Chapter 5
Chapter 5
Physicochemical conversion utilizes physical and chemical processes to modify the structure
of biomass. Key methods include:
1. Torrefaction: In this process, biomass is heated without oxygen at temperatures between 200°C
and 300°C. The process removes moisture and volatile compounds, resulting in a solid product
known as biochar or bio-coal, often used as a fuel for power generation or combined with coal in co-
firing.
2. Hydrothermal Conversion: This method uses water, high temperatures, and pressure to break
down biomass.
o Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) converts biomass into a mixture of bio-oil, water, and solid
residue by heating it in water at 250°C to 400°C. Bio-oil is further refine into fuels and chemicals.
o Hydrothermal Gasification (HTG) involves converting biomass into syngas, a mix of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, which is utilise for power generation or as a precursor for other chemical
processes.
3. Supercritical Fluid Extraction: In this technique, biomass is treated with supercritical fluids like
carbon dioxide, acting as a gas and a liquid under specific conditions. This method extracts high-
value components such as essential oils and bioactive compounds from biomass. The process is
environmentally friendly as the CO2 can be recycle.
4. Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC): HTC is a process where biomass convertes into hydrochar by
subjecting it to temperatures between 180°C and 250°C under high pressure in the presence of
water. This process is particularly effective for wet or high-moisture biomass and produces a
carbon-rich material that can be used for energy or as a soil additive.
Biochemical Conversion
Biochemical conversion relies on biological processes to break down biomass into energy-rich
products. Essential biochemical methods include:
1. Anaerobic Digestion: This process breaks down organic material without oxygen, producing
biogas, primarily composed of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas is utilise for heating, electricity
generation, or vehicle fuel. Anaerobic digestion is commonly utilise in biogas plants. Here organic
waste like animal manure or food waste is converted into energy and digestate, a nutrient-rich
fertilizer.
2. Fermentation involves using microorganisms, such as bacteria and yeast, to convert sugars and
starches in biomass into ethanol or other biofuels. For example, yeast ferments sugar into ethanol,
which can be used as a biofuel or in alcoholic beverages. The process typically occurs at
temperatures between 20°C and 30°C and can be adapted to produce a variety of biofuels and
biochemicals.
Conclusion
Biomass resources that are available on a renewable basis and are used either directly as a fuel
or converted to another form or energy product are commonly referred to as “feedstocks.”
Biomass Feedstocks
Biomass feedstocks include dedicated energy crops, agricultural crop residues, forestry
residues, algae, wood processing residues, municipal waste, and wet waste (crop
wastes, forest residues, purpose-grown grasses, woody energy crops, algae, industrial
wastes, sorted municipal solid waste [MSW], urban wood waste, and food waste).
Dedicated energy crops are non-food crops that can be grown on marginal land (land not suitable
for traditional crops like corn and soybeans) specifically to provide biomass. These break down
into two general categories: herbaceous and woody. Herbaceous energy crops are perennial
(plants that live for more than 2 years) grasses that are harvested annually after taking 2 to 3
years to reach full productivity. These include switchgrass, miscanthus, bamboo, sweet sorghum,
tall fescue, kochia, wheatgrass, and others. Short-rotation woody crops are fast-growing hardwood
trees that are harvested within 5 to 8 years of planting. These include hybrid poplar, hybrid willow,
silver maple, eastern cottonwood, green ash, black walnut, sweetgum, and sycamore. Many of
these species can help improve water and soil quality, improve wildlife habitat relative to annual
crops, diversify sources of income, and improve overall farm productivity.
There are many opportunities to leverage agricultural resources on existing lands without
interfering with the production of food, feed, fiber, or forest products. Agricultural crop residues,
which include the stalks and leaves, are abundant, diverse, and widely distributed across the
United States. Examples include corn stover (stalks, leaves, husks, and cobs), wheat straw, oat
straw, barley straw, sorghum stubble, and rice straw. The sale of these residues to a local
biorefinery also represents an opportunity for farmers to generate additional income.
Forestry Residues
Forest biomass feedstocks fall into one of two categories: forest residues left after logging timber
(including limbs, tops, and culled trees and tree components that would be otherwise
unmerchantable) or whole-tree biomass harvested explicitly for biomass. Dead, diseased, poorly
formed, and other unmerchantable trees are often left in the woods following timber harvest. This
woody debris can be collected for use in bioenergy, while leaving enough behind to provide habitat
and maintain proper nutrient and hydrologic features. There are also opportunities to make use of
excess biomass on millions of acres of forests. Harvesting excessive woody biomass can reduce
the risk of fire and pests, as well as aid in forest restoration, productivity, vitality, and resilience.
This biomass could be harvested for bioenergy without negatively impacting the health and
stability of forest ecological structure and function.
Algae
Algae as feedstocks for bioenergy refers to a diverse group of highly productive organisms that
include microalgae, macroalgae (seaweed), and cyanobacteria (formerly called “blue-green
algae”). Many use sunlight and nutrients to create biomass, which contains key components—
including lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates— that can be converted and upgraded to a variety of
biofuels and products. Depending on the strain, algae can grow by using fresh, saline, or brackish
water from surface water sources, groundwater, or seawater. Additionally, they can grow in water
from second-use sources, such as treated industrial wastewater; municipal, agricultural, or
aquaculture wastewater; or produced water generated from oil and gas drilling operations.
Wood processing yields byproducts and waste streams that are collectively called wood
processing residues and have significant energy potential. For example, the processing of wood
for products or pulp produces unused sawdust, bark, branches, and leaves/needles. These
residues can then be converted into biofuels or bioproducts. Because these residues are already
collected at the point of processing, they can be convenient and relatively inexpensive sources of
biomass for energy.
MSW resources include mixed commercial and residential garbage, such as yard trimmings, paper
and paperboard, plastics, rubber, leather, textiles, and food wastes. MSW for bioenergy also
represents an opportunity to reduce residential and commercial waste by diverting significant
volumes from landfills to the refinery.