Module 1- Basic Measurements

Learning Goals
1.​ Students develop proficiency in using measurement instruments (meter
stick, Vernier caliper, micrometer).
2.​ Students understand and apply the concepts of random and systematic
errors.
3.​ Students are able to calculate and interpret uncertainties using average
deviation, standard deviation, and standard error.
4.​ Students are able to communicate measurement results with correct
significant figures.
5.​ Students can collaborate effectively to plan and execute measurements,
discuss discrepancies, and reflect on error sources.

Key Concepts

Measurement instruments; types of errors; significant figures; uncertainty &

statistical measures; error propagation; zero reading / calibration checks;
experiment planning

Pre-lab Questions
Questions to think about before your lab.
1.​ Why is it important to zero / calibrate a measurement tool before using it?
2.​ Give one example of a random error and one example of a systematic
error you might encounter in everyday measurements (not necessarily in
the lab).
3.​ If you measure a length as 12.34 cm with a meter stick marked in
millimeters, how many significant figures should you report, and why?

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 4.​ Why do scientists and engineers often measure the same quantity
multiple times rather than relying on a single measurement?
5.​ A coin’s thickness is around 2 mm. Which measuring tool—meter stick,
Vernier caliper, or micrometer—would likely give you the most precise
reading, and why?

Background

Figure 1. Engineer using a vernier caliper to conduct precise measurements

Science thrives on measurement. From monitoring subtle changes in a

patient’s vital signs to ensuring the precision of mechanical parts in
manufacturing, accurate and reliable measurements lie at the heart of all
scientific and engineering endeavors. In every laboratory exercise, you will collect
data—often using specialized tools such as Vernier calipers, micrometers, and
meter sticks—and use that data to draw conclusions about the physical world. By
mastering the art and science of measurement, you gain insight into the
quantitative nature of reality and build a foundation for critical thinking and
problem-solving.

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 However, measurements are never perfect. Every instrument and method
introduces some degree of uncertainty, influenced by factors as varied as user
skill, ambient temperature, or calibration errors. Understanding how these
uncertainties arise and how they propagate through calculations is just as
important as taking the measurements themselves. This module provides an
introduction to both the fundamental techniques of measurement and the
essential concepts of random and systematic errors, setting the stage for deeper
investigations in future labs.

Measurement Devices / Instruments

Accurate measurements require familiarity with the proper use and
limitations of each instrument. In this lab, you will use a meter stick (or ruler), a
Vernier caliper, and a micrometer to measure dimensions of different objects. You
will also use a balance (triple-beam or digital scale) to measure mass. Each
instrument offers a unique level of precision and has specific operational steps to
minimize error.

Meter Stick / Ruler

A meter stick, or more commonly known as a ruler, is used to measure
the dimensions of an object. It is typically marked at 1-millimeter intervals. A
standard ruler may have both metric and imperial markings. The smallest division
on a meter stick is usually 1 mm (0.1 cm); therefore, measurements using a
meter stick are usually reliable to about ±1 mm.

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 Figure 2. A ruler / meter stick

When using a ruler to measure an object’s dimensions, it is crucial to follow the

following guidelines:
●​ Align Carefully: Ensure the edge of the object is flush with the zero mark
to avoid a zero offset.
●​ Minimize Parallax: Keep your eye directly above the mark you are
reading. Viewing the scale at an angle can introduce random error.
●​ Record Estimates: You can typically estimate one digit beyond the
smallest division for your measurement (e.g., estimating to the nearest 0.5
mm if you feel confident in that precision).

Vernier Caliper
A caliper has a main (fixed) scale and a sliding (Vernier) scale. It can
measure inside and outside dimensions, as well as depths. You can close the
caliper gently on an object to get an outer dimension reading, or expand the
horns of the caliper into some cavity for an interior reading. A typical Vernier
caliper can measure down to ±0.01 cm (0.1 mm) if used correctly.

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 Figure 3. Vernier caliper

The main scale is primarily divided into 1 cm divisions, which are

subdivided into for each millimeter. To read a caliper, you can follow the following
guidelines (with example from Figure 3):
●​ Zeroing: Gently close the caliper. If it does not read exactly 0 on the
Vernier scale, note the offset and adjust subsequent measurements
accordingly.
●​ Taking a Measurement:
○​ Close or expand the jaws around/inside the object.
○​ Read the main scale up to the zero of the Vernier scale (e.g., 3.2
cm). Find which Vernier division aligns exactly with a mark on the
main scale (e.g., 0.08 cm).
○​ Add these readings (3.2 cm + 0.08 cm = 3.28 cm).
●​ Consistent Pressure: Excessive force can deform the object or the tool’s
jaws, introducing systematic error. Use a gentle but firm grip.

Micrometer
A micrometer can measure thickness or outer diameters with very fine
resolution (down to 0.01 mm). It has a frame, a spindle, an anvil, a thimble, and a
ratchet or friction screw that helps ensure consistent measuring force.

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 ​ Figure 4. Micrometer

The sleeve (Barrel) scale indicates millimeters and half-millimeters, while

the thimble scale rotates around the sleeve and shows fractional parts of a
millimeter. One complete rotation usually represents 0.5 mm of travel. To read a
micrometer, you can follow the following guidelines (with example from Figure 4):
●​ Check Zero: Bring the anvil and spindle together gently. If the reading is
not 0, note the offset or calibrate if possible.
●​ Measuring Process:
○​ Place the object between the anvil and spindle.
○​ Gently twist the ratchet until snug (do not overtighten or you risk
compressing the object).
○​ Read the sleeve scale for the number of full and half millimeters.
○​ Read the thimble scale where it aligns with the sleeve line for the
fractional part.
●​ Handling: Avoid dropping or forcing the micrometer, as it is a precision
instrument.

Each turn of the thimble opens the instrument 0.5mm; therefore two turns gives
1mm, four turns means 2mm, etc. These millimeter readings are notated by the
hash marks which originate from the horizontal line on the barrel. The other
marks which don’t touch that line indicate 0.5 mm increments. In Figure 4, the
thimble has been turned eleven times, revealing the 5 mm mark and the 0.5 mm
mark beyond it. The last number comes from the number on the thimble which
lines up with the horizontal line on the barrel, in our case 0.26 mm. This 0.26 mm
is added to 0.5mm so that the decimal side of the reading is 0.76 mm. Add this to
the 5 mm above for the result. If the 0.5 mark had not been revealed, indicating
only ten turns, then the reading would have been 5.26 mm.

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Errors in Measurement
All measurements carry a degree of uncertainty. To interpret
measurements rigorously, you need a clear understanding of errors: where they
come from, how to account for them, and how to communicate your results
accurately. In this lab, we distinguish between two broad categories of error,
which are random error and systematic error.

Figure 2. Systematic vs. Random Errors

Random error, sometimes erroneously called human error, comes from

the perspective of individual measurements. For instance, suppose one partner
measures something, and then the other partner measures the same thing. The
judgment on where the needle points, or where the rounding occurs, causes
small variations in the readings. In some sense, the amount of random error in an
experiment indicates the confidence level of your lab technique. Importantly,
these errors add to the true value as often as they detract. Therefore, averaging
the data usually eliminates these errors. The more measurements that are made,
the more averaging smoothes out these blips in the data set.

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​ Systematic errors are consistent shifts in measured values, often due to
instrument miscalibration or consistent user bias. A classic example is a steel
meter stick that has expanded in hot weather, causing all length measurements
to be slightly off. The steel expands when heated; consequently each mark is
separated more than its stated value. Anything you measure with the tape in this
condition will read shorter than it actually is, because the tape itself is longer than
it should be. Systematic errors tend to give consistently higher or lower results,
hence averaging multiple measurements will not remove a systematic error; it
must be corrected by identifying and adjusting for the source (e.g., zeroing the
instrument properly).
One kind of systematic error which can be easily eliminated is zero error
(not ‘‘no error’’!). When a caliper, micrometer, or other such device is closed, it
should read ‘‘0’’, yet often the instrument doesn't close properly (usually because
some student misadjusted it) and each reading will be too high or too low. Fixing
this problem is merely a matter of noting the reading when the device is closed,
and adding (if the instrument reads low) or subtracting (reads high) that value
from each measurement.

Significant Figures
When reporting numerical values, significant figures (often abbreviated as
“sig figs”) indicate the precision of your measurement. They convey how many
digits in a reported value are meaningful rather than just placeholders. Proper
use of significant figures ensures clarity and consistency when communicating
experimental results, especially in scientific and engineering contexts.
For example, if you write down 12.3 cm, you are stating that you have
confidence in the “12” and the “3,” but you are uncertain at the hundredths place
(what comes after the 3). Another example, when you are measuring length with
a Vernier caliper, if you consistently read measurements to the hundredth of a
centimeter (±0.01 cm), your final values likely have three or four significant
figures (e.g., 5.67 cm). Meanwhile, when you are measuring mass on a
Triple-Beam Balance, if the smallest increment on the balance is 0.1 g, you might
record 12.3 g (three significant figures) but avoid writing 12.300 g, since that

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implies a precision of 0.001 g. Some common rules for significant figures are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Common Rules for Significant Figures

Rule Example

Non-Zero Digits: All non-zero digits 123 has three significant figures.
(1–9) are always significant.

Zeros Between Non-Zero Digits 1003 has four significant figures.

(captive zeros) are significant.

Leading Zeros are not significant; they 0.0025 has two significant figures.
merely position the decimal point.

Trailing Zeros to the Right of a 12.00 has four significant figures (the
Decimal Point are significant if they zeros after the decimal indicate the
are at the end of a number. precision to the hundredths place).

Exact Numbers (e.g., counts of 12 eggs in a dozen is an exact count,

objects, defined constants) are so it does not limit precision in
considered to have infinite significant calculations.
figures.

Uncertainty and Statistical Measures

No physical measurement is perfectly precise. Each time we measure a
quantity, small variations can arise due to the instrument, the environment, or
human judgment. To handle these variations systematically, we use statistical
measures to quantify uncertainty. By analyzing the spread of repeated
measurements, we gain insight into how much confidence we can place in our
results.
Whenever you present a final measured quantity, it is standard practice to
write it in the form:

Measurement = measured value ± standard uncertainty

For example:

Diameter of tennis ball = 6.7 ± 0.2 cm

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 Here, 6.7 cm is the best estimate of the diameter, and ±0.2 cm reflects the
uncertainty—the range within which the true value is likely to lie, based on
random fluctuations, instrument precision, or both. The measured value and the
uncertainty should be rounded to compatible decimal places. Typically, the
uncertainty is given to one (or at most two) significant digits, and the
measurement is rounded to the same place.
In this lab, you will practice calculating and interpreting several common
statistical metrics—such as the mean, standard deviation, and standard error—to
ensure your measurements are both accurate and reproducible. Suppose you
time the period of oscillation of a pendulum using a digital instrument (that you
assume is measuring accurately) and find the period to be T = 0.44 seconds.
This single measurement of the period suggests a precision of ±0.005 s, but this
instrument precision may not give a complete sense of the uncertainty. If you
repeat the measurement several times and examine the variation among the
measured values, you can get a better idea of the uncertainty in the period. For
example, here are the results of 5 measurements, in seconds: 0.46, 0.44, 0.45,
0.44, 0.41.

Mean (Average)
​ When making multiple measurements of the same quantity, the arithmetic
mean is often the best estimate of the “true” value:

(1)

where x1, x2, …, xN are the individual measurements, and N is the total number
of measurements. The mean helps reduce random fluctuations, providing a more
stable estimate of the quantity being measured.
Consider, as another example, the measurement of the width of a piece of
paper using a meter stick. Being careful to keep the meter stick parallel to the
edge of the paper (to avoid a systematic error which would cause the measured
value to be consistently higher than the correct value), the width of the paper is
measured at a number of points on the sheet, and the values obtained are

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entered in a data table. Note that the last digit is only a rough estimate, since it is
difficult to read a meter stick to the nearest tenth of a millimeter (0.01 cm).

Table 2. Observations

(2)

Spread of Measurements
Average Deviation
One way to express the variation among the measurements is to use the average
deviation. This statistic tells us on average (with 50% confidence) how much the
individual measurements vary from the mean.

(3)

Standard Deviation
However, the standard deviation is the most common way to characterize the
spread of a data set. The standard deviation is always slightly greater than the
average deviation, and is used because of its association with the normal
distribution that is frequently encountered in statistical analyses.

(4)

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where δxi = xi − x̄, for i = 1, 2, , N, and x̄ is the mean of the data. From above
measurement we can get the standard deviation.

Table 3. Standard deviation

​ (5)

Standard Error (SE)

When we report the average value of N measurements, the uncertainty we
should associate with this average value is the standard deviation of the mean,
often called the standard error (SE).

​ ​ ​ (6)
The standard error is smaller than the standard deviation by a factor of 1/N. This
reflects the fact that we expect the uncertainty of the average value to get smaller
when we use a larger number of measurements, N. In the previous example, we
find the standard error is 0.05 cm, where we have divided the standard deviation
of 0.12 by √5. The final result should then be reported as:

Average paper width = 31.19 ± 0.05 cm.

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Error Propagation
In many experiments, you will combine multiple measured quantities to
compute a result—for example, calculating an object’s density from its mass and
volume or determining its speed from distance and time. Each measured value
carries its own uncertainty, and these uncertainties can affect the precision of the
final calculated result. Error propagation describes how to estimate that overall
uncertainty.
For example, to determine the average speed of an object we could
measure the amount of time it takes to travel a certain distance and then use the
formula

average speed = distance traveled/elapsed time

The uncertainty in the calculated average speed depends upon the

uncertainty in the distance as well as the uncertainty in the time. Propagation of
error refers to the methods used to determine how the uncertainty in a calculated
result is related to the uncertainties in the individual measurements. The methods
used for determining how uncertainties are combined can be quite sophisticated.
In this lab we will use approximate methods, easier but give reasonable
agreement with other methods.

Rules for Propagating Uncertainties

Assume the error is δ.

Addition and Subtraction

When adding or subtracting measured values, the absolute uncertainties add in
quadrature (square root of the sum of squares).

(7)

Where:

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 ●​ a,b,c are positive measurements;
●​ x,y,z are negative measurements
●​ δ is the error associated with each measurement (the absolute error).
●​ δa is the uncertainty associated with measurement a,
●​ δb is the uncertainty associated with measurement b, and so on.

Let’s say you measured your height (a) as 2.00 ± 0.03 m. Your waistband (b) is
0.88 ± 0.04 m from the top of your head, which means your pant length P would
be p = H – w = 2.00 m – 0.88 m = 1.12 m.

The uncertainty, using the addition formula, is:

Giving a final measurement of 1.12 m ± 0.05 m.

Multiplication or Division
When quantities are multiplied or divided, their relative (fractional) uncertainties
add in quadrature.

(8)

Power formula
If the final quantity is a single variable raised to a power, the relative uncertainty
of the result is multiplied by |n|. If n is an exact number and Q = xn, then the
uncertainty becomes

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ (9)

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General formula for Error Propagation
Error propagation formulas are based on taking partial derivatives of a
function with respect to the variable with the uncertainty. Let’s say you had a
function with three variables (x, u, v) and two of those (u, v) have uncertainty. The
variance of x can be approximated by:

​ ​ (10)

For example, the volume of a cylinder is 1/3 π r 2 t. There are two variables that
have errors, that is r and t. Thus error propagation formula for volume is:

(11)

Lab Experiment

Objectives
1.​ Instrument Familiarity: Develop proficiency in using common measuring
tools. Determine the density of at least two objects (one cylinder such as
a coin, one rectangular block like a wooden block or eraser) using
measured mass and volume.
2.​ Statistical Confidence: Practice gathering multiple measurements and
using them to calculate averages and uncertainties.
3.​ Collaboration & Communication: Work effectively in teams, discussing
and comparing results to identify sources of error.

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Equipment & Materials
1.​ Meter Stick (or Metric Ruler)
2.​ Vernier Caliper
3.​ Micrometer
4.​ Balance (digital or triple-beam)
5.​ Coins (e.g., small cylindrical coins)
6.​ Wooden Block or Rubber Eraser
7.​ Additional Object (student’s choice)

Group Structure & Data Recording

1.​ Group Formation: Form teams of 3–4 students.
2.​ Role Assignments (recommended):
a.​ Instrument Operator(s): Responsible for using the caliper and
micrometer properly.
b.​ Data Recorder: Logs all measured values and observations in a
group table.
c.​ Error Analyst: Checks for zero offsets and systematic errors;
ensures repeated measurements are taken consistently.
d.​ Coordinator/Timekeeper: Keeps the group on task and ensures
every member contributes.

Zeroing & Calibration Check

1.​ Vernier Caliper & Micrometer: Gently close each instrument. If it does
not read exactly zero, note the zero offset in your data table.
2.​ Balance: If using a triple-beam balance, confirm it balances at zero with
no mass on the pan; if using a digital scale, ensure it’s zeroed.
3.​ Record: Write these offsets (if any) on a shared data sheet. These can
indicate potential systematic errors.

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Measuring Procedure

Measuring a Coin

1.​ Height (Thickness)

a.​ Use the Vernier Caliper to measure the coin’s thickness/height in
at least 3 places per person.
b.​ If the group has 3 members, that’s 3 × 3 = 9 total measurements.
(You can adjust based on group size.)
c.​ Record all values, note any unusual readings, and include units
(cm).

2.​ Diameter
a.​ Use the Micrometer to measure the coin’s diameter in at least 3
places per person, rotating around the coin to catch potential
variations.
b.​ Record these in a shared data table.

3.​ Mass
a.​ Weigh the coin once. Note if your balance reads zero properly
before placing the coin on it.

4.​ Data Analysis

a.​ Calculate the average thickness and average diameter.
b.​ Compute the volume of the coin (treated as a cylinder)
c.​ Find the density ρ = mass/volume
d.​ Express your final density with an appropriate uncertainty and
use significant figures correctly.

Measuring a Block / Rectangular Solid

1.​ Length, Width, Height

a.​ Use the Metric Ruler or Meter Stick to measure each dimension.
b.​ Each group member takes at least 2 measurements of each
dimension, noting any differences.

2.​ Mass
a.​ Weigh the block once and record.

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 3.​ Data Analysis
a.​ Average each dimension. Compute the volume (L×W×H)
b.​ Calculate the density using ρ = mass/volume.
c.​ Report density with correct significant figures and approximate
uncertainty.
d.​ Label the block/eraser (e.g., “Block #3”) so data can be tracked if
multiple groups share materials.

Measuring an Object of Your Choice

1.​ Selection: Find any small, measurable object around you (pen cap, small
container, etc.).
2.​ Measure & Weigh: Follow the same steps (multiple measurements of
dimensions, single mass measurement, volume calculation).
3.​ Report: Calculate its density, noting any unique sources of error (e.g.,
irregular shape might introduce approximation).

Group Data and Error Analysis

1.​ Tabulate: Create a clear data table listing all measurements (per group
member) plus any offset corrections.
2.​ Compute: Show how you arrive at mean values, standard deviations, or
average deviations.
3.​ Discuss Discrepancies: If one group member’s measurement
significantly differs from others, hypothesize why (e.g., user technique,
parallax, zero offset) and decide whether to exclude or re-measure.
4.​ Identify Possible Systematic Errors: Zero offset, instrument calibration,
environmental factors (e.g., temperature affecting the dimensions).

Final Reporting

1.​ Data Summary: For each object (coin, block, additional object), report:
a.​ Average dimensions (thickness, diameter, length, width, height).
b.​ Mass.

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 c.​ Calculated Volume.
d.​ Density with Uncertainty.
e.​ Significant Figures used correctly (for both measured values and
uncertainties).
2.​ Discussion of Errors:
a.​ Describe any random errors and how repeated measurements
helped mitigate them.
b.​ Describe any systematic errors or instrument offsets.
3.​ Questions for Reflection:
a.​ Why is it essential to check and record the zero reading on
instruments such as the Vernier caliper and the micrometer before
taking measurements?
b.​ Explain why taking multiple measurements of each dimension is
important.
c.​ How did you determine the appropriate number of significant
figures when reporting your final results (e.g., density)? Provide an
example from your data that illustrates the importance of matching
the measured value’s precision with its uncertainty.
d.​ Why is it important to propagate errors through your calculations,
and what impact does this have on the reliability of your final
reported values?
e.​ Compare the density values obtained for the coin and the
block/eraser. Are these values consistent with what you would
expect for their respective materials? If there were discrepancies,
what factors (measurement error, instrument limitations, etc.)
might explain these differences?
f.​ What challenges did your group encounter during data collection,
and how were they addressed?
4.​ Conclusion: Summarize your findings, noting how close your measured
densities are to known or expected values (if known). Reflect on how
measurement and analysis techniques can be improved.

Safety & Cleanup

1.​ Handle all measuring devices with care, especially the micrometer
(avoiding overtightening).
2.​ Store all equipment properly after use.
3.​ Clean up any debris or spilled materials from the workspace.

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