3*, Fig. (c)
for the heated
Representative results are indicated in Fig.

Fig : Temperature and Absorbed Heat Distribution for April

Solution Method
• The year-round transient analysis of the collector model is performed inserting
given solar radiation data and solar collector parameters into the set of equations
described above.
• The temperature variations of the collector panel, the air stream leaving the
collector and the glass cover are estimated from Equations (3.31), (3.34) and
(3.36), starting on January 1 at 01:00 AM and March 17 at 01:00 AM.

The following steps are applied in the determination of the temperature variations
over the year

Step 1:

Evaluate temperatures Tp1 of the plate, Tao1 of the air stream at exit, Tg1 of the
glass cover and the mass flow rate of air at exit at time (t + ∆t) applying the different
Equations respectively, starting the system simulation by assuming the following
initial temperatures for the various components of the solar collector model.
Ambient temperature Ta0 = value read from solar radiation data on January
1 at 01:00 AM;
Glass temperature Tg0 = Ta0 + 0.5;
Plate temperature Tp0 = Ta0 + 1.0;
Temperature of air at collector inlet Tai0 = Ta0; and
Temperature of air at collector outlet Tao0 = Ta0
Step 2:
Since the assumed temperatures for the various components in Step 1 are to
crude, they have to be refined by taking average values of the assumed
temperatures and the evaluated temperatures at time (t+∆t) and substituted
for temperature values at time t.

• Step 1 and Step 2 are performed only for January 1 at 01:00 AM and
repeate for March 17 at 01:00 AM.

Step 3:
Temperature variations Tp1, Tao1, Tg1 and the mass flow rate during a
period of 24 hours over the year are then estimated by substituting the new
values of Tp1, Tao1 and Tg1, respectively, for Tp0, Tao0, Tg0 for the next
time interval.
Evacuated Solar Collectors
Evacuated Solar Collectors
 The convection heat losses from the absorber plate to
glass cover can be further reduced by completely
removing the air between absorber and glass cover.
 The only heat loss mechanism remaining is radiation.
 The resulting stress on the cover plate due to outside air
restricts the use of vacuum in flat plate collector.
 The problem of maintaining vacuum in a flat plate
collector necessitated the invention of evacuated-tube
collector.
 The working principle of evacuated solar collectors is
discussed in the following sections.
Solaron Collector
 Fig. shows a cross-sectional view of the Solaron
collector with evacuated tube cover.
 In the Solaron collectors, the evacuated tubes are
arranged above the absorber so that there should not be
any space left between consecutive tubes.
 The evacuated tubes provide a vacuum layer above
the absorber.
 The vacuum layer suppresses the convection heat loss
from the absorber to glass cover.
 Similar to the flat plate collector, incident solar radiation
is absorbed by selectively coated absorber after
transmission from the glass cover and transparent
evacuated tubes.
 After absorption, most of the available thermal energy at the
absorber will be first conducted and then convected to the
working fluid below the absorber.

Fig. Cross-sectional View of Solaron Collector

• The rest of absorbed thermal energy is lost to upper
portion of evacuated tubes by radiation only unlike in the
conventional flat plate collector.
• There are, however, convective and radiative heat losses
from the upper portion of evacuated tubes to glass cover.
• Since, the temperature of upper portion of evacuated tubes
is low, this heat loss will be reduced.
• The working fluid may be either air or any liquid fluid
(say water).
• Due to reduced upward heat loss, the temperature of
working fluid in this case will be more in comparison to
the fluid temperature of conventional flat plate collector.
 Phillips (Germany) Collector
 An improved performance of Solaron collector with
evacuated cover can be achieved by increasing the
convective heat transfer from the absorber to working fluid
through the surface area of the absorber as shown in Fig
below.
 In this case, the working fluid passes through the tubes
attached at bottom of semi-circular absorber.
 The heat capacity of the working fluid is also reduced
which gives more rise in the temperature of the working
fluid.
 The curved selective surface absorber acts as a heat
exchanger. 115
Fig. Cross-sectional View of Evacuated Phillips
(Germany) Collector
• The top surface of the evacuated tubes is directly exposed to solar
radiation unlike to Solaron collector.
• Solar radiation is first transmitted through the outer curved
portion of the vacuum glass tube and then absorbed by curved
selective surface.
• The reflected short-wave radiation is transmitted back to the
atmosphere through the curved outer portion of the tube.
• Most of the absorbed thermal energy is transferred to the working
fluid through conduction and convection.
• The rest is lost to the atmosphere by conduction, convection, and
radiation.
Thermal Efficiency of Evacuated Cover Collector
• In the determination of the thermal efficiency of evacuated-tube
cover collector, the question that normally arises is what
constitutes the aperture area of the collector.
• It is, therefore, always easier and simple that solar collector
efficiencies be determined by considering the outside area equal
to the overall dimensions of collector?
• The instantaneous efficiency of an evacuated cover collector of
the above Fig. can be written as:

•
−
= 1− − −

118
 and the rate of energy balance for cover will be:

− =ℎ −
where:

ρ = fraction of incident radiation reflected by the glass

tube;
ε = emmitance of the absorbing surface at the collector
temperature;
Aa = area of the absorber surface, m2;
Ac = aperture area of the collector, m2;
hc = 2.8 + 3.0V;
f = rate of non-radiant heat loss, W;
Tp = temperature of the absorbing surface (K);
TC = temperature of the glass tube (K);
Ta = temperature of ambient air (K).
• If the evacuated collector as shown in Fig. above is
covered with glass cover as shown in Fig. (Solaron
Collector) , then there will be additional rate of energy
balance equation for the cover. These can be written as
follows:
For cover I:
− =ℎ −
For cover II: ℎ − =ℎ −
where:
 h1 is the sum of convective and radiative heat transfer
coefficients between cover I and cover II respectively.

 In the remaining collector, each tube acts as a collector with

an effective area equal to a conventional flat plate collector.
Example on evacuated tube collector
Derive an expression for an instantaneous thermal efficiency (ηi)
for an evacuated cover collector (Phillips ,Germany) collector in
terms of absorber plate temperature Tp.

Solution
The above Equation can be rewritten by linearising the left hand
side as follows:
− =ℎ − =ℎ −

The above equation can be written in the form:

ℎ − = −

where:
ℎ ℎ
ℎ = + + =
ℎ +ℎ
Substituting the value of hr (TP – TC) into the general Equation
for efficiency: •
−
= 1− − −

•
= − ,
If
then, the overall bottom heat loss, then the above equation
reduces to:
− −
= 1− − = −

The above equation is similar to the characteristic equation of

a flat-plate collector with intercept of (ατ) = α(1 – ρ) and the
slope of:
Example
Derive an expression for the above Example when it is covered
with the glass cover (Solaron Collector).
Solution
Eliminating Tc2 from the previous Equations, and after some
algebraic manipulation, the following relation is obtained:

− ⥄=⥄ − ⥄=⥄ −
⥄
⥄ ⥄=⥄⥄
where: ⥄+⥄

Follow similar procedure as first Example to obtain:

−
= − ⥄
⥄

where:
=⥄ + ⥄=⥄
+
Sanyo Evacuated-Tube Collector
 The cross-sectional view of Sanyo evacuated tube collector is
shown in Fig. in the Cross-Sectional and Module of Sanyo
Evacuated-Tube Collector.
 A cylindrical metal tube is fixed with selectively coated metal
absorber-like tube in plate configuration.
 The configuration is then inserted in an evacuated glass tube.
 The tube is evacuated to reduce the top loss coefficient through
suppressing convection heat loss between the absorber and tube
cover.
 The bottom heat loss is also reduced due to the insulating nature
of vacuum space.
 The absorber can also be rotated to the optimum angle to receive
maximum solar radiation for given latitude.
Fig. Cross-Sectional and Module of Sanyo Evacuated-Tube
Collector
Corning Evacuated-Tube Collector

 Fig. below shows a cross-sectional view, top elevation of a

corning evacuated-tube collector and its module.
 In this collector, a U-shaped copper tube is fitted with selectively
coated horizontal copper flat plate in tube below the absorber
configuration.
 The assembly is inserted in a pynex (glass) tube.
 Further, a U-shaped tubing is also supported by a plate strip.
 The other end of the tube is sealed after creating vacuum inside
the tube.
 The tubes are then connected in series to form one module.

126
Fig. Cross-Sectional and Module of Corning Evacuated-Tube Collector
Solar Concentrator

 Solar concentrator is a device which concentrates the solar

energy incident over a large surface onto a smaller surface.
 The concentration is achieved by the use of suitable reflecting or
refracting elements, which results in an increased flux density
on the absorber surface as compared to that existing on the
concentrator aperture.
 In order to get a maximum concentration, an arrangement for
tracking the sun's virtual motion as well as an accurate focusing
device is also required.
 Thus, a solar concentrator consists of a focusing device, a
receiver system and a tracking arrangement.
 Temperature as high as 3000°C can be achieved using solar
concentrators, and hence they have potential applications in
thermal of solar energy at high delivery temperatures.
 The advantages of concentrator are as follows:

1. It increases the intensity by concentrating the energy

available over a large surface onto a smaller surface
(absorber).
2. Due to the concentration on a smaller area, the heat-loss
area is reduced. Further, the thermal mass is much
smaller than that of a flat plate collector and hence
transient effects are small.
3. The delivery temperatures being high, a thermodynamic
match must occur between the temperature level and the
task.
4. It helps in reducing the cost by replacing an expensive large
receiver by a less expensive reflecting or refracting area.

 A concentrator being an optical system, the optical loss terms

are significant.
 Further, it operates only on the beam component of solar
radiation, resulting in the loss of diffuse component.
 In the analysis of concentrating systems, a number of
complications arise because of non-uniform flux on absorbers,
wide variations in shape, temperature and heat loss behavior of
absorbers and finally the optical considerations in the energy
balance conditions.
 It may be noted that the higher the concentration of a collector,
the higher is the precision of optics and more is the cost of the
unit.

Thermal Analysis
 The energy balance considerations, similar to flat plate
collectors, are applied to describe the performance of
concentrators.
 The complications occur in the calculation of thermal losses due
to the following reasons:
1. Receiver shapes are widely variable and the radiation intensity
at the receiver is not uniform.
2. The temperature being high, edge losses and conduction effects
are significant.

 Thus, it is not possible to give a general analysis for the

estimation of thermal losses of concentrators.
 However, from a basic knowledge of flat plate collector, the
expression for collection efficiency or thermal efficiency in terms
of inlet fluid temperature, fluid flow rate, ambient temperature
and solar intensity can be derived.
 The thermal efficiency - the ratio of the useful energy delivered
to the energy incident on the aperture, is given by:
 •

⥄⥄=⥄⥄

•
where: Ib is the incident solar energy and is the rate of
useful energy per unit aperture area:
• • •
With no losses, ⥄0
⥄=
and = = ; = =

where: S = the absorbed radiation per unit area of unshaded

aperture, given by:
= ⥄ ⥄

Ib = Beam component of the incident radiation,

, τ and α = Functions of the angle of incidence of radiation
on the aperture, and
K  τ α = an incidence angle modifier:
 • • •
With losses: ⥄=⥄ − = − −
• •
where: are, respectively, the rate of energy
absorbed and lost per unit aperture area.

Fig. Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator