NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

(Course Code:18ME651)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore-560060
 TEXT BOOKS
• Non-Convention Energy Resources, B H Khan, McGraw Hill Education India Pvt. Ltd., 3rd
Edition.
• Solar energy, Subhas P Sukhatme, Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition, 1996.
• Non-Conventional Energy Sources, G.D Rai, Khanna Publishers, 2003.

REFERENCE BOOKS:
• Renewable Energy Sources and Conversion Technology, N.K.Bansal, Manfred Kleeman &
Mechael Meliss, Tata McGraw Hill., 2004.
• Renewable Energy Technologies, Ramesh R & Kumar K U, Narosa Publishing House New
Delhi.
• Non-Conventional Energy, Ashok V Desai, Wiley Eastern Ltd, New Delhi, 2003.
 Learning Objectives

• To introduce the concepts of solar energy, its radiation, collection, storage and
application..
• To introduce the concepts and applications of Wind energy, Biomass energy,
Geothermal energy and Ocean energy as alternative energy sources..
• To explore society’s present needs and future energy demands..
• To examine energy sources and systems, including fossil fuels and nuclear
energy, and then focus on alternate, renewable energy sources such as solar,
biomass (conversions), wind power, geothermal, etc.
• To get exposed to energy conservation methods.
 Outcomes
CO1: Describe the environmental aspects of non-conventional energy resources. In
Comparison with various conventional energy systems, their prospects and Know the need
of renewable energy resources, historical and latest developments.
CO2: Describe the use of solar energy and the various components used in the energy
production with respect to applications like-heating, cooling, desalination, power generation,
drying, cooking etc.
CO3: Appreciate the need of Wind Energy and the various components used in energy
generation and know the classifications.
CO4: Understand the concept of Biomass energy resources and their classification, types of
biogas Plants applications , Compare Solar, Wind and bio energy systems, their prospects,
Advantages and limitations.
CO5: Acquire the knowledge of fuel cells, wave power, tidal power and geothermal principles
and applications.
NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES - MODULE 3

CHAPTER 1: Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat Plate Collectors.

 Module 3
• Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat Plate Collectors: General description,
collector geometry, selective surface (qualitative discussion) basic energy-balance
equation, stagnation temperature, transmissivity of the cover system, transmissivity –
absorptivity product, numerical examples. The overall loss coefficient, correlation for the
top loss coefficient, bottom and side loss coefficient, problems (all correlations to be
provided). Temperature distribution between the collector tubes, collector heat removal
factor, collector efficiency factor and collector flow factor, mean plate temperature,
instantaneous efficiency (all expressions to be provided). Effect of various parameters on
the collector performance; collector orientation, selective surface, fluid inlet temperature,
number covers, dust.

• Photovoltaic Conversion: Description, principle of working and characteristics,

application.
 Liquid Flat Plate Collector (FPC)

• The schematic diagram of a FPC is as shown in fig. it consists of a casing either

made up of wood or plastic having an area of about 2m*1m*15cm. In the casing
insulator is provided at the bottom to check conductive heat transfer.
• Mineral wool, glass wool, fibre glass, asbestos thermocol etc. are used as
insulator. Above the insulator the absorber plate is fixed. The absorber plate is
made of good conducting material like aluminium or copper.
• It is coated black to increase its absorption property. Usually the black coating is
done by chemical treatment. Selective coatings which allow for maximum
absorption of radiation and minimum amount of emission are applied on to the
absorber plate.
Contd..,

• The underside of the plate consists of absorber tubes which run along the
length of the plate. These tubes are also made of the same material as
that of the absorber plate.
Contd..,

• Sometimes the plate itself is bent into the form of tubes. Through these
tubes the heat absorbing medium (water) is circulated.
• This medium will absorb the heat from the plates and the tubes and its
temp increases.
• This way solar energy is collected as heat energy.
• Above the absorber plate glass covers are provided These glass covers
help to bring out the greenhouse effect, thus increasing the η of the
collector.
Contd..,

Fig: Unglazed solar collectors typically used for swimming pool heating.
Cross section through collector plates
 The various cross sections
of absorber plate are as fallows.
(a)Pipe-and-fin type, here the
liquid flows only in the pipe and
hence they have a comparatively
low wetted area and liquid
capacity
(b)Rectangular or Cylindrical
sandwich, in this type both are
wetted area and water capacity are
high
(c)Roll-bond or semi-sandwich,
in this type it as intermediate
between the above two

types.
Energy balance equation and collector efficiency:
Energy balance is simply the relationship between energy input and energy
output.

• The performance of solar collector is described by an energy balance

equation that indicates the distribution of incident solar radiation into the
useful energy gain and various losses.
• The energy balance equation is given as,

Where Qu is the useful energy gained by the collector in watts,

Ac is the collector area in m2,

HR is the solar energy received on the upper surface of the inclined collector,
‘τ’ is the fraction of incoming radiation that is transmitted through the cover system and is
• ‘α’ is the fraction of solar energy reaching the surface that is absorbed and
is known as absorptivity.
• (τ,α) is the effective transmittance and absorptance product of cover
system for beam and diffuse radiation.

• UL is the overall heat transfer coefficient.

• tp is the absorber plate temp in °C.

• ta is the atmospheric temp in °C.

• Thus the total incident radiation on the collector is QT= AcHR[(τ,α)]

• The total losses from the collector is AcUL[(tp-ta)].

• In order to increase the η(efficiency) of the collector Qu has to be

increased. This is done by decreasing the losses as it is not possible to
vary the incident radiation.
• The losses that occur are,
Energy Balance Equation Relationships
Contd..,

• Conduction loss: This loss is prevented by introducing an

insulating material between the absorber plate and the casing
where there is contact between the two and also by using a low
conducting material like wood or plastic for the casing. Thus the
conduction loss is reduced.
Contd..,
• Convection loss: It takes place both from the top and the bottom of the
absorber plate. The bottom loss is reduced by providing insulation
between the absorber tubes and the base of the casing. The top side loss
is prevented by providing glass covers and maintaining the distance
between the covers by about 1.25 to 2.5 cm. Also convection loss is
prevented by evacuating the top and the bottom side of the absorber plate.
Contd..,
• Radiation losses: It is prevented by applying a selective coating on to the
top side of the absorber plate.
• This coating allows 90% of the radiation to be incident on to the absorber
plate while transmissivity of the plate is reduced to only 10%.
• The usual material used for the coating is – ‘black chromel’.
• The radiation loss also prevented by treating the underside of the glass
covers by coating which are opaque to the reradiated infrared radiations but
are transparent to the incident visible radiation.
• The materials used for this coating are tin oxide or indium oxide.
Contd..,
• Reflection and refraction losses: These losses are prevented by
providing more than one glass covers so that the reflected and refracted
radiation is incident back on the absorber plate.
• Thus the collector efficiency is given as,
•An energy balance on the absorber plate yields the following equation;
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE

 If the liquid flow rate through the collector is stopped, there is no useful heat gain
and the efficiency is zero.
 In this case, the absorber plate attains a temperature such that
Ap S = ql.
 This temperature is the highest that the absorber plate can attain and is
sometimes referred to as the Stagnation Temperature.
 Knowledge of the stagnation temperature is useful as an indicator for comparing
different collector designs.
 It also helps in choosing proper materials for construction of the collector.
The reflectance of the single interface is given by the equation is,
Top Loss coefficient

The top loss coefficient (Ut) is evaluated by considering convection

and re-radiation losses from the absorber plate in the upward
direction.
For purposes of calculation, the following assumptions are made:
The transparent covers and the absorber plate constitute a
system of infinite parallel surfaces and that the flow of heat is
one dimensional and steady.
The temperature drop across the thickness of the covers is
negligible and that the interaction between the incoming
solar radiation absorbed by the covers and the outgoing
loss may be neglected.
 
 
 
 
 
 A schematic diagram for a two-cover system is shown in the figure.
In a steady state, the heat transferred by convection and radiation between
(i) the absorber plate and the first cover,
(i)the first cover and the second cover, and (iii) the second cover and the
surroundings must be equal.
(b) Bottom loss co-efficient
 © Side loss co-efficient
 As in the case of the bottom loss coefficient, it is assumed that the conduction
resistance dominates and that the flow of heat is one-dimensional and steady.

 The one-dimensional approximation can be justified on the grounds that the

side loss coefficient is always much smaller than the top loss coefficient.
 If the dimensions of the absorber plate are 𝐿1×𝐿2 the height of the collector
casing is L3, then the 2(L l + L2)L3
Temperature distribution between the collector tubes
COLLECTOR HEAT-REMOVAL FACTOR

• The final one-dimensional analysis will be performed along the direction of

fluid flow with the objective of determining the variation of fluid
temperature.
• This analysis will help in linking the useful heat gain rate with the fluid inlet
temperature.
• Consider a length dy as a control volume one tube
Applying 1st law of thermodynamics
HEAT REMOVAL FACTOR AND THE FLOW FACTOR
Collector efficiency factor
The collector efficiency factor F′ is defined as the ratio of the actual thermal
collector power to the power of an ideal collector whose absorber temperature is
equal to the fluid temperature.
 Mean Plate Temperature (MPT)
 Mean Plate Temperature is a term commonly used in the context of heat
exchangers, particularly in relation to the calculation of instantaneous
efficiency and other related parameters.
 The MPT represents the average temperature of the heat transfer surface,
typically the plates, in a heat exchanger.
 This temperature is a key aspect for the determination of thermal losses or
the inertial behavior of a collector.
 To calculate the MPT, the temperatures of the hot and cold fluid streams at
each point along the heat transfer surface are considered.
 The MPT is the average of these temperatures and is calculated using the
following formula
MPT = (Th + Tc) / 2
 where Th is the temperature of the hot fluid and Tc is the temperature of
the cold fluid.
 Instantaneous efficiency
Instantaneous efficiency, the efficiency of a system at a specific moment in time.
In the context of heat exchangers, the instantaneous efficiency is often calculated using the MPT.
The instantaneous efficiency represents the ratio of the actual heat transfer occurring in the heat
exchanger to the maximum possible heat transfer at that particular instant.
The formula for calculating instantaneous efficiency using the MPT is as follows:

Instantaneous Efficiency = (Actual Heat Transfer / Maximum Possible Heat Transfer) × 100%

The actual heat transfer depends on the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids, as
well as the overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer area of the heat exchanger.
The maximum possible heat transfer is calculated based on the assumption that the hot and cold
fluids approach each other asymptotically and their temperatures become equal at the MPT.
It's important to note that instantaneous efficiency can vary over time as the conditions and
parameters of the heat exchanger change, such as the flow rates and inlet temperatures of the fluids.
Therefore, the calculation of instantaneous efficiency provides a snapshot of the efficiency at a
particular moment and may fluctuate throughout the operation of the heat exchanger.
Contd..,
• Parameters affecting the performance of the FPC:

1) Selective coating
2) No.of covers
3) Spacing between the covers

4) Tilt of the collector

5) Incident radiation
6) Inlet fluid temperature

7) Dust collection on the cover plate

Selective Coating:
• The ‘η’ of the collector can be maximized by coating the absorber plate by
materials which will absorb maximum amount of radiation but emit
minimum amount of radiation.
• Such a coating is known as selective coating. By applying the selective
coating on the absorber plate input to the collector is maximized while the
loss is minimized by this the η of the collector will improve.
• The selective coating Should have maximum absorptivity for a wavelength
of less than 4μm, because the incident radiation will be having a
wavelength less than 4μm.
• Similarly the coating should have minimum transmissivity for λ greater than
4μm, because the radiation emitted from the absorber plate will be having
a λ of greater than 4μm.
• The effect of selective coating on the performance of the collector is
studied with the help of following data.
• From the above data it is seen that the η of the collector having a non
selective absorber is minimum because of the maximum loss.
• As the loss increases, the useful heat gain decreases resulting in
decreased η.
• A collector having a selective absorber coating will have less loss and
more useful heat gain because of its improved absorptivity and reduced
emissivity. As result of this the useful heat gain will increase resulting in the
increased η of the collector.
• The commercially used selective coating are copper oxide on copper
(α=0.89, ε=0.17) nickel black on galvanized iron (α=0.868, ε=0.088).

Desirable properties of selective coatings:

• The selective coatings should withstand the continuous exposed to high
temperature without losing the absorbing and emitting characteristics.
• These should be less expensive. These coatings should not get corroded
or eroded by the atmosphere.
• Effect of no. of covers: The effect of no. of covers is well understood by
studying the following data.
• In a FPC normally one or two glass covers are used to prevent convective,
reflective and refractive losses. The effect of no. of covers on the
performance is studied with the help of above data.
• From the above data it is seen that for two covers the ‘η’ will increase while it
decreases when a third cover is added.
• The increase in ‘η’ is due to the decrease in the overall heat loss coefficient.
• The decrease in ‘η’ when the third cover is added is due to decrease in (τ α)
product which decreases the available incident radiation.
• This decrease in input affects decrease in loss coefficient resulting in the
decreased ‘η’.
• When the selective coating is used with only one cover, the ‘η’ achieved is
maximum.
• When a second cover is added the (τ α) product decreases resulting in the
decrease in input energy thus reducing the ‘η’.
Spacing between the covers:
• Since convective heat transfer is proportional to the convective heat
transfer coefficient, a graph of ‘h’ versus the spacing is drawn for two
temperature difference of 10 and 20°C as shown in the fig. (The temp
difference is between the absorber plate and the ambient air). The
objective here is to decrease the heat loss or to decrease the ‘h’- loss.
• From the graph it is seen that ‘h’ decrease continuously upto about 2cm
spacing and then increases with the spacing, reaches a maximum
continuously decreases their after.
• From the above graph it is observed that minimum value of ‘h’ is achieved
with spacing 0-2cm and 5-7cm.
• When the spacing 5-7cm is provided it results in shadowing of the
absorber plate which in turn reduces the input, hence reducing the ‘η’ of
the collector.
• Thus the best spacing for minimum heat loss is about 2cm.
Tilt of the collector: The collector is tilted in order to improve its η.
• The η is improved by increase in the amount of solar radiation that is
absorbed by the collector. A graph of insolation versus latitude for different
tilt angles [S].
• From the graph it is observed when ‘s’ is 0.9 times the latitude, the solar
insolation absorbed is maximum.
• Hence the best tilt for maximum ‘η’ of the collector is equal to the latitude
of the place.
Fluid inlet temperature:
• The following, Graph suggests the variation of η wrt inlet fluid temp. From the
graph it is observed that the η will decrease with the increase in inlet temp.
• This is because, as the inlet temp of the fluid increases the loss from the collector
increases due to increase in the temp diff between the collector and the
atmosphere. This increase in loss decreases the output resulting in reduced η.
• Incident solar flux: As seen from the graph, the η of the collector
increases with the incident flux to certain extent after which the η ceases to
increase.
• This is because at this instant the loss from the collector equals the gain of
the collector. Hence η remains constant.
• Dust on top cover: The dust accumulation on the top cover acts as an
insulator for incident radiation.
• This decreases the η of the collector. In order to take care of this
correction factor ranging from 0.92 to 0.99 is used.
• The selection of which depends on the location, the density of the dust,
the collector orientation, cleaning frequency, and the season.
 Photovoltaic Solar Systems

What is a solar cell?

• Solid state device that converts incident solar energy directly into electrical
energy by means of photovoltaic effect.
• Solar panels or a large number of solar cells are connected in series
parallel combination to obtain the required amount of power.
• These cells when exposed to solar radiation give direct current (DC) which
can be converted into alternating current (AC) using inverters.
• The silicon solar cell, developed for the space programme consists of a sandwich of
n-type and p-type silicon semiconductors, the charge separation is developed across
the junction between them and electricity is produced.

Advantages:
• Efficiencies from a few percent up to 20-30%.
• Absence of moving parts.
• Noise free & no consumption of fuel to operate as the sun’s energy if freely available.
• Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more.
• Free from pollution.
• They are highly reliable.
• Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate.
 Applications of Solar Energy (Solar Cells):

• Solar energy can be used as solar heat by several gadgets such as solar
cooker, solar dryer, solar water heater, solar distillation, space
conditioning, green house technology, solar air crafts.
• Solar energy can also be used as solar electricity by PVC or solar cells.
Solar photovoltaic cells could be installed in remote areas in forests and
deserts where installation of electric cables is cost-prohibitive.
• Solar energy being non-polluting and non-depletable is considered as
renewable energy and fits into the principle of sustainability.
• Solar cells are widely used in electronic watches, calculators, traffic signals
and artificial satellites. Because of their non-polluting nature, solar cells are
known as clean and green cells.
• Solar cells are also used in weather monitoring, railway signalling
equipment, battery charging and street lighting.
• Major application of solar photovoltaic system lies in water pumping for
drinking water supply and irrigation in rural areas.
How Does It Work?
• The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p type silicon) creates a voltage
• Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons, creating a electron and a hole
in the junction
• Connecting both sides to an external circuit causes current to flow
• In essence, sunlight on a solar cell creates a small battery with voltages
typically 0.5 v. DC,
N-type Silicon cell (semiconductor):
• When Si lattice contains an impurity of Aluminium (Al), which
contains 5 electrons in the outer shell, 4 of these electrons form
bonds with Si while the fifth electron is available for conducting
current. Such solids are called n-type semiconductors.
P-type Silicon cell (semiconductor):
• When Si lattice contains some atoms of indium (In), with three
electrons in the outer shells the covalent bonding is incomplete,
some sites being vacant, which constitute positive (+ve) holes.
If these holes are filled by adjacent electrons, they form other
holes and by migration, they carry current. Such solids are
called p-type Si cells.
• If a crystal of Si is prepared such that one part is p-type (which conducts positive
charge) and the other n-type (which conducts negative charge), the p-n junction
will permit current from an external source of flow through it in one direction. The
silicon cell produces only 15% electricity and is quite expensive since very high
grade crystalline Si is required (Fig. 2).
I-V characteristics of a solar cell:
• Theory of I-V Characterization:
• PV cells can be modelled as a current source in parallel with a diode.
• When there is no light present to generate any current, the PV cell
behaves like a diode.
• As the intensity of incident light increases, current is generated by the PV
cell, as illustrated in Figure.
• In an ideal cell, the total current I is equal to the current Iℓ generated by the

photoelectric effect minus the diode current ID, according to the equation:

where I0 is the saturation current of the diode, q is the elementary charge

1.6x10-19 Columbus, ‘k’ is a constant of value 1.38x10-23J/K, ‘T’ is the cell
temperature in Kelvin, and ‘V’ is the measured cell voltage that is either
produced (power quadrant) or applied (voltage bias).
• Expanding the equation gives the simplified circuit model shown below and
the following associated equation, where n is the diode ideality factor
(typically between 1 and 2), and RS and RSH represents the series and
shunt resistances that are described in further detail later in this document:
• The I-V curve of an illuminated PV cell has the shape shown in the
following figure as the voltage across the measuring load is swept from
zero to VOC,
Short Circuit Current (ISC):
• The short circuit current ISC corresponds to the short circuit condition when
the impedance is low and is calculated when the voltage equals 0.

I (at V=0) = ISC

• ISC occurs at the beginning of the forward-bias sweep and is the maximum
current value in the power quadrant.
• For an ideal cell, this maximum current value is the total current produced
in the solar cell by photon excitation.

ISC = IMAX = Iℓ for forward-bias power quadrant.

Open Circuit Voltage (VOC):

• The open circuit voltage (VOC) occurs when there is no current

passing through the cell.

V (at I=0) = VOC

• VOC is also the maximum voltage difference across the cell for a

forward bias sweep in the power quadrant. VOC= VMAX for

forward-bias power quadrant.
• Maximum Power (PMAX), Current at PMAX (IMP), Voltage at PMAX

(VMP):
• The power produced by the cell in Watts can be easily calculated along the
I-V sweep by the equation P=IV. At the ISC and VOC points, the power will
be zero and the maximum value for power will occur between the two. The
voltage and current at this maximum power point are denoted as VMP and

IMP respectively.
Fill Factor:
• The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is
calculated by comparing the maximum power to the theoretical power (PT) that
would be output at both the open circuit voltage and short circuit current together.
FF can also be interpreted graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas
depicted in Figure,
• A larger fill factor is desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep
that is more square-like. Typical fill factors range from 0.5 to
0.82.
• Fill factor is also often represented as a percentage.
Efficiency (η):

• Efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output Pout,

compared to the solar power input, Pin, into the PV cell. Pout can

be taken to be PMAX since the solar cell can be operated up to its

maximum power output to get the maximum efficiency.
Shunt Resistance (RSH) and Series Resistance (RS):
• During operation, the efficiency of solar cells is reduced by the dissipation
of power across internal resistances.
• These parasitic resistances can be modelled as a parallel shunt resistance
(RSH) and series resistance (RS), as depicted in figure.

• For an ideal cell, RSH would be infinite and would not provide an alternate

path for current to flow, while RS would be zero, resulting in no further

voltage drop before the load.
• Decreasing RSH and increasing Rs will decrease the fill factor (FF) and

PMAX as shown in Figure 6. If RSH is decreased too much, VOC will drop,

while increasing RS excessively can cause ISC to drop instead.

• If incident light is prevented from exciting the solar cell, the I-V curve shown in
following Figure can be obtained. This I-V curve is simply a reflection of the “No
Light” curve from Figure 1 about the V-axis.
• The slope of the linear region of the curve in the third quadrant (reverse-bias) is a
continuation of the linear region in the first quadrant, which is the same linear
region used to calculate RSH in Figure.
• It follows that RSH can be derived from the I-V plot obtained with or without
providing light excitation, even when power is sourced to the cell.
• It is important to note, however, that for real cells, these resistances are
often a function of the light level, and can differ in value between the light
and dark tests.
END