UBJECT:

S BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION SKILLS AND
OFFICE PRACTICE
SUBJECT CODE: GST 05207
COURSE: DA 1
LECTURER: NNUNDUMA E S
What is communication?
Communication refers to the
effective transmission of message
from one person or body of persons
to another.
Or
Communication is the transactional
process that involves an exchange
of ideas, information, feelings,

1
attitudes or beliefs and
impressions.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
There are two main types of
communication; verbal and non-
verbal communication.
i. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal is the kind of
communication where message is
coded and transmitted using
words whether written or spoken
(Kariuki and Munga, 2011).
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is the process
of expressing information or ideas
by words of mouth. Examples of
oral communication include: face-
2
to-face conversations, telephone
conversations, discussions that
take place at business meetings,
presentations at business
meetings, classroom lectures and
commencement speech given at a
graduation ceremony etc.
With advances in technology, new
forms of oral communication
continue to develop. Video Phones
and Video Conferences combine
audio and video so that workers in
distant locations can both see and
speak with each other. Other
modern forms of oral
communication include Podcasts
(audio clips that you can access on
the Internet) and Voiceover

3
Internet Protocol (VoIP), which
allows callers to communicate over
the Internet and avoid telephone
charges. Skype is an example of
VoIP.
Advantages of Oral
Communication
 It brings quick feedback.
 It saves time and resources.
 It is a powerful means of
persuasion.
 It offers a chance for
clarification.
 There is also more flexibility in
oral communication; you can
discuss different aspects of an
issue and make decisions more
quickly than you can in writing.
4
 Talking things over is often the
best way to settle
disagreements or
misunderstandings.
 Oral communication is a great
way to promote employee
morale and maintain energy and
enthusiasm within a team.
Disadvantages of Oral
Communication
 It does not have legal validity.
 It has no future reference unless
recorded.
 It is not easy across long
distances unless participants
employ technological devices.
 Speakers can easily deviate
from the main points.
5
 Facial expressions might be
misinterpreted.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication involves
that type of communication that
makes use of the written word.
Examples of written
communications generally used
include: Email, Internet websites,
Letters, Proposals, Telegrams,
Faxes, Postcards, Contracts,
Advertisements, Brochures and
News releases.
Advantages of Written
Communication

6
 Messages can be edited and
revised many times before sent
to the receiver.
 Written proof - provides written
proof in case of a dispute.
 It provides permanent record of
the communication, hence
useful for future reference.
 It gives enough time to the
receiver to think, understand
and act.
 It is suitable for formal
communication.
 It can save time when many
people must be contacted.
Disadvantages of Written
Communication

7
 It can be permanently lost if not
kept well.
 It has a great chance of leakage
of the content.
 It can be difficult to be
understood by the receiver if
he/she does not understand the
language used.
 It is expensive especially in
terms of stationery, energy, time
etc.
 It requires great skills and
competencies in language and
vocabulary use.
 Quick clarification is not
available because the receiver
relies on written word and not
the writer.

8
 A written document can be used
as evidence against the writer.
NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication includes
all unwritten and unspoken
messages, both intentional and
unintentional, Kariuki and Munga
(2011).
Types of Non-verbal
Communication
According to Fujishin, (2009:57)
there are four categories of non-
verbal communication; these
include-body movement,
paralanguage, personal

9
presentation and proxemics as
follow:
a) Body movements (Kinesics); this
involves all the ways people use
their bodies to communicate or
enhance their body movement.
Body movement includes
postures (the way you position
and move your body), gestures
(movement of the hands, fingers
or arms), facial expressions (the
use of facial muscles to
communicate; mouth,
cheeks,eyes, eyelids, eyebrows,
forehead, nose and chin) and
eye contact.
b) Paralanguage. The voice is a
significant medium of nonverbal
10
 communication. Paralanguage is
how we speak. Aside from the
actual words or content of our
messages, paralanguage
includes pitch (highness or
lowness of our voice), volume
(softness or loudness of our
voice), rate (how fast or slow we
speak) etc.
c) Personal Presentation; this
includes clothing, grooming, and
touching behaviour.
 Clothing; our clothing is one
of the most obvious and
public displays of who we are
and what we want to
communicate to others.

11
 Grooming (neat and tidy
appearance); our grooming
can also reflect and
communicate messages to
the world. The length and
style of our hair, bathing
routines, makeup, perfume,
finger and toenail painting
and many other grooming
habits communicate a great
deal about whom we are and
how we want to be perceived.
 Touching behaviour has been
discovered to be essential to
our development as human
beings. Without it,
relationship can wither.

12
d) Proxemics; this deals with how
we use space. It was first
introduced by anthropologist
Edward Hall in 1966 in his book
“The Hidden Dimension”. By
observing conversation between
people, Hall (Ibid) discovered that
our personal space could be broken
down into four zones or distances:
 Intimate distance (0-18 inches)
is reserved for intimate activities
include making love, confidential
conversations, hugging, kissing
and snuggling (very tight/close
fitting).
 Personal distance (18inches -
4feet) is used for most

13
 conversations with family,
friends and most acquaintances.
 Social distance (4-12 feet) is the
distance we feel most
comfortable with transacting
business, sitting during
committee meetings and
interacting with the hotel clerk,
the supermarket cashier etc.
 Public distance (12-25 feet) is
used for public ceremonies,
speeches, large group meetings
and class lectures.
The distance of your personal
space changes depending on the
setting, the people involved and
how you are feeling at the

14
moment. Cultural factors also play
an important role in determining
proxemic distancing and personal
comfort.
By your creative use of proxemics,
you can communicate powerful
messages without speaking a
single word.
Advantages of non-verbal
communication
 Complementary: Non-verbal
cues complement a verbal
message by adding to its
meaning. You can pat someone
you offended at the back as you
say sorry to him or her.

15
 Easy presentation:
Information can be easily
presented in non-verbal
communication through using
visual, audio-visual and silent
means of non-verbal
communication.
 Substituting: Non-verbal
message may substitute for the
verbal message especially if it is
blocked by noise, interruption,
long distance etc. for example:
gestures-finger to lips to indicate
need for quite, facial
expressions- a nod instead of a
yes.
 Help to handicapped people:
Non-verbal cues of

16
 communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially
to deaf people. Deaf people are
exchange message through the
movements of hands, fingers,
eye ball etc.
 Attractive presentation: Non-
verbal communication is based
on visual, picture, graph, sign
etc. that can be seen very much
attractive.
 Quick expression of
message: Non-verbal cues of
communication like sign and
symbol can also communicate
some messages very quickly
than written or oral messages.

17
Disadvantages or limitations of
non-verbal communication
 Vague (unclear): Non-verbal
communication is quite vague
and imprecise. Since in this
communication there is no use
of words or language which
expresses clear meaning to the
receiver. No dictionary can
accurately classify them. Their
meaning varies not only by
culture and context but by
degree of intension.
 Culture-bound: Non-verbal
communication is learnt in
childhood, passed on to you by
your parents and others with
whom you associate. A few
18
 other gestures seem to be
universal. Evidence suggests
that humans of all cultures smile
when happy and frown when
unhappy. However, some
nonverbal symbols seem to be
even further disconnected from
any “essential meaning” than
verbal symbols. Gestures seen
as positive in one culture may
be seen as negative in another
culture.
 Long conversations are not
possible: In non-verbal
communication, long
conversation and necessary
explanations are not possible.
No party can discuss the

19
 particular issues of the
messages.
 Not everybody prefers:
Everybody not prefers to
communicate through non-
verbal communication with
others. Sometimes it cannot
create an impression upon
people or listeners. It is less
influential and cannot be used
everywhere. It is cannot be used
as a public tool for
communication.
 Lack of formality: Non-verbal
communication does not follow
any rules, formality or structure
like other communication. Most
of the cases people

20
 unconsciously and habitually
engaged in non-verbal
communication by moving the
various parts of the body.
 Distortion of information:
Since it uses gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, touch,
sign, sound, paralanguage etc.
for communicating with others,
there is a great possibility in
distortion of information in non-
verbal communication.

ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF
COMMUNICATION
1. Sender/Initiator: this refers to
the person sending the message.

21
The sender is sometimes known as
the encoder of the message and is
considered to be the source of the
message.
Encoding is a process through
which the sender of information
expresses his / her ideas into
words, symbols or signs or
gestures to convey the message
2. Message; this is the body or
subject-matter of communication.
The message begins as a mental
idea within the sender and it can
be either positive or negative in
nature.
3. Medium/Channel; this refers to
the path which the communicators

22
use to pass or convey their
messages. This may be through
radio, books, television, telephone,
internet, etc.
4. Receiver/Recipient; this is a
person receiving the message sent
by the speaker. The receiver is
sometimes known as the decoder
of the message.
Decoding is the process through
which the receiver of the message
derives meaning from the
message.
5. Feedback; this is the
receiver’s response to the
sender’s message. The responses
can be both verbal and nonverbal.

23
NOISE AND ITS INTERFERENCE
ON COMMUNICATION
Communication can be interfered
by noise. Noise is anything that
can interfere with the
communication process at any
stage.
Types of Noise
There are four main types of noise.
These include the following:-
 Physical noise; this is any
external or environmental
stimulus that distracts a person
from receiving the intended
message sent by the sender. For
example sounds of road traffic

24
 Psychological noise; this is
mental interference that
prevents a person from
listening. It is a common type of
noise that everybody
experiences. For example, if the
mind is wandering away from
the speaker, the noise will be
the thing that the listener has in
mind.
 Physiological noise; this is any
physiological issue that
interferes with communication.
For example someone who feels
pain, may find it difficult to
speak to others or listen to
them.

25
  Semantic noise; semantic noise
occurs when there is no shared
meaning in a communication
process. It occurs when the
sender uses terminology of
his/her profession that lay
people may not understand.
COMMUNICATION
CIRCLE/PROCESS
Communication circle refers to
conveying the thought process of
an individual (sender) to anyone
other than himself (receiver),
through various means of
communication in a clear and
concise manner, for appropriate
action or response from the
intended party.

26
Communication circle involves the
following processes as provided by
Aqil (2015):-
 Ideation/Sender’s thoughts;
the very first step in the process
of communication is generation
of thoughts in the sender’s
mind. These thoughts may be
about request, order, inquiry
production or any such activity.
 Encoding; the sender
converts his thought into a
message by means of a
language.
 Transmission through media;
once the thought is converted
into message, it should be
transmitted to the receiver
through a suitable medium. This
27
 media might be electronic media
as TV, E-mail, radio etc. or it
may be print media like
newspaper, magazines, letters
or merely sound that is
transmitted through the medium
or air.
 Noise/barriers; while
transmitting the information to
the receiver, the sender faces
lots of barriers. These barriers
are explained as under:
i. On sender’s side;
noise/barriers may
take place during the
process of encoding.
Some of them may be
caused by interruption,

28
 lack of concentration,
typing mistake, poor
language etc.
ii. In the medium; some
barriers are caused by
medium such as poor
transmission on T.V
and radio, misprinting
in newspapers etc.
iii. On receiver’s side; the
receiver can also
create certain barriers
to the receiving of
message such as poor
reading ability,
emotions, lack of
concentration etc.

29
 Decoding by receiver; having
received the message from the
sender, the receiver attempts to
understand and interpret the
message. This process of
converting the language of
message into thoughts is known
as decoding. For instance, the
receiver, having received job
application, reads the
application and understands the
message conveyed by the
applicant.
 Idea received; as soon as the
process of decoding is finished,
the idea given by the sender is
received by the receiver. It
means the thoughts that was

30
 generated in the mind of sender
has been transmitted to the
mind of receiver.
 Feedback; process of
communication is not complete
until the receiver responds to
the sender. This response may
be negative, positive, or for
further enquiry.
BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication barriers are factors
that reduce the intended smooth
flow of information or completely
cut off the communication process.
According to Lunenburg (2010), the
following are barriers of
communication:-

31
1. WRONG CHOICE OF MEDIUM
The various media of
communication available to us are
oral, written, visual and audio-
visual. All these media have their
merits and limitations. Therefore,
when they are applied to
unsuitable environment, they may
act as barriers to the effective
communication.
2. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
Most forms of physical barriers
include noise, time and distance
Noise; this includes physical
distractions such as poor lighting,
frequent movements,
uncomfortable room, general
environment e.t.c.
32
In written communication, noise
includes illegible characters, due to
poor handwriting, or font size,
wrong word order, or even wrong
spellings and poor text
punctuations.
Distance; the distance between
sender and receiver may also act
as barriers to the smooth flow of
communication. For example,
telephones are not easily
accessible every where
Time; if a message is not sent in
appropriate time, the message will
not have the effect that it should
have, as the intention will not be
met. This causes barrier in

33
communication. So, the time of the
message should be accurate.
3. PSCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS
Psychology has to do with the
study of human behaviour and
mental processes. Psychological
barriers involve people’s state of
mind. When they are happy, they
all tend to be more receptive to
information. But if they are
unhappy or they have worries they
will be affected in the
communication process, hence
communication barrier takes place.
4. MECHANICAL BARRIERS
Mechanical barriers are those
raised by the channels employed
for interpersonal, group or mass
34
communication. Channels become
barriers when the message is
interfered with some disturbance,
which increased the difficulty in
reception or prevented some
elements of the message reaching
its destination or both.
5. SEMANTIC BARRIERS
Semantics refers to how meanings
are derived from languages in
communication. Semantics barriers
occur when the communicating
parties interpret same word or
statement differently. A good
example of semantic barrier is
when multi meaning words are
used in communication.
6. DIFFERENCES IN
PERCEPTION
35
This barrier depends on how one
views the world; the mind absorbs
experiences in a unique and
personal way. Because perceptions
are unique, the idea one has differs
from other people. Even when two
people have experienced the same
event, their mental images of that
event may not be identical.
7 .CULTURAL BARRIERS
Effective communication can be
affected by differences in culture.
Culture provides people with ways
of thinking ways of seeing, hearing
and interpreting the world. Thus
the same words can mean different
things to people from different
cultures. Some cultures get very
36
emotional when they are debating
an issue. They yell, they cry, they
exhibit their anger, fear,
frustrations and other feelings
openly. Other cultures try to keep
their emotions hidden. All these
differences tend to lead to
communication problems if people
involved are not aware of the
potential for such problems, they
can even more likely to fall victim
of them, although it takes more
than awareness to overcome these
problems and communicate
effectively across cultures.
HOW TO OVERCOME
COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

37
i. Make communication simple,
clear and direct.
ii. Choose the media of
communication carefully
iii. Plan and organize the
information well in advance of
the interaction.
iv. Carefully regulate the flow of
information to eliminate
unnecessary communication.
v. Improve human relations so as
to reduce psychological
barriers and encourage
cooperation.
vi. Try to be familiar of the culture
of the people you are
communicating with so as to

38
 avoid barriers related to
cultural differences.
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
(7 C’S OF COMMUNICATION)
1. COMPLETENESS
Message in effective
communication should convey
sufficient information and its
details as may be required for
appropriate interpretation by the
audience.
2. CONCISENESS
Conciseness means simple,
short and clear message.
Effective communication should
not use unnecessary words,
words which do not add value to
the message. It should use the
39
 least possible number of
appropriate words.
3. CLARITY
Effective communication should
ensure there is no confusion,
misreading or difficulty in
receiving the information. Clear
writing, clear fonts, clear colors,
clear pronunciation etc makes
communication good and
successful.
4. CONCRETENESS
Effective communication is
concrete because the message
is supported with specific facts,
data, and statistics and hence
not easily misinterpreted.
5. COURTESY
40
 Effective communication should
show respect to receivers, and
therefore confirming
respectability of the sender. The
sender of the message has to be
sincerely polite, judicious,
reflective and good, taking into
consideration all viewpoints as
well as sensibilities of the
audience.
6. CORRECTNESS
Effective communication should
be made up of correct
information. Both the message
and the language should be at
their most accurate. Correctness
in language – grammar, register,

41
 dictation e.t.c are fundamentals
of good communication.
7. COHERENT
Effective communication has to
be consistent. The ideas in it
should flow from one point to
the next through smooth
transitions.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communications Skills involve
speaking and listening, writing and
analyzing the written word, as well
as gesturing and interpreting the
body language of others (Ludden,
2007).
OR

42
Communication Skills refers to
the knowledge and ability of
transferring information, skills,
knowledge and feelings from one
person to another through a given
communication medium.
Or
A communication skill is the ability
to conveyinformation to another
effectively and efficiently.
Businessmanagers with good verbal,
non verbal and written
communication skills help facilitate
the sharing of information between
people within a company for its
commercialbenefit.

43
FOUR BASIC COMMUNICATION
SKILLS
The four basic communication skills
are READING, WRITING, SPEAKING
and LISTENING.
Reading
Reading means to look and
understand the meaning of written
or printed words or symbols.
Writing
To write is to make letters or other
symbols on a surface, usually on a
paper, especially with a pen or
pencil. Writing may be essay
writing, letter writing, report
writing, notes writing e.t.c
Speaking

44
Speaking is the action of
expressing oneself in speech or
giving speeches.
Listening
Effective listening includes listening
from an original source or recorded
sources and then being able to:-
 Re-tell what one heard
 Take down notes while listening
 Answer oral comprehensive
questions after listening to an
original source or recorded text
 Participate effectively in oral
exchange of ideas.
 Ask and answer questions
coherently and concisely in
order to respond appropriately
to spoken institutions

45
IMPORTANCE OF
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
1. They help to inform;
communication skills help one in
providing information about our
surroundings and what is
happening in our society.
2. They help in expressing
feelings; as people
communicate, they release their
feelings. Through expression of
their feelings, they add depth
and breadth to their
relationships. Normally people
tend to come closer as they
share their disappointments and
triumphs, joys and sorrows etc.

46
3. Entertainment;
communication skills help in
providing endless entertainment
to people through television,
film, music, literature, comedy,
games etc.
4. Communication skills help in
education and in giving
instruction; as they serve the
purpose of imparting knowledge,
expertise and skills for smooth
functioning in the society. Both
teachers and learners engage in
communication in order to
understand each other.
5. They help in discussions;
communication skills enable
people to share different

47
 viewpoints in issues of common
interest to them in debates and
discussions.
6. Communication skills help to
integrate people from different
parts of the world/country/region
to come to know and understand
each other’s traditions and
appreciate each other’s ways of
life.
7. Communication skills help in
warning; this helps people to
stop doing something which is
dangerous or has risks ahead
eg. Smoking, excessive drinking
etc.

48
FEEDBACK IN COMMUNICATION
Feedback is the response of the
receiver to the sender’s message
(Kiura and Munga, 2011)
Or
Feedback refers to a comment or
act that follows the receipt of the
message sent by the sender
(Mahelo, 2012).
TYPES OF FEEDBACK
i. Positive/Supportive feedback;
this feedback is given for
49
 something well-done. When
you find someone/people doing
something right you can let
them know what they are and
how well they are doing it. This
kind of feedback encourages
people to do a good job or the
right thing.
ii. Negative/Corrective feedback;
this is the kind of feedback
given for something not well
done. Giving negative or
corrective feedback can make
a person uncomfortable, but it

50
 should not be a hurtful
situation.
IMPORTANCE/ESSENTIALS OF
FEEDBACK IN COMMUNICATION
Collection of Information:
Feedback is the only way to collect
information from the receiver, if
the receiver doesn’t send message
of information (Feedback) to the
sender, there is no way to collect
information from him. So, feedback
helps the organization (Sender) to
collect information from different
people (Receivers).

51
Completion of Entire
Communication Process:
Feedback is the last and important
step of communication process.
Through feedback, the sender can
learn the reaction or response of
the receiver. It is an essential step
of communication without which
communication process is
incomplete. So, in two-way
communication feedback is
mandatory.
Measuring the Effectiveness of
Communication; Feedback is the

52
only way to get the response or
reaction of the receiver. From it,
the sender knows how well his
message is understood and how it
will be used by the receiver. By
analyzing the reaction, positive or
negative, the sender of the
message can measure to what
extent communication is effective
and what are the limitations with it.
So, in two-way communication
feedback is the only way to assess
the success of communication.

53
Improving Labor-Management
Relationship: A good labor-
management relationship is a must
for smooth functioning of
organizational activities. If
management believes in Two Way
Communication system and
permits the employees to express
their feelings, reactions and
opinions on various matters, they
will be highly satisfied. So,
Management should seek feedback
from employees on different issues
and at the same time they should

54
provide feedback to employees.
This practice will help management
to create a congenial atmosphere
in the organization that is essential
for organizational success. So,
Feedback helps to establish a
healthy labor-management
relationship in the organization.
Measuring the Effectiveness of
Media; we use different type of
media to transmit messages. The
receiver gets the message by the
media and understands its
meaning. If receiver sends his

55
feedback to the sender, it means
that the media are appropriate.
Improper media cannot reach the
message to the receiver and thus
fails to produce any Feedback. So,
Feedback can be used as a
criterion of Effectiveness of Media.
Taking proper Decision;
Feedback helps the sender to take
proper decision. If the receiver
does not send his reaction or
response on certain issue, the
sender cannot decide on it. For
example, sometimes manager

56
sends plans and decision or policies
to the subordinates for their
appraisal. If the subordinates send
their options, suggestion,
complaints, reaction to the
managers, they can take better
decisions. So, Feedback helps the
managers to take proper and
quality decisions.
Problem Solving: Different types
of problems may arise in an
organization that must be solved
duly and timely. Two Way
Communications help to address

57
the problem and provide solution
to the problem. For Example, if
employees of an organization call
for strike from the day after
tomorrow if their due salary is not
paid by tomorrow. After receiving
the message, management of the
organization decides to meet their
demand but doesn’t inform the
employees, problem will remain, as
the feedback of the management
could not reach to the employees.
Coordination among Various
Departments: There are many

58
departments working in an
organization to achieve the super-
ordinate goals of the organization.
For the smooth functioning of the
activities, these departments must
coordinate and cooperate with
each other. For coordination, each
department must contact with
other and send back response to
any query of other departments.
So, Feedback is essentially
required for bringing coordination
among departments.

59
Getting the Reactions of
Receiver; through feedback the
sender can get the responses or
reactions of the receiver of his
message. From the response, the
sender can assess how well the
receiver has understood his
message and if there is any
clarification to be made.

FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE
FEEDBACK
i) Effective feedback should be
specific rather than general. Vague
statements like, ‘you did not do
60
the job well’ or ‘I liked your
report’ do not tell the recipient
enough to improve his job or on
what basis the manager concluded
that he liked the report, so that the
receiver knows what behaviours to
repeat.
ii) Effective feedback should be
impersonal (not influenced by or
involving personal feelings); while
giving negative feedback, be
careful not to make personal
remarks like, “you are lazy” or
“highly incompetent”. Feedback

61
should be job related and not
evaluative or judgmental.
iii) Effective feedback should be
goal oriented; never give negative
feedback to “get rid of your
stress”. If you feel that is going to
relieve you of your emotional
tensions, hold on to it. It is always
better to give feedback that is
directed towards the goal of the
receiver.
iv) Feedback should be well timed;
feedback is effective if it is
immediate. If an employee makes

62
a mistake, it is better to point it out
immediately so that corrective
action can be taken, rather than
wait for the performance review
session.
v) Effective feedback ensures
understanding; every effective
communication requires both
transfer and understanding of
meaning. It is important that the
receiver understands the feedback.
It is a good idea to ask the receiver
to rephrase the content of the
feedback to ensure whether the

63
recipient has fully understood the
message the way it was intended.

64
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

Audience refers to the group of

people together in one place to
watch or listen to a play, film,
someone speaking e.t.c

65
Audience analysis refers to
dissecting and examining your
audience in order to determine
your relation (speaker) with them
(listeners) in order to adapt to their
needs, wants, beliefs, attitudes,
etc.

Or

Audience analysis is the task of

assessing the audience to make
sure the information provided to
them is at the appropriate level.
The audience is often referred to as
the end-user and all
66
communications need to be
targeted towards the defined
audience.

PERIODS OF ANALYSIS
There are three periods of analysis
namely; prior analysis, process
analysis and post analysis.
 PRIOR ANALYSIS
 This begins when the speaker is
asked or scheduled to speak.
 It concludes when the speaker
stands up to approach stage.
 PROCESS ANALYSIS
 Begins when the speaker stands
to approach stage.

67
  Concludes when she/he says
her/his last word
 POST ANALYSIS
 Begins immediately after
speaker concludes.
 It never ends
IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE
ANALYSIS
It helps to know the audience
expectations; When people
become audience members in a
speech situation, they bring with
them expectations about the
occasion, topic, and speaker.
Violating audience expectations

68
can have a negative impact on the
effectiveness of the speech.
Imagine that a local politician is
asked to speak at the memorial
service for a beloved former
mayor. The audience will expect
the politician’s speech to praise
the life and career of the deceased.
If the politician used the
opportunity to discuss a piece of
legislation, the audience would
probably be offended and the
speaker would lose credibility. Of
course, there may be some

69
situations when violating the
audience’s expectations would be
an effective strategy. Presenters
that make political statements at
the Academy Awards do so
precisely because the message’s
incongruity with the occasion
increases the impact of the
proclamation.

It helps to know audience

knowledge of topic; Audience
knowledge of a topic can vary
widely on any given occasion;
therefore audience analysis helps
communicators to find out what
70
their audience already knows about
the topic. Never overestimate the
audience’s knowledge of a topic. If
a speaker launches into a technical
discussion of genetic engineering
but the listeners are not familiar
with basic genetics, they will be
unable to follow your speech and
quickly lose interest. Try to do
some research to find out what the
audience already knows about the
topic. Giving a brief review of
important terms and concepts is
almost always appropriate, and can
sometimes be done by
acknowledging the heterogeneous
audience and the importance of
‘putting everyone on the same

71
page.’ For example, even if the
audience members were familiar
with basic genetics, a brief review
of key term and concepts at the
beginning of a speech refreshes
memories without being
patronizing.
It helps to know audience’s
attitude toward topic; Knowing
audience’s attitudes about a topic
helps a speaker to determine the
best way to reach their goals.
Imagine that a presenter is trying
to convince the community to build
a park. A speaker would probably
be inclined to spend the majority of
the speech giving reasons why a
park would benefit the community.
However, if they found out ahead

72
of time that most neighbors
thought the park was a good idea
but they were worried about safety
issues, then the speaker could
devote their time to showing them
that park users would be safer in
the park than they are currently
playing in the streets. The
persuasive power of the speech is
thus directed at the most important
impediment to the building of a
park.
It helps in knowing audience
size; Many elements of speech-
making change in accordance with
audience size. In general, the
larger the audience the more
formal the presentation should be.
Sitting down and using common
language when speaking to a group

73
of 10 people is often quite
appropriate. However, that style of
presentation would probably be
inappropriate or ineffective if you
were speaking to 1,000 people.
Large audiences often require that
you use a microphone and speak
from an elevated platform.
It helps to know the
demographic information of
the audience; these include age,
gender, religion, ethnic
background, class, sexual
orientation, occupation, education,
etc which are very important in
determining what pieces of
information will be most important
for members of different
demographic groups.

74
It helps to know the Egocentric
Behaviours of audience. Most
audience members are egocentric:
they are generally most interested
in things that directly affect them
or their community. An effective
speaker must be able to show their
audience why the topic they are
speaking on should be important to
them.
TYPES OF AUDIENCE
1. FRIENDLY AUDIENCE
Friendly audience are the one that
are likely to accept what the
speaker has to say. They listen
carefully, take notes, and respond
appropriately to the presenter.

75
When working with audience of this
type use any pattern and also try
to present something new as well
as involving them in the
subject.Your characteristics should
include warmth, pleasant and
openness. Also use lots of eye
contact and smiles. Your materials
may include, humour, personal
examples and experiences etc.

2. NEUTRAL AUDIENCE
These are those audience who
think one’s presentation is a
chance to relax hence they attend
76
it with this notion in mind. They are
directly or indirectly don’t want to
invest in your idea. They are
neither here nor there about the
idea you are trying to sell. You
need to be extremely careful not to
offend these audiences and still get
them to invest in your idea or
philosophy.

3. UNINTERESTED/PRISONER
AUDIENCE
They are audience who may be
there against their will. They might
be present because they are forced
77
to be there by parents, bosses or
the situations; for example a
student forced by parents to study
a course which is not of his/her
choice. When addressing this
audience, try to win them over with
a worthwhile talk, be brief. Avoid
patterns that seem to be lengthy to
the audience.

4. HOSTILE AUDIENCE

These are the audiences who are

always in strong disagreement with
presenter’s idea. They always
want to take accuse or to ridicule
78
the speaker; they may be
defensive and emotional. When
addressing this audience organize
your message using non-
controversial patterns. Be calm and
controlled, speak evenly and slowly

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN

ANALYSING/EVALUATING THE
AUDIENCE
 Types of audience
 Are they hostile, neutral,
friendly or uninterested
audiences?

79
 Demographic factors; these
examine the audiences on the
following:-
 Age; are they children,
parents, or retired people?
 Religion; are they
Christians, Muslims, Hindu
etc?
 Gender; are they male,
female or both genders?
 Economic status: what is the
economic status of the
audience?
 Cultural background; what is
the cultural background of
the audience? Is it a
80
 homogeneous group of
people from the same ethnic
or racial background or will
there be individuals from a
variety of cultures?

 Situational Factors; these

include things like:-
 Size of the audience; is it a
large crowd?
 Venue for presentation; eg,
the venue for presentation
can be revised if it is heavily
raining.
 Audiences’ political
environment; the content
can be changed to suit the
81
 audiences’ current political
environment.
 The topic that addresses the
immediate and pressing
issues is likely to attract
more attention than one
that seems far-fetched and
irrelevant.
 Psychological factors; these
include things like audiences’:-
 Value; values are principles
that serve as guides for
behavior. Values support
beliefs and attitudes. They
are difficult to change so
speeches should aim to
reinforce them.

82
  Beliefs; a belief is the
acceptance that something
is true even if it is unproven.
Therefore you must know
the beliefs that underlie
people’s attitudes.
 Emotional state etc.
If we are to address an audience at
a funeral, the tone and content
should relevant to the occasion.
Therefore our presentation should
always relate to our audiences’
psychological status.
TECHNIQUES FOR GAINING &
KEEPING AUDIENCE ATTENTION

83
1. A PROMISE: know how to
capture the attention of an
audience and how to give a
promise that keeps the
audience’s expectations (e.g. by
the end of this presentation I will
have shown you how you can
increase your sales by 50%)

2. EYE CONTACT: As you begin

command attention by
surveying the entire audience to
take in all listeners. Give
yourself two to five seconds to
linger on individuals.
84
3. MOVEMENT: Walk around
the conference table or between
sides of your audience.

4. QUESTIONS: Keep listeners

active and involved with
rhetorical questions.

5. SAMPLES/DEVICES: If you
are promoting a product,
consider using items to throw
out to the audience or to award
as prizes to volunteer
participants. You can also pass
around sample products.

85
6. VISUALS:Give your audience
something to look at besides
yourself. Use a variety of visual
aids in a single session.

7. SELF INTEREST: - Review

your entire presentation to
ensure it meets the critical
“what is in for me” audience
test. Remember that people are
interested in things that benefit
them

86
87
OFFICE PRACTICES
An office is a place, or a room or a
building where many clerical
activities of the business are
carried out so as to provide control,
direction, and management of the
enterprise.
Types of offices
•Open offices
•Enclosed offices
•Landscaped offices
1. Open office
A large room which is shared by
several departments or sections of
a department
Advantages of open
offices
 Better space utilization is
possible, because space

88
 has not been lost by
partitions.
 The section-heads or
supervisors feel easy to
watch the office. It is also
possible to reduce the
number of supervisors.
 The layout of the office can
be altered or changed
without any expense.
 There is more economy in
arrangement of light.
 Easy communication from
department to department
is possible.
 Decoration, cleaning and
maintenance can be done
inexpensively.
 It reduces the movement
of staff.

89
Disadvantages of open
office
 Work can be affected by
visitors and movement
of the staff themselves.
 There can be internal
noise, because of the
conversation and talks in
the office by staff
themselves or visitors.
 Infections and disease
may spread quickly.
 The office may appear to
be crowded place.
 Secrecy cannot be
maintained.
 Top executives may not
feel comfortable in the
open office.
2. Closed office; a closed office
space plan, also known as
90
 enclosed office or private office
design, is an office space design
that uses panels and cubicles to
create separate individual work
spaces for each individual
employee.
Advantages of private offices
It gives prestige and importance to
the top executive in the
organization.
Privacy; in an enclosed office
space, employees can enjoy
complete privacy. They don’t have
to move away to take a call or have
a small impromptu meeting with
another colleague. It also allows
them freedom to personalize their
cubicles and create an
environment that is comfortable
and increases their productivity.
91
Concentration; private offices
provide a distraction free
environment for the employees,
allowing them to focus on their
work without any interruption,
intentional or otherwise.
Creativity; creative work often
requires a quiet space for reflection
and contemplation which a closed
office can easily provide.
Less Gossip; in an enclosed office,
the employees are separated. This
makes it harder for them to gossip
during work hours and focus more
on the work at hand.
Healthier; closed offices are
rather healthier for the employees.
In an open office, if one of the
employees catches some kind of
communicable disease, it will easily
spread through the rest of the
92
department. But in a closed office,
the employees have their own
cubicle, so the bug usually stays
within one cubicle and the other
employees remain safe.
Disadvantages of enclosed
offices
 Much space is wanted for
partitions.
 It affects the flow of work.
 More supervisors are needed to
watch the work done in office.
Thus supervision becomes more
costly.
 It is more expensive to build
separate offices.
 More expenses are needed to
provide adequate light.

93
  Cleaning of the office becomes a
tedious work.
 Extra means of communication
are needed for each room.
 Clerks and messengers have to
waste time to see whether the
concerned man is there or not in
the private room.
3. Landscaped office
Landscaped office is similar to
an open-plan office but has
extra features such as:
•Carpeted floors
•Entire office is air-conditioned
•Workstations are arranged in
clusters, each facing a different
direction

94
 Rest area where employees
relax and take refreshments
•Landscaping assists by creating a
pleasant work environment thereby
improving efficiency levels

IMPORTANCE OF AN OFFICE
1. Information center; office can
be described as the information
center or data bank of the
organisation. All kinds of
information and figures, whether
past or present, are available in
the office
2. Channel of communication;
office is the channel through
95
 which communications,
especially written
communications, move from top
to bottom and in reverse order
as well
3. Aids in coordination; the
process of coordination is almost
impossible without the presence
of office. Office furnishes the
machinery for coordination; it
provides links for various
activities in the organisation.
4. Aids in managerial controls;
control can be described as the
measurement and correction of
the performance of subordinates
in order to make sure that

96
 enterprise objectives and plans
are met.
5. Importance of office in
relation to workers;preparation
of wage and salary sheets and
their payments are
responsibilities of the office. Also
for the preparation of workers
benefits schemes.
6. Importance of office in
relation to shareholders and
creditors; office serves as a link
between the shareholders on
one hand and the company on
the other as well as creditors of
the company.
7. Importance in relation to
customers; office acts as a

97
 channel to link the business
organisation with its customers.
FUNCTIONS OF A MODERN
OFFICE
The functions of a modern
office may be classified into
two categories:
(a) Basic functions, and
(b) Administrative functions.
(a) Basic functions
1. Collecting information;the
office receives or collects
information about various activities
of the organization. The
information may be collected from
internal or external sources.
Internal sources may be employees
and various departments of the
98
organization. The external sources
are customers, suppliers and
Government Departments etc.
2. Recording information;the
office keeps record of information
collected from various sources to
make it readily available to the
management. The information is
kept in the form of
correspondence, reports,
statements, circulars, lists, charts,
registers, books, etc. An office has
also to maintain records as
prescribed under law.
3. Arranging, analyzing and
processing the information;the
information collected in an office is
generally not in the form in which it
99
may be used by the management.
Therefore, facts and figures
collected have to be arranged,
processed, organized and analyzed
to make them useful to the
management. In this connection
financial statement, statistical
statements, charts, lists, reports,
summaries are prepared.

4. Preserving Information;the
information is properly sorted out
and preserved in the most
economic and scientific manner.
Various types of equipments, filing
cabinets, etc. are used for
preserving records. Unnecessary
and out-dated records are

100
destroyed to make space for new
and valuable records.

5. Supplying information;all
accumulated and processed
information is useless unless it is
communicated. The office serves
as a two way channel for
communication. On the one hand,
it supplies the collected, recorded
and processed information to the
management and on the other
hand, the policy decisions,
guidelines and instructions issued
by the management to the
departments are also routed
through the office. The information

101
may be supplied verbally or in
written from:
Internal Agencies: Employees,
Departments, Management etc.
External Agencies: Customers,
Suppliers, Government
Departments etc.
(b) Administrative Functions
The following functions are
normally considered as
administrative functions of an
office:
1. Management
functions;various functions of
management are also applicable to
the management of office
functions. Office work has to be

102
planned, organized and executed
according to the plan. Control is
exercised to ensure efficiency of
operations in the office. Staffing,
directing, communicating, co-
ordination, motivating are also
important for the management of
offices.
2. Instituting office systems
and routines;an office has to
develop systems and procedures
for providing better services to
other departments. Each phase of
office work is carefully analysed
and a proper procedure is
developed for it. Proper sequencing
of different tasks is necessary to
ensure continuous flow of work.
103
3. Designing and control of
office forms;use of standardized
forms simplifies office operations. It
is the responsibility of the office to
design, standardize, provide and
control the forms to be used in the
office as well as in other
departments of the enterprise.
4. Purchasing office
equipments and
furniture;efficient and economical
performance of office work requires
proper furniture, equipment and
machines. Office has to arrange for
selection and purchase of these
items from reliable suppliers. It has
also to ensure timely availability of
furniture etc to departments and
104
employees to facilitate proper
utilization, as well as arrange for
maintenance, servicing and
replacement according to need.
5. Safeguarding of
Assets;different types of assets
are maintained in an organization.
The assets must be protected
against damages and losses on
account of fire, theft etc. An
efficient control system is
exercised by office to safeguard
the assets.
6. Personnel Management;the
efficiency of office work depends
very much on the employees. Their
appointment, training, promotion,

105
appraisal and welfare are the
functions of the office.
7. Maintaining Public
Relations;an organization
depends on public reputation and
goodwill for its existence and
progress. Maintaining public
relations is also the responsibility
of the office. Most organizations
have reception counters to greet
and receive visitors to the
organization.
OFFICE LAYOUT
Office layout is defined as the
arrangement of all physical
components within the available
floor space to provide maximum
effectiveness and the coordination
106
of these components into an
efficient and attractive manner.
When planning an office
layout, take into account
the following factors:
•The nature of the business
•Capital required
•Site and location
•Size and premises (land and
buildings)
•Appearance of the premises
THE IMPORTANCE OF OFFICE
LAYOUT:
To facilitate supervision; proper
supervision of work is essential for
proper running of the office.
To facilitate inter –
communication; smooth running

107
of the office requires adequate
inter – communication. This is
facilitated by a good layout.
To ensure better use of office
machines and equipment; to
reduce the cost of running the
office, it is necessary that office
machines and equipment are used
to the best. This can be ensured by
proper layout.
To ensure better comfort and
morale of workers; Workers must
feel comfortable while at work so
that their morale is good. A good
office layout aims at providing the
best work conditions.

108
To ensure favourable
conditions on customers and
visitors; the well – being of
modern business organisation
depends much on the goodwill of
its customers and visitors, hence
the importance of office layout is to
achieve this objective.
PRINCIPLES OF OFFICE LAYOUT
To achieve good layout the
following principles should be
observed:-
1. Principle of flow of work; flow
of work should be smooth and
unhindered. Whether the layout is
in a straight line or circle, it
should ease the work.
2. Principle of free movement
and observation; the floor space
109
 should be free from partitions, so
that there is free movement and
observations.
3. Principle of effective
supervision; the layout should
be in such a way that it aids
effective supervision.
4. Principle of flexibility; layout
should be in such a way that, it
allows changes in future because
business is not static.
5. Principle of balance; the
layout should be balanced and of
pleasing appearance. Pleasing
appearance of the office attracts
more customers and improves the
image of enterprise.
6. Principle of maximum
utilization; space should be
utilized to the full while the
money cost is low.
110
7. Principle of equipment
placement; equipment and filling
cabinets should be placed in a
way that filing cabinets and
equipment to be used by the staff
are conveniently located.
8. Principle of good lighting;
while laying out, it is necessary
that as far as possible natural
lighting be provided for the work
accordingly.
10. Principle of good
ventilation; ventilation in layout
plays a significant role. Layout
should be made such that it allows
the ventilation.
OFFICE PRACTICE
Practice is a common or routine
conduct of activity to be performed

111
to achieve a certain goal or
objective.
Hence, Office practice is a common
or routine way of conducting office
activities to achieve organization
goal without violating its principles
and procedures. Therefore it is
important to every member of the
organization to understand those
practices.
PRINCIPLES OF OFFICE
PRACTICE
i) Accountability; the office has to
be answerable to the decisions
one has made according to his/her
position.
ii) Confidentiality (information
control); the Office should hold all
112
 communications with those
seeking assistance in strict
confidence. The only exception to
this confidentiality is where there
appears to be imminent risk of
serious harm or danger.
iii) Conflict of interest; the public
servant should not satisfy
personal interests at the expense
of the public e.g., Official cars,
photocopies etc. in order to avoid
this, be loyal to laws and
regulations rather than to private
gain.

113
iv) Fairness against abuse of power;
there should be no any
preferential treatment. Clients
should be treated equally and
avoid the abuse of power.
v) Impartiality; the Office considers
the interests of all parties involved
in a situation impartially/fairly to
assist the parties in reaching
mutually acceptable agreements
that are fair, equitable, and
consistent with the policies and
procedures of the Public office.
vi) Loyalty; Remain faithful to your
employer.
vii) Public property control

114
ADVANTAGES OF OFFICE
PRACTICE PRINCIPLES
To customers; when the office
follows principles, its customers are
protected against undesirable
transactions.
To employees; they know what
type of behavior is expected over
them.
To organization; itgains to
exercise less control over the
behavior of its employees. Also, it
leads to healthy competition.
To society; theywill be served
better.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT

115
EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF
COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN
RELATION TO OFFICE PRACTICE

RECORD MANAGEMENT
A record is something that
represents proof of existence and
that can be used to recreate or
prove state of existence.
Record Management (RM) is the
supervision and administration of
digital or paper, regardless of
format.
116
Or
Record Management is a
systematic administration of
records and documented
information for its entire life cycle,
from creation/receipt,
classification, use, filing, retention,
storage to final disposition.

OBJECTIVE/PURPOSE OF
RECORDS MANAGEMENT
The purposes or objects in
maintaining records are as follows:
Keeping accounts of progress
in an orderly way; for example if
a patient approaches a doctor, it is
usual that the patient’s past
history is needed to diagnose the
117
disease properly. In the same way,
to measure the progress of the
concern or to find out certain other
facts, a history of the firm is
needed.
Comparison of business (period
wise/state wise); past records
make it easy and possible to
compare the performance of one
period with that of another period,
one place with another, one result
with another, etc. By comparison,
one can know whether there is
progress or not.
In case of disputes, the need for
referring to records or documents
often arises for the settlement of
disputes in business.
118
Policy making; past records,
events, progress, etc., are very
necessary to decide future policies
and plans. In the absence of
records, the policies and plans may
not be successful.
Legal requirement; certain
records are to be kept for a number
of years from the legal point of
view.
Facilitate detectionof errors
and wastage; past records help in
locating the errors and identifying
the wastes occurring in the
organization. Thus the
management can eliminate the
errors or wastes.

119
PRINCIPLES OF RECORD
MANAGEMENT
In order to be successful, the
records management must be
based on the following principles:
Verification; Records can be
verified whenever needed
Justification; Records must be
maintained with some justifiable
purpose. Otherwise it will be a
waste of money, space and time.
Classification: Records must be
classified according to their use. It

120
may be classed according to time
or chronology or subjects.
Information: The required
information must be available
wherever needed
Elasticity; The record system
must be elastic in capacity so that
expansion or contraction may be
done.
Reasonable cost: The cost of
record management must be a
reasonable one. For more
important records, larger amount
may be spent and for less
important record only smaller
amount should be spent.
Methods of Records
Management
121
There are two major methods of
records management; these
include manual and digital
methods.
Manual Record Keeping
This involves the use of simple,
paper-based record keeping
system.
Benefits of Manual Record
Keeping
 Less expensive to set.
 The risk of corrupted data is
much less.
 Data loss is less, particularly if
records are stored in a safe
environment.
 Problems with duplicate copies
are generally avoided.
122
  The process is simplified as you
don’t need to be familiar with
how accounting software
calculates and treats your
information.
Electronic Record Keeping
This is usually carried out by
accounting software that allows
simplified record keeping such as
e-mail, databases, electronic
spreadsheets etc.
Benefits of Electronic Record
Keeping
 Helps you record business
transactions, including income
and expenses, payments to
workers, and stock and asset
details.
123
  Requires less storage space.
 Easy to generate orders,
invoices, debtor reports,
financial statements, employees
pay records.
 Many accounting programmes
have facilities to email invoices
to clients, orders to suppliers
etc.
 Allows you to back up records
and keep them in a safe place in
case of fire or theft.
FILE AND FILING
A file is an accumulation of related
records or documents maintained
as one physical unit and commonly
stored under a particular
classification.
124
Filing is a process of classifying and
arranging records so that they can
be obtained without delay
What do we file?
We file documents that are sent to
us by other people or
organizations. We also file records
of all our organizational activities.
These can be letters, memos,
reports, financial records, policy
documents, etc.
When do we file?
This depends on how busy your
office is. In very busy organizations
filing is done at least every day and
usually first thing in the morning. In
a small or less busy office you
could file once or twice a week
125
Objectives of Filing
i) To classify and arrange
records properly.
ii) To protect documents against
possible loss or damage.
iii) To provide a method of
obtaining information without
loss of time.
iv) To enable past records to be
made easily available to
management for framing
business policies and future
plans.
v) Proper filing leads to economy
in space.
vi) To improve the appearance of
the office considerably.
Functions of Filing

126
  Information function: records
are protected and maintained to
supply information.
 Administrative function: files
help the executives in framing
business policies.
 Library function: the records
are stored for future reference.
Thus it performs the library
function.
 Historical function: files
preserve important records of
the progress of the business in a
systematic manner. Thus it
performs the historical function.
Advantages of a Good Filing
System

127
i) Protection; it protects the
documents against possible
loss or damage.
ii) Ready reference; it serves
as a useful method of
obtaining information without
loss of time.
iii) Planning; future planning is
greatly helped by the old
records.
iv) Better control; process of
control greatly facilitated by
the old records.
v) Follow-up for sales; follow
up for sales is unthinkable
without a good filing system.
Eg. When new products are
launched, old customers are

128
 to be approached for
cooperation.
vi) Basis for evidence; old
records are useful as
evidence in a lawsuit.
The chief characteristics of a
Good Filing System
The system of filing must achieve
its objectives. The following are the
chief characteristics of a good filing
system:
 Simplicity: it must be simple in
operations so that every staff of
the office can easily understand
the filing system.
 Suitability: the filing system
should be completely applicable
to the firm concerned, and suits
129
 the nature and requirements of
the business for which it is
introduced.
 Accessibility: the files should be
so arranged that the required
letter or document for reference
be picked up without loss of
time.
 Economy: cheap system of filing
is to be adopted. The cost
incurred by the system must be
proportionate to the results
obtained. The desired result
must be obtained by using
minimum finance, time, clerks,
etc.
 Protection (Safety): documents
should not be damaged by dust,

130
 insects, thefts, mishandling, fire,
rain etc.
 Compactness:The filing section
should occupy reasonable space
in view of the cost implication of
large space.
 Flexibility: The system should be
capable of expansion as the
activities of the organization
expand.
 Classification: Most suitable
method of classification should
be adopted. Too many
miscellaneous files and bulky
files must be avoided
Systems of Classification of
Files

131
Classification of documents is
necessary to ensure prompt
availability of records.
Classification is the process of
selecting headings under which
records and documents are
grouped on the basis of common
characteristics before filing. For
example, letters may be classified
on the subject of correspondence.
The main systems of classification
of files in an office are:
Alphabetical, Numerical,
Geographical, and Subject wise.

i) Alphabetical Filing
According to alphabetical
classification, letters from different
132
parties or relating to various
subjects are arranged and put in
different file covers on the basis of
the first alphabet with which the
name of the party or subject
begins. The first alphabet of the
name or surname or the subject is
the preliminary guide to the
position of the file. For example, all
papers pertaining to Atma Ram &
Sons may be filed in a folder
marked ‘A’ or ‘At’. Within each
file, papers are arranged date wise.
In a large office 26 English
alphabets are divided into small
equal parts like (Ab- An), (Ap-Ay),
(Ba-Bn), (Bo-By), etc. Guide cards
are used to divide the letters.

133
The main advantages of this
system are:
(i) it is simple and easy to operate;
(ii)New names can be added as
necessary and there is little
chance of wrong filing.
ii) Numerical Filing
Under this system files are
arranged numerically, each
correspondent or subject being
allotted a number. The files are
placed in a numerical order in the
drawers. For example, a customer,
D.K. Sharma, may be allotted
No.25, so that all papers relating to
him may be found in folder no. 25.
A simple index or card index is
required to identify the numbers
134
with the names. When any file
relating to (say) a customer is
needed, the name of the party may
be located in the index and the
number of the relevant file
ascertained.
The merits of this method of
classification are:
(i) It is simple to operate;
(ii) Files can be easily located,
removed and replaced;
(iii) It is very elastic, and
expansion is easy.

(iii) Geographical Classification

In the geographical method,
correspondence is classified
according to geographical areas.
135
Files may be marked zone wise i.e.
North, South, East or West. All
correspondence relating to a
particular area are kept in one file.
These files may then be arranged
alphabetically like Andhra Pradesh,
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bengal,
Bihar etc.
Geographical classification
offers a number of advantages.
 It is easy to operate.
 There is speedy location of files
and direct filing is possible.
There are certain limitations also,
like greater possibility of error
where knowledge of geography is
weak, necessity of a separate
index, etc.
136
(iv) Subject Classification
Under this system, papers are
grouped according to the subject.
The subjects are filed in
alphabetical order e.g. Accounts,
Audit, Bills, and Bonus etc. This
method is particularly suitable
when the subject is of greater
importance than the name or
location of the correspondent.
The merits of the system are:
(i) convenience of reference when
the subject is known;
(ii)There is scope of expansion
without disturbing the existing
files.
Filing Procedures

137
Step 1: Receiving the
document, If it is a letter or
document that came through the
mail, you record it, in the "mail
received" register and write the
date received or date stamp it
Step2: Action; forward the
letter/document to the person that
has to deal with it.
Step 3: Follow-up; check that the
letter has been dealt with.
Step 4:Collecting Documents to
be filed; all documents and copies
of the replies must be collected in
a filing tray.
Step 5: Filing; choose a regular
time to file every day so that you
are never left with a huge pile of
loose documents.

138
Equipment Used for Filing
 Filing Cabinet; it is used to
keep flat files and hanging files.
 Steel Cabinet; it is used to
keep big files that need to be
locked up.
 Date Stamp; it is used to date
stamp documents that are
received on daily basis so that
they are filed in chronological
order and so we have a record
of when we received the
document.
 Register; it is used to record
files taken out and files
returned.
 Filing shelves; it is used to file
box files.

139
  Box file - This is a big file that is
used to keep big documents that
cannot go into a filing cabinet.
They are kept in shelves.
FLOW OF COMMUNICATION IN
AN ORGANIZATION
This refers to direction and the
manner in which information flows
in various levels of organization. It
includes the following:-
1. Downward communication
2. Upward communication
3. Horizontal communication
4. Diagonal communication
5. Grapevine communication
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
140
A downward communication is
defined as the type of
communication in which flow of
information in an organization
comes from the top management
down to those at the lower levels in
the organization or
establishment.For example if the
Director General of a company
communicates to the accountant of
a company, we can call that a
typical example of a downward
communication.

ADVANTAGES OR MERITS OF
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
Downward communication benefits
the organization in many different
141
ways. Through this communication,
superiors provide necessary
information and directives to the
subordinates. The major
advantages of downward
communication are highlighted
below:

Delegating authority and

responsibility: since downward
communication starts form higher
level, it helps managers in
delegating authority and
responsibility to the right persons.
Managing discipline: Downward
communication occurs in
conformity with officially
recognized rules and regulations.
142
So it helps in establishing official
discipline in the organization.
Increasing efficiency: Downward
communication provides necessary
guidance, orders, instructions and
explanations of various complex
issues to the subordinates that
ultimately increase the efficiency of
the employees.
Informing organizational plans
and procedures: In an
organization, the top-level
executives develop the plans,
policies, strategies, procedures etc.
downward communication plays a
significant role in communicating
those plans, policies, strategies’

143
and procedures to the lower levels
of the organization.
Avoiding by-passing of
hierarchy; downward
communication takes place by
following the established chain of
command of the organization.
Thus, it reduces the chance of
sending message to someone
through by-passing the immediate
subordinate.
Maintaining good labor-
management relationship:
Downward communication helps to
create and maintain good labor-
management relationship in the
organization. When top-level

144
executives communicate with their
subordinates sincerely and
courteously, it develops good
interpersonal and inter-group
relationships between
management and workers. In turn,
this will motivate the employees
and ensure good labor
management relation in the
organization.
DISADVANTAGES OR
DEMERITS OF DOWNWARD
COMMUNICATION
Though downward communication
provides many advantages to the
organization, it is not free from
limitations. Its main limitations or

145
disadvantages are discussed
below:

Time consuming: Downward

communication is a delay process.
In this communication, information
flows through different levels of
hierarchy. As a result, when
information reaches to the lower
level workers, it may have lost its
significance or utility.
Distortion of information:
Downward communication also
suffers from problem of distortion
of message. People have the
tendency to modify or manipulate
information;therefore, authenticity
of information is lost.
146
Lack of explanation: In most
cases, downward communication
contains messages without
necessary explanation and
clarification. For this reason,
subordinates fail to understand the
message accurately.
Deterioration of relationship:
heavy reliance on downward
communication also deteriorates
labor-management relationship
because it does not provide any
scope of direct communication
between them.
Creation of frustration:
Downward communication is
directive in nature. This type of

147
communication hardly allows the
subordinates to discuss any matter
with their superiors. Moreover, the
subordinates are compelled to
follow the orders and instructions
of the superiors. Such coercion
creates frustration in the mind of
the employees.
From the above discussion, it
appears that downward
communication is not always
effective and successful. Therefore,
along with downward
communication, managers should
use other forms of communication.

UPWARD COMMUNICATION
148
The upward communication can
also be called the bottom-up
communication. It is the flow of
information from subordinates to
managers all of who work within
the same organization. A good
example of an upward
communication is when an
employee leaves a suggestion for
top managers through a suggestion
box.

ADVANTAGES OF UPWARD
COMMUNICATION
Development of plan: The
information
received from subordinate plays
important role to help development
of planning of the organization.

149
Motivating to employees;
upward communication system
allows lower level staff to express
their attitude or opinion to upper
level staff. As a result sub-
ordinates are influenced to work
more towards fulfillment to target.
Good labor-management
relationship: upward
communication is participative in
nature. Here, information is invited
from lower level executives and
employees and on the basis of this
information, top executive makes a
decision. So, a good relation
between subordinates and bosses
should be created for the
betterment of the organization.
150
Providing feedback: The
subordinate’s reaction is returned
to the superior in this
communication system. So, top
level management can decide what
to do and what not to do.
Decision making: Top level
executives or superiors need much
information before taking a
decision on a particular issue.
Subordinates supply this
information through the help of
upward communication.
Developing creative and
innovative ideas: Upward
communication facilitates easy
access of the employees or

151
subordinate to the
superiors in providing necessary
constructive suggestions and
opinions about the work related
issues of the organization.

DISADVANTAGES OF UPWARD
COMMUNICATION
In spite of having many advantages
upward communication it is not
free from limitations of
disadvantages. The main
disadvantages of upward
communication are as follows:
Unwillingness: Sometimes
subordinates don’t send the
information to their superior

152
willingly. So, communication
system may be disrupted.
Fear of inefficiency: The main
problem of the upward
communication is fear to superiors.
Generally superiors make a
question about the employees work
position and efficiency. Many
employees fear to communicate
and share their ideas, constructive
suggestions and opinions with the
superiors.
Indiscipline: Sometimes
employees communicate directly to
superior by avoiding proper
channel or chain of command. Here

153
disciplines are not properly
maintained.
Risk of distortion of messages:
In upward communication,
subordinates willingly distort the
message because they fear if they
tell the original fact to their bosses,
they may face some problems.
Delay: another important
limitation of upward
communication is the long and
slow movement of information to
the higher authority.
Supervisor’s negligence:
Sometimes top level executives
discourage the upward flow of
information and neglect the
154
constructive suggestions and
opinions about the work related
issues of the organization.
HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
It is a type of communication in
which workers or managers who
have the same level of authority in
an organization communicate
directly among themselves. A good
example of a horizontal
communication can be as follows:
When a Human Resource manager
communicates directly to a
Production Manager. These two are
people at the same level of
authority within the organization or
business.
ADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL/LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Horizontal communication is essential for smooth functioning of
organizational activities and for interdepartmental coordination. This type of
communication is especially important for larger scale enterprise. The
followings are the main benefits that can be derived from horizontal
communication.

155
Coordination: organizational activities are divided into various departments
or groups. Horizontal communication facilitates coordination of various
departmental activities so that organization can reach its ultimate goal.

Reducing Misunderstanding; misunderstanding and conflict among the

managers and staffs are very common in organizational life. Horizontal
communication helps to reduce possible misunderstanding and conflict
through meeting, discussion, face to face conversation etc.

Strengthening group efforts: Group efforts and teamwork are essential

prerequisites for organizational success. Horizontal communication helps in
reducing conflicts, controversies, and differences in opinions and thus
establishes consensus among the managers and workers concerned. This
consensus strengthens group efforts and team spirit in the organization.

Performing inter departmental communication: Horizontal

communication occurs between people at the same level in various
departments. Therefore interdepartmental communication occurs smoothly.

Gaining benefits of informal communication: Though horizontal

communication is formal in nature, it enjoys some degree of informality in
exchanging information as the senders and the receivers hold same position,
status and honor.

In conclusion, we can say that flow of information through horizontal

communication channel is inevitable for organizational success. In the
present complex business world, efficient functioning of a large business
organization mostly depends on effective horizontal communication.

DISADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

Though horizontal communication is essential for smooth functioning of an
organization, it is not completely free from defects or flaws. The following are
the possible drawbacks of horizontal communication:

Rivaling attitude: Horizontal communication occurs between the people at

the same rank and position. If there exists any hostility or rivalry between
them, they will not exchange information spontaneously. Moreover, they will
hide their information intentionally to deprive someone from the real news.

156
Interdepartmental conflict: The success of horizontal communication
depends on good relationship between sender and receiver. If there is any
conflict, distrust or suspicion between them, horizontal communication will
be ineffective.

Discouraging attitude of top management: In some cases, top

managers discourage horizontal communication thinking that workers may
become friendly with one another and may create threat for the
management.

Ignoring vertical communication: More concentration on horizontal

communication may work as substitute of upward and downward
communication. In that case upward and downward communications are
ignored.

At last, we can conclude that the above stated factors can diminish the utility
of horizontal communication. So the persons concerned should be well aware
of those factors when they communicate horizontally.

DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION
A diagonal communication in an organization is the process whereby the flow
of information is between people who work in different departments and are
at different levels of the same organization. A good example of a diagonal
communication is where a Human Resource Manager is sending out
information to an officer in the Education Department. Some experts in this
field also define Diagonal communication as the process of sharing
information between different structural levels within an organization or
establishment.

Anarchy (lack of control) is the major disadvantage of diagonal of

communication

GRAPEVINE COMMUNICATION
Grapevine communication or informal communication is the process whereby
a rumor or leaked information circulates among workers within the
organization. Information received through the grapevine can either be true
or false since it is mainly based on rumors.

ADVANTAGES OF GRAPEVINE OR INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

157
Present grievance: Under the informal system the employees disclose
their needs, sentiment and their emotions to others in authority without
feeling any hesitation.

Alternate system: The management sometimes is not able to reach all

information by formal system. Informal system covers the gap or familiarity
of formal system.

Increase efficiency: Under the informal system, the employees discuss

their problem openly and they can solve it. For this, the work is done
properly and it develops the efficiency of the employee.

Providing recommendation: In this system the employees inform their

superior about their demands, problem and the way to develop the
implementation system of the work. As a result it creates an opportunity to
send the recommendation to their management.

Flexibility: Informal communication is more flexible than formal

communication because it is free from all type of formalities.

Rapid communication: Informal communication transmits very fast.

Especially miss-information or rumor spread rapidly to others in the
organization.

Improve interpersonal relationship: Cooperation and coordination in

informal communication leads to improve interpersonal relationship which is
very much essential to carry out the business activity smoothly.

DISADVANTAGES OF GRAPEVINE OR INFORMAL COMMUNICATION

The disadvantages of informal communication are as follows:

Distort meaning: Sometimes the meaning and the subject matter of the
information is distorted in this system.

Spread rumor: In this system, the miss-information or rumor spread

rapidly. The original information may be transformed to wrong information.

Misunderstanding: Under this system, generally, the employees do not

obey the formal authorization system. So it creates the opportunity to
develop misunderstanding.

158
Maintaining secrecy is impossible: In informal communication system
maximum communication is made by open discussion. So it is impossible to
maintain the secrecy of the information.

Providing partial information: normally informal communication contains

messages which are not complete.

No documentary evidence; sometimes informal communication lacks

documentary evidence.

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
These include traditional and modern methods of communication.

a) TRADITIONAL METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

Traditional methods of communication included the ones listed below:-

i. Using runner to send messages

ii. Fire signals i.e fire light at mountain tops to communicate certain
information to the people.
iii. Light from torches or long sticks waved at mountain tops
iv. Drum beats
v. Blowing of horns
vi. Writing on rocks
vii. Oral story telling
viii. Traditional dancers
ix. Intuition ( through sixth sense organs )

b) MODERN METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

SOCIAL NETWORK

Social networks allow people to form communities and keep in touch with
each other, share updates, and follow developments in each other’s lives,
share pictures and sent messages. They include: Face book, MySpace,
LinkedIn, twitter, etc. where people can register, create account and start
communicating with businesses, friends, family and others.

TELEPHONE/CELL PHONE

Telephone is a system for transmitting speech over distances, usually by

converting impulses that are sent through a network of wires or waves.
Telephone is mostly preferred as it helps in establishing instant

159
communication. Mobile phones possess many modern features like
messages etc, which can be sent to the receivers.

EMAIL
Email is the modern and widely used business communication system that is
supported by Information technologies. In daily business works such as
buying and selling, marketing, trading and calling, email is a cheap and quick
method to exchange information.

VIDEO CONFERENCING IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

For cross-regional and multinational enterprises, it is much more difficult to
make business communication effective, after all traditional business
communication, like conference calls, is not so convenient and intuitive. In
this case, they turn to use video conferencing in business communication.
With video communication, enterprises can connect employees that spread
around the world face to face in real time.

Advantages of video conferencing for business communication

Face to Face Business Communication; Videoconferencing makes
remote business communication much more vivid, colourful and intuitive. It
gathers employees and you in a virtual meeting room, where you can see
the other attendees and listen to them, just as you were in the same
meeting room. You can easily keep an eye on the body languages of other
attendees, like expressions and gestures to help you better understand what
they express.
It makes business communication orderly and efficient; video
conferencing gives you the ability to authorize the roles of host, presenter,
and attendees. When the presenter speaks, you can easily mute others to
ensure a good business environment. Additionally, it empowers you to lock
the virtual meeting room to make sure nobody will halfway rush in.
It allows content sharing;video conferencing enables you to share content
with others on business matters.
It enhances relationships between employees scattering around the
world;
For cross-regional and multinational enterprises, it's not an easy thing to
build a good relationship between employees that scatter around the world.
After all, long distance makes frequent face to face communications a tough

160
thing. However, videoconferencing has enhanced their relationships and
improves collaboration.

MEMORANDUM (MEMO)

Memorandum or memo is a written form of communication that is used to

exchange information, persuade an action, issue a directive or instruction,
and provide a report to someone or persons, within an organization.

NAME OF THE COMPANY

SYMBOL OF THE COMPANY (LOGO)

MEMO

TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
(SIGNATURE)

(C.C.)

1. TO; this section contains the name of the receiver. For informal
memos, the receiver’s given name e.g. ‘To: Andy’ is enough. For
more formal memos, use the receiver’s full name. If the receiver is in
another department, use the full name and the department name. If
the receiver has a title, write the receiver’s full name and his/her title.

2. FROM; this section contains the name of the sender. For informal
memos the sender’s name as ‘From: Bill’ is enough. For more formal
memos, use the sender’s full name. If the sender is in another
department, use the full name and the department name. if the sender
has a title, use the sender’s full name and his title.
3. DATE; this section show the date which a memo is written.
4. SUBJECT; this contains the body of the message. The message should
be brief but clear. Care should be taken to make sure the grammar and
spelling are correct.
5. SIGNATURE; though some sign a memo, a signature is not a must, but
sometimes the memo has sender’s name at the bottom to be more
friendly, or the sender’s full name to be more formal. If in doubt, follow
your company style.

161
 6. CC: Any person you are copying the memo to.

LETTER WRITING (BUSINESS LETTERS)

A business letter is used to correspond with a company or an organization
about your business affairs. Historically, business letters were sent via postal
mail or courier, although the Internet is rapidly changing the way businesses
communicate.
There are many standard types of business letters, and each of them has a
specific focus:-
Sales Letters
Typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the
interest of the reader. Since the purpose is to get the reader to do
something, these letters include strong calls to action, detail the benefit to
the reader of taking the action and include information to help the reader to
act, such as including a telephone number or website link.
Order Letters
Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer, retailer
or wholesaler to order goods or services. These letters must contain specific
information such as model number, name of the product, the quantity
desired and expected price. Payment is sometimes included with the letter.
Complaint Letters
These are letters written by customers expressing their complaints. Be direct
but tactful and always use a professional tone if you want the company to
listen to you.
Adjustment Letters
An adjustment letter is normally sent in response to a claim or complaint. If
the adjustment is in the customer’s favor, begin the letter with that news. If
not, keep your tone factual and let the customer know that you understand
the complaint.
Inquiry Letters
Inquiry letters ask a question or elicit information from the recipient. When
composing this type of letter, keep it clear and concise and list exactly what
information you need. Be sure to include your contact information so that it
is easy for the reader to respond.
Follow-Up Letter
Follow-up letters are usually sent after some type of initial communication.
This could be a sales department thanking a customer for an order, a
businessman reviewing the outcome of a meeting or a job seeker inquiring

162
about the status of his application. In many cases, these letters are a
combination thank-you note and sales letter.

Letters of Recommendation
Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of
recommendation before they hire them. This type of letter is usually from a
previous employer or professor, and it describes the sender’s relationship
with and opinion of the job seeker.
Acknowledgment Letters
Acknowledgment letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to let
others know that they have received a prior communication, but action may
or may not have taken place.
Cover Letter
Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other merchandise.
They are used to describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and what
the recipient should do with it, if there is any action that needs to be taken.
These types of letters are generally very short and succinct.
Letters of Resignation
When an employee plans to leave his job, a letter of resignation is usually
sent to his immediate manager giving him notice and letting him know when
the last day of employment will be. In many cases, the employee also will
detail his reason for leaving the company.

PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

A business letter consists of the following:
Letter head/Sender’s Address

This consists of the writer’s address and the current date. Sometimes, it
contains the telephone and fax numbers, logo, website and e-mail address.

Date
This is full Calendar Date of when the letter was written, for example:
 October 30, 2016
 30th October, 2016
 30/10/2016
 30-10-2016

Reference Numbers
Most business letters have reference numbers. A reference number serves to
identify either the department from which the letter was written or the
particular file in which the correspondence is to be found. Usually the last

163
number of the references should be the folio of that particular
correspondence.

Example: Ref. TIA/EX/C.1/VOL.V/001

Ref. No. TIA/J/43/VOL.I/030

Receiver’s Address
This is the address of the person or business being contacted. It starts with
the reader’s name or reader’s title then followed by the business address.
The punctuation and capitalization should follow the same style used in the
sender’s address.
Salutation
This is the greeting that begins the letter. It normally begins with the word
“Dear” and always includes the person’s last name. If the name of the
person you are writing to is not known, use the words “Dear Sir/Madam. The
greeting in business letter always ends in a coma.
Subject or Reference Line
This is the theme of the letter. It should be short and clear and is always
written in capital letters. Example1: RE: INVITATION FOR A MEETING,
Example 2: RE: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS DIRECTOR
Body of the letter
It contains the actual message of the letter. It includes:
 Introductory Paragraphs
 Discussion Paragraphs
 Concluding Paragraphs
Keep in mind that business correspondence tends to be short and to the
point. Business letters generally have more formal tone than personal
letters, which tend to have a more conversational tone.
Closing
This ends the letter. “Sincerely” is the most common closing in business
letters. Sincerely is usually used when you know the person. Other possible
closings include “Faithfully” which is used when you do not know the person,
“Respectfully” and “With best regards”. The first letter of the first word of
the closing is capitalized. A comma follows the last word.
Signature
It shows the signed name of the writer
Name of the writer
A name should appear only once beneath the letter body.
Enclosures
It shows items accompanying a letter.
Copies

164
It indicates that a copy of the letter has been sent to other individuals where
due.

THE ADDRESS FORMAT

Block Format
In the block layout, all elements are aligned to the left margin.

HESHIMA SECONDARY SCHOOL,

P.O.BOX 300,
MWANZA.
30th November, 2015.

THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER,

TUPENDANE COMPANY LTD,
P.O. BOX 200,
DODOMA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT

In reference to the advertisement in the Daily News of 15 th October, 2015, I
am applying for the above position in your reputable organization. I hold a
Bachelor Degree in Public Administration from Mzumbe University which I
completed in 2012 and served as administrative Secretary in the
Department of Immigration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for two years.

I desire to expand my experience and exploit my potential by working in a

more challenging institution, and I am confident that my knowledge,
experience and work ethics will make me very useful asset for Tupendane
Company Limited.

I have enclosed my Curriculum Vitae for your attention in that regard and I
am looking forward to a favorable consideration.

Yours faithfully,

BAHATI AMANI

Modified Block Format

In the modified block format, most of the letter is written with left alignment,
but the heading, complementary close and signature block aligned vertically
with the right margin.

165
 HESHIMA SECONDARY SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 300,
MWANZA.
30th November, 2015.

THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER,

TUPENDANE COMPANY LIMITED,
P.O. BOX 200,
DODOMA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT

In reference to the advertisement in the Daily News of 15 th October, 2015, I
am applying for the above position in your reputable organization. I hold a
Bachelor Degree in Public Administration from Mzumbe University which I
completed in 2012 and served as administrative Secretary in the
Department of Immigration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for two years.

I desire to expand my experience and exploit my potential by working in a

more challenging institution, and I am confident that my knowledge,
experience and work ethics will make me very useful asset for Tupendane
Company Limited.

I have enclosed my Curriculum Vitae for your attention in that regard and I
am looking forward to a favorable consideration.

Yours faithfully,

BAHATI AMANI

166
Semi-block Format

Semi-block layout is close to the modified block style except that the start of
each paragraph is indented.
HESHIMA SECONDARY SCHOOL,
P.O.BOX 300,
MWANZA.
30 November, 2015.
th

THE HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGER,

TUPENDANE COMPANY LIMITED,
P.O. BOX 200,
DODOMA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT AS ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT

In reference to the advertisement in the Daily News of 15 th October,
2015, I am applying for the above position in your reputable organization. I
hold a Bachelor Degree in Public Administration from Mzumbe University
which I completed in 2012 and served as administrative Secretary in the
Department of Immigration in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for two years.

I desire to expand my experience and exploit my potential by working

in a more challenging institution, and I am confident that my knowledge,
experience and work ethics will make me very useful asset for Tupendane
Company Limited.

I have enclosed my Curriculum Vitae for your attention in that regard

and I am looking forward to a favorable consideration.

Yours faithfully,

BAHATI AMANI

167
Letter with U.F.S

U.F.S (Under Forwarded Signature) is used when writing a letter if the letter
has to be seen first by a certain officer / person, for forwarding

P.O. BOX ,

PLACE
.
DATE
DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR (ACADEMICS),

UNIVERSITY OF ,

P. O. BOX ,

PLACE .

UFS

DIRECTOR OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES,

UNIVERSITY OF ,

P.O. BOX ,

PLACE ..

UFS

HEAD OF COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT,

UNIVERSITY OF ,

P.O. BOX ,

PLACE

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: ASKING FOR SELECTION RECONSIDERATION

Refer to the heading above; I am among the students who applied for
studying diploma in computer science this academic year .at computer
science department as a late applicant. I successfully completed my

168
certificate in information technology and it was my intention
to join diploma in computer science at but unfortunately I didn’t qualify.

I regret that due to unawareness of the information on selection criteria, I

unknowingly uncheck the option to accept certificate if I do not qualify for
diploma but I would like to express my interest to join Certificate in
Computer Science and due to the factor of time and support (sponsorship)
condition, I beg you to reconsider my application and offer me admission to
Certificate in Computer Science for this academic year

It would be a great honor for me if my request will be accepted and given an

opportunity to pursue my studies at your highly esteemed university.

Yours faithfully,
Signature .
Name... ..

A Letter with “CC” at the end

If you are sending a copy of a letter and enclosures to someone other than
who is addressed to, this is noted by CC, which stands for copy to.

The term “CC” is an abbreviation of “Carbon Copy” or more commonly

“Courtesy Copy”. Back in the day when people were reliant on typewriters
and carbon copy, they used the notation “CC” at the bottom of a letter to
denote who was receiving a carbon copy. Technology has rendered
typewriters and carbon paper practically obsolete, but the notation has
survived. While some people still use the term “Carbon Copy”, more
commonly means “Courtesy Copy”. It is placed at the end of a business
letter to alert the recipient about who else will receive a copy.

Type the letters “CC” followed by the names of all people besides the
addressee who are receiving the letter.
Example:-
Yours sincerely,
M. Masatu
Mafuru Masatu

CC: The General Manager,

Tumaini Company Ltd,

169
 P.O. Box 768,
Mwanza.

REPORT WRITING
The word “report” comes from the Latin word “reportare” meaning “to bring
back”.

A Report is a formal statement of results of investigation of any matter or

which definite information is required.
OR
A Report is a document in which a given problem is examined for the
purpose of conveying information, report findings, putting forward ideas and
making recommendations.

PURPOSES/OBJECTIVES OF REPORTS

 Transmitting information from one person to another or from one level

to another.

 A report is the basic management tool for making decisions.

 To communicate information to the external stakeholders like

shareholders, creditors, customers, suppliers, government officials and
various regulatory agencies.

 To improve labour management relationship particularly, in large

organizations by keeping both sides informed about each other.

 To recommend natural actions or solutions to problems.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS OF REPORT WRITING?

Akran, G (2010) identifies the following advantages/benefits of report
writing:-

 Report discloses unknown information

Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The

committee members collect data, draw conclusions and provide
information which will be new to all concerned parties. Even new
business opportunities are visible through unknown information
available in the reports.

 Report gives Information to employees

170
 Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use.
They are widely used by the departments for guidance. Report
provides a feedback to employees and is useful for their self-
improvement.

 Report gives reliable permanent information

The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the

information available to the office. We have census reports (prepared
since last 100 years) which are used even today for reference purpose.

 Report facilitates framing of personnel policies

Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing

personnel policies such as promotion policy, training policy and welfare
facilities to employees.

 Report gives information to shareholders

Some company reports are prepared every year for the benefit of
shareholders. Annual report for example, is prepared and sent to all
shareholders before the AGM. It gives information about the progress
of the company..

 Report solves current problems

Reports are useful to managers while dealing with current problems

faced by the company. They provide guidance while dealing with
complicated problems.

 Report helps directors to take prompt decisions

Company reports relate to internal working of the company and are

extremely useful to directors in decision making and policy framing.
Reports give reliable, updated and useful information in a compact
form.
FEATURES OF A GOOD REPORT
 The purpose of the report should be clearly defined.
 It should be factual; that means not imaginative. The words should
enable the reader to visualize distinctly what has been written.
 It should be orderly arranged; neatly and logically arranged
 It should be comprehensive; that means it should include all or nearly
all aspects of something.
 It should be clear and accurate

171
TYPES OF REPORTS
1. ORAL REPORTS
This report aims at letting someone who was absent at the place aware of
the happenings at that placee.g. Eye witness which is the feedback from the
person who was present when an event took place.

2. ROUTINE/ PERIODIC / PROGRESS REPORTS

These are the most common types of reports and are written at regular
intervals e.g. Customer service reports.

3. INVESTIGATIVE REPORTS
These may originate from organizations commissioning another body/people
to investigate a matter, a question or a situation in which recommendation
or advice is given on a matter.

4. INFORMATIVE REPORTS
These are reports that examine business situations/problems and provide
factual information.

5. BUSINESS PLAN/PROPOSAL
Business plan/proposals are persuasive reports that attempt to secure new
business. They answer all the basic questions that the investor might want to
know. The report writer must write convincingly.

6. SPECIAL REPORTS
These are reports specific to certain organizations. They may originate from
the writer himself disclosing a certain non-routine matter. Findings of an ad
hoc committee are also special reports.

7. TECHNICAL REPORTS
These describe the process, progress, or results of technical or scientific
research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. It might
also include recommendations and conclusions of the research.

8. COURT REPORTS
These are very specific, dealing with matters relating to a court of law.

9. JUSTIFICATION REPORTS WITH RECOMMENDATIONS

172
Often, the managerial people have to justify their decisions. Justification
reports include facts gathered, interpreted, offered, and recommendations.

10. FEASIBILITY REPORTS

Based on the analysis of business proposition, feasibility reports are
submitted so that higher authorities can decide whether to proceed with the
project or not.

11. RESEARCH / ACADEMIC REPORT

Research report is a mannerly written document regarding the findings of
any kind of research. It is the final product or output of any systematic
investigation which is prepared to submit to the authentic body. Research is
the backbone of any organization. Decisions about growth depend so much
on research that it has to be continuously carried out.

SOURCES OF DATA
These include primary and secondary sources of data.

1. PRIMARY SOURCES; Primary data is information gathered directly

from respondents. This is through questionnaires, interviews, focused
group discussions, observation and experimental studies.

2. SECONDARY SOURCES: WRITTEN SOURCES

These sources of data include books, Papers, Newspapers, Reports
(on the same subject matter) Files e.t.c consulted in the course of
writing a report.

STEPS IN REPORT WRITING

STEP 1: Determine the goal of the report i.e what is the reason for writing
the report?

STEP 2: Evaluate the readership; who will read the report? Accordingly
determine the input and style.

STEP 3: Conduct research; identify the methods you will use to collect,
analyze and present the idea.

STEP 4: Get down writing the actual report; developing the main ideas
and substantive with facts.

STEP 5: Revise the report and correct all the flaws. Revise the entire
report to see that it is logical, clear and has all the relevant details.

173
PATTERNS/OUTLINE OF FORMAL REPORT

(a). TITLE PAGE

Gives the SUBJECT of the report, AUTHOR’S NAME, identification of the

authority for whom the report was prepared and the DATE of the
completion of the report.

(b). THE CONTENTS’ PAGE

It is prepared after the report has been completed (very important in

formal reports). It lists all sections with references;if tables or figures
used, Appendices etc,they should be listed in a separate page.

(c ).EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ( THE SUMMARY OF THE REPORT)

It involves brief statements in the full contents of the body and

recommendations. It uses generalized statements and avoids details
available in the report. It simply tells the reader what was done, how it
was done and how it all ended (Remember some people are interested
in reading a Summary first as it stimulates reading the whole report).

(d). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Givethanks to the people who have helped you in the course of preparing
and writing the report.

(e). DEDICATION
A dedication is the expression of friendly connection or thanks by the
author towards another. It can occupy one or multiple lines depending on
its importance. For example:-

This field report is dedicated to All My Loved Ones, Including My

Venerable Lecturers and Beloved Students.

(f). THE INTRODUCTION

An introduction to a report normally gives a background to the contents of
the report to enable its reader to visualize the situation, if no prior
knowledge exists. The introduction puts the report into context for the
reader.

(g).METHODOLOGY
This section of the report consists of the methods of investigation used to
collect information for the report. It tells the reader how the information

174
for the report was collected, the respondents involved, when and where it
was conducted, and what system was used to record the findings.

The methods of collecting information depend on the nature of the study

being carried out. They may include primary research methods such as
observation, interviews, questionnaires, experimentation method, etc or
secondary research methods such as reading books, newspapers,
periodicals, records of the organization, internet sources, etc.

(h). FINDINGS (THE MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT)

This is the main part of the report. It presentsand discusses the details of
your investigation. Organize the findings into a logical format that will
assist the readers to understand the report such as charts, graphs, tables
etc. Also, organize the facts and information in a very persuasive way.
The writer should provide headings and sub-headings due to the fact that
readers prefer to read headings and sub-headings first.

(i). CONCLUSION
This provides the objective statement (s) or inference (s) that the report
writer draws based on the findings of the report. The conclusion should be
supported by the findings, their analysis and explanations. The report
writer may derive a number of conclusions based on the analysis of
different facts. The conclusion evaluates discussed facts without including
the writer’s personal opinion.

(j). RECOMMENDATIONS
This is the last part of the body of the report and it logically follows the
conclusion of the findings. Recommendations are the suggestions about
what actions should be taken by the report’s primary recipient. If there
are several recommendations, separate them in a list or in subsections.
Normally, put the most important recommendation first.

(k). REFERENCES
These include both published and unpublished material you have used in
the report.

(l). APPENDICES
An appendix contains material which is too detailed, technical or complex
to include in the body of the report for example questionnaire and
complex table of figures.

(m). GLOSSARY

175
 Sometimes towards the end of the report, there is Glossary which is a
detailed list of words peculiar to that subject matter and that have been
used in the report.

(n). INDEX

It gives list of names, subjects, references alphabetically at the end of the

report. It is necessary for longer reports

ACADEMIC CRIME: PLAGIARISM

It is considered most improper, even a crime in academic circles, to make

use of a source without acknowledging it, or to cite as a source a work which
was not consulted. This is called PLAGIARISM.

IBID

(Latin ‘ibidem’; at the same place). This is used where consecutive

reference is made to the same publication. In the following example the
second ‘Baker’ refers to the previous ‘Baker’ in the same book and same
page.

Baker (1999:2) argues that law reinforces social values. Although Baker
(IBID) does not clearly .

OP.CIT

Is the abbreviation of the Latin “OPUS citare”, which means “the work
cited”. (The work mentioned before). This expression can be used when you
are referring to the same work as in a reference earlier in the essay,
exceptthe last one. E.g. Baker (1972: 64) argues that bilingualism is
advantageous. This argument would be logical if and only if the speaker in
question was competent in two languages. In his research, Baker, Baker
(ibid) did not produce credible findings to sustain his contention. It is
important to look at Lambert’s (1973:2) findings. Contrary to Baker’s
(op.cit) views

176
INTERVIEW SKILLS

An interview is a communication transaction in which an interviewer engages

in questioning and discussion with an interviewee to gather information
(Fujishin, 2009:200).

Or

An interview can be defined as a series of questions and answers, usually

exchanged between two people with the purpose of getting and
understanding information about a particular subject or topic (Kadeghe,
2011:33)

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

There are different types of interviews, all of which are used at one time or
another. Some of these styles require training on behalf of the interviewer
and some do not. These styles/types are listed below.

Structured Interview; This is an interview where the interviewers have a

list of questions that they will ask. The interviewers try to ask every question
they have been given or they might just choose a couple of questions
from the long list.

Unstructured Interview (Non-Directed interview); this is not planned in

detail. The questions to be asked, the information to be collected from the
candidates, etc. are not decided in advance. Since it non-planned,
unstructured interview is more flexible.

Group interview

This is type of interview where the one interviewer interviews several

candidates at the same time. They are not effective for most situations and
are rarely used.

Exit interview
177
This is always taken to know why an employee is leaving a job. The
employee is always interviewed by the immediate superior. Sometimes,
he/she may be asked to withdraw his/her resignation by proving some
incentives. Exit interviews are taken to create a good image of the company
in the minds of the employees who are leaving the job.

Job Interview

This is an interview which aims at selecting a person to fill a position within a

company or organization. It occurs between a potential employer and a job
applicant.

The information Interview

This is an interview in which the goal is to gather facts and opinions from
someone with expertise and experience in a specific field.

Panel Interviews

This is an interview where one is interviewed by several people at the same

time. Panel interviews consist of between three and five members from
different parts of an organization. In some cases panels have been known to
comprise over 50 members, particularly when a very senior appointment is
sought.

Phone Interview

These interviews are conducted entirely over the phone to eliminate bias
that may arise from candidate’s appearance, mannerism or ethnicity. Phone
interviews are becoming increasingly popular among large corporations who
are conducting a mass-hiring of employees.

One-on-one interviews (individual interview)

This involves you and the interviewer alone in a private office. It is the most
common interview. Once you are face to face with the interviewer your
dress, appearance, non-verbal communication skills and other visual factors
as well as your verbal communication skills will come into play. Building
rapport with the interviewers is usually easiest in this setting.

Screening Interview

178
They are generally conducted when an employer has a large applicant pool
which they want to narrow down to a more manageable number. The
purpose is to “wide out” the applicants who are obviously not fit. Screening
interviews are usually done by phone, tend to be very short and the
questions will focus on basic qualification.

Stress Interview

The purpose of this interview is to find out how the candidate behaves in a
stressful situation. That is, whether the candidate gets angry or gets
confused or gets frightened or gets nervous or remains cool in stressful
situation. The candidate who keeps his cool in a stressful situation is selected
for stressful job. Here, the interviewer tries to create a stressful situation
during the interview. This is done purposely by asking the candidate rapid
questions, criticizing his answers, interrupting him repeatedly, etc.

PHASES OF INTERVIEW

There are two phases of interview; preliminary interview and the final
interview.

Preliminary Interview

This aims at weeding out those candidates who, for reasons of ill-health, old
age, lack of adequate qualifications, training or experience, are unsuitable
for employment.

The Final Interview

This is conducted by officials of the human resource (personnel) department

and department which had requested for additional workforce.

PARTICIPANTS OF THE INTERVIEW

a) Interviewer; this is a person who is responsible for conducting and

guiding the interview process.

Role of Interviewer during Interview

 Try to put an interviewee at ease

 Explain the purpose of the interview

179
  Give interviewee time to answer

 Keep the goal of interview in mind

 Let the interviewee do most of the talking

 Pursue questions that have not been adequately answered

 Keep records of key points and your thoughts

 Consider whether open or closed questions are appropriate – use

a fair number of open questions

 Have a questioning strategy prepared

 Prepare key questions but remain flexible

b) Interviewee; this is the subject of the interview.

Role of the interviewee

 Try to appear confident and at ease

 Think before you speak but don’t appear uncommunicative

 Try to work out the ground-rules and scope of the interview

 Do not dodge difficult questions entirely

 Don’t be over-familiar

 Smile as necessary but don’t overdo it

 Don’t just answer YES or NO. Qualify points where appropriate,

justify views, and offer examples.

 Try to see where the questioner’s points are leading to.

 If possible, guide the talk into interesting and favorable areas.

INTERVIEW STEPS (BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER INTERVIEW)

a) INTERVIEWERS

The interviewer (s) should consider the following steps for successful
interview:-

180
 Before Interview
1. The size and composition of the selected panel; this should not be
larger than occasion demands, and ought to include the head (or
representative) of the department or section in which the vacancy
occurs.
2. Review of background information; the panel has to review a job
specification to ensure that it has full knowledge of what the job
entails.

3. Method of assessment; this enables the panel to decide how the

various applicants measure up to the job. The method can either be
the seven-point plan or the five-fold grading plan.

i) The seven-point plan; this provides a means of assessing

candidates during interview, with the following:-

 Physical make-up; does the candidate have any defects of health

or physique which might affect good job performance?

 Attainments; are his/her education, training and previous

experience satisfactory for the job in question?

 General intelligence; how much general intelligence does the

applicant display?

 Special aptitudes; does the candidate have any exceptional

ability?

 Interests; to what extent are the applicant’s interests

resourceful?

 Disposition; how well does the applicant get on with other

people? Does he /she influence others? Is he/she self confident?

 Circumstances; what are the applicant’s domestic

circumstances? Are they compatible with success and satisfaction in
the job in question?

ii) The five-fold grading plan; this provides an alternative to

the seven-point plan, with the following:-

 First impression and physical make-up

181
  Brain and ability

 Qualifications and expectations

 Motivation

 Adjustment

4. The setting for the interview; a comfortable room ought to be provided

to ease mental and emotional strain. The interview room should also
be comfortable, and if possible it should be kept apart from the office
or factory in order to encourage the applicant to speak freely and
without distraction.

During the Interview

i. The atmosphere should be friendly, rather informal and

encouraging.
ii. The procedures should be simple and straight forward.

iii. The questions put to the candidate should be indirect i.e they
should not be answerable by mere ‘yes’ or ‘no’.

After the Interview

 Decision is made by the interviewing panel, based on the pre-arranged

plan.
 In case of deadlock, the chairperson may have power to use a casting
vote.

 An intelligence or aptitude test may be set to supplement the

interview.

 A candidate applying for a job usually is asked to provide some

references e.g. names of a person to whom inquiries as to his or her
educational background, skills, experience, character or ability could
be addressed.

 Notify the successful candidate of his/her appointment and state the

date and time of starting.

 Notify unsuccessful candidate that their applications have not been

successful, and thank them for applying and (where possible) for
attending the interview.
182
 b) INTERVIEWEE

In order to succeed in an interview, there are 3 situations to be considered

by the candidate/interviewee i.e. before interview, during the interview
session and after the interview.

Before Interview

 Make sure you remember the date, venue and time of the interview
 Enquire about the kind of job you are applying for, the type of the
company, who owns the company, where the company is situated, its
major functions, how workers are treated, salary etc.

 Make sure you have all the necessary requirements for the interview,
example certificates, testimonials and other equipments

 Dress formally but do not over dress or under dress

 Be smart and clean; brush your teeth, comb your hair, iron your
clothes, use reasonable perfume

 Prepare in advance answers for key anticipated questions

 Arrive at the interview venue at least one hour before the occasion

 Check your grammar and pronunciations

During the Interview

 After you have been called in the interview room, greet the interviewer
(s) in a formal way e.g. Good morning ladies and gentlemen
 Keep your responses short and direct to the point

 Admit when you do not know the answer of the question you have just
been asked

 Look for the signs of interest as well as indifference through eye

contact and body language

 Make an impression to all members through head movement, eye

contact with each questioner, then scanning others to reinforce your
message. Be aware of the body language of panel members, from
nods, smiles and posture shifts

183
  Listen attentively to the questions

 Pay very special attention to answering technical or strategic questions

from experts on the panel

After the Interview

 The interviewer will thank you regardless of your performance and will
inform you that they will communicate to you through your contacts
or through media. Some interviewers will clearly caution you that in
case you do not get any response by so and so dates, consider
yourself unsuccessful.
 Thank the interviewer (s) and leave the room

DRESING FOR THE JOB INTERVIEW

According to Mgana (2016), whether you realize it or not, you will be judged
by what you wear to your job interview. Your chances of making a positive
impression will be greatly if you dress well:

 Avoid spraying on your body too much perfume

 Your hair should be clean and well-groomed

 Shoes should be polished and coordinate with your suit or dress

 Pre-select your attire the day before your interview to make sure that
your clothes do not have any wrinkles or stains on them

 Dress in a business-like or professional manner

 You should not wear sandals or gym shoes or a hat to an interview

unless you have genuine reasons because it sends an unprofessional
message.

THE DON’TS DURING INTERVIEW SESSION

i. Do not chew gums
ii. Do not look at your watch

iii. Do not yawn

iv. Do not look at the floor

v. Do not interrupt the interviewer

184
vi. Do not call or listen to your phone

vii. Do not cross your legs

viii. Do not boast yourself

ix. Do not smoke

x. Do not wear dark glasses unless you are sick

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

a) Close-ended question; these are questions designed to elicit brief,

specific answers that are factual. For example, who was at the
meeting? What is your name?
b) Open-ended questions; these are the questions which allow the
interviewee to expand on his or her answer. They lead to explanations,
elaborations and reflection. They use words like, why, how, what etc.

c) Probe questions; these are normally used when we do not fully

understand a response, when answers are vague or ambiguous or
when we want to obtain more specific or in-depth information. For
example: could you please tell me more about ..; can you give me an
example of . Etc. probing questions often begin “what” or “how”
because they invite more details.

d) Mirror questions/non-directive questions; these are questions intended

to encourage another person to continue to add detail to what they
have said without influencing the person to go in a specific direction in
terms of content. Most often, mirror questions repeat part of the
interviewee’s answer. By repeating part of the interviewee’s answer,
forces the respondent to amplify his or her answer and also gives you
time to finish writing down the original answer. The mirror question
often is coupled with a probe question.

Example:

Writer – “why do you recommend Mr. Mabula?”

Interviewee- “Because he’s fair, has knowledge of his subject and

never wears a tie.”

185
 Writer – “you say you like him because he’s fair, knows his subject
and never wears a tie? Why is the lack of a tie important?”

QUESTIONS TO AVOID DURING INTERVIEW

Some of the questions to be avoided during interview include the following:
 Yes/No questions; they do not yield detailed answers.
 Leading questions; they are unethical because they strongly suggest
the right answer to an interviewee.

MEETING
A meeting is an assembly of people for a particular purpose, especially for
formal discussion.
Or
A meeting is a formal or informal purposely assembly of individuals called to
debate certain issues and problems, and to take decisions.

Meetings may occur face to face or virtually, as mediated by

communications technology, such as a telephone conference call or
videoconference.

TYPES OF MEETING
Ad hoc – this is a type of meeting called for a special task or objective,
and dissolved after the completion of the task or achievement of the
objective. Most committees (other than the standing committees) are
of ad hoc type.

Ordinary Meeting or Regular Meetings-Most meetings are ordinary or

regular meetings. These are meetings which are held usually on a
regular basis and conduct business for which no special notice needs
to be given. The monthly meeting of a parents’ group is an example of
regular meetings.

Special or Extraordinary Meetings- it is a meeting that is outside the

regular timetable, it is usually called to discuss something important or
unusual.

THE PURPOSE OF MEETING

According to Mahelo (2015), the purposes of meeting include the following:-
 To coordinate or arrange activities.
 To give and receive new ideas.
 To give information to a group of people.
 To discuss and solve problems.

186
  To exchange information and share experience.
 To forward ideas or grievances for discussion.
 To obtain assistance.

PROCEDURES OF AN EFFECTIVE MEETING

The following are procedures of meetings that are to be adhered prior,
during and after the meeting:

Prior to the Meeting

i. Define the purpose of the meeting.
ii. Develop an agenda in cooperation with key participants.

iii. Distribute the agenda and circulate background material, lengthy

documents or articles prior to the meeting so that members may get
prepared and feel involved and up-to-date.

iv. Choose an appropriate meeting time.

v. If possible, arrange the room so that members face each other, i.e., a
circle or semi-circle. For large groups, try U-shaped rows.

vi. Choose a location suitable to the size of the group.

vii. Where due, prepare visual aids like posters, diagrams, etc, for interest.
Post a large agenda at the front to which members can refer.

viii. Vary meeting places if possible to accommodate different members.

Be sure everyone knows where and when the next meeting will be
held.

During the Meeting

1. Opening the meeting; the meeting begins after the chairperson
declares the meeting opened. The meeting is unable to begin until the
Chairperson declares a quorum. This means that there should be
enough people in attendance to allow debates to be conducted and
decisions to be voted upon. If a quorum cannot be declared within 30
minutes of the meetings designated starting time, the meeting should
be called again for a similar time and place a week later. If no more
members attend the reconvened meeting, the Chairperson may be
allowed by the standing orders to conduct the business with those who
arrived. If a Chairperson has not taken the chair 15 minutes after the
meeting was due to begin, the meeting should elect another
Chairperson from among the members present to act temporarily.

187
2. Apologies those unable to attend; the chairperson states the names of
those members who formally notified that they were unable to attend
the meeting.

3. Minutes of the previous meeting; the chairperson asks the secretary to

read the minutes of the previous meeting. Thereafter, the Chairperson
will ask the members to adopt the minutes. If the members do not
agree that the draft minutes are accurate, changes may be suggested.
The Chairperson should ask the meeting to vote on those corrections.
If there are only a few minor corrections, the Chairperson may ask the
members to accept the minutes with the corrections. The vote to adopt
the minutes can then go ahead on that basis. Once the Minutes have
been adopted the Chairperson should sign every page of the minutes
and hand them to the meeting secretary for filing. It is not appropriate
at this time, to indulge in debates on decisions which were made at the
previous meeting. Anyone who wishes to change a motion should wait
until the same subject arises in the general business of the current
meeting or raise it in the part called "Any Other Business". The most
important advice about the minutes of a previous meeting is to make
sure you read them.

4. Business arising from minutes of previous meeting; Often the issues for
Business arising from the Minutes of the Previous Meeting are listed in
the agenda. Any reports, pieces of information or other matters of
substance that were requested at the previous meeting are debated
and a vote is taken on the appropriate action to take.

5. Correspondence; Any letters, facsimiles (exact copies) and the like,

which have been received by the committee are discussed here. The
Chairperson should summarize correspondence which cover similar
issues, or express similar opinions and discuss them as a single issue.
The Chairperson presents a piece of correspondence to the meeting by
putting a motion that the meeting “receives the correspondence". This
is an acknowledgment by the meeting that the correspondence as
been formally received and that it may now be discussed and acted
upon, if necessary. If correspondence sent to the meeting is considered
offensive, the meeting can vote on a motion, "not to receive" it.

6. Reports written for the meeting are tabled and debated, if the meeting
wishes to do so.

188
 7. General business items so listed in the agenda are debated. The
debate usually begins with the chairperson calling on to move on the
motion. Once the motions receive a simple majority, or a majority as
defined in the standing orders, they become resolutions.

8. Any other Business; when all items on the agenda have been debated,
the Chairperson may call for items not listed in General Business.

9. Close of Meeting; once all the issues have been put forward and
discussed, the chairperson advises members on the date and time of
the next meeting. The meeting is now officially closed.

After the meeting

i) Write up and distribute minutes within 3 or 4 days. This reinforces
importance of meeting and reduces errors of memory.
ii) Discuss any problems during the meeting with other officers; come
up with ways improvements can be made.

iii) Follow-up on delegated decisions. See that all members understand

and carry out their responsibilities.

iv) Give credit and appreciation to excellent and timely progress.

v) Put unfinished business on the agenda for the next meeting.

vi) Conduct a periodic evaluation of the meetings. Note any areas that
can be analyzed and improved for more productive meetings.

WHY MEETINGS MAY BE INEFFECTIVE

There are many reasons why meetings are not effective, some of these
include:
 The meeting being unnecessary thus wasting members’ valuable time.
 The meeting lacks a clarity of purpose i.e the aims and objectives are
not clearly defined

 Inappropriate style of leadership, i.e. the chairperson dominates and

closes down or disregards other contributions.

 The chairperson exercises little control and allows one or two members
to dominate the proceedings.

 The meeting being too large thus limiting the flow of discussion and
preventing all members being able to contribute.

189
  Problems are talked about rather than being talked through

 Decisions are delayed or not acted upon

 No clear cut decisions are made

 Minutes are inaccurate or seen being manipulated by the chairperson

or secretary for his or her own purposes

 Wrong people are present

ROLES OF KEY MEMBERS OF THE MEETING

The explained below are the roles of each member of the meeting:

a) Chairperson

A proper meeting must have a chairperson to chair the proceedings. The

chairperson is required to control the meeting procedures and has the task
of:-
 Making sure proper notice is given and that there is an agenda, listing
all items that need to be covered.
 Checking (and, usually, signing) the minutes of previous meetings.
 Keeping time (this is important, to ensure the meeting gets through its
business in the allocated time).
 Facilitating discussion
 Keeping order
 Ensuring everyone has an opportunity to speak
 Receiving motions and putting them to the vote
 Declaring the result of any motions (ie what has been resolved);
 Making sure that decisions are reached on issues that are discussed
and that everyone understands what the decisions are
 Declaring the meeting closed.
The chairperson does not usually vote on a motion, but is normally entitled
to do so when he or she is a member with voting rights. This purposive vote
must be made at the same time as all other members vote. The rules may
provide that the chairperson has an additional ‘casting’ vote if there is a tie
in the vote.
b) The Secretary

190
The Secretary is crucial to the smooth running of a meeting.

In order to be effective, the secretary of the meeting should ensure that

he/she carries out the following activities:

Before the Meeting

i. Consult the Chairperson and decide what business requires discussion
and what requires a decision by the Management Committee.

ii. Ensure that the notice of the meeting is given and suitable
accommodation is arranged and confirmed.

iii. Make sure that copies of the agenda are prepared.

iv. Circulate to all members (a) any papers to be discussed at the upcoming
meeting and (b) a copy of the agenda and minutes of the previous meeting

v. Make sure that any reports or information requested at the last meeting is
available and if not available there is a good reason why not.

At the Meeting
i. Arrive in good time before the meeting with the minutes and with all the
relevant correspondence and business matters for that meeting, in good
order.

ii. Record the names of those who are present then convey and record
apologies received from those who are absent.

iii. Read the minutes of the previous meeting, and if they are approved,
obtain the Chairperson's signature on them;

iv. Report on action or matters arising from the previous minutes.

v.Read any important correspondence that has been received

vi. Take notes of the meeting, recording the key points and making sure that
all decisions and proposals are recorded, as well as the name of the person
or group responsible for carrying them out.

vii. Make sure that the Chairperson is supplied with all the necessary
information for items on the agenda, and remind the Chairperson if an item
has been overlooked.

After the Meeting

191
i. Prepare a draft of the minutes and consult the Chairperson and most
senior staff member (where relevant) for approval.

ii. Send a reminder notice of each decision requiring action to the relevant
person; this can be done by telephone, or by an ‘action list' with the relevant
action for each person duly marked.

iii. Promptly send all correspondence as decided by the Management

Committee.

c) The Time Keeper

The main purpose of the timekeeper role is to help the meeting run on
schedule by timing each of the participants according to the timings given on
the agenda.

d) Role of Other Members of the Meeting

While the role of the chairperson is to run the meeting, the participation of
all members is also fundamental to the success of the meeting. Their roles
include the following:
i. Undertake any necessary preparation prior to the meeting.
ii. Arrive on time

iii. Keep an open mind

iv. Listen to the opinions of others

v. Participate

vi. Avoid dominating the proceedings

vii. Avoid conflict situations

viii. Avoid side conversations which distract others

ix. Ask questions to clarify understanding

x. Note down any action agreed on

xi. After the meeting, undertake any agreed action and brief others as
appropriate.

TERMINOLOGIES OF MEETING

192
i) Quorum; this is the minimum number of people required for the
meeting to be valid. The Act requires that a quorum be stated in
the rules of the association for both general meetings and
committee meetings. In the case of sub-committees, the
management committee may set the quorum. The quorum is
usually set as a percentage of the membership rather than a set
number, to allow for changing membership numbers. If a quorum is
not present, the meeting may be reconvened to another date; or
continue, but the chairperson declares (and the minutes show) that
a quorum is not present. The decisions made at the meeting then
carry the weight of recommendations to be ratified later during the
course of the meeting (eg if another member arrives and quorum
is achieved); or at the next convened meeting where a quorum is
present.
ii) Agenda; this is a Latin word meaning “things to be done”. It is a list
of items of business to be dealt at the meeting. The items are
always arranged in logical order.

Format of Meeting Agenda

 Welcoming and opening of the Meeting
 Apologies for absence.

 Confirmation of the Agenda

 Minutes of previous meetings

 Matters arising from previous Meeting

 Announcements

 Reports (officers and committees)

 Old (unfinished) business. List all items for discussion or action

 New business. List all items for discussion or action

 Any other Business.

 Adjournment

Why preparing agenda is a very useful practice?

 If it is circulated in advance, it helps the members to come

prepared for the meeting.

193
  Since agenda has a set order, it helps the chairperson to conduct
the meeting smoothly.

 It ensures that only matters relevant to that particular meeting

are discussed.

 It ensures that every point is properly taken up for discussion.

 It facilitates the preparation of the minutes.

iii) Minutes; this gives a summary of the acts about the meeting.
Formal minutes should include the following details of the meeting:-

 Time, date and location

 Names of the people who attended

 Names of the members who were absent.

 Purpose of the meeting

 Points made.

 The topics discussed

 What was decided

 Any actions that were agreed, and who should do what by

when.

 Closing of the meeting

The guidelines for taking minutes of a meeting include

the following:-

 Ensure that all of the important elements are noted such

as type of meeting, name of the organization, date and
time, venue, attendees, absentees, main topics, the time
the meeting commenced e.t.c
 Prepare an outline, based on the agenda, ahead of time,
and leave plenty of white space for notes.

 Prepare a list of expected attendees and check off names

as people enter the meeting room.

194
  Do not make the mistake of recording every single
comment.

 Use whatever recording method is comfortable for you, a

notepad, a laptop computer, a tape recorder, shorthand
e.t.c.

 Do not wait too long to type up the minutes. Do so while

your memory is fresh.

 Do not be intimidated by the prospect of taking minutes.

Concise and coherent are the mark of a professional.

Why minutes are important?

 To remind you of the actions that you, and the other
people, agreed to take.
 To remind you of what was decided at the meeting.

 To tell those who could not attend what was said.

 To form the basis of discussion at the next meeting.

 To take actions and make follow-ups.

iv) Ad hoc; it is from Latin, meaning 'for the purpose of', as for
example, when a sub-committee is set up specially to organize a
works outing.
v) AOB: Any Other Business; these are items not listed in general
business. They normally appear when all items on the agenda have
been debated

vi) Adopt minutes; minutes are adopted when accepted by members

and signed up by the chairperson.

vii) Apologies; excuses given in advance for inability to attend a

meeting.

viii) Adjourn; means to hold a meeting over until a later date.

ix) Attendance List; this is a list passed round to be signed as a record

of attendance.

x) AGM: Annual General Meeting; all members are usually eligible to

attend

195
 xi) Casting Vote; by convention, some committee chairmen may use a
‘casting vote’ to reach a decision, if votes are equally divided.

xii) Committee; a group of people usually elected or appointed who

meet to conduct agreed business and report to a senior body.

xiii) Consensus; agreement made by general consent, no formal vote

being taken.

xiv) Ultra vires; beyond the authority of the meeting to consider.

xv) Lobbying; a practice of seeking to members’ support before a

meeting.

xvi) Delegate; this is person authorized to act as representative for

another, a deputy or an agent.

METHODS OF VOTING IN MEETING

There are several ways of voting. Choose the one most appropriate to your
situation - don’t opt for a secret ballot when you know everyone in the room
agrees on an issue.

• General agreement; why put it to the vote if it seems everyone is in

agreement? The chairperson can say “Do we all agree that...? Does anyone
disagree?”

• Verbal; the chairperson asks people to say “yes” or “no” and decides
which was the louder response. This method is suitable for larger groups.

• Show of Hands; the chairperson asks people to raise their hand to either
“yes” or “no” and counts the hands. This is useful where a precise vote
count is required.

• Individual vote; the chairperson asks each person to turn for their view.
This is better suited to small groups.

• Secret ballot; individuals vote on paper and two elected people - often
committee members - count the votes. It is suitable for elections.

• Proxy; individuals who are absent can give someone else the power to cast
their vote. Proxy votes are permitted only if the constitution allows for them
and are usually bound by strict rules to prevent unfair lobbying, eg. Votes
may be cast only in writing a week in advance.

196
• Postal; these are only permitted if the constitution allows them.

ORAL PRESENTATION
Oral presentation is the process of speaking to a group of people or a person
with the intention of either informing, influencing or entertaining.

METHODS OF ORAL PRESENTATION

1. Impromptu method; this is a method where the speaker gives a speech
without any prior preparation or practice.

Advantages of impromptu method

 It trains the speakers to think quickly
 The speaker can establish and maintain direct contact with the
audience.
 The speaker has the freedom to use body movements, gestures and
expressions.
 It is easy for the speaker to adapt to changing situation and
circumstances as the presentation progresses.
 It demonstrates the speaker’s knowledge in the topic.
 It demonstrates the speakers’ competence in language and oratory
skills

Disadvantages
 There is the risk of careless selection of ideas.
 There is lack of research to develop ideas.
 The speaker lacks thoughtful choice of language e.g. choosing right
word at the right place.
 There is no careful organization of content.
 The presenter may face false start

197
2. Extemporaneous method; in this method the presenter carefully plans
in advance by writing down only the main points in a note card then uses
them to elaborate an issue.

Advantages of Extemporaneous Method

 It gives freedom to develop and maintain contact with the audience
 Can adjust and adapt to changes in the audience and the environment
 Offers chances for clarification through asking questions
 Speaker can offer additional support materials or comments on an
unexpected occurrence because there was sufficient preparation.
 It attracts credibility because it appears spontaneously.

Disadvantages of Extemporaneous Method

 The language of expressing the concept may not be immediately
available.
 It may fail to respond to time limits if the speaker lacks flexibility.
 There is a possibility of drifting away from the main theme for too long
because of its conversational nature.
 Presenter has the risk of forgetting the explanation to a point.

3. Memorized method; this is the method where the presenter memorizes

the entire speech word for word and then recite the speech without the use
of the manuscript or even notes.

Advantages
 The presenter has freedom of movement.
 The presenter is able to establish and maintain direct contact with the
audience through relevant movement that facilitates proximity with
the audience.
 The speaker is also able to present within given time limits because
through editing and rehearsals the appropriate timing of the speech
can be achieved.
 If the presenter performs well, it is possible for the audience to regard
him highly

Disadvantages
 The speech is not natural because it is rehearsed.
 The presenter cannot easily change to adapt to emerging situations.
 The content of presentation may sound written rather than spoken as
the presenter tries to recall the memorized information.
 Once the speaker loses the line of thought, it is very difficult to recall.

4. Reading/Manuscript method; here the speech is fully written out and

then read by the presenter word for word.

Advantages
 The language is precise because the presenter has chance to practice.

198
  The speech is able to fit within the time limits provided because the
words written are the only words that are going to be uttered.
 The presentation guarantees the content because there is no room for
extra explanations and thus no digressions.
 The presenter can know how he/she is going to progress from start to
finish

Disadvantages
 It is difficult to adapt to changes in the audience and the general
conditions.
 Reading inhibits direct contact with the audience
 Complete and exclusive reading limits the use of very important
communication tools; body movement and facial expressions.
 It is not a good method for rating the capacity of speakers.
STAGES OF PRESENTATION
Preparing for a presentation usually involves clear distinct stages which
include:

 Determining the topic and objectives of the presentation eg. to inform,

to persuade, to entertain etc.
 Analyzing the audience; types of audience and their characteristics
 Selecting the methods of delivering the presentation from
extemporaneous method, memorized method, reading method and
impromptu method.
 Gathering information on the topic
 Preparing visual Aids
 Preparing a suitable introduction
 Preparing the conclusion
 Rehearsing your presentation
 Building confidence
 Preparing some simple activities for the audience, which you are
confident they can answer.
 Demonstrate in-depth knowledge on your subject to obtain credibility
from your audience.
HABITS TO AVOID DURING PESENTATION
i) Don’t expect perfection from yourself since none of us are perfect.
The truth is, even the best, most experienced speakers make many
mistakes.
ii) Avoid equating public speaking to yourself. Public speaking is only a
small part of your overall professional ability. If you are not
confident at it, there are many ways to help you improve. There are
wise intelligent and capable professionals shrivel up on the stage,

199
 as if suddenly nothing about them is right. Whether you are good at
public speaking or not has nothing to do with your value as a
person. It is simply a skill that you can learn and become better at
with practice.

iii) Avoid being nervous. Speakers who lack confidence often feel
nervous.

Nervousness is our adrenaline flowing. It is a form of energy that

successful speakers know how to make this energy work for them and
turn nervousness into enthusiasm, engagement and charisma.

iv) Avoid reading word for word; avoid reading your presentation word
for word from a script. There is a big difference between reading
and speaking. Dry reading disseminates information, often at the
risk of the audience turning out. Speaking is creating an impact with
your content and personality, so that not only is your message
understood, your professional profile rises.

v) Avoid trying to memorize every word; there is no need to memorize

every word of any speech. Attempting to do so will simply increase
stress, and cause greater nervousness if the sequence of the words
you are trying to memorize goes wrong.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD PRESENTER/SPEAKER

i. Should have confidence
ii. Should have knowledge of the subject matter
iii. Should be able to manage time to show that he/she is well
organized
iv. Should have a good sense of humor to make the presentation
interesting
v. Should have good usage and choice of language
vi. Should have appropriate dress code depending on the occasion in
which presentation is made.
vii. Should have a sense of leadership especially when presenting to
college and university students.
viii. Should have good control of voice i.e. frequency and tempo, tone,
volume, loudness, pitch e.t.c are important.
ix. Should have the ability to use non-verbal cues.

SOME TECHNIQUES FOR GAINING & KEEPING AUDIENCE ATTENTION

200
 1. A PROMISE: know how to capture the attention of an audience and
how to give a promise that keeps the audience’s expectations (e.g. by
the end of this presentation I will have shown you how you can
increase your sales by 50%)

2. DRAMA: begin by telling an emotionally moving story or by describing

a serious problem that involves the audience. Professionals use high-
intensity emotions such as anger, joy, sadness, and excitement.
3. EYE CONTACT: As you begin command attention by surveying the
entire audience to take in all listeners. Give yourself two to five
seconds to linger on individuals.
4. MOVEMENT: Walk around the conference table or between sides of
your audience.
5. QUESTIONS: Keep listeners active and involved with rhetorical
questions. Ask for a show of hands to get each listener’s thinking.
6. VISUALS: Give your audience something to look at besides yourself.
Use a variety of visual aids in a single session.
7. SELF INTEREST: Review your entire presentation to ensure it meets
the critical “what is in for me” audience test. Remember that people
are interested in things that benefit them
BUILDING CONFIDENCE

Confidence is the capacity to present fully and with ease. Confidence can be
inborn but it can also be built and improved deliberately. The following are
some of the ways of building confidence:
 Dress appropriately; the clothes you wear will greatly influence the
audience’s perception of you even before you speak your first words.
 Make adequate preparation of the topic through research.
 Make good assessment of the audience and practice the presentation.
 Avoid being nervous; many times, nervous speakers immediately rush
into their speech even before reaching the stage. Get relax before you
begin your speech. After you have walked confidently to the front of
the room, smile to the individuals in the stage before you start
presenting.

201
  Speaking slowly; Speaking slower makes you seem more fluent, more
knowledgeable, more senior, more interesting plus it allows you to feel
in control whilst you’re speaking.
 Maintain eye contact; this also helps in building confidence. Before you
begin your speech, establish eye contact with your audience. A
speaker who looks at the audience is perceived as more sincere and
involved than a speaker who looks down at his notes or stares above
the heads of the listeners.

PARTS OF PRESENTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
This is a must in presentation. The purpose of introduction is to establish
rapport with your audience and gain their attention. In this part of
presentation, the following should be considered:-
 Sufficient background information on the topic should be given.
 A clear statement of objectives and purpose of the presentation.
 The procedure and methodology to be employed.
 The expectations and the obligations of the audience can be
highlighted so that all are ready for both the content and participation
in realizing it.

2. THE BODY
 This is the main part of the presentation.
 It must expound, explain, support and defend the revealed in the
introduction.
 All main points must be covered
 Use examples for the statements that are difficult for the audience to
understand
 Graphic illustrations and other visual aids not only help to clarify the
message but also add colour and credibility.

3. CONCLUSION
This is as important as introduction because even those who were not very
keen during the general presentation do pay attention as the presentation
approaches its end. A good presenter always makes clear that the
presentation is entering its end.
There are several methods of concluding. Some of them are as highlighted
here under:-
 Summary of key points
 Asking questions about key areas
202
 Make a remarkable statement
 Appeal for action
 Quotation closing the main ideas of presentation

203