Ch.

1 Parametric equation
/

g
X,
y
↓
1 polar coordinate system Using
P

1.1 Change of coordinate system

[ - &

scobo

Definition 1.1.1 Change of coordinate systems

A point (𝑥, 𝑦) in Cartesian system change to the point [𝑟, 𝜃] in polar system. Where
𝑦
|𝑟| = √𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃 =
𝑥
i.e. |𝑟| is the distance from the reference point (the origin point, usually) and 𝜃 is the angle away
from the reference direction (the postive x-axis direction, usually).

Remark. Opposite direction: [𝑟, 𝜃] → (𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑟 sin 𝜃) # .

Usually we define the origin point as the refrence point and the postive x-axis direction as the reference
direction. Hence the origin point can be showed as 𝑂[0, 𝜃], where 𝜃 could be any angle.

1.2 polar equation

In this section, we would use some example to introduce polar equations.

Example 1. Write down the equation of striaght lines.（直線、橫線、過原點斜直線、不過原點

斜直線）

Vertica Horizonta Sant

↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

j ·

·
·
- 10 7

S
#
j j
A j

10 7 -
O
7
#
7
·

a
V= a3e08 mx + b
u ac y
=
=
8 =
air

=> Using = murobo + b

* a is a constant
=> U =
b
-
Aftan'n
sing-moose

1
PAS) .
 Example 2. Write down the equation of a circle.

U =
a , a is a constant BER
~
10 Y

Example 3. Other special polar equations.

(a) Archimedean Sprial (b) Petal curves (c) Limaçons (d) Lemniscates

u= acosko
U =
U /ICOSe
=
racos 20
-= a sinkf r= asinz

-S
Theorem 1.1.1 Area of polar equations

=
If 𝑟 = 𝑝(𝜃) is continuous in [𝛼, 𝛽], then the area between this range is
𝛽
1
𝐴=∫ [𝑝(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃
𝛼 2

Proof.
Cut [𝛼, 𝛽] into pieces: 𝛼 = 𝜃0 ≤ 𝜃1 ≤ ... ≤ 𝜃𝑖 ≤ ... ≤ 𝜃𝑛 = 𝛽. Then suppose 𝑟𝑖 and 𝑅𝑖 is the minimum
and maximum of 𝑝(𝜃) in [𝜃𝑖−1 , 𝜃𝑖 ], and Δ𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑖−1 . Hence

1 2 1
2
𝑟𝑖 Δ𝜃𝑖 ≤ 𝐴𝑖 ≤ 𝑅𝑖2 Δ𝜃𝑖
2 =
𝛽 1
By the squeeze theorem and the way we proof define integral, 𝐴 = ∫𝛼 2 [𝑝(𝜃)]2 𝑑𝜃.

2
2 Parametric curves

2.1 Curves

Definition 1.2.1
A curve on the 𝑥𝑦-plane is given by the form 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶. It’s also called the level curve of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
at level 𝐶.

Warning. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) itself is a function, not a curve.

xy" =
-
a curve , level curve of fxy =
X =
gat leve 4

f x,
y
=

xEy NOT a curve

2.2 Conics (quadratic curves)

Conics are curves obtained from a plane intersecting to a cone. There are four types.

Circle ellipse ,t
xyz rh
-

Parabola FTRF hyperbola

=
42X
y
-
=

=
1
=
x =

Pry
- =

3
2.3 Parametric curves

There are some problems when we dealing with curves. Firstly, curve refers to any form on the
𝑥𝑦-plane, so it may not be in the form 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐶, clearly, the polar equation is also a curve. Secondly,
we found that it’s complex to differentiate and integrate these kind of functions (implicit derivatives).
Hence, we use another way to describe curves. x
cosyx" yex Any
+ + = 2 .
Definition 1.2.2
A parametric curve is a curve described by (mostly one) parameter t.

Example 1. (Linear)
parameter

Point+ Vector .
I

Example 2. (Conic)

Circle ellipse ,t
xyz rh
-
X rob
=

X = 91038
using
y =

b sing
y =

Parabola FTRF hyperbola

=
42X
y
- 1
=

=
x =

Pry
~
X = c t2
-
~

y =
act X =
Grosht

y = bsinht.

4
 * Parametrization is not
unique

Example 3. 𝑦2 = 𝑥3 Singuar cubic

Se
· > X

Remark. Curve is not always function, so it may collide, or have more than one value of 𝑦 in the
same value of 𝑥.

Example 4. Two particles start at same instant, one along the linear path and the other along
the elliptical path
. # B
⎧
{ 𝑥1 (𝑡) = 16
− 83 𝑡 ⎧
{ 𝑥2 (𝑡) = 2 sin 𝜋2 𝑡
3
⎨ , 𝑡≥0 ⎨ , 𝑡≥0
{
⎩ 𝑦1 (𝑡) = 4𝑡 − 5 {
⎩ 𝑦2 (𝑡) = −3 cos 𝜋2 𝑡

At which point do two particles intersect? Collide?

Intersect ***
You can try this

= sin 3x +
2y 6 0

E
=

S
-

2 0 or
=Xy
=
,

4 +1 -
5 = -

33tz

Collider i e . . -At : t =
2

1 .
x ,
y) =
2 0 ,

L : 4t -
5 = 0 = t =
"

I : -
brost = 0 = t =
1 , 3 5
, , ...

2 X, 0, b
y
=
.

2 :
4t -

5 = 3 = t =
2

↑: IsinEt =
0 = t =
0 , 4 ...

5
Theorem 1.2.1 (Derivative)
Given a (smooth) parametrisation 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) of a curve C.
It’s first derivative is given by

d
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡
It’s second derivative is given by
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦′ /𝑑𝑡
2
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡

Both provided that 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑡 ≠0

Theorem 1.2.2 (Area)

Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) is a smooth parametrisation of a curve C. Then the area traced out
by the curve C over the interval 𝛼 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝛽 is given by the formula
𝛽
𝐴 = | ∫ 𝑔(𝑡)𝑓 ′ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡|
𝛼

A =

(2yxdx (ag =
+ f -)dt

y dx

6
Theorem 1.2.3 (Tangent)
Points on a parametric may have:

Onetangent TwoorMore
Notangent

·
·
①

If the tangent exists, i.e. [𝑥′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦′ (𝑡)]2 ≠ 0, then the slope of tangent is

𝑦′ (𝑡0 )
𝑚=
𝑥′ (𝑡0 )

nothlim
pf/
M =
him
h

Example 1. (Singular cubic) Find the area in the loop 3𝑦2 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)2 .

1 Parametrize 3y = xx-1

/It
to.
<

= 0
Set X =
3t2 then ,
SystStE ,

t St = 1 3t3 t
y
= = = -

t
=
°
2
y = 3) 0 + t Nort 14
= = =

:. Area = 2 So St-t ·

btdt

5
-

7
Example 2. (Cycloid)
A cycloid is the orbit of a point on a wheel when the wheel rooling on a line.
(a) Parametrize the cycloid in (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))
(b) Find the tangent at the point 𝜃 = 𝑝𝑖
1
y
3 = mx +

(c) Find the area under one cycloid. ↑ F

slope point

f =
0 8 =
2π

x
# /Ex
a

Purple part = a8 = Green part

X =
Green Part -
asino =
at -asing

----- u e m e m,
-abing
so
>

↑ at -asino ,
a-arost =
Pa)0-sino) ,
a l-cost

:ydynousin a
·
in
slope

*1 =
=
B , (x ,
yo = a =
,
a +) =
L:
y Ga
-
=
1x - Fat

Area =
Jalcost. a l-cost do =
and . 1-cos)do = Sinal

Y &X

8
3 Surfaces

Definition 1.3.1 A surface in the 3D-space is defined by a 3-variable equation

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐶

We also refer this surface as the level surface of the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at level c.

Example.

A plane Ax +
By + Cz &
=

X Remark
T
M
·
Normal Vector in
%

S
L

Warning. 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) itself is a function, not a curve.

Like we did before in the 𝑥𝑦-plane (𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)), we can draw the graph of two variable functions 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
into 3D-space: 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). But we won’t focus too much on the graph of them (just because it’s difficult
to draw a 3D figure). We just use these function to find the solution of our optimize problem later.

9
Defintion 1.3.2 The quadirc surface is in the form

𝐴𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 + 𝐷𝑥𝑦 + 𝐸𝑥𝑧 + 𝐹 𝑦𝑧 + 𝐺𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 + 𝐼𝑧 + 𝐽 = 0

Ellipsoid . Hyperbolid of 1 Hyperbolid of

sheet 2 sheet

↓
+- -- =
1

Elliptic Cone Elliptic Parabolid Hyperbolic Parabolid

K
a . . a .

chips

= z
= z
= z

Parabolic Cylinder Elliptic Cylinder Hyperbolic Cylinder

=
x =

42y + =
1 -

10