Biomass Energy

People have used biomass energy—energy from living things—since the earliest homonids first made
wood fires for cooking or keeping warm. Today, biomass is used to fuel electric generators and other
machinery.

GRADES

9 - 12+SUBJECTS

Subject:

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Engineering

Feedstocks
Some of the leading biomass feedstocks include: (top row) switchgrass, copra (coconut), cotton,
jatropha; (middle row) municipal solid waste (msw), sunflowers, palm nuts, canola; (bottom row) wheat,
sugar cane, wood, and rice.

People have used biomass energy—energy from living things—since the earliest hominids first made
wood fires for cooking or keeping warm.

Biomass is organic, meaning it is made of material that comes from living organisms, such as plants and
animals. The most common biomass materials used for energy are plants, wood, and waste. These are
called biomass feedstocks. Biomass energy can also be a nonrenewable energy source.

Biomass contains energy first derived from the sun: Plants absorb the sun’s energy through
photosynthesis, and convert carbon dioxide and water into nutrients (carbohydrates).

The energy from these organisms can be transformed into usable energy through direct and indirect
means. Biomass can be burned to create heat (direct), converted into electricity (direct), or processed
into biofuel (indirect).

Thermal Conversion
Biomass can be burned by thermal conversion and used for energy. Thermal conversion involves heating
the biomass feedstock in order to burn, dehydrate, or stabilize it. The most familiar biomass feedstocks
for thermal conversion are raw materials such as municipal solid waste (MSW) and scraps from paper or
lumber mills.

Different types of energy are created through direct firing, co-firing, pyrolysis, gasification, and
anaerobic decomposition.

Before biomass can be burned, however, it must be dried. This chemical process is called torrefaction.
During torrefaction, biomass is heated to about 200° to 320° Celsius (390° to 610° Fahrenheit). The
biomass dries out so completely that it loses the ability to absorb moisture, or rot. It loses about 20
percent of its original mass, but retains 90 percent of its energy. The lost energy and mass can be used
to fuel the torrefaction process.

During torrefaction, biomass becomes a dry, blackened material. It is then compressed into briquettes.
Biomass briquettes are very hydrophobic, meaning they repel water. This makes it possible to store
them in moist areas. The briquettes have high energy density and are easy to burn during direct or co-
firing.

Direct Firing and Co-Firing

Most briquettes are burned directly. The steam produced during the firing process powers a turbine,
which turns a generator and produces electricity. This electricity can be used for manufacturing or to
heat buildings.

Biomass can also be co-fired, or burned with a fossil fuel. Biomass is most often co-fired in coal plants.
Co-firing eliminates the need for new factories for processing biomass. Co-firing also eases the demand
for coal. This reduces the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases released by burning
fossil fuels.

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is a related method of heating biomass. During pyrolysis, biomass is heated to 200° to 300° C
(390° to 570° F) without the presence of oxygen. This keeps it from combusting and causes the biomass
to be chemically altered.
Pyrolysis produces a dark liquid called pyrolysis oil, a synthetic gas called syngas, and a solid residue
called biochar. All of these components can be used for energy.

Pyrolysis oil, sometimes called bio-oil or biocrude, is a type of tar. It can be combusted to generate
electricity and is also used as a component in other fuels and plastics. Scientists and engineers are
studying pyrolysis oil as a possible alternative to petroleum.

Syngas can be converted into fuel (such as synthetic natural gas). It can also be converted into methane
and used as a replacement for natural gas.

Biochar is a type of charcoal. Biochar is a carbon-rich solid that is particularly useful in agriculture.
Biochar enriches soil and prevents it from leaching pesticides and other nutrients into runoff. Biochar is
also an excellent carbon sink. Carbon sinks are reservoirs for carbon-containing chemicals, including
greenhouse gases.

Gasification

Biomass can also be directly converted to energy through gasification. During the gasification process, a
biomass feedstock (usually MSW) is heated to more than 700° C (1,300° F) with a controlled amount of
oxygen. The molecules break down, and produce syngas and slag.

Syngas is a combination of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. During gasification, syngas is cleaned of
sulfur, particulates, mercury, and other pollutants. The clean syngas can be combusted for heat or
electricity, or processed into transportation biofuels, chemicals, and fertilizers.

Slag forms as a glassy, molten liquid. It can be used to make shingles, cement, or asphalt.

Industrial gasification plants are being built all over the world. Asia and Australia are constructing and
operating the most plants, although one of the largest gasification plants in the world is currently under
construction in Stockton-on-Tees, England. This plant will eventually be able to convert more than
350,000 tons of MSW into enough energy to power 50,000 homes.

Anaerobic Decomposition
Anaerobic decomposition is the process where microorganisms, usually bacteria, break down material in
the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic decomposition is an important process in landfills, where biomass is
crushed and compressed, creating an anaerobic (or oxygen-poor) environment.

In an anaerobic environment, biomass decays and produces methane, which is a valuable energy source.
This methane can replace fossil fuels.

In addition to landfills, anaerobic decomposition can also be implemented on ranches and livestock
farms. Manure and other animal waste can be converted to sustainably meet the energy needs of the
farm.

Biofuel

Biomass is the only renewable energy source that can be converted into liquid biofuels such as ethanol
and biodiesel. Biofuel is used to power vehicles, and is being produced by gasification in countries such
as Sweden, Austria, and the United States.

Ethanol is made by fermenting biomass that is high in carbohydrates, such as sugarcane, wheat, or corn.
Biodiesel is made from combining ethanol with animal fat, recycled cooking fat, or vegetable oil.

Biofuels do not operate as efficiently as gasoline. However, they can be blended with gasoline to
efficiently power vehicles and machinery, and do not release the emissions associated with fossil fuels.

Ethanol requires acres of farmland to grow biocrops (usually corn). About 1,515 liters (400 gallons) of
ethanol is produced by an acre of corn. But this acreage is then unavailable for growing crops for food or
other uses. Growing enough corn for ethanol also creates a strain on the environment because of the
lack of variation in planting, and the high use of pesticides.

Ethanol has become a popular substitute for wood in residential fireplaces. When it is burned, it gives
off heat in the form of flames, and water vapor instead of smoke.

Biochar
Biochar, produced during pyrolysis, is valuable in agricultural and environmental use.

When biomass rots or burns (naturally or by human activity), it releases high amounts of methane and
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, when biomass is charred, it sequesters, or stores, its
carbon content. When biochar is added back to the soil, it can continue to absorb carbon and form large
underground stores of sequestered carbon—carbon sinks—that can lead to negative carbon emissions
and healthier soil.

Biochar also helps enrich the soil. It is porous. When added back to the soil, biochar absorbs and retains
water and nutrients.

Biochar is used in Brazil’s Amazon rainforest in a process called slash-and-char. Slash-and-char

agriculture replaces slash-and-burn, which temporarily increases the soil nutrients but causes it to lose
97 percent of its carbon content. During slash-and-char, the charred plants (biochar) are returned to the
soil, and the soil retains 50 percent of its carbon. This enhances the soil and leads to significantly higher
plant growth.

Black Liquor

When wood is processed into paper, it produces a high-energy, toxic substance called black liquor. Until
the 1930s, black liquor from paper mills was considered a waste product and dumped into nearby water
sources.

However, black liquor retains more than 50 percent of the wood’s biomass energy. With the invention
of the recovery boiler in the 1930s, black liquor could be recycled and used to power the mill. In the
United States, paper mills use nearly all their black liquor to run their mills, and the forest industry is one
of the most energy-efficient in the nation as a result.

More recently, Sweden has experimented in gasifying black liquor to produce syngas, which can then be
used to generate electricity.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Biomass is rich in hydrogen, which can be chemically extracted and used to generate power and to fuel
vehicles. Stationary fuel cells are used to generate electricity in remote locations, such as spacecraft and
wilderness areas. Yosemite National Park in the U.S. state of California, for example, uses hydrogen fuel
cells to provide electricity and hot water to its administration building.

Hydrogen fuel cells may hold even more potential as an alternative energy source for vehicles. The U.S.
Department of Energy estimates that biomass has the potential to produce 40 million tons of hydrogen
per year. This would be enough to fuel 150 million vehicles.

Currently, hydrogen fuel cells are used to power buses, forklifts, boats, and submarines, and are being
tested on airplanes and other vehicles.

However, there is a debate as to whether this technology will become sustainable or economically
possible. The energy that it takes to isolate, compress, package, and transport the hydrogen does not
leave a high quantity of energy for practical use.

Biomass and the Environment

Biomass is an integral part of Earth’s carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is
exchanged between all layers of Earth: atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.

The carbon cycle takes many forms. Carbon helps regulate the amount of sunlight that enters Earth’s
atmosphere. It is exchanged through photosynthesis, decomposition, respiration, and human activity.
Carbon that is absorbed by soil as an organism decomposes, for example, may be recycled as a plant
releases carbon-based nutrients into the biosphere through photosynthesis. Under the right conditions,
the decomposing organism may become peat, coal, or petroleum before being extracted through
natural or human activity.

Between periods of exchange, carbon is sequestered, or stored. The carbon in fossil fuels has been
sequestered for millions of years. When fossil fuels are extracted and burned for energy, their
sequestered carbon is released into the atmosphere. Fossil fuels do not reabsorb carbon.

In contrast to fossil fuels, biomass comes from recently living organisms. The carbon in biomass can
continue to be exchanged in the carbon cycle.
In order to effectively allow Earth to continue the carbon cycle process, however, biomass materials
such as plants and forests have to be sustainably farmed. It takes decades for trees and plants such as
switchgrass to reabsorb and sequester carbon. Uprooting or disturbing the soil can be extremely
disruptive to the process. A steady and varied supply of trees, crops, and other plants is vital for
maintaining a healthy environment.

Algal Fuel

Algae is a unique organism that has enormous potential as a source of biomass energy. Algae, whose
most familiar form is seaweed, produces energy through photosynthesis at a much quicker rate than any
other biofuel feedstock—up to 30 times faster than food crops!

Algae can be grown in ocean water, so it does not deplete freshwater resources. It also does not require
soil, and therefore does not reduce arable land that could potentially grow food crops. Although algae
releases carbon dioxide when it is burned, it can be farmed and replenished as a living organism. As it is
replenished, it releases oxygen, and absorbs pollutants and carbon emissions.

Algae takes up much less space than other biofuel crops. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that
it would only take approximately 38,850 square kilometers (15,000 square miles, an area less than half
the size of the U.S. state of Maine) to grow enough algae to replace all petroleum-fueled energy needs
in the United States.

Algae contains oils that can be converted to a biofuel. At the Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation in New
Zealand, for example, algae is processed with heat and pressure. This creates a “green crude,” which has
similar properties to crude oil, and can be used as a biofuel.

Algae’s growth, photosynthesis, and energy production increases when carbon dioxide is bubbled
through it. Algae is an excellent filter that absorbs carbon emissions. Bioenergy Ventures, a Scottish firm,
has developed a system in which carbon emissions from a whiskey distillery are funneled to an algae
pool. The algae flourishes with the additional carbon dioxide. When the algae die (after about a week)
they are collected, and their lipids (oils) are converted into biofuel or fish food.

Algae has enormous potential as an alternative energy source. However, processing it into usable forms
is expensive. Although it is estimated to yield 10 to 100 times more fuel than other biofuel crops, in
2010 it cost $5,000 a ton. The cost will likely come down, but it is currently out of reach for most
developing economies.
People and Biomass

Advantages

Biomass is a clean, renewable energy source. Its initial energy comes from the sun, and plants or algae
biomass can regrow in a relatively short amount of time. Trees, crops, and municipal solid waste are
consistently available and can be managed sustainably.

If trees and crops are sustainably farmed, they can offset carbon emissions when they absorb carbon
dioxide through respiration. In some bioenergy processes, the amount of carbon that is reabsorbed even
exceeds the carbon emissions that are released during fuel processing or usage.

Many biomass feedstocks, such as switchgrass, can be harvested on marginal lands or pastures, where
they do not compete with food crops.

Unlike other renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar, biomass energy is stored within the
organism, and can be harvested when it is needed.

Disadvantages

If biomass feedstocks are not replenished as quickly as they are used, they can become nonrenewable. A
forest, for instance, can take hundreds of years to re-establish itself. This is still a much, much shorter
time period than a fossil fuel such as peat. It can take 900 years for just a meter (three feet) of peat to
replenish itself.

Most biomass requires arable land to develop. This means that land used for biofuel crops such as corn
and soybeans are unavailable to grow food or provide natural habitats.

Forested areas that have matured for decades (so-called “old-growth forests”) are able to sequester
more carbon than newly planted areas. Therefore, if forested areas are not sustainably cut, re-planted,
and given time to grow and sequester carbon, the advantages of using the wood for fuel are not offset
by the trees’ regrowth.
Most biomass plants require fossil fuels to be economically efficient. An enormous plant under
construction near Port Talbot, Wales, for instance, will require fossil fuels imported from North America,
offsetting some of the sustainability of the enterprise.

Biomass has a lower “energy density” than fossil fuels. As much as 50 percent of biomass is water, which
is lost in the energy conversion process. Scientists and engineers estimate that it is not economically
efficient to transport biomass more than 160 kilometers (100 miles) from where it is processed.
However, converting biomass into pellets (as opposed to wood chips or larger briquettes) can increase
the fuel’s energy density and make it more advantageous to ship.

Burning biomass releases carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and other pollutants and
particulates. If these pollutants are not captured and recycled, burning biomass can create smog and
even exceed the number of pollutants released by fossil fuels.

Porous: Adjective

full of tiny holes, or able to be permeated by water.

agriculture

Noun

the art and science of cultivating land for growing crops (farming) or raising livestock (ranching).

algae

Plural Noun

(singular: alga) diverse group of aquatic organisms, the largest of which are seaweeds.

anaerobic decomposition

Noun

process by which microbes such as bacteria decompose organic material in the absence of oxygen.

arable

Adjective

land used for, or capable of, producing crops or raising livestock.

atmosphere

Noun

layers of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial body.

bacteria

Plural Noun

(singular: bacterium) single-celled organisms found in every ecosystem on Earth.

biochar

Noun

type of charcoal frequently used in agriculture, produced by the pyrolysis of biomass.

biodiesel

Noun

fuel made at least partly from renewable sources such as soy oil, palm oil, or animal fats.

biofuel

Noun

energy source derived directly from organic matter, such as plants.

biomass energy

Noun

renewable energy derived from living or recently living organisms, mostly plants.

biomass feedstock

Noun

crop, residue, and other organic material that can be used to produce energy on an industrial scale.
biosphere

Noun

part of the Earth where life exists.

black liquor

Noun

toxic waste material produced as wood is converted into pulp at paper mills, later recycled in the paper-
making process.

briquette

Noun

small, molded block of charcoal or biomass.

carbon cycle

Noun

series of processes in which carbon (C) atoms circulate through Earth's land, ocean, atmosphere, and
interior.

carbon emission

Noun

carbon compound (such as carbon dioxide) released into the atmosphere, often through human activity
such as the burning of fossil fuels such as coal or gas.

carbon sink

Noun

area or ecosystem that absorbs more carbon dioxide than it releases.

charcoal

Noun

carbon material made by burning wood or other organic material with little air.
coal

Noun

dark, solid fossil fuel mined from the earth.

co-firing

Noun

process of burning two different materials at the same time, most often refers to the combustion of coal
and biomass in a single plant.

combust

Verb

to burn.

decay

Verb

to rot or decompose.

dehydrate

Verb

to remove water from something.

deplete

Verb

to use up.

derive

Verb

to come from a specific source or origin.

electricity

Noun

set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge.

energy density

Noun

amount of energy stored in a system or area.

enterprise

Noun

a project, usually one seeking a profit.

ethanol

Noun

type of grain alcohol used as biofuel.

extract

Verb

to pull out.

ferment

Verb

to undergo the natural or artificial process of fermentation, or changing a food's sugars into alcohols.

fertilizer

Noun

nutrient-rich chemical substance (natural or manmade) applied to soil to encourage plant growth.
fossil fuel

Noun

coal, oil, or natural gas. Fossil fuels formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals.

gas

Noun

state of matter with no fixed shape that will fill any container uniformly. Gas molecules are in constant,
random motion.

gasification

Noun

process that converts solid or liquid carbon-based material into the gases carbon monoxide, hydrogen,
and carbon dioxide.

generator

Noun

machine that converts one type of energy to another, such as mechanical energy to electricity.

green crude

Noun

biofuel produced from algae.

greenhouse gas

Noun

gas in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and ozone, that absorbs solar
heat reflected by the surface of the Earth, warming the atmosphere.

hydrophobic

Adjective

repelling or unable to dissolve in water.

hydrosphere

Noun

all the Earth's water in the ground, on the surface, and in the air.

integral

Adjective

very important.

landfill

Noun

site where garbage is layered with dirt and other absorbing material to prevent contamination of the
surrounding land or water.

leach

Verb

to separate materials by running water or another liquid through them.

lipid

Noun

one of a large group of organic compounds including fats, oils, waxes, sterols, and triglycerides.

lithosphere

Noun

outer, solid portion of the Earth. Also called the geosphere.

livestock

Noun

animals raised for human use.

manure

Noun

animal excrement or waste used to fertilize soil.

marginal land

Noun

area that is difficult to cultivate and does not consistently produce crops, such as land bordering a
desert.

methane

Noun

chemical compound that is the basic ingredient of natural gas.

microorganism

Noun

very tiny living thing.

molten

Adjective

solid material turned to liquid by heat.

municipal solid waste (MSW)

Noun

items thrown away or discarded. Also called garbage or trash.

natural gas

Noun

type of fossil fuel made up mostly of the gas methane.

nutrient

Noun

substance an organism needs for energy, growth, and life.

old-growth forest

Noun

collection of trees and shrubs that has not been harvested for timber or other uses in about 200 years,
although definitions vary. Also called a primeval forest, primary forest, primal forest, or ancient
woodland.

paper mill

Noun

facility where paper is manufactured from pulp or wood.

peat

Noun

layers of partially decayed organic material found in some wetlands. Peat can be dried and burned as
fuel.

pesticide

Noun

natural or manufactured substance used to kill organisms that threaten agriculture or are undesirable.
Pesticides can be fungicides (which kill harmful fungi), insecticides (which kill harmful insects), herbicides
(which kill harmful plants), or rodenticides (which kill harmful rodents.)

petroleum

Noun

fossil fuel formed from the remains of ancient organisms. Also called crude oil.
photosynthesis

Noun

process by which plants turn water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide into water, oxygen, and simple sugars.

pollutant

Noun

chemical or other substance that harms a natural resource.

porous

Adjective

full of tiny holes, or able to be permeated by water.

pyrolysis

Noun

process of heating biomass to very high temperatures with a limited amount of oxygen.

pyrolysis oil

Noun

synthetic fuel that can be combusted to generate electricity, as well as for manufacturing purposes. Also
called biocrude or bio-oil.

rainforest

Noun

area of tall, mostly evergreen trees and a high amount of rainfall.

ranch

Noun

large farm on which livestock are raised.

raw material

Noun

matter that needs to be processed into a product to use or sell.

recovery boiler

Noun

equipment used in paper mills that recycles waste material (black liquor) to fuel the paper-production
process.

runoff

Noun

overflow of fluid from a farm or industrial factory.

seaweed

Noun

marine algae. Seaweed can be composed of brown, green, or red algae, as well as "blue-green algae,"
which is actually bacteria.

sequester

Verb

to isolate or remove.

slag

Noun

mixture of glassy, silica-based material (frit) and biochar that is a byproduct of biomass gasification.

slash-and-burn

Noun

method of agriculture where trees and shrubs are cleared and burned to create cropland.
slash-and-char

Noun

agricultural method where biomass is charred, not burned, and the charcoal is integrated into the soil.

smog

Noun

type of air pollution common in manufacturing areas or areas with high traffic.

soil

Noun

top layer of the Earth's surface where plants can grow.

spacecraft

Noun

vehicle designed for travel outside Earth's atmosphere.

steam

Verb

to heat something by placing it over boiling water.

syngas

Noun

(synthesis gas) gas containing carbon monoxide and hydrogen, used in chemical processing and creating
synthetic natural gas (SNG).

synthetic

Adjective

manufactured by people, not occurring naturally.

tar

Noun

dark, sticky petroleum product created from the decomposition of organic material such as wood.

thermal conversion

Noun

process using heat to convert biomass into usable energy.

Torrefaction

Noun

chemical process where biomass is heated and dried to be used in combustion or gasification.

toxic

Adjective

poisonous.

turbine

Noun

machine that captures the energy of a moving fluid, such as air or water.

wilderness

Noun

environment that has remained essentially undisturbed by human activity.