4G – LTE

1. LTE Introduction
4
1.1. 3G LTE Evolution
4
1.2. LTE Basic Specifications Overview
5
1.3. LTE Technologies 6
1.3.1. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex)
6
1.3.2. MIMO (Multiple Inputs Multiple Outputs)
6
1.3.3. SAE (System Architecture Evolution)
7
2. OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA 7
2.1. LTE Modulation & OFDM Basics
7
2.2. LTE Channel Bandwidths and Characteristics
7
2.3. LTE OFDM Cyclic Prefix (CP)
8
2.4. LTE OFDMA in the Downlink
9
2.5. Downlink Carriers and Resource Blocks
9
2.6. LTE SC-FDMA in the Uplink
9
3. LTE MIMO (Multiple Inputs Multiple Outputs)
10
3.1. LTE MIMO Basics 10
3.2. LTE MIMO 10
3.3. LTE MIMO Modes 11

4. FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex)

12
4.1. Duplex Schemes
12

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4.2. Advantages / Disadvantages of LTE TDD and LTE FDD for Cellular
Communications 13
4.3. LTE TDD / TD-LTE and TD-SCDMA
14
5. Frame and Sub-Frame
14
5.1. Frame Structure
15
5.1.1. Type 1 LTE Frame Structure
15
5.1.2. Type 2 LTE Frame Structure
15
5.2. LTE TDD / TD-LTE Sub-Frame Allocations
16
6. LTE Channels
17
6.1. Channel Types
17
6.1.1. Physical Channels 17
6.1.2. Transport Channels
19
6.1.3. Logical Channels
20
7. Bands and Spectrum
20
7.1. FDD and TDD LTE Frequency Bands
20
7.2. FDD LTE Frequency Band Allocations
21
7.3. TDD LTE Frequency Band Allocations
23
7.4. LTE Bands Overview
24
7.5. Notes Accompanying LTE Band Tabulations
24
8. UE Categories
25

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8.1. LTE UE Category Rationale

25
8.2. LTE UE Category Definitions
26
8.3. LTE Category 0
28
8.4. LTE UE Category Summary
28
9. System Architecture Evolution (SAE)
28
9.1. Reasons for SAE
29
9.2. SAE Basics 29
9.3. SAE Distributed Intelligence
31
10. LTE Self Organizing Network (SON)
32
10.1. LTE SON Development
32
10.2. Major Elements of LTE SON
33
10.3. LTE SON and 3GPP Standards
33
11. Voice over LTE (VoLTE)
33
11.1. Options for LTE Voice
34
11.2. VoLTE Formation 35
11.3. VoLTE Basics
35
11.4. VoLTE Codecs
36
11.5. VoLTE IP Versions 36
12. Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC)
37
12.1. What is SRVCC?
37

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12.2. SRVCC Network Architecture

37
12.3. How SRVCC Works 38
12.4. LTE to Legacy Network Handover
38
12.5. Legacy Network to LTE
39
12.6. SRVCC Interruption Performance
39
13. LTE-M 39
13.1. LTE-M Key Issues 39
13.2. Release 12 Updates for LTE-M
40
13.3. LTE-M Features Planned for Release 13
41
14. LTE-U (LTE-Unlicensed) / LAA (License Assisted Access)
41
14.1. LTE-U Background 41
14.2. LTE-U / LTE-LAA Basics
42
14.3. LTE-U / Wi-Fi Coexistence
43
15. LTE Security 44
15.1. Security Basics
44
15.2. UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM)
44
16. Case Study LTE in Pakistan
45
16.1. Cellular Licenses in Pakistan
45
16.2. 3G and 4G Growth (June 2015)
45
16.3. License Neutrality & Spectrum Consolidation Reuse
46
16.4. Technology Roadmap
47

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16.5. Expected Date Rates

50
16.6. Device Availability and Compatibility
50
16.7. Operators Strategy
51
16.7.1. ZONG – Flexing Muscles
51
16.7.2. Mobilink – Maintaining Lead
52
16.7.3. Telenor – Tough Times Ahead
52
16.7.4. Ufone – Missing Target
53
16.7.5. Warid – Down but not Out
53
16.8. Investment 54

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 4G – LTE

1. LTE Introduction:
LTE (Long Term Evolution); the successor to UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System) and HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) is now being deployed and is the way
forwards for high speed cellular services.
In its first forms it was a 3G or as some would call it a 3.99G technology, but with further
additions the technology fulfilled the requirements for a 4G standard. In this form it was
referred to as LTE Advanced.
There has been a rapid increase in the use of data carried by cellular services, and this
increase will only become larger in what has been termed the "data explosion". To cater for
this and the increased demands for increased data transmission speeds and lower latency,
further development of cellular technology have been required.

The UMTS cellular technology upgrade has been dubbed LTE - Long Term Evolution. The idea
is that 3G LTE will enable much higher speeds to be achieved along with much lower packet
latency (a growing requirement for many services these days), and that 3GPP LTE will
enable cellular communications services to move forward to meet the needs for cellular
technology to 2017 and well beyond.
Many operators have not yet upgraded their basic 3G networks, and 3GPP LTE is seen as the
next logical step for many operators, who will leapfrog straight from basic 3G straight to LTE
as this will avoid providing several stages of upgrade. The use of LTE will also provide the
data capabilities that will be required for many years and until the full launch of the full 4G
standards known as LTE Advanced.
1.1. 3G LTE Evolution:
Although there are major step changes between LTE and its 3G predecessors, it is
nevertheless looked upon as an evolution of the UMTS / 3GPP 3G standards. Although it uses

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 4G – LTE

a different form of radio interface, using OFDMA / SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many
similarities with the earlier forms of 3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use.
In determining what is LTE and how does it differ from other cellular systems, a quick look at
the specifications for the system can provide many answers. LTE can be seen for provide a
further evolution of functionality, increased speeds and general improved performance.

WCDMA HSPA
HSPA+ LTE
(UMTS) HSDPA / HSUPA
Max downlink speed bps 384 k 14 M 28 M 100M
Max uplink speed bps 128 k 5.7 M 11 M 50 M
Latency round trip time
150 ms 100 ms 50ms (max) ~10 ms
approx
3GPP releases Rel. 99/4 Rel. 5/6 Rel. 7 Rel. 8
Approx years of initial roll 2005/6 HSDPA
2003/4 2008/9 2009/10
out 2007/8 HSUPA
OFDMA / SC-
Access methodology CDMA CDMA CDMA
FDMA

In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. Originally
there was also no basic provision for voice, although Voice over LTE, VoLTE was added was
chosen by GSMA as the standard for this. In the interim, techniques including circuit
switched fallback, CSFB are expected to be used
1.2. LTE: Basic Specifications Overview:
It is worth summarizing the key parameters of the 3G LTE specification. In view of the fact
that there are a number of differences between the operation of the uplink and downlink,
these naturally differ in the performance they can offer.

LTE Basic Specifications

Parameter Details
Peak downlink speed 64QAM
100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)
(Mbps)
Peak uplink speeds (Mbps) 50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)
All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit
Data type
switched.
Channel bandwidths (MHz) 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20

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LTE Basic Specifications

Parameter Details
Duplex schemes FDD and TDD
0 - 15 km/h (optimized),
Mobility
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)
Idle to active less than 100ms
Latency
Small packets ~10 ms
Downlink: 3 - 4 times Release 6 HSDPA
Spectral efficiency
Uplink: 2 -3 x Release 6 HSUPA
OFDMA (Downlink)
Access schemes
SC-FDMA (Uplink)
Modulation types supported QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)

These highlight specifications give an overall view of the performance that LTE will offer. It
meets the requirements of industry for high data download speeds as well as reduced
latency - a factor important for many applications from VoIP to gaming and interactive use
of data. It also provides significant improvements in the use of the available spectrum.
1.3. LTE Technologies:
LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to the previous cellular
systems. They enable LTE to be able to operate more efficiently with respect to the use of
spectrum, and also to provide the much higher data rates that are being required.
1.3.1. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex):
OFDM technology has been incorporated into LTE because it enables high data bandwidths
to be transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to reflections and
interference.
The access schemes differ between the uplink and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access) is used in the downlink; while SC-FDMA (Single Carrier - Frequency
Division Multiple Access) is used in the uplink. SC-FDMA is used in view of the fact that its
peak to average power ratio is small and the more constant power enables high RF power
amplifier efficiency in the mobile handsets - an important factor for battery power
equipment.
1.3.2. MIMO (Multiple Inputs Multiple Outputs):
One of the main problems that previous telecommunication systems have encountered is
that of multiple signals arising from the many reflections that are encountered. By using
MIMO, these additional signal paths can be used to advantage and are able to be used to
increase the throughput.

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When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to
be distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2 or 4 x 4 antenna matrices can be
used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station, the same is not
true of mobile handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limit the number of
antennas which should be place at least a half wavelength apart.
1.3.3. SAE (System Architecture Evolution):
With the very high data rate and low latency requirements for 3G LTE, it is necessary to
evolve the system architecture to enable the improved performance to be achieved. One
change is that a number of the functions previously handled by the core network have been
transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provides a much "flatter" form of network
architecture. In this way latency times can be reduced and data can be routed more directly
to its destination.
2. OFDM, OFDMA, SC-FDMA:
One of the key elements of LTE is the use of OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplex) as the signal bearer and the associated access schemes, OFDMA (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access) and SC-FDMA (Single Carrier – Frequency Division
Multiple Access).
OFDM is used in a number of other of systems from WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) and
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) to broadcast technologies
including DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting) and DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting).
OFDM has many advantages including its robustness to multipath fading and interference. In
addition to this, even though, it may appear to be a particularly complicated form of
modulation, it lends itself to digital signal processing techniques.
In view of its advantages, the use of ODFM and the associated access technologies OFDMA
and SC-FDMA are natural choices for the new LTE cellular standard.
2.1. LTE Modulation & OFDM Basics
The use of OFDM is a natural choice for LTE. While the basic concepts of OFDM are used, it
has naturally been tailored to meet the exact requirements for LTE. However its use of
multiple carrier each carrying a low data rate remains the same.
The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e.
from base station to the mobile station) and the uplink (i.e. from mobile station to the base
station) as a result of the different requirements between the two directions and the
equipment at either end. However OFDM was chosen as the signal bearer format because it
is very resilient to interference. Also in recent years a considerable level of experience has
been gained in its use from the various forms of broadcasting that use it along with WiFi and
WiMAX. OFDM is also a modulation format that is very suitable for carrying high data rates -
one of the key requirements for LTE.

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In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an
additional advantage.
2.2. LTE Channel Bandwidths and Characteristics:
One of the key parameters associated with the use of OFDM within LTE is the choice of
bandwidth. The available bandwidth influences a variety of decisions including the number
of carriers that can be accommodated in the OFDM signal and in turn this influences
elements including the symbol length and so forth.
LTE defines a number of channel bandwidths. Obviously the greater the bandwidth, the
greater the channel capacity is.
The channel bandwidths that have been chosen for LTE are:
 1.4 MHz
 3 MHz
 5 MHz
 10 MHz
 15 MHz
 20 MHz
In addition to this the subcarriers spacing is 15 kHz, i.e. the LTE subcarriers are spaced 15
kHz apart from each other. To maintain orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1 / 15 kHz
= of 66.7 µs.
Each subcarrier is able to carry data at a maximum rate of 15 ksps (kilo symbols per
second). This gives a 20 MHz bandwidth system a raw symbol rate of 18 Msps. In turn this is
able to provide a raw data rate of 108 Mbps as each symbol using 64QAM is able to
represent six bits.
It may appear that these rates do not align with the headline figures given in the LTE
specifications. The reason for this is that actual peak data rates are derived by first
subtracting the coding and control overheads. Then there are gains arising from elements
such as the spatial multiplexing, etc.
2.3. LTE OFDM Cyclic Prefix (CP):
One of the primary reasons for using OFDM as a modulation format within LTE (and many
other wireless systems for that matter) is its resilience to multipath delays and spread.
However it is still necessary to implement methods of adding resilience to the system. This
helps to overcome the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) that results from this.
In areas where Inter Symbol Interference is expected, it can be avoided by inserting a guard
period into the timing at the beginning of each data symbol. It is then possible to copy a
section from the end of the symbol to the beginning. This is known as the Cyclic Prefix (CP).
The receiver can then sample the waveform at the optimum time and avoid any Inter

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Symbol Interference caused by reflections that are delayed by times up to the length of the
CP.
The length of the cyclic prefix is important. If it is not long enough then it will not counteract
the multipath reflection delay spread. If it is too long, then it will reduce the data throughput
capacity. For LTE, the standard length of the cyclic prefix has been chosen to be 4.69 µs.
This enables the system to accommodate path variations of up to 1.4 km. With the symbol
length in LTE set to 66.7 µs.
The symbol length is defined by the fact that for OFDM systems the symbol length is equal
to the reciprocal of the carrier spacing so that orthogonality is achieved. With a carrier
spacing of 15 kHz, this gives the symbol length of 66.7 µs.
2.4. LTE OFDMA in the Downlink:
The OFDM signal used in LTE comprises a maximum of 2048 different sub-carriers having a
spacing of 15 KHz. Although it is mandatory for the mobiles to have capability to be able to
receive all 2048 sub-carriers, not all need to be transmitted by the base station which only
needs to be able to support the transmission of 72 sub-carriers. In this way all mobiles will
be able to talk to any base station.
Within the OFDM signal it is possible to choose between three types of modulation for the
LTE signal:
1. QPSK (= 4QAM) = 2 bits per symbol
2. 16QAM = 4 bits per symbol
3. 64QAM = 6 bits per symbol
The exact LTE modulation format is chosen depending upon the prevailing conditions. The
lower forms of modulation, QPSK do not require such a large signal to noise ratio but are not
able to send the data as fast. Only when there is a sufficient signal to noise ratio can the
higher order modulation format is used.
2.5. Downlink Carriers and Resource Blocks:
In the downlink, the subcarriers are split into resource blocks. This enables the system to be
able to compartmentalize the data across standard numbers of subcarriers.
Resource blocks comprise 12 subcarriers, regardless of the overall LTE signal bandwidth.
They also cover one slot in the time frame. This means that different LTE signal bandwidths
will have different numbers of resource blocks.

Channel Bandwidth
1.4 3 5 10 15 20
(MHz)
Number of Resource
6 15 25 50 75 100
Blocks

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2.6. LTE SC-FDMA in the Uplink:

For the LTE uplink, a different concept is used for the access technique. Although still using
a form of OFDMA technology, the implementation is called Single Carrier Frequency Division
Multiple Access (SC-FDMA).
One of the key parameters that affect all mobiles is that of battery life. Even though battery
performance is improving all the time, it is still necessary to ensure that the mobiles use as
little battery power as possible. With the RF power amplifier that transmits the radio
frequency signal via the antenna to the base station being the highest power item within the
mobile, it is necessary that it operates in as efficient mode as possible. This can be
significantly affected by the form of radio frequency modulation and signal format. Signals
that have a high peak to average ratio and require linear amplification do not lend
themselves to the use of efficient RF power amplifiers. As a result it is necessary to employ a
mode of transmission that has as near a constant power level when operating. Unfortunately
OFDM has a high peak to average ratio. While this is not a problem for the base station
where power is not a particular problem, it is unacceptable for the mobile. As a result, LTE
uses a modulation scheme known as SC-FDMA - Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiplex
which is a hybrid format. This combines the low peak to average ratio offered by single-
carrier systems with the multipath interference resilience and flexible subcarrier frequency
allocation that OFDM provides.
3. LTE MIMO (Multiple Inputs Multiple Outputs):
MIMO is another of the LTE major technology innovations used to improve the performance
of the system. This technology provides LTE with the ability to further improve its data
throughput and spectral efficiency above that obtained by the use of OFDM.
Although MIMO adds complexity to the system in terms of processing and the number of
antennas required, it enables far high data rates to be achieved along with much improved
spectral efficiency. As a result, MIMO has been included as an integral part of LTE.
3.1. LTE MIMO Basics:
The basic concept of MIMO utilizes the multipath signal propagation that is present in all
terrestrial communications. Rather than providing interference, these paths can be used to
advantage.

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 4G – LTE

General Outline of MIMO system

The transmitter and receiver have more than one antenna and using the processing power
available at either end of the link, they are able to utilize the different paths that exist
between the two entities to provide improvements in data rate of signal to noise.
MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies including Wi-Fi and
other wireless and cellular technologies to provide improved levels of efficiency. Essentially
MIMO employs multiple antennas on the receiver and transmitter to utilize the multi-path
effects that always exist to transmit additional data, rather than causing interference.
3.2. LTE MIMO:
The use of MIMO technology has been introduced successively over the different releases of
the LTE standards.
MIMO has been a cornerstone of the LTE standard, but initially, in releases 8 and 9 multiple
transmit antennas on the UE was not supported because in the interested of power
reduction, only a single RF power amplifier was assumed to be available.
It was in Release 10 that a number of new schemes were introduced those are closed loop
spatial multiplexing for SU-MIMO as well as multiple antennas on the UE.
3.3. LTE MIMO Modes:
There are several ways in which MIMO is implemented in LTE. These vary according to the
equipment used, the channel function and the equipment involved in the link.
 Single Antenna: This is the form of wireless transmission used on most
basic wireless links. A single data stream is transmitted on one antenna and
received by one or more antennas. It may also be referred to as SISO (Single
In Single Out) or SIMO (Single In Multiple Out) dependent upon the antennas
used. SIMO is also called receive diversity.
 Transmit Diversity: This form of LTE MIMO scheme utilizes the
transmission of the same information stream from multiple antennas. LTE
supports two or four for this technique. The information is coded differently

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 4G – LTE

using Space Frequency Block Codes. This mode provides an improvement in

signal quality at reception and does not improve the data rate. Accordingly
this form of LTE MIMO is used on the Common Channels as well as the Control
and Broadcast channels.
 Open Loop Spatial Multiplexing: This form of MIMO used within the LTE
system involves sending two information streams which can be transmitted
over two or more antennas. However there is no feedback from the UE
although a TRI, Transmit Rank Indicator transmitted from the UE can be used
by the base station to determine the number of spatial layers.
 Closed Loop Spatial Multiplexing: This form of LTE MIMO is similar to the
open loop version, but as the name indicates it has feedback incorporated to
close the loop. A PMI, Pre-coding Matrix Indicator is fed back from the UE to
the base station. This enables the transmitter to pre-code the data to optimize
the transmission and enable the receiver to more easily separate the different
data streams.
 Closed Loop with Pre-Coding: This is another form of LTE MIMO, but
where a single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. This can
be sued as a fall-back mode for closed loop spatial multiplexing and it may
also be associated with beam-forming as well.
 Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO: This form of LTE MIMO enables the system
to target different spatial streams to different users.
 Beam-forming: This is the most complex of the MIMO modes and it is likely
to use linear arrays that will enable the antenna to focus on a particular area.
This will reduce interference, and increase capacity as the particular UE will
have a beam formed in their particular direction. In this a single code word is
transmitted over a single spatial layer. A dedicated reference signal is used
for an additional port. The terminal estimates the channel quality from the
common reference signals on the antennas.
4. FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex):
LTE has been defined to accommodate both paired spectrum for FDD and unpaired
spectrum for TDD operation. It is anticipated that both LTE FDD and LTE TDD will be widely
deployed as each form of the LTE standard has its own advantages and disadvantages and
decisions can be made about which format to adopt dependent upon the particular
application.
LTE FDD using the paired spectrum is anticipated to form the migration path for the current
3G services being used around the globe, most of which use FDD paired spectrum. However
there has been an additional emphasis on including TDD LTE using unpaired spectrum. TDD

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LTE which is also known as TD-LTE is seen as providing the evolution or upgrade path for TD-
SCDMA.
In view of the increased level of importance being placed upon LTE TDD or TD-LTE, it is
planned that user equipments will be designed to accommodate both FDD and TDD modes.
With TDD having an increased level of importance placed upon it, it means that TDD
operations will be able to benefit from the economies of scale that were previously only
open to FDD operations.
4.1. Duplex Schemes:
It is essential that any cellular communications system must be able to transmit in both
directions simultaneously. This enables conversations to be made, with either end being
able to talk and listen as required. Additionally when exchanging data it is necessary to be
able to undertake virtually simultaneous or completely simultaneous communications in
both directions.
It is necessary to be able to specify the different direction of transmission so that it is
possible to easily identify in which direction the transmission is being made. There are a
variety of differences between the two links ranging from the amount of data carried to the
transmission format, and the channels implemented. The two links are defined:
 Uplink: The transmission from the UE or user equipment to the eNodeB or
base station.
 Downlink: The transmission from the eNodeB or base station to the UE or
user equipment.

Uplink and Downlink Transmission Directions

In order to be able to be able to transmit in both directions, a user equipment or base
station must have a duplex scheme. There are two forms of duplex that are commonly used,
namely FDD, frequency division duplex and TDD time division duplex..
Both FDD and TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly they may be
used for different applications, or where the bias of the communications is different.

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4.2. Advantages / Disadvantages of LTE TDD and LTE FDD for Cellular
Communications:
There are a number of the advantages and disadvantages of TDD and FDD that are of
particular interest to mobile or cellular telecommunications operators. These are naturally
reflected into LTE.

Comparison of TDD LTE and FDD LTE Duplex Formats

Parameter LTE-TDD LTE-FDD
Does not require paired spectrum Requires paired spectrum with sufficient
Paired
as both transmit and receive occur frequency separation to allow
spectrum
on the same channel simultaneous transmission and reception
Lower cost as no diplexer is needed
to isolate the transmitter and
Hardware receiver. As cost of the UEs is of
Diplexer is needed and cost is higher.
cost major importance because of the
vast numbers that are produced,
this is a key aspect.
Channel propagation is the same in
Channel characteristics different in both
Channel both directions which enables
directions as a result of the use of different
reciprocity transmit and receive to use on set
frequencies
of parameters
UL / DL capacity determined by frequency
allocation set out by the regulatory
It is possible to dynamically change authorities. It is therefore not possible to
UL / DL
the UL and DL capacity ratio to make dynamic changes to match capacity.
asymmetry
match demand Regulatory changes would normally be
required and capacity is normally allocated
so that it is the same in either direction.
Guard period required to ensure
uplink and downlink transmissions
Guard do not clash. Large guard period Guard band required to provide sufficient
period / will limit capacity. Larger guard isolation between uplink and downlink.
guard period normally required if Large guard band does not impact
band distances are increased to capacity.
accommodate larger propagation
times.

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 4G – LTE

Comparison of TDD LTE and FDD LTE Duplex Formats

Parameter LTE-TDD LTE-FDD
Discontinuous transmission is
Discontinu
required to allow both uplink and
ous
downlink transmissions. This can Continuous transmission is required.
transmissi
degrade the performance of the RF
on
power amplifier in the transmitter.
Base stations need to be
synchronized with respect to the
uplink and downlink transmission
Cross slot
times. If neighboring base stations
interferenc Not applicable
use different uplink and downlink
e
assignments and share the same
channel, then interference may
occur between cells.

4.3. LTE TDD / TD-LTE and TD-SCDMA:

Apart from the technical reasons and advantages for using LTE TDD / TD-LTE, there are
market drivers as well. With TD-SCDMA now well established in China, there needs to be a
3.9G and later a 4G successor to the technology. With unpaired spectrum allocated for TD-
SCDMA as well as UMTS TDD, it is natural to see many operators wanting an upgrade path
for their technologies to benefit from the vastly increased speeds and improved facilities of
LTE. Accordingly there is a considerable interest in the development of LTE TDD, which is
also known in China as TD-LTE.
With the considerable interest from the supporters of TD-SCDMA, a number of features to
make the mode of operation of TD-LTE more of an upgrade path for TD-SCDMA have been
incorporated. One example of this is the sub-frame structure that has been adopted within
LTE TDD / TD-LTE.
While both LTE TDD (TD-LTE) and LTE FDD will be widely used, it is anticipated that LTE FDD
will be the more widespread, although LTE TDD has a number of significant advantages,
especially in terms of higher spectrum efficiency that can be used by many operators. It is
also anticipated that phones will be able to operate using either the LTE FDD or LTE-TDD
(TD-LTE) modes. In this way the LTE UEs or user equipments will be dual standard phones,
and able to operate in countries regardless of the flavor of LTE that is used - the main
problem will then be the frequency bands that the phone can cover.

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5. Frame and Sub-Frame:

In order that the 3G LTE system can maintain synchronization and the system is able to
manage the different types of information that need to be carried between the base-station
or eNodeB and the User Equipment, UE, 3G LTE system has a defined LTE frame and sub-
frame structure for the E-UTRA or Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access, i.e. the air
interface for 3G LTE.
The frame structures for LTE differ between the Time Division Duplex, TDD and the
Frequency Division Duplex, FDD modes as there are different requirements on segregating
the transmitted data.
5.1. Frame Structure:
There are two types of LTE frame structure:
 Type 1: Used for the LTE FDD mode systems.
 Type 2: Used for the LTE TDD systems.
5.1.1. Type 1 LTE Frame Structure:
The basic type 1 LTE frame has an overall length of 10 ms. This is then divided into a total of
20 individual slots. LTE Sub-Frames then consist of two slots - in other words there are ten
LTE Sub-Frames within a frame.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

5.1.2. Type 2 LTE Frame Structure:

The frame structure for the type 2 frames used on LTE TDD is somewhat different. The 10
ms frame comprises two half frames, each 5 ms long. The LTE half-frames are further split
into five Sub-Frames, each 1ms long (shown for 5ms switch point periodicity).

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Type 2 LTE Frame Structure

The sub-frames may be divided into standard sub-frames of special sub-frames. The special
sub-frames consist of three fields;
 DwPTS - Downlink Pilot Time Slot
 GP - Guard Period
 UpPTS - Uplink Pilot Time Slot.
These three fields are also used within TD-SCDMA and they have been carried over into LTE
TDD (TD-LTE) and thereby help the upgrade path. The fields are individually configurable in
terms of length, although the total length of all three together must be 1ms.
5.2. LTE TDD / TD-LTE Sub-Frame Allocations:
One of the advantages of using LTE TDD is that it is possible to dynamically change the up
and downlink balance and characteristics to meet the load conditions. In order that this can
be achieved in an ordered fashion, a number of standard configurations have been set
within the LTE standards.
A total of seven up / downlink configurations have been set, and these use either 5 ms or 10
ms switch periodicities. In the case of the 5ms switch point periodicity; a special sub-frame
exists in both half frames. In the case of the 10 ms periodicity, the special sub-frame exists
in the first half frame only. It can be seen from the table below that the sub-frames 0 and 5
as well as DwPTS are always reserved for the downlink. It can also be seen that UpPTS and
the sub-frame immediately following the special sub-frame are always reserved for the
uplink transmission.

Uplink- Downlink to
Downlink Uplink
Sub-Frame Number
Configurati Switch
on Periodicity
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 5 ms D S U U U D S U U U

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Uplink- Downlink to
Downlink Uplink
Sub-Frame Number
Configurati Switch
on Periodicity

1 5 ms D S U U D D S U U D
2 5 ms D S U D D D S U D D
3 10 ms D S U U U D D D D D
4 10 ms D S U U D D D D D D
5 10 ms D S U D D D D D D D
6 5 ms D S U U U D S U U D

Where:
D = Sub-Frame for Downlink Transmission
S = Special Sub-Frame used for a Guard Time
U = Sub-Frame for Uplink Transmission

Uplink / Downlink Sub-Frame Configurations for LTE TDD (TD-LTE)

6. LTE Channels:
In order that data can be transported across the LTE radio interface, various "channels" are
used. These are used to segregate the different types of data and allow them to be
transported across the radio access network in an orderly fashion.
Effectively the different channels provide interfaces to the higher layers within the LTE
protocol structure and enable an orderly and defined segregation of the data.
6.1. Channel Types:
There are three categories into which the various data channels may be grouped.
 Transport channels: The physical layer transport channels offer
information transfer to Medium Access Control (MAC) and higher layers.
 Logical channels: Provide services for the Medium Access Control (MAC)
layer within the LTE protocol structure.
6.1.1. Physical Channels:
These are transmission channels that carry user data and control messages. The LTE
physical channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates in a different manner.

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Downlink Physical Channels:

Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH):
This physical channel carries system information for UEs requiring accessing the network. It
only carries what is termed Master Information Block (MIB), messages. The modulation
scheme is always QPSK and the information bits are coded and rate matched - the bits are
then scrambled using a scrambling sequence specific to the cell to prevent confusion with
data from other cells.
The MIB message on the PBCH is mapped onto the central 72 subcarriers or six central
resource blocks regardless of the overall system bandwidth. A PBCH message is repeated
every 40 ms, i.e. one TTI of PBCH includes four radio frames.
The PBCH transmission has 14 information bits, 10 spare bits, and 16 CRC bits.
Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH):
As the name implies the PCFICH informs the UE about the format of the signal being
received. It indicates the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs, whether 1, 2, or 3.
The information within the PCFICH is essential because the UE does not have prior
information about the size of the control region.
A PCFICH is transmitted on the first symbol of every sub-frame and carries a Control Format
Indicator, CFI, and field. The CFI contains a 32 bit code word that represents 1, 2, or 3. CFI 4
is reserved for possible future use.
The PCFICH uses 32, 2 blocks coding which results in a 1/16 coding rate, and it always uses
QPSK modulation to ensure robust reception.
Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH):
The main purpose of this physical channel is to carry mainly scheduling information of
different types:
 Downlink resource scheduling
 Uplink power control instructions
 Uplink resource grant
 Indication for paging or system information
The PDCCH contains a message known as the Downlink Control Information, DCI which
carries the control information for a particular UE or group of UEs. The DCI format has
several different types which are defined with different sizes. The different format types
include: Type 0, 1, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 2, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3, 3A, and 4.
Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH):
As the name implies, this channel is used to report the Hybrid ARQ status. It carries the
HARQ ACK/NACK signal indicating whether a transport block has been correctly received.
The HARQ indicator is 1 bit long - "0" indicates ACK, and "1" indicates NACK.
The PHICH is transmitted within the control region of the sub-frame and is typically only

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transmitted within the first symbol. If the radio link is poor, then the PHICH is extended to a
number symbols for robustness.
 Uplink:
o Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH): The Physical Uplink
Control Channel, PUCCH provides the various control signaling
requirements. There are a number of different PUCCH formats defined
to enable the channel to carry the required information in the most
efficient format for the particular scenario encountered. It includes the
ability to carry SRs, Scheduling Requests.
The basic formats are summarized below:

Uplink Control Modulation Bits per

PUCCH Format Notes
Information Scheme Sub-frame
Format 1 SR N/A N/A
1 bit HARQ ACK/NACK
Format 1a BPSK 1
with or without SR
2 bit HARQ ACK/NACK
Format 1b QPSK 2
with or without SR
Format 2 CQI/PMI or RI QPSK 20
CQI/PMI or RI and 1 bit
Format 2a QPSK + BPSK 21
HARQ ACK/NACK
CQI/PMI or RI and 2 bit
Format 2b QPSK + BPSK 22
HARQ ACK/NACK
Provides
support for
Format 3
carrier
aggregation.

o Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) : This physical channel

found on the LTE uplink is the Uplink counterpart of PDSCH
o Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH): This uplink physical
channel is used for random access functions. This is the only non-
synchronized transmission that the UE can make within LTE. The
downlink and uplink propagation delays are unknown when PRACH is
used and therefore it cannot be synchronized.
The PRACH instance is made up from two sequences: a cyclic prefix

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and a guard period. The preamble sequence may be repeated to

enable the eNodeB to decode the preamble when link conditions are
poor.
6.1.2. Transport Channels:
The LTE transport channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different
requirements and operates in a different manner. Physical layer transport channels offer
information transfer to medium access control (MAC) and higher layers.
 Downlink:
o Broadcast Channel (BCH) : The LTE transport channel maps to
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
o Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH): This transport channel is the
main channel for downlink data transfer. It is used by many logical
channels.
o Paging Channel (PCH) : To convey the PCCH
o Multicast Channel (MCH): This transport channel is used to
transmit MCCH information to set up multicast transmissions.
 Uplink:
o Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH): This transport channel is the
main channel for uplink data transfer. It is used by many logical
channels.
o Random Access Channel (RACH): This is used for random access
requirements.
6.1.3. Logical Channels:
The logical channels cover the data carried over the radio interface. The Service Access
Point, SAP between MAC sub-layer and the RLC sub-layer provides the logical channel.
 Control channels: these LTE control channels carry the control plane information:
o Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH): This control channel provides
system information to all mobile terminals connected to the eNodeB.
o Paging Control Channel (PCCH): This control channel is used for
paging information when searching a unit on a network.
o Common Control Channel (CCCH): This channel is used for
random access information, e.g. for actions including setting up a
connection.
o Multicast Control Channel (MCCH): This control channel is used
for Information needed for multicast reception.

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 4G – LTE

o Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH): This control channel is used

for carrying user-specific control information, e.g. for controlling
actions including power control, handover, etc.
 Traffic Channels: These LTE traffic channels carry the user-plane data:
o Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH): This traffic channel is used for
the transmission of user data.
o Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH): This channel is used for the
transmission of multicast data.
It will be seen that many of the LTE channels bear similarities to those sued in previous
generations of mobile telecommunications.
7. Bands and Spectrum:
There are a growing number of LTE frequency bands that are being designated as
possibilities for use with LTE. Many of the LTE frequency bands are already in use for other
cellular systems, whereas other LTE bands are new and being introduced as other users are
re-allocated spectrum elsewhere.
7.1. FDD and TDD LTE Frequency Bands:
FDD spectrum requires pair bands, one of the uplink and one for the downlink, and TDD
requires a single band as uplink and downlink are on the same frequency but time
separated. As a result, there are different LTE band allocations for TDD and FDD. In some
cases these bands may overlap, and it is therefore feasible, although unlikely that both TDD
and FDD transmissions could be present on a particular LTE frequency band.
The greater likelihood is that a single UE or mobile will need to detect whether a TDD or FDD
transmission should be made on a given band. UEs that roam may encounter both types on
the same band. They will therefore need to detect what type of transmission is being made
on that particular LTE band in its current location.
The different LTE frequency allocations or LTE frequency bands are allocated numbers.
Currently the LTE bands between 1 & 22 are for paired spectrum, i.e. FDD, and LTE bands
between 33 & 41 are for unpaired spectrum, i.e. TDD.

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LTE Frequency Band Definitions

7.2. FDD LTE Frequency Band Allocations:

There are a large number of allocations or radio spectrum that has been reserved for FDD,
frequency division duplex, LTE use.
The FDD LTE frequency bands are paired to allow simultaneous transmission on two
frequencies. The bands also have a sufficient separation to enable the transmitted signals
not to unduly impair the receiver performance. If the signals are too close then the receiver
may be "blocked" and the sensitivity impaired. The separation must be sufficient to enable
the roll-off of the antenna filtering to give sufficient attenuation of the transmitted signal
within the receive band.

FDD LTE Bands & Frequencies

LTE Width of Duplex
Uplink Downlink Band Gap
Band Band Spacing
(MHz) (MHz) (MHz)
Number (MHz) (MHz)
1 1920 - 1980 2110 - 2170 60 190 130
2 1850 - 1910 1930 - 1990 60 80 20
3 1710 - 1785 1805 -1880 75 95 20
4 1710 - 1755 2110 - 2155 45 400 355
5 824 - 849 869 - 894 25 45 20
6 830 - 840 875 - 885 10 35 25
7 2500 - 2570 2620 - 2690 70 120 50
8 880 - 915 925 - 960 35 45 10
9 1749.9 - 1784.9 1844.9 - 1879.9 35 95 60
10 1710 - 1770 2110 - 2170 60 400 340
11 1427.9 - 1452.9 1475.9 - 1500.9 20 48 28
12 698 - 716 728 - 746 18 30 12
13 777 - 787 746 - 756 10 -31 41
14 788 - 798 758 - 768 10 -30 40
15 1900 - 1920 2600 - 2620 20 700 680
16 2010 - 2025 2585 - 2600 15 575 560
17 704 - 716 734 - 746 12 30 18
18 815 - 830 860 - 875 15 45 30

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FDD LTE Bands & Frequencies

LTE Width of Duplex
Uplink Downlink Band Gap
Band Band Spacing
(MHz) (MHz) (MHz)
Number (MHz) (MHz)
19 830 - 845 875 - 890 15 45 30
20 832 - 862 791 - 821 30 -41 71
21 1447.9 - 1462.9 1495.5 - 1510.9 15 48 33
22 3410 - 3500 3510 - 3600 90 100 10
23 2000 - 2020 2180 - 2200 20 180 160
24 1625.5 - 1660.5 1525 - 1559 34 -101.5 135.5
25 1850 - 1915 1930 - 1995 65 80 15
26 814 - 849 859 - 894 30 / 40 10
27 807 - 824 852 - 869 17 45 28
28 703 - 748 758 - 803 45 55 10
29 n/a 717 - 728 11
30 2305 - 2315 2350 - 2360 10 45 35
31 452.5 - 457.5 462.5 - 467.5 5 10 5

7.3. TDD LTE Frequency Band Allocations:

With the interest in TDD LTE, there are several unpaired frequency allocations that are being
prepared for LTE TDD use. The TDD LTE bands are unpaired because the uplink and
downlink share the same frequency, being time multiplexed.

TDD LTE Bands & Frequencies

LTE Band
Allocation (MHz) Width of Band (MHz)
Number
33 1900 - 1920 20
34 2010 - 2025 15
35 1850 - 1910 60
36 1930 - 1990 60
37 1910 - 1930 20
38 2570 - 2620 50
39 1880 - 1920 40

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TDD LTE Bands & Frequencies

LTE Band
Allocation (MHz) Width of Band (MHz)
Number
40 2300 - 2400 100
41 2496 - 2690 194
42 3400 - 3600 200
43 3600 - 3800 200
44 703 - 803 100

There are regular additions to the LTE frequency bands / LTE spectrum allocations as a
result of negotiations at the ITU regulatory meetings. These LTE allocations are resulting in
part from the digital dividend, and also from the pressure caused by the ever growing need
for mobile communications. Many of the new LTE spectrum allocations are relatively small,
often 10 – 20 MHz in bandwidth, and this is a cause for concern. With LTE-Advanced needing
bandwidths of 100 MHz, channel aggregation over a wide set of frequencies may be needed,
and this has been recognized as a significant technological problem.
There are many different bands that are being allocated for use with LTE.
7.4. LTE Bands Overview:
The number of bands allocated for use has increased as the pressure increases on spectrum.
It has not been possible for all LTE band allocations to be the same across the globe because
of the different regulatory positions in different countries. It has not been possible to gain
global allocations.
In some cases bands appear to overlap. This is because of the different levels of availability
around the globe.
This means that roaming with LTE may have some limitations as not all handsets or UEs will
be able to access the same frequencies.
7.5. Notes Accompanying LTE Band Tabulations:
There are a few notes that can give some background to the LTE bands defined in the table
on the previous page.
 LTE Band 1: This is one of the paired bands is defined for the 3G UTRA and
3GPP release 99.
 LTE Band 4: This LTE band was introduced as a new band for the Americas
at the World (Administrative) Radio Conference, WRC-2000. This international
conference is where international spectrum allocations are agreed. The
downlink of band 4 overlaps with the downlink for Band 1. This facilitates
roaming.

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 LTE Band 9: This band overlaps with Band 3 but has different band limits
and it is also only intended for use in Japan. This enables roaming to be
achieved more easily, and many terminals are defined such that are dual
band 3 + 9.
 LTE Band 10: This band is an extension to Band 4 and may not be available
everywhere. It provides an increase from 45 MHz bandwidth (paired) to 60
MHz paired.
 LTE Band 11: This "1500 MHz" band is identified by 3GPP as a Japanese
band, but it is allocated globally to the mobile service on a "co-primary basis".
 LTE Band 12: This band was previously used for broadcasting and has been
released as a result of the "Digital Dividend."
 LTE Band 13: This band was previously used for broadcasting and has been
released as a result of the "Digital Dividend." The duplex configuration is
reversed from the standard, having the uplink higher in frequency than the
downlink.
 LTE Band 14: This band was previously used for broadcasting and has been
released as a result of the "Digital Dividend." The duplex configuration is
reversed from the standard, having the uplink higher in frequency than the
downlink.
 LTE Band 15: This LTE band has been defined by ETSI for use in Europe, but
this has not been adopted by 3GPP. This band combines two nominally TDD
bands to provide one FDD band.
 LTE Band 16: This LTE band has been defined by ETSI for use in Europe, but
this has not been adopted by 3GPP. This band combines two nominally TDD
bands to provide one FDD band.
 LTE Band 17: This band was previously used for broadcasting and has been
released as a result of the "Digital Dividend."
 LTE Band 20: The duplex configuration is reversed from the standard,
having the uplink higher in frequency than the downlink.
 LTE Band 21: This "1500 MHz" band is identified by 3GPP as a Japanese
band, but it is allocated globally to the mobile service on a "co-primary basis".
 LTE Band 24: The duplex configuration is reversed from the standard,
having the uplink higher in frequency than the downlink.
 LTE Band 33: This was one of the bands defined for unpaired spectrum in
Release 99 of the 3GPP specifications.
 LTE Band 34: This was one of the bands defined for unpaired spectrum in
Release 99 of the 3GPP specifications.

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 4G – LTE

 LTE Band 38: This band is in the centre band spacing between the uplink
and downlink pairs of LTE band 7.
Although 3GPP can defined bands for use in LTE or any other mobile service, the actual
allocations are made on an international basis by the ITU are World radio Conferences, and
then the individual country administrations can allocate spectrum use in their own countries.
3GPP has no legal basis, and can only work with the various country administrations.
Frequency bands may be allocated on a primary and secondary basis. Primary users have
the first access to a band, secondary users, in general, may use the band provided they do
not cause interference to the primary users.
8. UE Categories:
In the same way that a variety of other systems adopted different categories for the
handsets or user equipments, so too there are 3G LTE UE categories. These LTE categories
define the standards to which a particular handset, dongle or other equipment will operate.
8.1. LTE UE Category Rationale:
The LTE categories or UE classes are needed to ensure that the base station, eNodeB or eNB
can communicate correctly with the user equipment. By relaying the LTE UE category
information to the base station, it is able to determine the performance of the UE and
communicate with it accordingly.
As the LTE category defines the overall performance and the capabilities of the UE, it is
possible for the eNB to communicate using capabilities that it knows the UE possesses.
Accordingly the eNB will not communicate beyond the performance of the UE.
8.2. LTE UE Category Definitions:
There are 9 different LTE UE categories that are defined. As can be seen in the table below,
the different LTE categories have a wide range in the supported parameters and
performance. LTE category 1, for example does not support MIMO, but LTE UE category five
supports 4x4 MIMO.
It is also worth noting that UE class 1 does not offer the performance offered by that of the
highest performance HSPA category. Additionally all LTE UE categories are capable of
receiving transmissions from up to four antenna ports.
A summary of the different LTE UE category parameters is given in the tables below.

Headline data rates for LTE Categories

LTE UE Category
Link 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Downlink 10 50 100 150 300 300 300 1200
Uplink 5 25 50 50 75 50 150 600

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It can be seen that the headline data rates for category 8 exceeds the requirements for IMT-
Advanced by a considerable margin.
While the headline rates for the different LTE UE categories or UE classes show the
maximum data rates achievable, it is worth looking in further detail at the underlying
performance characteristics.

UL and DL parameters for LTE UE Categories 1 - 5

LTE Category
Parameter LTE Cat 1 LTE Cat 2 LTE Cat 3 LTE Cat 4 LTE Cat 5
Max number of DL-SCH
transport block bits 10 296 51 024 102 048 150 752 302 752
received in a TTI
Max number of bits of a
DL-SCH block received in a 10 296 51 024 75 376 75 376 151 376
TTI
Total number of soft
250 368 1 237 248 1 237 248 1 827 072 3 667 200
channel bits
Maximum number of
supported layers for 1 2 2 2 4
spatial multiplexing in DL
Max number of bits of an
UL-SCH transport block 5 160 25 456 51 024 51 024 75 376
received in a TTI
Support for 64-QAM in UL No No No No Yes

UL and DL parameters for LTE UE Categories 6, 7, 8

LTE Category
Parameter LTE Cat 6 LTE Cat 7 LTE Cat 8
Max number of DL-SCH transport
299 552 299 552 1 200 000
block bits received in a TTI
Max number of bits of a DL-SCH
TBD TBD TBD
block received in a TTI
Total number of soft channel bits 3 667 200 TBD TBD

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 4G – LTE

UL and DL parameters for LTE UE Categories 6, 7, 8

LTE Category
Parameter LTE Cat 6 LTE Cat 7 LTE Cat 8
Maximum number of supported
layers for spatial multiplexing in DL
Max number of bits of an UL-SCH
TBD TBD TBD
transport block received in a TTI
Support for 64-QAM in UL No Yes, up to RAN 4 Yes

From this it can be seen that the peak downlink data rate for a Category 5 UE using 4x4
MIMO is approximately 300 Mbps and 150 Mbps for a Category 4 UE using 2x2 MIMO. Also in
the Uplink, LTE UE category 5 provides a peak data rate of 75 Mbps using 64-QAM.
Note:
DL-SCH = Downlink shared channel
UL-SCH = Uplink shared channel
TTI = Transmission Time Interval
8.3. LTE Category 0:
With the considerable level of development being undertaken into the Internet of Things, IoT
and general machine to machine, M2M communications, there has been a growing need to
develop an LTE category focused on these applications. Here, much lower data rates are
needed, often only in short bursts and an accompanying requirement is for the remote
device or machine to be able to draw only low levels of current.
To enable the requirements of these devices to be met using LTE, and new LTE category was
developed. Referred to as LTE Category 0, or simply LTE Cat 0, this new category has a
reduced performance requirement that meets the needs of many machines while
significantly reducing complexity and current consumption. Whilst Category 0 offered a
reduced specification, it still complied with the LTE system requirements.

LTE Category 0 Performance Summary

Parameter LTE Cat 0 Performance
Peak downlink rate 1 Mbps
Peak uplink rate 1 Mbps
Max number of downlink spatial layers 1
Number of UE RF chains 1
Duplex mode Half duplex

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LTE Category 0 Performance Summary

Parameter LTE Cat 0 Performance
UE receive bandwidth 20 MHz
Maximum UE transmit power 23 dBm

The new LTE Cat 0 was introduced in Release 12 of the 3GPP standards and it is being
advanced in further releases.
One major advantage of LTE Category 0 is that the modem complexity is considerably
reduced when compared to other LTE Categories. It is expected that the modem complexity
for a Cat 0 modem will be around 50% that of a Category 1 modem.
8.4. LTE UE Category Summary:
In the same way that category information is used for virtually all cellular systems from
GPRS onwards, so the LTE UE category information is of great importance. While users may
not be particularly aware of the category of their UE, it will match the performance that
allows the eNB to communicate effectively with all the UEs that are connected to it.
9. System Architecture Evolution (SAE):
Along with 3G LTE - Long Term Evolution that applies more to the radio access technology of
the cellular telecommunications system, there is also an evolution of the core network
known as SAE - System Architecture Evolution. This new architecture has been developed to
provide a considerably higher level of performance that is in line with the requirements of
LTE.
As a result it is anticipated that operators will commence introducing hardware conforming
to the new System Architecture Evolution standards so that the anticipated data levels can
be handled when 3G LTE is introduced.
The new SAE, System Architecture Evolution has also been developed so that it is fully
compatible with LTE Advanced, the new 4G technology. Therefore when LTE Advanced is
introduced, the network will be able to handle the further data increases with little change.
9.1. Reasons for SAE:
The SAE offers many advantages over previous topologies and systems used for cellular
core networks. As a result it is anticipated that it will be wide adopted by the cellular
operators.
SAE System Architecture Evolution will offer a number of key advantages:
 Improved data capacity: With 3G LTE offering data download rates of 100
Mbps, and the focus of the system being on mobile broadband, it will be
necessary for the network to be able to handle much greater levels of data. To

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achieve this it is necessary to adopt a system architecture that lends itself to

much greater levels of data transfer.
 All IP Architecture: When 3G was first developed, voice was still carried as
circuit switched data. Since then there has been a relentless move to IP data.
Accordingly the new SAE, System Architecture Evolution schemes have
adopted an all IP network configuration.
 Reduced Latency: With increased levels of interaction being required and
much faster responses, the new SAE concepts have been evolved to ensure
that the levels of latency have been reduced to around 10 ms. This will ensure
that applications using 3G LTE will be sufficiently responsive.
 Reduced OPEX and CAPEX: A key element for any operator is to reduce
costs. It is therefore essential that any new design reduces both the capital
expenditure (CAPEX) and the operational expenditure (OPEX). The new flat
architecture used for SAE means that only two node types are used. In
addition to this a high level of automatic configuration is introduced and this
reduces the set-up and commissioning time.
9.2. SAE Basics:
The new SAE network is based upon the GSM / WCDMA core networks to enable simplified
operations and easy deployment. Despite this, the SAE network brings in some major
changes, and allows far more efficient and effect transfer of data.
There are several common principles used in the development of the LTE SAE network:
 A common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies.
 An optimized architecture for the user plane with only two node types.
 An all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.
 A split in the control / user plane between the MME and the gateway.
 A radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used on
WCDMA / HSPA.
 Integration of non-3GPP access technologies (e.g. CDMA2000, WiMAX, etc)
using client as well as network based mobile-IP.
The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved Packet Core or EPC.
This connects to the eNodeBs as shown in the diagram below.

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LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core

As seen within the diagram, the LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core, EPC consists of four main
elements as listed below:
 Mobility Management Entity (MME): The MME is the main control node
for the LTE SAE access network, handling a number of features:
o Idle mode UE tracking
o Bearer activation / de-activation
o Choice of SGW for a UE
o Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location
o Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and
implements roaming restrictions
o It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS)
o Provides temporary identities for UEs
o The SAE MME acts the termination point for ciphering protection for
NAS signaling. As part of this it also handles the security key
management. Accordingly the MME is the point at which lawful
interception of signaling may be made.
o Paging procedure
o The S3 interface terminates in the MME thereby providing the control
plane function for mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks.
o The SAE MME also terminates the S6a interface for the home HSS for
roaming UEs.
It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME provides a considerable level of
overall control functionality.
 Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane
element within the LTE SAE. Its main purpose is to manage the user plane

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 4G – LTE

mobility and it also acts as the main border between the Radio Access
Network, RAN and the core network. The SGW also maintains the data paths
between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In this way the SGW forms an
interface for the data packet network at the E-UTRAN.
Also when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW
serves as a mobility anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.
 PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity for
the UE to external packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry and
exit point for UE data. The UE may have connectivity with more than one PGW
for accessing multiple PDNs.
 Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name for
the entity within the LTE SAE EPC which detects the service flow, enforces
charging policy. For applications that require dynamic policy or charging
control, a network element entitled the Applications Function, AF is used.

LTE SAE PCRF Interfaces

9.3. SAE Distributed Intelligence:

In order that requirements for increased data capacity and reduced latency can be met,
along with the move to an all-IP network, it is necessary to adopt a new approach to the
network structure.
For 3G UMTS / WCDMA the UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, comprising the
Node B's or Base Stations and Radio Network Controllers) employed low levels of autonomy.
The Node Bs was connected in a star formation to the Radio Network Controllers (RNCs)

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which carried out the majority of the management of the radio resource. In turn the RNCs
connected to the core network and connect in turn to the Core Network.
To provide the required functionality within LTE SAE, the basic system architecture sees the
removal of a layer of management. The RNC is removed and the Radio Resource
Management is evolved to the base-stations. The new style base-stations are called
eNodeBs or eNBs.
The eNBs are connected directly to the core network gateway via a newly defined "S1
interface". In addition to this the new eNBs also connect to adjacent eNBs in a mesh via an
"X2 interface". This provides a much greater level of direct interconnectivity. It also enables
many calls to be routed very directly as a large number of calls and connections are to other
mobiles in the same or adjacent cells. The new structure allows many calls to be routed far
more directly and with only minimum interaction with the core network.
In addition to the new Layer 1 and Layer 2 functionality, eNBs handle several other
functions. This includes the radio resource control including admission control, load
balancing and radio mobility control including handover decisions for the mobile or user
equipment (UE).
The additional levels of flexibility and functionality given to the new eNBs mean that they
are more complex than the UMTS and previous generations of base-station. However the
new 3G LTE SAE network structure enables far higher levels of performance. In addition to
this their flexibility enables them to be updated to handle new upgrades to the system
including the transition from 3G LTE to 4G LTE Advanced.
The new System Architecture Evolution, SAE for LTE provides a new approach for the core
network, enabling far higher levels of data to be transported to enable it to support the
much higher data rates that will be possible with LTE. In addition to this, other features that
enable the CAPEX and OPEX to be reduced when compared to existing systems, thereby
enabling higher levels of efficiency to be achieved.
10. LTE Self Organizing Network (SON):
With LTE requiring smaller cell sizes to enable the much greater levels of data traffic to be
handled, there networks have become considerably more complicated and trying to plan
and manage the network centrally is not as viable. Coupled with the need to reduce costs by
reducing manual input, there has been a growing impetus to implement self organizing
networks.
Accordingly LTE can be seen as one of the major drivers behind the self-organizing network,
SON philosophy.
Accordingly 3GPP developed many of the requirements for LTE SON to sit alongside the
basic functionality of LTE. As a result the standards for LTE SON are embedded within the
3GPP standards.

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10.1. LTE SON Development:

The term SON came into frequent use after the term was adopted by the Next Generation
Mobile Networks, NGMN alliance. The idea came about as result of the need within LTE to be
able to deploy many more cells. Femtocells and other microcells are an integral part of the
LTE deployment strategy. With revenue per bit falling, costs for deployment must be kept to
a minimum as well as ensuring the network is operating to its greatest efficiency.
3GPP, the Third Generation Partnership Program has created the standards for SON and as
they are generally first to be deployed with LTE, they are often referred to as LTE SON.
While 3GPP has generated the standards, they have been based upon long term objectives
for a 'SON-enabled broadband mobile network' set out by the NGMN.
NGMN has defined the necessary use cases, measurements, procedures and open interfaces
to ensure that multivendor offerings are available. 3GPP has incorporated these aspirations
into useable standards.
10.2. Major Elements of LTE SON:
Although LTE SON is one of the major drivers for the generic SON technology, the basic
requirements remain the same whatever the technology to which it will be applied.
The main elements of SON include:
 Self Configuration: The aim for the self configuration aspects of LTE SON is
to enable new base stations to become essentially "Plug and Play" items. They
should need as little manual intervention in the configuration process as
possible. Not only will they be able to organize the RF aspects, but also
configure the backhaul as well.
 Self Optimization: Once the system has been set up, LTE SON capabilities
will enable the base station to optimize the operational characteristics to best
meet the needs of the overall network.
 Self-Healing: Another major feature of LTE SON is to enable the network to
self-heal. It will do this by changing the characteristics of the network to mask
the problem until it is fixed. For example, the boundaries of adjacent cells can
be increased by changing antenna directions and increasing power levels, etc.
Typically an LTE SON system is a software package with relevant options that is
incorporated into an operator's network.
10.3. LTE SON and 3GPP Standards:
LTE SON has been standardized in the various 3GPP standards. It was first incorporated into
3GPP release 8, and further functionality has been progressively added in the further
releases of the standards.

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One of the major aims of the 3GPP standardization is the support of SON features is to
ensure that multi-vendor network environments operate correctly with LTE SON. As a result,
3GPP has defined a set of LTE SON use cases and the associated SON functions.
As the functionality of LTE advances, the LTE SON standardization effectively tracks the LTE
network evolution stages. In this way SON will be applicable to the LTE networks.
11. Voice over LTE (VoLTE):
The Voice over LTE, VoLTE scheme was devised as a result of operators seeking a
standardized system for transferring traffic for voice over LTE.
Originally LTE was seen as a completely IP cellular system just for carrying data, and
operators would be able to carry voice either by reverting to 2G / 3G systems or by using
VoIP in one form or another.

From around 2014 Phones like this iPhone6 incorporated VoLTE as Standard

However it was seen that this would lead to fragmentation and incompatibility not allowing
all phones to communicate with each other and this would reduce voice traffic. Additionally
SMS services are still widely used, often proving a means of set-up for other applications.
Even though revenue from voice calls and SMS is falling, a format for voice over LTE and
messaging, it was as necessary to have a viable and standardized scheme to provide the
voice and SMS services to protect this revenue.
11.1. Options for LTE Voice:
When looking at the options for ways of carrying voice over the LTE system, a number of
possible solutions were investigated. A number of alliances were set up to promote different
ways of providing the service. A number of systems were prose as outlined below:
 CSFB, Circuit Switched Fall Back: The circuit switched fall-back, CSFB
option for providing voice over LTE has been standardized under 3GPP
specification 23.272. Essentially LTE CSFB uses a variety of processes and

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network elements to enable the circuit to fall back to the 2G or 3G connection

(GSM, UMTS, CDMA2000 1x) before a circuit switched call is initiated.
The specification also allows for SMS to be carried as this is essential for very
many set-up procedures for cellular telecommunications. To achieve this; the
handset uses an interface known as SGs which allows messages to be sent
over an LTE channel.
 SV-LTE - Simultaneous Voice LTE: SV-LTE allows packet switched LTE
services to run simultaneously with a circuit switched voice service. SV-LTE
facility provides the facilities of CSFB at the same time as running a packet
switched data service. It has the disadvantage that it requires two radios to
run at the same time within the handset which has a serious impact on
battery life which is already a major issue.
 VoLGA, Voice over LTE via GAN: The VoLGA standard was based on the
existing 3GPP Generic Access Network (GAN) standard, and the aim was to
enable LTE users to receive a consistent set of voice, SMS (and other circuit-
switched) services as they transition between GSM, UMTS and LTE access
networks. For mobile operators, the aim of VoLGA was to provide a low-cost
and low-risk approach for bringing their primary revenue generating services
(voice and SMS) onto the new LTE network deployments.
 One Voice / later called Voice over LTE, VoLTE: The Voice over LTE,
VoLTE scheme for providing voice over an LTE system utilizes IMS enabling it
to become part of a rich media solution. It was the option chosen by the GSMA
for use on LTE and is the standardized method for providing SMS and voice
over LTE.
11.2. VoLTE Formation:
Originally the concept for an SMS and voice system over LTE using IMS had been opposed by
many operators because of the complexity of IMS. They had seen it as far too expensive and
burdensome to introduce and maintain.
However, the One Voice profile for Voice over LTE was developed by collaboration between
over forty operators including: AT&T, Verizon Wireless, Nokia and Alcatel-Lucent.
At the 2010 GSMA Mobile World Congress, GSMA announced that they were supporting the
One Voice solution to provide Voice over LTE.
To achieve a workable system, a cut down variant of IMS was used. It was felt that his would
be acceptable to operators while still providing the functionality required.
The VoLTE system is based on the IMS MMTel concepts that were previously in existence. It
has been specified in the GSMA profile IR 92.

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11.3. VoLTE Basics:

VoLTE is an IMS-based specification. Adopting this approach, it enables the system to be
integrated with the suite of applications that will become available on LTE.

Reduced IMS network for VoLTE

In order that IMS was implemented in fashion that would be acceptable to operators, a cut
down version was defined. This not only reduced the number of entities required in the IMS
network, but it also simplified the interconnectivity - focusing on the elements required for
VoLTE.
As can be seen there are several entities within the reduced IMS network used for VoLTE:
 IP-CAN IP, Connectivity Access Network: This consists of the EUTRAN
and the MME.
 P-CSCF, Proxy Call State Control Function: The P-CSCF is the user to
network proxy. In this respect all SIP signaling to and from the user runs via
the P-CSCF whether in the home or a visited network.
 I-CSCF, Interrogating Call State Control Function: The I-CSCF is used
for forwarding an initial SIP request to the S-CSCF. When the initiator does not
know which S-CSCF should receive the request.
 S-CSCF, Serving Call State Control Function: The S-CSCF undertakes a
variety of actions within the overall system, and it has a number of interfaces
to enable it to communicate with other entities within the overall system.
 AS, Application Server: It is the application server that handles the voice
as an application.
 HSS, Home Subscriber Server: The IMS HSS or home subscriber server is
the main subscriber database used within IMS. The IMS HSS provides details
of the subscribers to the other entities within the IMS network, enabling users
to be granted access or not dependent upon their status.
The IMS calls for VoLTE are processed by the subscriber's S-CSCF in the home network. The
connection to the S-CSCF is via the P-CSCF. Dependent upon the network in use and overall

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location within a network, the P-CSCF will vary, and a key element in the enablement of
voice calling capability is the discovery of the P-CSCF.
An additional requirement for VoLTE enabled networks is to have a means to handing back
to circuit switched legacy networks in a seamless manner, while only having one
transmitting radio in the handset to preserve battery life. A system known as SRVCC - Single
Radio Voice Call Continuity is required for this.
11.4. VoLTE Codecs:
As with any digital voice system, a codec must be used. The VoLTE codec is that specified by
3GPP and is the adaptive multi-rate, AMR codec that is used in many other cellular systems
from GSM through UMTS and now to LTE. The AMR-wideband codec may also be used.
The used of the AMR codec for VoLTE also provides advantages in terms of interoperability
with legacy systems. No transcoders are needed as most legacy systems now are moving
towards the AMR codec.
In addition to this, support for dual tone multi-frequency, DTMF signaling is also mandatory
as this is widely used for many forms of signaling over analogue telephone lines.
11.5. VoLTE IP Versions:
With the update from IPv4 to IPv6, the version of IP used in any system is of importance.
VoLTE devices are required to operate in dual stack mode catering for both IPv4 and IPv6.
If the IMS application profile assigns and IPv6 address, then the device is required to prefer
that address and also to specifically use it during the P-CSCF discovery phase.
One of the issues with voice over IP type calls is the overhead resulting from the IP header.
To overcome this issue VoLTE requires that IP header compression is used along with RoHC,
Robust Header Compression, and protocol for voice data packet headers.
12. Single Radio Voice Call Continuity (SRVCC):
Single Radio Voice Call Continuity is a level of functionality that is required within VoLTE
systems to enable the packet domain calls on LTE to be handed over to legacy circuit
switched voice systems like GSM, UMTS and CDMA 1x in a seamless manner.
As LTE systems deploy VoLTE coverage will be limited and it is anticipated that it will be
many years before complete LTE coverage will be available.
As a result it is necessary for operators to have a system whereby this complicated
handover can be accommodated in a seamless fashion. This scheme needs to be in place as
soon as they start to deploy VoLTE.
12.1. What is SRVCC?
SRVCC is a scheme that enables Inter Radio Access Technology (Inter RAT) handover as well
as a handover from packet data to circuit switched data voice calls.

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By using SRVCC operators are able to make the handovers while maintaining existing quality
of service, QoS and also ensuring that call continuity meets the critical requirements for
emergency calls.
Some ideas for handover require that the handset has two active radios to facilitate
handover. This is not ideal because it requires additional circuitry to enable the two radios to
be active simultaneously and it also adds considerably to battery drain.
The SRVCC requires only a single active radio in the handset and requires some upgrades to
the supporting network infrastructure.
12.2. SRVCC Network Architecture:
The concept for SRVCC was originally included in the 3GPP specification Release 8. Since
then it has evolved to take account of the various issues and changing requirements. As a
result GSMA recommends that 3GPP Release 10 or later is implemented as this ensures a
considerably lower level of voice interruption and dropped calls.
The network upgrades required to the cellular network are needed in both the LTE network
and that of the legacy network or networks. SRVCC requires that software upgrades are
required to the MSS - Mobile Soft Switch subsystem in the legacy MSC - Mobile Switching
Centre, the IMS subsystem and the LTE/EPC subsystem. No upgrades are required for the
radio access network of the legacy system, meaning that the majority of the legacy system
remains unaffected.
The upgrades required for the MSC are normally relatively easy to manage. The MSC is
normally centrally located and not dispersed around the network, and this makes upgrades
easier to manage. If they are not easily accessible then a new dedicated MSC can be used
that has been upgraded to handles the SRVCC requirements.
12.3. How SRVCC Works:
The SRVCC implementation controls the transfer of calls in both directions.
12.4. LTE to Legacy Network Handover:
Handover from LTE to the legacy network is required when the user moves out of the LTE
coverage area. Using SRVCC, the handover is undertaken in two stages.
 Radio Access Technology transfer: The handover for the radio access
network and this is a well-established protocol that is in use for transfers from
3G to 2G for example.
 Session transfer: The session transfer is the new element that is required
for SRVCC. It is required to move the access control and voice media
anchoring from the Evolved Packet Core, EPC of the packet switched LTE
network to the legacy circuit switched network.
During the handover process the CSCF within the IMS architecture maintains the control of
the whole operation.

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Voice Handover using SRVCC on LTE

The SRVCC handover process takes place in a number of steps:

1. The handover process is initiated by a request for session transfer from the
IMS CSCF.
2. The IMS CSCF responds simultaneously with two commands, one to the LTE
network, and the other to the legacy network.
3. the LTE network receives a radio Access Network handover execution
command through the MME and LTE RAN. This instructs the user device to
prepare to move to a circuit switched network for the voice call.
4. The destination legacy circuit switched network receives a session transfer
response preparing it to accept the call from the LTE network.
5. After all the commands have been executed and acknowledged the call is
switched to the legacy network with the IMS CSCF still in control of the call.
12.5. Legacy Network to LTE:
When returning a call to the LTE network much of the same functionality is again used. To
ensure the VoLTE device is able to return to the LTE RAN from the legacy RAN, there are two
options the legacy RAN can implement to provide a swift and effective return:
 Allow LTE information to be broadcast on the legacy RAN so the LTE device is
able to perform the cell reselection more easily.
 Simultaneously release the connection to the user device and redirect it to the
LTE RAN.

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12.6. SRVCC Interruption Performance:

One of the key issues with VoLTE and SRVCC is the interruption time when handing over
from an LTE RAN to a legacy RAN.
The key methodology behind reducing the time is to simultaneous performing the
redirections of RAN and session. In this way the user experience is maintained and the
actual interruption time is not unduly noticeable.
It has been found that the session redirection is the faster of the two handovers, and
therefore it is necessary for the overall handover methodology to accommodate the fact that
there is difference between the two.
13. LTE-M:
The Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine to Machine (M2M) communications are growing
rapidly.
LTE cellular system is well placed to carry a lot of the traffic for machine to machine
communications.
The issue is that LTE is a complex system capable of carrying high data rates.
To overcome this issue a "variant" of LTE, often referred to as LTE-M has been developed for
LTE M2M communications.
13.1. LTE-M Key Issues:
There are several requirements for LTE M2M applications if the cellular system is to be
viable in these scenarios:
 Wide spectrum of devices: Any LTE machine to machine system must be
able to support a wide variety of different types of devices. These may range
from smart meters to vending machines and automotive fleet management to
security and medical devices. These different devices have many differing
requirements, so any LTE-M system needs to be able to be flexible.
 Low cost of devices: Most M2M devices need to be small and fit into
equipment that is very cost sensitive. With many low cost M2M systems
already available, LTE-M needs to provide the benefits of a cellular system,
but at low cost.
 Long Battery Life: Many M2M devices will need to be left unattended for
long periods of time in areas where there may be no power supply.
Maintaining batteries is a costly business and therefore any devices should be
able to have a time between battery changes of up to ten years. This means
that the LTE-M system must be capable of draining very little battery power.
 Enhanced Coverage: LTE-M applications will need to operate within a
variety of locations - not just where reception is good. They will need to
operate within buildings, often in positions where there is little access and

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where reception may be poor. Accordingly LTE-M must be able to operate

under all conditions.
 Large Volumes - Low Data Rates: As it is anticipated that volumes of
remote devices will be enormous, the LTE-M must be structured so that the
networks are be able to accommodate vast numbers of connected devices
that may only require small amounts of data to be carried, often in short
peaks but with low data rates.
13.2. Release 12 Updates for LTE-M:
A number of updates were introduced in 3GPP Release 12 to accommodate LTE-M
requirements.
These updates mean that the cost of a low cost M2M modem could be 40 to 50% that of a
regular LTE devices, making them comparable with EGPRS ones.
To accommodate these requirements a new UE category has been implemented LTE
Category 0. These categories define the broad capabilities of the device so that the base
station is able to communicate properly.
These low cost LTE-M, M2M modems have limited capability and are:
 Antennae: There is the capability for only one receive antenna compared to
two receive antennas for other device categories.
 Transport Block Size: There is a restriction on the transport block size.
These low cost LTE-M devices are allowed to send or receive up to 1000 bits of
unicast data per sub-frame. This reduces the maximum data rate to 1 Mbps in
both the uplink and the downlink.
 Duplex: Half duplex FDD devices are supported as an optional feature; this
provides cost savings because it enables RF switches and duplexers that are
needed for the full performance modems to be removed. It also means there
is no need for a second phase locked loop for the frequency conversion,
although having only one PLL means that switching times between receive
and transmit are longer.
13.3. LTE-M Features Planned for Release 13:
There are several features that are being proposed and prepared for the next release of the
3GPP standards in terms of LTE M2M capabilities. These include some of the following
capabilities:
 Reduce bandwidth to 1.4 MHz for uplink and downlink.
 Reduce transmit power to 20dBm.
 Reduce support for downlink transmission modes.
 Relax the requirements that require high levels of processing, e.g. downlink
modulation scheme and reduce downlink HARQ timeline.

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With a number of cellular style M2M wireless communication systems like LoRa and SIGFOX
being deployed, LTE needs its own M2M capability to ensure that it is able to compete with
these growing standards. Otherwise LTE may not be suitable for carrying this form of low
data rate date from devices that require long battery life, etc. LTE-M is the cellular
operators' answer to this.
14. LTE-U (LTE-Unlicensed) / LAA (License Assisted Access):
LTE networks are carrying an increasing amount of data. Although cells can be made smaller
to help accommodate this, it is not the complete solution and more spectrum is needed.
One approach is to use unlicensed spectrum alongside the licensed bands. Known in 3GPP
as LTE-LAA - LTE License Assisted Access or more generally as LTE U - LTE Unlicensed, it
enables access to unlicensed spectrum especially in the 5GHz ISM band.
14.1. LTE-U Background:
There is a considerable amount of unlicensed spectrum available around the globe. These
bands are used globally to provide unlicensed access for short range radio transmissions.
These bands, called ISM - Industrial, Scientific and Medical bands are allocated in different
parts of the spectrum and are used for a wide variety of applications including microwave
ovens, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and much more.
The frequency band of most interest for LTE-U / LTE-LAA is the 5GHz band. Here there are
several hundred MHz of spectrum bandwidth available, although the exact bands available
depend upon the country in question.

5GHz Bands for LTE-U / LTE-LAA

In addition to the basic frequency limits, the use of the 5GHz bands for applications such as
LTE-U or LTE-LAA carries some regulatory requirements.
One of the main requirements for access to these frequencies is that of being able to coexist
with other users of the band - a method of Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) or Listen Before
Talk (LBT) is required. This often means that instantaneous access may not always be
available when LTE-U is being implemented.

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Another requirement is that there are different power levels allowed dependent upon the
country and the area of the band being used. Typically between 5150 and 5350 MHz there is
a maximum power limit of 200 mW and operation is restricted to indoor use only, and the
upper frequencies often allow power levels up to 1 W.
14.2. LTE-U / LTE-LAA Basics:
The use of LTE-U / LTE-LAA was first introduced in Release 13 of the 3GPP standards.
Essentially, LTE-U is built upon the carrier aggregation capability of LTE-Advanced that has
been deployed since around 2013. Essentially Carrier aggregation seeks to increase the
overall bandwidth available to a UE by enabling it to use more than one channel either in the
same band or within another band.
There are several ways in which LTE-U can be deployed:
 Downlink Only: This is the most basic form of LTE-U and it is similar in
approach to some of the first LTE carrier aggregation deployments. In this the
primary cell link is always located in the licensed spectrum bands.

Also when operating in this mode, the LTE eNodeB performs most of the
necessary operations to ensure reliable operation is maintained and
interference is not caused to other users by ensuring the channel is free.
 Uplink and Downlink: Full TDD LTE-U operation with the user equipment
having an uplink and downlink connection in the unlicensed spectrum requires
the inclusion of more features.

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 FDD / TDD Aggregation: LTE-CA allows the use of carrier aggregation

mixes between FDD and TDD. This provides for much greater levels of
flexibility when selecting the band to be used with in unlicensed spectrum for
LTE-LAA operation.
LTE-U relies on the existing core network for the backhaul, and other capabilities like
security and authentication. As such no changes are needed to the core network. Some
changes are needed to the base station so that it can accommodate the new frequencies
and also incorporate the capabilities required to ensure proper sharing of the unlicensed
frequencies. In addition to this, the handsets or UEs will need to have the new LTE-U / LTE-
LAA capability incorporated into them so they can access LTE on these additional
frequencies.
14.3. LTE-U / Wi-Fi Coexistence:
One of the great fears that many have is that the use of LTE-U will swamp the 5GHz
unlicensed band and that Wi-Fi using these frequencies will suffer along with other users.
The LTE-U system is being designed to overcome this issue and using a Listen Before
Transmit solution, all users should be able to coexist without any undue levels of
interference.
There will be cases where LTE-U operation and Wi-Fi use different channels and under these
circumstances there will be only minimal levels of interference.
It is also possible to run LTE-U and Wi-Fi on the same channel. Under these circumstances
both are able to operate, although with a lower data throughput. It is also possible to place a
"fairness" algorithm into the eNodeB to ensure that the Wi-Fi signal is not unduly degraded
and is still able to support a good data thro0ughput.

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15. LTE Security:

LTE security is an issue that is of paramount importance. It is necessary to ensure that LTE
security measures provide the level of security required without impacting the user as this
could drive users away.
Nevertheless with the level of sophistication of security attacks growing, it is necessary to
ensure that LTE security allows users to operate freely and without fear of attack from
hackers.
Additionally the network must also be organized in such a way that it is secure against a
variety of attacks.
15.1. Security Basics:
When developing the LTE security elements there were several main requirements that were
born in mind:
 LTE security had to provide at least the same level of security that was
provided by 3G services.
 The LTE security measures should not affect user convenience.
 The LTE security measures taken should provide defense from attacks from
the Internet.
 The security functions provided by LTE should not affect the transition from
existing 3G services to LTE.
 The USIM currently used for 3G services should still be used.
To ensure these requirements for LTE security are met, it has been necessary to add further
measures into all areas of the system from the UE through to the core network.
The main changes that have been required to implement the required level of LTE security
are summarized below:
 A new hierarchical key system has been introduced in which keys can be
changed for different purposes.
 The LTE security functions for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS) and Access
Stratum (AS) have been separated. The NAS functions are those functions for
which the processing is accomplished between the core network and the
mobile terminal or UE. The AS functions encompass the communications
between the network edge, i.e. the Evolved Node B (eNB) and the UE.
 The concept of forward security has been introduced for LTE security.
 LTE security functions have been introduced between the existing 3G network
and the LTE network.
15.2. UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM):
One of the key elements within the security of GSM, UMTS and now LTE was the concept of
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). This card carried the identity of the subscriber in an

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encrypted fashion and this could allow the subscriber to keep their identity while
transferring or upgrading phones.
With the transition from 2G - GSM to 3G - UMTS, the idea of the SIM was upgraded and a
UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) was used. This gave more functionality had a larger
memory etc.
For LTE; only the USIM may be used - the older SIM cards are not compatible and may not be
used.
16. Case Study: LTE in Pakistan:

16.1. Cellular Licenses in Pakistan:

Mobile Operator Name Brand Name

Pakistan Mobile Communications (Private) Limited (PMCL) MOBILINK
CMPak Limited ZONG
Telenor Pakistan (Private) Limited TELENOR
Warid Telecom (Private) Limited WARID
Pakistan Telecommunication Mobile Limited (PTML) UFONE
Special Communications Organization (AJ&K and GB) SCOM

16.2. 3G and 4G Growth (June 2015):

3G 3G Covered 4G 4G Covered
Operator
Subscribers Cities Subscribers Cities
ZONG 3.5 Million 35 63000 7
Mobilink 3.2 Million 34 - -

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 4G – LTE

Telenor 3.8 Million 71 - -

Ufone 2.5 Million 27 - -
Warid - - 80000 7

16.3. License Neutrality & Spectrum Consolidation Reuse:

The frequencies that are currently being used in Pakistan for the deployment of GSM mobile
telecommunication systems are 900 MHz and 1800 MHz. All current mobile spectrums given
out are governed by technology neutral licensing regime which means that operator can
deploy any technology as they feel like in the allocated spectrum. While, GSM (Global
System for Mobile Communication) technology is currently deployed in Pakistan on 900 MHz
and 1800 MHz spectrums but for up-gradation there are other factors that needs to be seen
such as device eco system, painless shifting of existing customer base to vacate the
spectrum for new technology, network up-gradation itself etc., in addition to regulatory
approvals, some of these are covered in the later part of this report.
The Mobile Cellular Policy published by MoITT in January 2004 available on the Ministry of IT
& Telecom’s web site, the technology neutrality is indicated in section-5 (article 5.1). As
written, the policy states, “The PTA will issue new national, technology neutral, Mobile
Cellular licenses for 15 years tenure”. The renewal clause 5.4 of the same document further
cements it resolve for the nature of the licenses which states “The Mobile Cellular License
under this policy will replace the existing licenses as soon as possible or at least upon expiry
of the current licenses”, indicating all mobile cellular operators would have the same license
terms including technology neutrality.
Therefore, Warid could possibly deploy LTE, if it is wishes to take that route under current
licensing regime fulfilling certain regulatory permissions that are probably concerned more
on roll-out, QoS etc., which they need to coordinate with the PTA. The mobile licenses
awarded for GSM in Pakistan and there renewals are shown in the figure. The most recent is
the renewal of Ufone license for a further period of 15 year. Pakistan license renewal regime
being long term requires it to be technology neutral so that the best of the breed technology
and services are made available to the consumer, which is as a very important element. The
stability in making renewals over decades provides continuity establishing a very conducive
business environment, which needs to be appreciated.

Pre - NGSMA (New GSM Auction) Post - NGSMA (New GSM Auction)

900 MHz 1800 MHz 2100 MHz 1800 MHz

GSM / GPRS / GSM / GPRS / WCDMA (UMTS) / HSPA / LTE

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EDGE EDGE HSPA+)

ZONG 7.6 6.0 10.0 10.0

Mobilink 7.6 6.0 10.0 -

Telenor 4.8 8.8 5.0 -

Ufone 7.6 6.0 5.0 -

Warid 4.8 8.8 - -

The table shows the frequency allocation of the operators before and after auctioning
process. As additional bandwidth is now allotted to the operators which is in lots of 5MHz
and 10 MHz in 2100 MHz spectrum and 10 MHz bandwidth in 1800 MHz spectrum, operators
are now more capable of deploying new technologies like UMTS and LTE with or without
spectrum consolidation to offer better user experience. According to PTA’s Information
Memorandum published on 17th March 2014 section 2.2.1 “The spectrum to be auctioned
will give the successful Operator a License to build, own and operate a technology-neutral
network and offer licensed services to consumers only for the Next Generation Mobile
Services for which it is permitted”. The guiding principal on technology is the QoS obligation
rather than specific mentioning whether an operator should deploy WCDMA/HSUPA/ HSDPA/
HSPA+/LTE etc., which makes the NGSMA award also technology neutral. These QoS
obligations are provided both in the NGSMA IM as well in the draft license template to be
issued to spectrum winners. Another area to be addressed is the coverage obligations which
are different for the NGSMA and the earlier issued licenses.
While, regulatory aspect and approval is the first thing that an operator must have
(spectrum neutrality varies from country to country but most licenses around the world have
technology neutral regime specially that have long term mobile license given out) the
second most important aspect is to have harmonized bands for any technology. This
essentially means that how much or which is the preferred band for technology deployment.
In today’s world technologies that are developed specifically to a country and does not have
a large deployment base, tends to die out because of unviable and unfavorable eco system.
A harmonized frequency band brings with it the economies of scale, enables a large variety
of vendors and ensures competition and cost effectiveness both for infrastructure and
devices.
The table highlights the technology that has been given out to the operators in Pakistan
which can be deployed or is most suited to be deployed on their respective frequency
spectrum. Since, UMTS & its evolved version is widely deployed in 2100 MHz and also in 900
MHz therefore it remains the preferred spectrum for 3G, whereas for LTE the most favorite

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spectrum band remains 1800 MHz and some deployments are also seen in 2100 MHz and
900 MHz (although they remain limited in number-this is for three mobile spectrum in
Pakistan. Other LTE bands include 700/800 MHz and 2600 MHz).
It is for this reason of deployments that the ECO system for 3G remains quite mature and
favorable in 2100 MHz and for LTE in 1800 MHz for Pakistan.
16.4. Technology Roadmap:
The radio networks are different when we talk about data rates or user experience with that
of fixed line networks. In fixed line networks, an operator commits the data rates which can
be achieved without any limitation to the number of users currently accessing the network.
Whereas in the case of wireless networks; channel is being shared between all the users. So
as the number of users increases, the peak data gets divided between the users. For
example, in case of Release 8 WCDMA network, the peak throughput is around 42 Mbps
which is available to a single user accessing the network. When an extra user is added to
the network, this peak throughput will be equally divided by the network scheduler among
the two users if they are in the same RF conditions and using the same modulation scheme.
From a network operator prospective, it is important to take care of network resources by
providing data packages which should be limited to specific data rates to avoid congestion
or overloading the networks. Capping data bundles such as 2 Mbps or 4 Mbps should be
introduced so the network overall data capacity can be better utilized among the users. Also
data bundles should be provided with limited download data such as 1GB, 2GB, 4GB etc., or
fair usage packages instead of unlimited bundles.
LTE-Advanced” and “Wireless MAN-Advanced” are the official designation of IMT-Advanced,
qualifying them as true 4G technologies-Operators follow a different convention of 4G
definition that essentially regard LTE and its releases as 4G technologies
Third Generation technology standard was developed in the late 1990s and early
deployments were seen in the early and mid-2000. The purpose behind was to improve
speed and data capabilities. 3G standard was defined by the Third Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP) and later standardized by the ITU-T. Popularly, known as the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS), the 3G system is based on Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
that operates in minimum of 5 MHz bandwidth and can produce download data rates of
typically 384 kbps under normal conditions and up to 2 Mbps in some instances.
After the release of WCDMA (Release 99) there was need of more data throughput, as the
smart phones started to evolve with more data oriented application over passage of time.
So, in the light of the demand of higher data rate 3G standards were enhanced to offer
extended data speed and capacity.
Users experience will be much lower data rates than peak rates being dependent on the
network optimization, traffic/users, devices category etc.

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The newer releases of WCDMA have added high speed packet access (HSPA) that use higher
level 64QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) to get speeds up to 21 or 42 Mbps downlink
(DL) and up to 5.7 and/or 11 Mbps uplink (UL). A roadmap of 3G (WCDMA) technology and
standards has been set from Release 99 to Release 9 and beyond but the current
commercial deployments are till Release 8. The various commercially deployed releases and
corresponding DL and UL are as provided in the figure. The user shall experience much
lesser data rates that are dependent on the network optimization, traffic/users, devices
category etc.
Currently, the average speed per user of most LTE networks are limited to 6 Mbps to 20
Mbps which cannot be termed as true 4G networks. ITU which is the standardization body
defines 4G networks as technology that offers download speeds of 100 Mbps on mobile
devices or 1 Gbps on fixed wireless connection. Wireless carriers all over the world have
turned 4G into marketing term, although the proper definition of 4G defined earlier as the
peak data rate that must be at least 100 Mbps for a technology to be called 4G.

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In October 2010, ITU further released a statement in Geneva, Switzerland “ITU’s Radio
communication Sector (ITU-R) has completed the assessment of six candidate submissions
for the global 4G mobile wireless broadband technology, otherwise known as IMT-Advanced.
Harmonization among these proposals has resulted in two technologies, “LTE-Advanced”
and “Wireless MAN-Advanced” being accorded the official designation of IMT-Advanced,
qualifying them as true 4G technologies. Operators follow a different convention calling LTE,
TD-LTE, LTE-Adv and WiMAX 2 as 4G technologies.
LTE uses a completely different radio technology. Instead of wideband CDMA, it uses
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and OFDM access. OFDMA modulation
technique divides a channel usually 5, 10 or 20 MHz wide into smaller sub-channels. The
data is divided into slower streams that modulate the subcarriers with one of several
modulation schemes like QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM.

LTE also defines multiple input multiple output (MIMO) operation that uses several
transmitter-receiver-antennae. The data stream is divided between the antennae to boost
speed and to make the link more reliable. Using OFDM with higher order modulation and
MIMO enables LTE deliver data at a rate to 100 Mbps downstream and 50 Mbps upstream
under the best conditions.

The spectrum in LTE technology is more flexible as compared to UMTS. The figure illustrates
the spectrum flexibility in LTE. There are two techniques of MIMO in 4G, one is 2x2 MIMO

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 4G – LTE

which uses two antenna’s for forward link transmission and the other is 4x4 MIMO which
uses four antennas.

16.5. Expected Date Rates:

Those operators who have 5 MHz bandwidth such as Ufone and Telenor can implement
Release 7 (HSPA+) of UMTS Technology which can achieve a peak data rate of 21 Mbps (64
QAM) for downlink and 11 Mbps (16 QAM) for Uplink, whereas operators who have invested
more in the spectrum and have 10 MHz of bandwidth can do carrier aggregation to
implement Release 8 (HSPA+) which can provide them with a peak data rate of 42 Mbps in
downlink and 11 Mbps in uplink. Therefore, operators such as Zong and Mobilink will have
definite technical advantage in user experience over their competitors given that they have
similar networks and subscribers for the sake of comparison.
The question arises whether Release 9 of UMTS can also be implemented with 10 MHz
bandwidth? , the answer to this is ‘Yes’ but there is almost no eco-system at present to
support Release 9. Therefore, beyond Release 8 UMTS the focus will or has already shifted
towards LTE unless a viable eco system for Release 9 is established. It is important to note
that the spectral efficiency of 10 MHz UMTS in Release 9 is more than 10 MHz for 2x2 MIMO
LTE.
The figure below compare the data rates of UMTS and LTE for the amount of spectrum and
carriers that has been either recently acquired by operators as a result of the NGSMA or due
to consolidation/re-allocation.

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 4G – LTE

16.6. Device Availability and Compatibility:

As UMTS and LTE services are being rolled out in Pakistan there are few things that should
be kept in mind from user’s perspective, most important being availability of compatible
devices. Devices that are presently available in Pakistani market are mostly GSM and to
certain extent UMTS supported. Devices that support LTE are also available but they are
very few in numbers and are quite expensive. Smart phones that are available in the market
these days support 2x2 MIMO LTE technology. Whereas for 4x4 MIMO LTE technology there
are no handsets but only dongles and routers that are available commercially.
The table shows the network, frequency and the data rates which are the main features that
needed to be checked from a user prospective. These features enable users to avail the
maximum data rates from a network.

16.7. Operators Strategy:

The additional bandwidth that the operators have acquired in the NGSMA will enable them to
deploy newer technologies. Current telecom scenario in Pakistan suggest that the operators

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that obtained new bandwidth in 2100 MHz spectrum will deploy a version of WCDMA
preferably HSPA+ (or 3G as they call it) whereas in the newly acquired spectrum bandwidth
of 10 MHz in 1800 MHz it will deploy LTE (4G as they prefer to call).
Historically GSM mobile operators in Pakistan were operating in 900 MHz and 1800 MHz
spectrum. Mobilink, Ufone and Zong were first to deploy networks in Pakistan and they were
allocated 7.6 MHz bandwidth in 900 MHz spectrum and 6 MHz bandwidth in 1800 MHz
spectrum, while Telenor and Warid came later and were allocated 4.8 MHz in the 900 MHz
spectrum. To compensate for the less bandwidth allotted in 900 MHz, these two operators
were allotted bandwidth of 8.8 MHz in 1800 MHz spectrum.
As a result of the NGSMA, Zong now has a total bandwidth of 33.6 MHz, while Mobilink holds
23.6 MHz and Telenor, Ufone and Warid 18.6 MHz, 18.6 MHz and 13.6 MHz respectively. The
additional spectrum holds interesting options for each operator which will be discussed in
this chapter.
16.7.1. ZONG – Flexing Muscles:
Zong has the lowest subscriber base amongst the four successful bidders of the NGSMA, but
it currently has the largest pool of spectrum at its disposal, thus giving a very strong signal
to the market that it has aggressive plans for the market. It is currently utilizing 900 MHz
and 1800 MHz spectrum for GSM voice and GPRS/EDGE services. As Zong has acquired 10
MHz in 2100 MHz, it will be able to deploy dual carrier i.e. 2 carriers of 5 MHz. The dual
carrier deployment will help in providing more capacity and better data services than single
carrier. Zong shall be able to launch Release 8 of UMTS technology that provides carrier
aggregation enabling peak data rates of up to 42 Mbps in downlink and 11 Mbps in uplink.
In the 1800 MHz spectrum, Zong can also launch its LTE services either on 10 MHz that it
recently acquire 15 MHz (by adding previously allotted 5 MHz chunk from existing 1800 MHz
spectrum used for GSM voice/data) which can provide data rates around 110 Mbps with 2x2
MIMO in downlink, which would be a true 4G network as per ITU definition. Zong can also
implement 4x4 MIMO technology in lesser spectrum i.e. 10 MHz providing peak data rate of
147 Mbps which can be used to support provide only data dongles packages to its
customers.
If anytime in future, Zong feels it should swap its existing GSM (2G) network completely,
they can also launch UMTS in 900 MHz which is already used in many countries around the
world and have a friendly eco system. However, at this point Zong’s priority would be to
launch and aggressively roll-out its UMTS network and may be have some hotspots also of
LTE in the short term fulfilling the roll-out obligations of the license which are quite relaxed
for LTE and for marketing purpose.
16.7.2. Mobilink – Maintaining Lead:

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Mobilink is providing its GSM and GPRS/EDGE services on 900 MHz and 1800 MHz spectrum.
The newly acquired spectrum by Mobilink in 2100 MHz will most likely be used for UMTS
services. Like Zong, Mobilink can launch dual carrier UMTS services i.e. 2 carriers of 5 MHz
each, as it also has 10 MHz in 2100 MHz spectrum. The dual carrier deployment in 2100 MHz
will help in providing more capacity and better data rates. Mobilink will also be able to
launch Release 8 of UMTS technology that provides carrier aggregation enabling peak data
rates of up to 42 Mbps in downlink and 11 Mbps in uplink.
Mobilink also has an option that it can use its 5 MHz bandwidth of 1800 MHz spectrum for
the deployment of LTE by shifting its voice services to UMTS 2100 MHz spectrum. In that
case, average data throughputs for UMTS will be lower.
Mobilink priority would be to launch and aggressively roll-out its UMTS network and maintain
its market position for the next few years. It may not be interested or have an ambition to
have an LTE network in the short to medium term.
16.7.3. Telenor – Tough Times Ahead:
Telenor enjoys a very strong brand position and the market expected; it may be more
aggressive to pursue large additional spectrum for data play. Similar to Zong and Mobilink,
Telenor is providing GSM and GPRS/EDGE services on 900 MHz and 1800 MHz spectrum. The
variance is in the spectrum 11 blocks between these operators, Zong and Mobilink has 7.6
MHz in 900 MHz and 6 MHz in 1800 MHz spectrum whereas Telenor has lesser bandwidth in
900 MHz spectrum i.e. 4.8 MHz but has more bandwidth of 8.8 MHz in 1800 MHz spectrum.
Since, Telenor has 5 MHz in 2100 MHz spectrum it cannot use this for providing dual-carrier
services as Zong and Mobilink but Telenor will be able to launch Release 7 of UMTS
technology which provides peak data rates of 21 Mbps in downlink and 11 Mbps in uplink.
Also it may have an option to deploy LTE in the existing 1800 MHz spectrum but this would
be very challenging because of the fact that Telenor has an existing 35 million customer
base and it would not be feasible to accommodate them on its other spectrum blocks for
voice.
The possibilities and viability to consolidate their spectrum/network and deployment of both
LTE as well UMTS could have been enormous if any of these entities would have acquired
additional spectrum in 1800 MHz. If not, Telenor may have to face tough times in its
ambition to continue lead the market when it comes to providing quality service.
16.7.4. Ufone – Missing Target:
Ufone being Government of Pakistan and also part of the PTCL family that also has
ambitious plans for data was perhaps the only upset for the market. However, this probably
is for reason of the technical default made by their auction team. They were although the
aspirants for the 2nd 10 MHz block of 1800 MHz but ended up with only 5 MHz in 2100 MHz
instead of much bigger spectrum.

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While, Ufone may not have done very well at the auction but there post auction 3G promo
that have a flavor of humor has taken a definite lead over it competitors and amused the
viewers, while conveying the message loud and clear about 3G data capability .
Currently, Ufone also is providing GSM and GPRS/EDGE services on 900 MHz and 1800 MHz
spectrum. The new spectrum block acquired by Ufone in 2100 MHz will be used for UMTS
services. Ufone has 5 MHz in 2100 MHz spectrum and will be able to launch Release 7 of
UMTS technology which provides peak data rates around 21 Mbps in downlink and 11 Mbps
in uplink as Telenor.
As already discussed, Ufone is the only other operator besides Zong that has applied for the
1800 MHz in the recently concluded NGSMA auction. However, it was not able to acquire the
same as it was pegged with getting 10 MHz of spectrum in 2100 MHz and was technically
not qualified to get 1800 MHz. They would possibly be either looking at the unsold spectrum
of 850 MHz or 1800 MHz that does not fall within the 18 month moratorium or the possible
buy-out of Warid that it was engaged with prior to the NGSMA.
16.7.5. Warid – Down but not Out:
Warid did not participate in the NGSMA and was not able to secure any new spectrum in
either 2100 MHz or 1800 MHz spectrum. However, it came up with a very interesting
advertisement immediately after the auction that it is about to launch LTE services without
getting into the NGSMA auction. We have discussed this issue in detail under the license
neutrality section. Therefore, will restrict our discussion here on technical and network
aspects only.
Since, Warid has around 12 million and its spectrum is not fully utilized, therefore technically
it may be able to launch LTE technology using its existing 1800 MHz spectrum. As we have
also touched upon the issue on how much spectrum is needed for LTE deployment in the
earlier section (LTE carriers can be in the following configurations 1.4 MHz, 3 MHz, 5 MHz, 10
MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz) therefore Warid could possibly deploy LTE on 5 MHz bandwidth
which provide data rates around 37 Mbps using 2x2 MIMO or 73 Mbps using 4x4 MIMO (for
dongles only).
The possible launch of LTE by Warid will not only help in arresting churn but could add value
in case it decides to pursue its earlier intention of selling its shares to other operators/new
comer maintaining its asset value.

16.8. Investment:
Migration path of mobile networks is an important aspect to consider before deploying a new
technology. As discussed earlier, the existing deployed networks in Pakistan are all GSM and
have data paths till GPRS and EDGE. After the NGSMA, due to addition of new frequencies in

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 4G – LTE

2100 MHz and 1800 MHz, operators that have appropriate amount of spectrum are now able
to deploy WCDMA and LTE networks.
The change in the network comes with additional investment to be done in certain
components. In case of migration from GSM to UMTS, operators will be able to reuse their
core network part that includes network subsystem and other networks, which are the same
for GSM and UMTS networks. For the access part which is also known as wireless part,
operators will have to invest in both the base stations subsystem which is known as NodeB’s
(in GSM it is called BTS) and the antennae which should be able to communicate on 2100
MHz.

Also, backhaul (in general term it is the link from tower to the base) will have to be
upgraded which is quite important. The backhaul up-gradation is particularly going to be
very expensive and challenging to be upgraded for rural or mountainous regions. The
operators will have to find innovative solutions like wideband radios, LEO Satellites instead
of GEO that offer extra capacities in fulfilling this requirement. The deployment of NodeB’s
from network planning point of view will be also different from GSM base stations as UMTS
network will be operating on higher frequencies which will require additional sites.
Investment will also be required in operator’s core part as most of the networks already
deployed are 3G ready. This shall require license updates to provide new releases like
Release 7 and Release 8 of WCDMA and are largely dependent on the manufacturer.
The deployment of LTE will be a challenging task tough for the mobile operators, as the
entire chain of the system will either have to be replaced or require major changes.
LTE is an IP based system and the main emphasis is on data services. The bigger challenge
is not on the operator side but on the consumer side that relates to LTE devices specially
because voice (VoLTE) functionality is not yet supported in existing smart phones. In order

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to support voice services on LTE network it must fall back on UMTS or GSM networks. One of
the advantages of LTE network is the transition (handovers to other radio access
technologies) from LTE technology to legacy networks which include going directly onto GSM
without having to go through UMTS.

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