A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)
In partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
SUBMITTED BY:
NAME- KUMAR SANU DAS
Regd. No. -2201322209

Under the Supervision of Seminar Guide

Mr. Subas Chandra Mishra

Department of Eelectrical and Electronics Engineering

Einstein Academy of Technology and Management
Baniatangi, Bhubaneswar, Khordha-752060
Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Odisha

YEAR 2024-25

[1]
 EINSTEIN ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT,
BHUBANESWAR, KHORDHA

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that (KUMAR SANU DAS a student of 6th Semester Electrical and
Electronics Engineering (B. Tech. Program) bearing Regd. No. 2201322209 has
actively participated and taken keen interest for preparation of the Seminar Report and
Presentation entitled “ELECTROCARDIOGRAM” under my guidance and
supervision. He has successfully completed the task for the partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering during session 2024-25 at Einstein Academy of
Technology and Management, Baniatangi, Bhubaneswar under Biju Patnaik
University of Technology, Odisha.

Seminar Guide HOD

Mr. Subas Chandra Mishra Dr. Bijaya Kumar Mohapatra
Dept. of EEE Dept. of EEE

[2]
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I owe my deep sense of respect to my Seminar Coordinator, Professor Subas
Chandra Mishra, Electrical & Electronics Engineering, EATM, Baniatangi,
Khordha, Bhubaneswar, whose guidance, firmly suggestion and kind cooperation
made the seminar work possible.

I am indebted to faculty members who took guided & helped in me throughout the
completion of seminar work.

I would also like to take this opportunity to express my thankfulness towards Dr..
Bijaya Kumar Mohapatra, (HOD) E l e c t r i c a l & Electronics Engineering, for
his timely help during the course of work.

I am grateful to the Dept. of E l e c t r i c a l & Electronics Engineering,

EATM Bhubaneswar, for providing me the opportunity to execute this seminar
work, which is an integral part of the curriculum in B. Tech. program of Biju
Patnaik University of Technology, Rourkela.

NAME: KUMAR SANU DAS

Regd. No.: 2201322209
Course: B. TECH.
Branch: EEE
Semester: 6th
Batch: 2024-25

[3]
 INDEX

Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1 Introduction 1

2 What is ECG 3

3 ECG Components 6

4 ECG Waveform 8

5 Clinical 10
Application

6 Advantages 13

7 Disadvantages 15

8 Conclusion 17
9 Reference
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 INTRODUCTION

ECG stands for Electrocardiogram.

Its Aa medica test that records the electrical activity of your
heart over period of time using electrode placed on your
skin

An electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a simple, non-

invasive medical test used to measure the electrical activity
of the heart. Every heartbeat is triggered by an electrical
impulse generated by specialized cells in the heart, and an
ECG records these impulses to provide important
information about heart function and rhythm. By placing
small sensors (electrodes) on the skin of the chest, arms,
and legs, the ECG machine creates a graphical
representation of the heart’s electrical signals, usually
displayed as a series of waves on paper or a monitor.

Doctors use ECGs to diagnose a wide range of heart

conditions, including arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats),
heart attacks, and other abnormalities. Because it is quick,
painless, and highly informative, the ECG is a standard tool
in routine checkups, emergency care, and ongoing
monitoring of heart health.

1
An Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a vital diagnostic tool
that measures and records the electrical activity of the heart over a
period of time. The heart produces electrical impulses that trigger
muscle contractions, allowing it to pump blood throughout the
body. An ECG captures these impulses using electrodes placed on
the skin at specific points — usually the chest, arms, and legs —
and translates them into waveforms that can be analyzed by
healthcare professionals.

Each part of the ECG waveform (such as the P wave, QRS

complex, and T wave) corresponds to a specific electrical event in
the heart’s cycle, reflecting processes like atrial contraction,
ventricular contraction, and ventricular recovery. By studying
these waves, doctors can assess heart rate, rhythm, and
conduction pathways, and detect abnormalities such as:

•Arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats)

•Ischemia (reduced blood flow to the heart muscle)
•Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
•Structural abnormalities (such as hypertrophy of heart
chambers)
•Electrolyte imbalances and
•Effects of certain medications.
An ECG is non-invasive, quick (usually completed in a few
minutes), painless, and highly informative. It is used in a variety
of settings — from routine physical examinations and pre-
surgical assessments to emergency evaluations when someone
experiences chest pain, dizziness, or fainting.

2
 WHAT IS ECG
An Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a medical test that
records the electrical signals generated by the heart as it
beats. It shows these signals in the form of waves, allowing
doctors to see how the heart is working and to detect
abnormalities.

How the Heart’s Electrical System Works

•The heart has a natural electrical system that controls the
heartbeat.
•The sinoatrial (SA) node (in the right atrium) acts as the
heart’s natural pacemaker, generating electrical impulses.
•These impulses travel through the atria (causing them to
contract) to the atrioventricular (AV) node, then down the
bundle of His and through the Purkinje fibers to the
ventricles, making them contract.
•After contraction, the heart relaxes, and the cycle repeats.
This electrical activity can be recorded by an ECG.

Parts of an ECG Waveform

Each part of the ECG graph corresponds to a phase in the
heart’s electrical cycle:
•P Wave: Represents atrial depolarization (the atria
contract).
•PR Interval: Time from the start of atrial contraction to the
start of ventricular contraction.
•QRS Complex: Represents ventricular depolarization (the
ventricles contract); it is usually the largest part.
•T Wave: Represents ventricular repolarization (the
ventricles recover).
•ST Segment: Should be flat; elevation or depression can
suggest ischemia or heart attack.
•QT Interval: Represents the total time for ventricular
depolarization and repolarization.

3
Types of ECG Tests
•Resting ECG: Done while the patient is lying down, at rest.
•Stress ECG (Exercise ECG): Done while the patient is
exercising (like walking on a treadmill) to see how the heart
reacts to stress.
•Holter Monitor: A portable device worn for 24–48 hours to
record continuous heart activity during normal daily activities.
•Event Monitor: A device worn for a longer time that records
when triggered by the patient during symptoms.

Uses of an ECG
An ECG can help detect:
•Arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats)
•Heart attacks (both old and recent)
•Coronary artery disease (blocked or narrowed heart
arteries)
•Heart enlargement (hypertrophy)
•Electrolyte imbalances (potassium, calcium abnormalities)
•Pericarditis (inflammation of the membrane around the
heart)
•Drug effects (some medications affect heart rhythm)

How an ECG is Performed

•Electrodes (small sticky patches) are attached to the skin at
specific locations (chest, arms, legs).
•These electrodes are connected to an ECG machine that
records the heart’s electrical activity.
•The procedure is painless and usually takes about 5–10
minutes.
•No electricity is sent into the body; the electrodes only detect
electrical signals.

4
An Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a widely used
diagnostic test that records the heart’s electrical activity. It
provides valuable information about the heart's rhythm,
electrical conduction pathways, and muscle health. Electrodes
placed on the skin detect the tiny electrical signals produced
when the heart muscles contract. These signals are then
amplified and displayed as a continuous line of waves on a
screen or paper.

The ECG waveform is divided into segments like the P wave,

QRS complex, and T wave, each representing different
phases of the heartbeat.

A standard ECG uses 12 leads, offering multiple views of the

heart to identify problems like arrhythmias, myocardial
infarctions, ischemia, and electrolyte disturbances. It is non-
invasive, painless, quick, and cost-effective, making it a
routine part of physical exams, emergency evaluations, and
pre-surgical assessments.

There are different types of ECGs, including resting ECG,

exercise (stress) ECG, and long-term ambulatory monitoring
with devices like Holter monitors.

However, an ECG records a snapshot in time, so intermittent

problems might not always be detected. Despite its
limitations, it remains an essential tool in cardiology and
internal medicine for diagnosing, monitoring, and managing
heart conditions effectively.

5
 ECG COMPONENTS
An Electrocardiogram (ECG) system is a medical
diagnostic tool designed to record and analyze the electrical
activity of the heart. It plays a vital role in cardiology, helping
physicians to assess heart function, detect abnormalities,
and guide treatment decisions. The heart generates
electrical impulses that cause the muscle fibers to contract
and pump blood throughout the body. These impulses travel
through specific pathways in the heart and can be measured
by the ECG system through electrodes placed on the
patient’s skin.

A standard ECG system typically uses 12 leads that provide

a comprehensive view of the heart from different angles.
The electrodes are positioned on the chest, arms, and legs,
and they detect voltage changes resulting from the electrical
activity. The ECG machine amplifies these signals and
displays them as waveforms consisting of the P wave, QRS
complex, and T wave. Each part of the waveform
corresponds to a specific part of the cardiac cycle, such as
atrial depolarization (P wave), ventricular depolarization
(QRS complex), and ventricular repolarization (T wave).
The ECG system includes several key components:

•Electrodes: Sensors attached to the body to pick up

electrical signals.
•Amplifier: Strengthens the small electrical signals for better
analysis.
•Processor: Converts analog signals into a digital form if
necessary.
•Display or Recorder: Shows or prints the waveforms for
interpretation.
•Power Source: Usually, mains electricity or a battery for
portability.

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Different types of ECG recordings can be performed
depending on clinical needs.

A resting ECG is done when the patient is at rest, while a

stress ECG monitors heart activity during exercise. Holter
monitors provide continuous ECG recording over 24–48
hours to detect intermittent arrhythmias. Event monitors
are used for longer periods and are triggered by patients
when symptoms occur.

The ECG system is extremely sensitive and can detect a

wide range of cardiac abnormalities such as arrhythmias,
myocardial infarction, ischemia, electrolyte disturbances,
and conduction blocks.

It is non-invasive, safe, quick, and relatively inexpensive,

making it an essential part of both emergency and routine
cardiac care. However, because it only records electrical
activity at the moment of testing, other diagnostic methods
like echocardiography or cardiac MRI may be needed for a
complete evaluation.

Overall, the ECG system remains one of the most

fundamental and indispensable tools in modern medicine for
monitoring and diagnosing heart disease.

Modern ECG systems have evolved with advancements in

technology, allowing for digital storage, wireless monitoring,
and remote interpretation. Portable ECG devices and
smartphone-compatible monitors have made heart
monitoring more accessible to patients outside hospital
settings. Despite technological changes, the fundamental
principle of recording the heart’s electrical activity remains
unchanged.

7
 ECG WAVEFORMS
ECG Waveforms
An ECG waveform represents the electrical activity of the
heart as it moves through each phase of a heartbeat. The
heart’s electrical impulses are shown graphically as waves
and segments on the ECG tracing. Each part of the
waveform reflects a specific event in the cardiac cycle.
Understanding these waveforms is crucial for diagnosing
heart conditions.
Here are the main components:
1. P Wave
•Represents atrial depolarization, which triggers atrial
contraction.
•Normally small and smooth.
•Duration: about 0.08 to 0.10 seconds.
•Abnormal P waves can indicate atrial enlargement or atrial
arrhythmias

2. PR Interval
•Time from the onset of the P wave to the start of the QRS
complex.
•Reflects the time for electrical conduction from the atria to
the ventricles through the AV node.
•Normal range: 0.12 to 0.20 seconds.
•A prolonged PR interval may indicate first-degree heart
block

3. QRS Complex
•Represents ventricular depolarization (the contraction of
the ventricles).
•It is usually sharp and narrow.
•Normal duration: 0.06 to 0.10 seconds.
•A widened QRS complex may suggest bundle branch
block or ventricular arrhythmia

8
4. ST Segment
•The flat line after the QRS complex and before the T wave.
•Represents the early phase of ventricular repolarization.
•Normally flat (isoelectric line).
•Elevation or depression of the ST segment can indicate
myocardial ischemia or infarction.

5. T Wave
•Represents ventricular repolarization (the recovery phase
of the ventricles).
•Normally upright in most leads.
•T wave abnormalities (inversion, flattening, peaking) can
suggest ischemia, electrolyte imbalance, or other issues.

6. QT Interval
•Time from the beginning of the QRS complex to the end of
the T wave.
•Reflects total time for ventricular depolarization and
repolarization.
•The QT interval varies with heart rate but should be
corrected (QTc).

9
 CLINICAL APPLICATION
Clinical Applications of Electrocardiogram (ECG)
The Electrocardiogram (ECG) is an essential diagnostic
tool with a wide range of clinical applications in cardiology
and general medicine. By recording the electrical activity of
the heart, it provides valuable information about heart
rhythm, structure, and function. Its ability to quickly detect
abnormalities makes it crucial in both emergency and routine
healthcare settings.
1. Diagnosis of Arrhythmias
One of the primary uses of an ECG is to detect arrhythmias,
which are irregular heart rhythms. Common arrhythmias
diagnosed by ECG include atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter,
ventricular tachycardia, bradycardia, and premature
beats

Clinical Applications of Electrocardiogram (ECG)

The Electrocardiogram (ECG) is an essential diagnostic
tool with a wide range of clinical applications in cardiology
and general medicine. By recording the electrical activity of
the heart, it provides valuable information about heart
rhythm, structure, and function. Its ability to quickly detect
abnormalities makes it crucial in both emergency and routine
healthcare settings.
1. Diagnosis of Arrhythmias
One of the primary uses of an ECG is to detect arrhythmias,
which are irregular heart rhythms. Common arrhythmias
diagnosed by ECG include atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter,
ventricular tachycardia, bradycardia, and premature
beats. Identifying the type and origin of arrhythmias is critical
for choosing appropriate treatments such as medication,
pacemaker implantation, or ablation therapy.

10
2. Detection of Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction
The ECG is vital in diagnosing myocardial ischemia
(reduced blood flow to the heart) and myocardial infarction
(heart attack). Specific changes, such as ST-segment
elevation or depression, T wave inversions, and the
development of Q waves, can indicate ongoing or previous
cardiac injury. In emergency rooms, a rapid ECG is often the
first step when a patient presents with chest pain, guiding
immediate life-saving interventions.
3. Evaluation of Cardiac Structure and Enlargement
An ECG can suggest chamber enlargement (like left or right
atrial or ventricular hypertrophy). This can occur due to
hypertension, valve diseases, or cardiomyopathies. Certain
patterns in voltage amplitude and axis deviation provide
clues about structural changes, which can then be further
evaluated with imaging techniques like echocardiography.
4. Monitoring the Effects of Medications
Many cardiac and non-cardiac drugs can affect heart rhythm
and conduction. For instance, medications like digoxin,
beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and some
psychiatric drugs can alter the ECG. Monitoring ECGs during
treatment helps to detect drug-induced arrhythmias,
conduction delays, or prolonged QT intervals that could lead
to life-threatening conditions.
5. Detection of Electrolyte Imbalances
Electrolyte disturbances, particularly involving potassium,
calcium, and magnesium, have characteristic ECG
changes. For example, hyperkalemia (high potassium) may
cause peaked T waves, while hypokalemia (low potassium)
can result in flattened T waves and U waves. Detecting these
changes is crucial for prompt correction and prevention of
cardiac complications.
6

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. Evaluation Before Surgery
Pre-operative ECGs are often required to assess cardiac
risk, especially in older patients or those with risk factors for
heart disease. Identifying silent ischemia, arrhythmias, or
structural problems helps anesthesiologists and surgeons
plan safer surgical procedures.
7. Long-term Monitoring
In conditions with intermittent symptoms (like palpitations or
fainting), devices like Holter monitors or event recorders
provide continuous or on-demand ECG recordings. These
extended studies help capture transient abnormalities that a
routine ECG might miss.
8. Screening in Athletes and Occupational Health
Routine ECG screening is sometimes used for athletes to
detect conditions like hypertrophic cardiomyopathy that
could predispose to sudden cardiac death. Similarly, ECGs
are used in employment health checks for high-risk
professions such as pilots and firefighters.

With advances in technology, modern ECG systems are

increasingly sophisticated, offering features like wireless
connectivity, digital storage, and automated interpretation.
Portable ECG devices now allow patients to monitor their
heart activity at home, improving the management of chronic
cardiac conditions. Telemedicine has further expanded the
reach of ECG diagnostics, enabling remote consultations and
quicker interventions, especially in rural or underserved
areas. Moreover, advanced algorithms can detect subtle
changes in ECG patterns, assisting doctors in early diagnosis
of complex conditions like congenital heart disease and
inherited arrhythmia syndromes. Overall, ECG continues to
evolve while maintaining its central role in cardiac care.

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 ADVANTAGES
Advantages of Electrocardiogram (ECG)
The Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a vital tool in medical
diagnostics that has been used for over a century. Despite
the development of many advanced imaging techniques, the
ECG remains an essential, first-line investigation in
evaluating heart health. It offers numerous advantages that
make it indispensable across various clinical settings.
1. Non-Invasive and Painless
One of the biggest advantages of an ECG is that it is
completely non-invasive. Electrodes are simply placed on
the skin to measure the heart's electrical activity. There is no
need for needles, incisions, or injections, and the procedure
is completely painless, making it safe and comfortable for
patients of all ages, including children and elderly individuals.
2. Quick and Easy to Perform
An ECG can be performed in just a few minutes. This makes
it ideal for emergency situations where quick diagnosis is
critical, such as when a patient presents with chest pain,
fainting, or palpitations. In routine health check-ups or
preoperative assessments, the ECG provides rapid
information about cardiac function without causing any delay
in the overall process.
3. Cost-Effective
Compared to other diagnostic tests like echocardiograms, CT
scans, or MRIs, the ECG is very inexpensive. Its low cost
means it can be used widely, even in low-resource settings.
This affordability makes it an excellent choice for mass
screening programs, rural healthcare, and routine physical
examinations.

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4. Highly Valuable in Diagnosing a Range of Cardiac
Conditions
The ECG is extremely effective in diagnosing a wide variety
of cardiac issues, such as arrhythmias, myocardial
infarction, ischemia, electrolyte imbalances, heart block,
and chamber enlargements. Early detection of these
problems can significantly improve treatment outcomes and
may even save lives by allowing for timely intervention.
5. Essential for Continuous Monitoring
Continuous ECG monitoring through Holter monitors or
bedside telemetry systems provides real-time information on
a patient’s heart rhythm. This is particularly important in
intensive care units, during surgery, and after major cardiac
events such as heart attacks. It helps detect dangerous
arrhythmias early, ensuring immediate corrective actions.
6. Wide Availability
Because the ECG machine is simple and relatively small, it is
available in almost all healthcare settings, including clinics,
hospitals, ambulances, and even at home in portable
formats. Its wide accessibility ensures that heart issues can
be detected promptly, regardless of the patient's location.
7. Supports Preventive Healthcare
Routine ECGs can uncover silent heart problems that might
not yet cause symptoms but could pose a risk in the future.
For example, ECGs can detect signs of silent ischemia,
conduction disorders, or early hypertrophy. Early detection
allows for preventive measures such as lifestyle modification,
medication, or further diagnostic testing.
8. Useful in Evaluating the Effects of Treatment
An ECG can be repeated as often as necessary to monitor
the effects of treatments such as medication, pacemaker
function, or recovery after a myocardial infarction. This helps
physicians adjust treatment plans quickly based on the
patient’s current cardiac status.

14
 DISADVANTAGES
Disadvantages of Electrocardiogram (ECG)
While the Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a powerful diagnostic
tool widely used in clinical practice, it also has several
limitations and disadvantages. Understanding these limitations
is important for both healthcare providers and patients to
ensure proper interpretation of results and to recognize when
additional testing may be necessary.
1. Limited Diagnostic Accuracy
One of the main disadvantages of an ECG is its limited ability
to detect all cardiac conditions. An ECG only records the
electrical activity of the heart at a specific point in time. Many
heart problems, especially intermittent arrhythmias or episodes
of ischemia, may not be present during the recording. As a
result, a normal ECG does not always rule out heart disease.
Some serious conditions can be missed if they are not active
during the test.
2. Cannot Provide Structural Information
The ECG shows the electrical conduction of the heart but
provides no direct information about heart structure.
Conditions like heart valve defects, congenital heart disease,
or cardiomyopathy may not be clearly detected by ECG alone.
Imaging studies like echocardiography, cardiac MRI, or CT
scans are needed to assess the heart’s anatomy and function.
3. Non-Specific Findings
Many ECG changes are non-specific, meaning they can be
caused by a variety of conditions. For example, T-wave
inversions can be seen in ischemia, but also in electrolyte
imbalances, pericarditis, or even normal variants in young
individuals. Interpreting these findings correctly often requires
correlation with clinical symptoms, patient history, and
sometimes further testing.

15
4. Susceptible to Artifacts and Technical Errors
ECG recordings can be affected by artifacts caused by
muscle tremors, patient movement, electrical interference, or
poor electrode placement. These artifacts can mimic or
obscure genuine cardiac abnormalities, leading to
misinterpretation. Proper technique and quality control are
necessary to obtain accurate readings, but in busy clinical
settings, technical issues sometimes compromise the results.
5. Requires Expertise for Interpretation
Although modern ECG machines provide computerized
interpretations, these are not always accurate. Expert human
analysis is crucial, especially in complex or borderline cases.
Incorrect interpretation by inexperienced practitioners can lead
to missed diagnoses or unnecessary further testing, adding to
patient anxiety and healthcare costs.
6. Limited Use in Predicting Future Risk
While an ECG can detect current abnormalities, it does not
always predict future cardiac events. A normal ECG today
does not guarantee that a person will not have a heart attack
in the future. Therefore, ECG must be combined with other risk
assessments like blood tests, stress testing, and imaging
studies to evaluate overall cardiac risk.
7. Not Suitable for All Cardiac Conditions
Some conditions, such as early-stage coronary artery disease
or small myocardial infarctions, may not produce detectable
changes on a resting ECG. Similarly, autonomic nervous
system disorders affecting heart rate and rhythm may require
more specialized testing like tilt-table tests or
electrophysiological studies.

16
 CONCLUSION

The Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a vital diagnostic tool

that has revolutionized modern medicine by allowing
non-invasive, real-time assessment of the heart's
electrical activity. Its ability to detect arrhythmias,
myocardial infarction, electrolyte imbalances, and other
cardiac abnormalities makes it essential in both
emergency and routine clinical practice.

Despite some limitations, such as sensitivity to artifacts

and limited structural information, its benefits in early
diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment evaluation are
unmatched.

With ongoing advancements in technology, including

portable devices and AI-assisted interpretation, ECG
systems continue to evolve, making cardiac care more
accessible and efficient. Overall, the ECG remains a
cornerstone of cardiology and patient care worldwide.

17
 REFERENCE

•Goldberger, A. L. (2006).
Clinical Electrocardiography: A Simplified Approach (7th
ed.). Mosby Elsevier.
•Hampton, J. R. (2019).
The ECG Made Easy (9th ed.). Elsevier.
•Surawicz, B., & Knilans, T. K. (2008).
Chou's Electrocardiography in Clinical Practice: Adult
and Pediatric (6th ed.). Saunders Elsevier.
•Rautaharju, P. M., & Surawicz, B. (2009).
Standards for electrocardiographic interpretation:
Recommendations of the American Heart Association
Electrocardiography and Arrhythmias Committee.
Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 53(11),
982–991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2008.12.014
•Bayés de Luna, A. (2012).
Clinical Electrocardiography: A Textbook (3rd ed.).
Wiley-Blackwell.

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