Student Name :- _________________________________

College Name :- _________________________________

Mobile No. :- __________________________________

Hydraulics HYD ( 314303 )

For Civil Branch Diploma in Engineering

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Chapter No. Chapter Name Marks

1. Pressure Measurement 12

2. Hydrostatics 10

3. Hydro kinematics and Hydro dynamics 12

4. Flow through Pipes And Pumps 14

5. Flow Through Open Channels 14

 Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir

Chapter 1 & 2
Fluid
Fluid is defined as Substance which has ability to flow.
eg. Liquid & Gases

Fluid mechanics
fluid mechanics is the branch of engineering science which deals with the study of behaviour of the fluid when
the fluid is in rest or in motion.

Hydrostatics
hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the study of behaviour of the fluid when the
fluid is in rest position.

Hydrodynamics
hydrodynamics is the branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the study of behaviour of the fluid when the
fluid is in motion.

Properties of fluid.

1. Mass density (ρ)

Mass density is defined as the ratio of mass of the fluid to the volume of the fluid.
𝑚
𝜌= SI Unit = kg/m3
𝑉

ρ = Density m = Mass V = Volume

2. Weight density / specific weight (ω)

Weight density is defined as the ratio of weight of the fluid to the volume of the fluid.
𝑊
𝜔= 𝑉
SI Unit = N/m3

ω = Specific weight W = Weight V = Volume

3. Specific volume (Vs)

specific volume is defined as it is the ratio of volume of the fluid to the mass of the fluid. It is a reciprocal of
the mass density.
𝑉
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑚 SI Unit = m3/kg

1
• It is the reciprocal of mass density 𝑉𝑠 = 𝜌

4. Specific gravity or relative density (S)

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of specific weight of any liquid to the specific weight of pure water.

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝜌 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆 = 𝜔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑆 = 𝜌 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

SI Unit = It has no unit

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

5. Viscosity
Viscosity of a liquid is measure of resistance to flow of one layer of liquid over the adjacent layer of liquid.
eg. Viscosity of honey > Oil > Water > Mercury

Effect of temperature on viscosity –

As the temperature of liquid is increases then viscosity of a fluid decreases.
if the temperature of the gases is increases then viscosity also get increases.

Newton's law of viscosity

Newton's law of viscosity state that is shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient.
shear stress α velocity gradient.
𝑑𝑢
τ α 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
τ =μ 𝑑𝑦
= velocity gradient
𝑑𝑦
μ = Dynamic viscosity
τ = shear stress
Dynamic viscosity
Dynamic viscosity is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the rate of shear strain.

𝜏
μ= 𝑑𝑢 CGS Unit = Poise
𝑑𝑦
SI Unit = N-S/m2
1
1 Poise = N-S/m2
10

Kinematic viscosity
kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the mass density of the liquid.
it is denoted by ‘ν’
𝜇
𝑣=𝜌
ν = kinematic viscosity μ = Dynamic viscosity ρ = Density

Cohesion
It is the property of liquid in which same kind of molecules are attracted to each other is known as cohesion.

Adhesion
it is the property of liquid in which different kinds of molecules are attracted to each other is known as
adhesion.

Surface tension
It is the property of liquid causing a tensile force acts on free surface so that free surface of liquid will behave
like a stretched membrane is called as a surface tension.
• it is occur due to cohesion between the molecules of a surface of the liquid.
Ex. Liquid droplets, soap bubble remains spherical
𝑃𝑑
Surface tension of a liquid droplet :- 𝜎 =
4
𝑃𝑑
surface tension of hollow bubble :- 𝜎 =
8
𝑃𝑑
surface tension of liquid jet:- 𝜎 =
2
σ = surface tension P = Pressure d = Diameter of droplet

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Capillarity
If a thin glass tube is dipped in a liquid then the liquid will rise or fall inside the tube this phenomenon is
known as capillarity.
• it is due to the cohesion and adhesion.
‘

If adhesion of liquid is more then the cohesion so that the liquid will rise in the tube and offering the concave
shape in a tube if the cohesion of the liquid he is greater than adhesion then the liquid level drop inside the
tube so that the convex shape is obtained in the tube example as a Mercury.
𝟒𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
Capillary rise or capillary fall is given by, h =
𝝎𝒅
h= Capillary rise or capillary fall

d = Diameter of tube,

α = Angle of contact

For clean glass tube and water α = 0

For mercury α = 128

Compressibility
if there are variations in pressure on the liquid is occur so that there is change in volume of a liquid then the
liquid is said as a compressible. but in actual practice the fluid is not a compressible in nature.

Vapour pressure
when a liquid is kept in a closed container and evaporated at the room temperature, so that the vapour
occupies above the liquid surfaces exerted some pressure is called as vapour pressure.
It increases with increase in temperature and it decreases with decreasing temperature.

Types of fluid
1. Ideal fluid- The fluid does not possess viscosity, surface tension, compressibility is called as a ideal
fluid. It does not exist in nature so there is no example.

2. Real fluid- The fluid which possess viscosity, surface tension, compressibility is called as real fluid.

3. Newtonian fluid- The fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to rate of shear strain is called
as newtonian fluid. For example water, diesel, petrol.

4. Non newtonian fluid- the fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to rate of shear strain is called
as non newtonian fluid. For example Blood, Paint.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Ideal Fluid Real Fluid
1. It is imaginary fluid. 1. It is real fluid.
2. A fluid which does not possess viscosity, surface 2. A fluid which possess viscosity, surface tension,
tension, compressibility is called as ideal fluid. compressibility is called as real fluid.
3. No fluid is ideal fluid in practice. 3. All fluids are real fluid in practice.
4. No resistance against fluid flow. 4. Resistance against the fluid flow.
5. No example. 5. e.g. Water, oil, gases etc.

Pressure- force exerted by a fluid Per unit cross section area is called as pressure.
In this the force acting normal over the surface of the fluid.
F
P= SI Unit = N/m2 or Pascal
A
P = Pressure F = Normal force A = Area

Pressure head- the vertical height of free surface above any point in a liquid when the liquid is at rest
position.
P
P = ωh h=ω SI Unit = m

P = Pressure ω = Specific weight h = Pressure head

Pascal law- The intensity of pressure at any point in a static fluid is equal in all direction.
Suppose we consider a point a in a liquid then the pressure P is acting at this point
is equal in all direction.

Atmospheric pressure- The pressure exerted by the atmosphere above the earth is called as atmospheric
pressure.

Gauge pressure- The pressure which is measured above and below the atmospheric pressure is known as
gauge pressure.
• The pressure which is measured above the atmospheric pressure is known as positive gauge pressure.
• pressure which is the measure below the atmospheric pressure is known as negative gauge pressure it is
also known as vacuum pressure.

Absolute pressure - The pressure measured from absolute zero line is called as absolute pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure ± Gauge pressure

Absolute vacuum- The space which contain no form of matter.

Manometer- Manometer is a device used to measuring the pressure at any point in a fluid.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Manometers is classified as follow
Simple manometer.
Differential manometer.

Simple manometer.
A) Piezometer:- it is a simplest device used to measure the moderate pressure of a liquid it
only measure the gauge pressure.
it is the simplest device in which one end is connected to a point whose pressure is to be
measured and other end is kept open to the atmosphere, the rise of a liquid indicates the
pressure head at that point with respect to the atmospheric pressure.
P = ωh

P = Pressure ω = Specific weight h = Pressure head

Advantages:-
1. Record of successful performers.
2. Simple in construction.
3. Low cost.
4. very useful for measurement of low and moderate pressure.

Disadvantages:-
1. Vacuum or negative pressure cannot be measured.
2. It cannot measure the pressure of the gas.
3. It cannot measure high pressure fluid.

B) simple U tube manometer:-

it is a thin glass tube of uniform diameter bent into U shape. its one end is connected to a point with pressure
is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere. the U tube manometer contain the manometric
liquid with specific gravity should be greater than the specific gravity of a liquid to be measure.
h1= height of liquid in the left limp above datum AA.
S1= specific gravity of light liquid.
h2 height of heavy liquid in the right limb above AA
S2 = specific gravity of heavy liquid
h= pressure head at point x in terms of metre of water.
For negative gauge pressure :-
h+ S1 h1 + S2 h2 = 0
h = - (S1 h1 + S2 h2 )

For positive gauge pressure :-

h+ S1 h1 = S2 h2
h = (S2 h2 - S1 h1)

C) single column manometer or vertical single column manometer.

figure shows a vertical single column manometer it is a modified form of U tube manometer. a reservoir having
a large cross-sectional area is connected to one end of a limb of a manometer due to the large cross section
area of the reservoir for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservior will be very
small and it is negligible.
δh = fall of heavy liquid in basin
h1 = height of the liquid above AB

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

h2 = pressure of heavy liquid above AB
h = pressure in pipe cm
A = cross sectional area of basin in cm2
a = cross sectional area of a tube in cm2
S2 & S1 = specific gravity of 1 and 2 liquid.

Advantages:-
it is used for measuring low pressure.
it has very great accuracy.

D) inclined single column manometer.

figure shows incline single column manometer. it is more sensitive than vertical column manometer. the
distance moved by heavy liquid in the right limb will be more due to inclination.
l = length of heavy liquid moved in right limb of datum AB.
θ = angle made by single column with horizontal, generally 30°.
h2 = vertical height of heavy liquid from datum AB.
h = (S2 h2 - S1 h1)
but, h2 = l sin θ
Pressure head at point x in terms of metre of water
h = S2. l sin θ - S1 h1

2) Differential manometer:
a) Differential U tube manometer:
Figure shows differential U tube manometer. it is used for measuring the difference between any two points
in a pipe or in a two different pipe.
it consists of a glass U tube containing heavy liquid. the two ends of U tube are connected at a point whose
pressure difference is to be find.

(in diagram a) The difference between in two points a and b are :- (ha - hb) = h(S2 - S1)

(in diagram b) The difference between in two points a and b are :- (ha + S1h1) = S2h2 + S3h3 + hb

(ha - hb) = S2h2 + Saha - S1h1

b) Inverted U tube differential manometer

An inverted differential manometer is used for measuring difference of low pressures,
where accuracy is consideration.
It consists of an inverted U tube, containing light liquid. One end is connected to B.

hA - S1h1 = hB - S2h2 - S3h3

hA - hB = S1h1 - S2h2 - S3h3

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Simple manometer Differential manometer

1. it is used to measure positive or negative 1. used to measuring the difference of

pressure at a point in a pipeline pressure between the two points in a
pipeline or in two different pipes.

2. one end open to atmosphere and other 2. two ends of manometer are connected to
end is connected to point whose pressure the two points whose pressure difference
is to be measured is to be measured

3. Simple manometer cannot be made 3. Differential manometer can be made

inverted type inverted type

4. Manometric fluid used is mercury 4. Manometric fluid used may be heavy or

light liquid. example, Hg, CCL4. liquid
lighter than water may be used

Advantage of use of mercury in manometer,

1. it is a very high density so that Hg column requires less height.
2. it does not mix up with the liquids in the pipes.
3. it does not stick to the surface of tube.
4. at room temperature the vapour pressure is negligible.
5. it does not chemically react with the other liquid

Advantages of manometer,
1. They are simple in construction
2. it has high accuracy
3. it is easy to fabricate
4. it has high sensitivity
5. no affected by vibrations
6. It has good repeatability

Disadvantage of manometer,
1. They are easily broken due to fragile construction
2. they are not portable
3. they have a small range typically about two to three bars
4. temperature effect on readings of manometer

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

• The most commonly used mechanical gauge is bourdon type pressure gauge
• it is a stiff, flatten metal tube bent into a circular shape, the fluid whose pressure is to be measured is
inside the tube
• one end of the tube is fixed and another end is free to move inward or outward. The inward and outward
movement of free end move a pointer through a linkage and gear arrangement a dial graduated in
pressure unit that is bar.
• The movement of the free end of the bourdon tube is proportional to difference between the external
atmospheric pressure and internal fluid pressure. bourdon gauge records the gauge pressure which is
difference between fluid pressure and outside atmospheric pressure.
• It is used to measure the pressure in boiler, condenser, hydraulic system etc.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Advantage of bourdon tube pressure gauge,
1. Portable
2. Simple and convenient to use
3. Simple in construction
4. Low cost

Disadvantages of bourdon tube pressure gauge,

1. It give slow response
2. It is subjected to hysteresis
3. Reading is affected by vibration
4. It require amplification

Advantages of mechanical gauges over manometer

1. High accuracy
2. low cost
3. simple in construction
4. high sensitivity
5. wide range
6. ability to measure absolute and differential pressure

Disadvantages of mechanical gauges,

1. Slow response
2. not suitable for low pressure measurement

Total pressure: The force exerted by a fluid on a immersed surface, when the fluid comes in contact with the
surface is called as total pressure or hydrostatic pressure.
Total pressure, F = ω A X̄

ω = Specific weight
A = Area
G = centre of gravity
P = centre of pressure
X̄ = distance of CG from free surface level of liquid
h = distance of centre of pressure from free surface level of liquid

Centre of pressure: It is defined as the point of application of total pressure on the surface.

IG = Moment of inertia of surface about centroidal x x axis

θ = inclination of incline surface with respect to free surface level of liquid

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 3. Hydro kinematics and Hydro dynamics
Types of flow :-
1. Steady and unsteady flow
2. Uniform and nonuniform flow
3. Laminar and turbulent flow
4. Rotational and irrotational flow
5. Compressible and incompressible flow

Steady flow: The flow in which velocity, density, pressure and temperature does not change with respect to
time is called steady flow. For example water flowing through a tap at constant rate

Unsteady flow: The flow in which velocity, density, pressure and temperature change with respect to time is
called unsteady flow. For example in the case of canal when the regulator is just open the floor is unsteady.

Uniform flow: The flow which velocity do not change with respect to space is called uniform flow.
For example, flow through pipe of uniform diameter.

Non uniform flow: The flow which velocity change with respect to space is called as non uniform flow. For
example, flow through pipe of varying diameter.

Laminar flow or streamline flow: The flow which liquid particle has definite path and path of individual
particle do not cross each other is called as streamline flow or laminar flow. For example, movement of
human blood in human body.

Turbulent flow: The flow in which the liquid particle does not have a definite path and the path of individual
particle also cross each other is called as turbulent flow. For example, movement of water particle in sea
waves.

Rotational flow: The flow in which the fluid particle also rotate about their own mass centre while flowing is
called as rotational flow.

Irrotational flow: The flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid element does not rotate about their own mass
centre is called as irrotational flow.

Compressible flow: The flow is said to be compressible when the volume of the fluid and density is changed
during flow. For example, flow of all gases.

Incompressible flow: It is said to be incompressible when the volume of fluid and density is does not change.
For example, flow of liquid is considered as incompressible flow

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Reynolds number :- Reynolds number is defined by the ratio of inertial forces to that of viscous forces.

ρVD VD
Reynolds number = or Reynolds number =
μ ν

Re is the Reynolds number

ρ is the density of the fluid
V is the velocity of flow
D is the pipe diameter
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
ν is kinematic viscosity

Significance of Reynolds number

If Reynolds number less than 2000 then the flow laminar
If Reynolds number is between 2000 to 4000 transition region exists
If Reynolds number greater than 4000 then the flow is turbulent

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

1. The flow which particle has definite path 1. The flow which particle does not have a
definite path

2. Individual particle of flow does not cross 2. Individual particle of flow cross each other
each other

3. Example, movement of human blood in 3. Example, movement of water particle in

human body sea waves

4. If Reynolds number is less than 2000 then 4. If Reynolds number is more than 4000
flow is laminar then the flow is turbulent

Discharge or rate of flow: The amount of fluid flow per unit second is called as rate of flow or charge. It is
denoted by Q.

Continuity equation for fluid flow :- continuity equation is based on principle of conservation of mass.
for a fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross section, the quantity of fluid flowing per second is constant

A1 = area of the type of section 1

V1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
ρ1 = density of fluid at section 1
And A2, V2, ρ2 corresponding value at sections 2

According to principle of conservation of mass energy is neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be
transfer from one form into another form.
So the total quantity of fluid passing through the section 1 and 2 is same.
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2

But ρ1 = ρ2 , so that Discharge Q = AV

Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

A) kinetic energy head: it is the energy possessed by the fluid by virtue of its motion.
B) potential energy head: it is the energy possessed by a fluid particle by virtue of its position from certain
datum line.
C) pressure energy head: it is the energy possessed by the fluid due to its existing pressure.

Bernoulli's theorem :- Bernoulli’s theorem states that when continuous flow of liquid total energy at every
section remains the same. there is no loss or addition of energy.

Assumption made in the Bernoulli’s equation

1. The fluid is ideal
2. The flow is steady and continuous
3. The flow is incompressible
4. The flow is irrotational
5. Flow is one dimensional that is streamline flow
6. The velocity is uniform over the cross section

Limitations of Bernoulli’s equation

1. It is applicable to ideal incompressible flow
2. The heat transfer into fluid should be zero
3. The temperature remain constant
4. The internal energy of flow should does not change

Application of Bernoulli’s theorem

1. Venturi meter
2. Pitot tube
3. Orifice meter

Venturi meter:
Venturi meter is a device used to measure rate of discharge in a pipeline.
It is fix permanently at different section of pipeline to know the discharge at this section.

Construction
It consists of three main parts
a) Convergent cone: It is a short pipe which converges from a diameter d1 to a smaller diameter d2. The slope
of converging cone is between 1 in 4 or 1 in 5. The total angle of converging cone is 21° ± 1°.
B) Throat: it is a short circular pipe having diameter d2, connected between converging and diverging cones.
diameter of throat varies between 33% to 75% of main pipe diameter. Preferably d2 = 0.5 d1
C) Divergent cone: it is a long pipe which diverge from throat diameter d2 to original pipe diameter d1.
The length of divergent cone 3 to 4 times of length of convergent cone. Generally divergent cone angle
between 5° to 7°.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Working:
The fluid whose flow rate is measure is enters in venturimeter with pressure P1.
As the fluid from the entry section of venturimeter flows into converging section its pressure keeps on
reducing and attains minimum value P2. when it enters the throat that is in throat the fluid pressure P2 will be
minimum.
Pressure sensor is recorded the pressure difference between (P1-P2) the entry and throat section which
becomes an indication of flow rate of fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure and his its kinetic energy.
Less the angle of diverging section, greater is the recovery.

This is discharge under ideal condition called as theoretical discharge.

But, Actual discharge = Coefficient of discharge × Theoretical discharge

Coefficient of discharge:
It is the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge, it is denoted by Cd
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
𝐂𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 = 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐂𝐝 = 𝐐𝐭𝐡𝐞

Pitot tube:
• It is device which is used to measuring the local velocity of flow at any point in pipe or a channel.
• It's working principle is if velocity of flow at a point becomes zero there is increase in pressure energy.
• In the simplest form it is a glass tube bend at right angle the lower end is bend through 90° is facing the
upstream direction.
• he Liquid rise up in the tube for conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy
• The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube considering two points 1 and 2

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Orifice metre:

• It is the device which used for measuring the rate of flow of the fluid passing through a pipe.
• Is works on same principle that of venturimeter.
• It is cheaper than venturimeter but does not give accurate discharge value as given by venturi meter
because of more loss of energy during flow.
• It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edge hole is called as orifice. Diameter of
orifice is 1/2 to 3/4 that of diameter of Pipe.
• pressure difference between section 1 and 2 is measured

A1 = cross sectional area of pipe

A2 = area of circular hole

Vena contracta:
The liquid flowing through the orifice form a jet of liquid whose area of cross-section is lesser than orifice. The
area at particular section is always minimum. This section is approximately at a distance of half of diameter of
orifice
At this section, the streamlines are straight and parallel to each other and perpendicular to plane of the
orifice. This section is called as vena contracta.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 4. Flow through Pipes And Pumps
Law of fluid friction for laminar flow or steady streamline flow:
1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the velocity of flow
2. The frictional resistance is independent on the pressure
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the surface area of contact
4. The frictional resistance varies considerably with temperature
5. The frictional resistance is independent of the nature of surface of contact

Law of fluid friction for turbulent flow:

1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the square of velocity of flow
2. The frictional resistance is independent on pressure
3. The frictional resistance is proportional to the density of fluid
4. The fictional resistance slightly varies with temperature
5. The frictional resistance is proportional to the surface area of contact

Major losses: The losses due to friction is called as major losses.

Major losses due to friction:

Darcy's equation of frictional losses
Chezy's equation frictional losses

Darcy's equation of frictional losses

hf = Loss of head due to friction.
𝟒𝑭𝑳𝑽𝟐 V = Velocity of liquid
hf = 𝟐𝒈𝒅 d = Diameter of pipe
f = frictional factor
L = length of pipe

Chezy's equation frictional losses

Area of flow A
V = C√𝐦𝐢 hydraulic mean depth (m) = =
Wettedd perimeter P

V = Velocity of liquid
C =Chezy's constant ℎ𝑓
loss of head per unit length, 𝑖 =
m = hydraulic mean depth l

hf = Loss of head due to friction

Minor losses: The loss of head due to change in velocity of flowing liquid in magnitude or direction is called
minor losses.

Minor losses are

1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3. Loss of head at entrance
4. Loss of head at exist
5. Loss of head due to sudden obstruction
6. Loss of head at bend or pipe fitting
Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.
1. Loss due to sudden enlargement

Various losses are occur due to sudden enlargement of a section.

2. Losses due to sudden contraction

The various losses are occur due to sudden change in cross section of a vessel.

3. Losses of head at entrance

When the liquid enters from large vessel into the pipe so that sudden
contraction to flow of liquid and this result in loss of head is as follow.

4. Loss of head at exit

The various losses are occur when the fluid discharge into the reservoir or
to exit is as follow.

5. Loss of head due to sudden obstruction

When there are obstacles is present inside the pipe loss of energy
occur and various losses are take place which is as follow.

6. Loss of head at bend or pipe fitting

Because of bending of a pipe is occur there are change in direction of velocity
and the loss is as follow

Hydraulic gradient line HGL:

• It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head and datum head of flowing fluid in a pipe
with respect to some reference line.
• Hydraulic gradient line may rise or fall depending upon the change in pressure.
• Hydraulic gradient line lies below total energy line.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

• Use of HGL : the difference between HGL and centre line of pipe represent pressure head and can be used
to calculate pressure at point

Total energy line TEL:

• It is defined as the line which give sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a flowing fluid in
a pipe with respect to some reference line
• When total energy at the various section along the axis of pipe is plotted and these plotted points are
joined by line the line obtained is called as energy gradient line or total energy line
• Total energy line is always above hydraulic gradient line

Use of TEL: it is used to decide direction of flow.

Power transmission through pipe:

When water or any fluid flow through a pipe, power is transmitted through the pipe.
The power transmission depends upon the weight of liquid flowing through pipe & total head available at
outlet of pipe.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Condition for maximum power transmission:
maximum power transmission is state that power transmitted through pipe is maximum when the
loss of head due to friction is one third of the total head at inlet.

Water hammer in pipes

When liquid is flowing through pipe when it is suddenly stop by closing the valve the momentum of flowing
water will be destroyed then it converts into rise in pressure this high pressure is move through the pipe at
high speed which create noise known as water hammer.
So the phenomena of sudden rise in pressure in the pipe is known as water hammer.

Effect of water hammer:

1. Joints in pipeline may open due to vibration set by water hammer
2. It increases losses due to leakage of water
3. The pipe which carries water from reservoir to turbine in hydro power plant are affected by water
hammer
4. If the water is flowing through elastic pipe then in small amount of elastic pipe get expand

Causes of water hammer

1. It causes due to sudden closing the valve located at the pipe
2. It is caused due to sudden changing velocity of water due to closing valve

Precautions to avoid water hammer

1. Gradual opening and closing of valve
2. Use the pressure relief valve
3. Construct the surge tank

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 6. Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic pump is defined as a mechanical device which is converted the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy and transfer the fluid at a certain height with increasing pressure.

Classification of pumps
1. Positive displacement pumps (Reciprocating pumps): Here, liquid is sucked and pushed or displaced
due to thrust exerted on it by a moving member (piston), which results in lifting the liquid to the
required height.

2. Rotodynamic pumps (Centrifugal pumps): Here, liquid passes through a rotating element, which is
called as an impeller. When the liquid passes through the impeller, its angular momentum changes. Due
to this, pressure energy of liquid is increased, which results in lifting the liquid to the required height.

Classification of Centrifugal pump

1. According to type of casing:

(a) Volute pump or Constant velocity pump.
(b) Vortex pump or Variable velocity pump.

2. According to number of stages:

(a) Single stage.
(b) Multistage.

3. According to working head:

(a) Low head up to 15 m.
(b) Medium head (between 15 m to 40 m).
(c) High head (beyond 40 m).

4. According to liquid handled i.e. type of impeller:

(a) Shrouded or Enclosed impeller type pump.
(b) Semi-open impeller type pump.
(c) Open impeller type pump.

Main components of a Centrifugal Pump :-

1)Suction Pipe :
A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the pump & other end dips into water in a sump is
known as suction pipe.

2)Foot valve:
A foot valve which is a non-return valve or one way type of valve is fitted at the lower end of suction pipe.
The foot valve opens only in the upward direction. A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of suction
pipe.

3)Impeller :-
The rotating part of centrifugal pump is called as impeller It consists of a series of backward curved vanes
Impeller consists of number of curved blades or vane (generally 4-8 blades) enclosed in two circular disc.
The function of impeller is to increase the K.E. of water by forcing centrifugal force on it.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

4) Casing:

Casing is an airtight passage surrounding the impeller Large amount of kinetic energy of liquid coming out of
impeller is converted into pressure energy by casing 5) Delivery pipe A pipe whose one end is connected to
the outlet of the pump and other end delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe. A
delivery valve is connected between the outlet of the pump and lower end of delivery pipe. is used to regulate
the quantity of water to be lifted by controlling the movement of valve.

Types of impeller:-

1) Fully closed type: Fully closed type impeller has circular plate on each side which totally encloses the
vanes, hence the water way from eye of impeller to the periphery of the impeller is formed. There are
less chances of slipping of water as vanes are closed by plates. It is suitable for handling clear & thin
liquid.

2) Semi-closed type: In Semi-closed type only one circular plate on one side. Vanes are fitted such
impeller is suitable even the liquids are charged with some debris.

3) Open type: In open type there is no circular plate on any side. The vanes are open such impellers is
useful in pumping of liquid containing suspended solid matter such as paper pulp, sewage & water
containing sand.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Types of Casing :-

1)Volute Casing: The impeller is surrounded by a spiral casing. The water leaving the impeller flows in this
casing circumferentially, velocity of water decreasing with the increasing area of cross-section. When the
water reaches the delivery pipe, the velocity becomes small, so the pressure increases correspondingly.

2)Vortex OR Whirlpool Casing: If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller as
shown, then the casing is known as vortex or whirlpool casing. By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of
energy due to the formation of eddies is reduced, so efficiency of pump increases.

3)Casing with Guide Blades: In this casing, impeller is surrounded by a series of guide vanes mounted on a
ring called as diffuser ring. The liquid after leaving the impeller passes through passages between two
adjacent guide blades having increasing area, wherein the velocity of flow decreases & the pressure increases.

Working of centrifugal pump:-

1. Priming :-
• Priming is defined as the operation in which suction pipe, casing of pump & portion of delivery pipe up to
delivery valve is completely filled by liquid. This is important because suction depends upon difference
between atmospheric pressure outside suction pipe & vacuum near eye of impeller & if air is present
inside, vacuum is not created & pump cannot network.
• In priming water is filled the suction pipe, casing & into a portion of delivery pipe up to delivery valve. The
delivery valve is kept closed during priming so that the motor is started it will reduce the starting torque.

2. Starting:
• Before starting first of all check that priming is done & return valve is not in closed condition.
• The motor is started after priming. After a short period, when pump attains a constant speed, delivery
valve is gradually open & thus water is allowed to flow in radially outward direction through the impeller
vanes towards outlet of pump.
• As the water flows towards outlet of pump a partial vacuum is created at eye of impeller.
• Due to this suction, water from sump which is at atmospheric pressure, is raised on to the suction pipe.
The water leaves the impeller with high pressure & high velocity through delivery pipe into a desired
height. So in this way water reaches & leave impeller continuously & water is raised to certain height at
constant rate.

3. Stopping :
• To stop pump delivery valve should be closed partly, motor is switched off & then valve is fully closed.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Heads of Centrifugal pump:-

1. Suction head OR Suction Lift:

It is a vertical height between the centre line of centrifugal pump and the free water surface in sump. It is also
called as suction lift and denoted as (hs)

2. Delivery head OR Delivery Lift :

It is a vertical distance between the center line of pump and the water surface in the tank to which water is
delivered, it is denoted by (hd).

3. Static head:

The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as static head. It is denoted by (Hs)

Hs = hs + hd

4. Manometric head:

The manometric head is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.

𝑽𝟐
𝒔 𝑽𝟐
𝒅
hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd + +
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

Efficiencies of pump :-

1. Manometric Efficiency :-

Manometric Efficiency of a centrifugal pump is defined as the, ratio of the manometric head to the work done
by impeller. It is denoted by ηmano
𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅
ηmano = 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓

2. Mechanical efficiency :-

The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power at the at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is
known as mechanical efficiency. It is denoted by ηmech
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐫
ηmech = 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐟𝐭

3. Overall efficiency:

Overall efficiency is defined as the ratio of power output of pump to the power input to the pump.

It is denoted by ηo

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Applications Of Centrifugal Pump

1. For agricultural and irrigation purposes.

2. For thermal power plants.

3. For drainage and drinking water system.

4. Process industries such as paper pulp, chemicals, petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals etc. to convey raw
material and finished products from one place to another place.

5. Food industries.

6. Water purification plants.

7. Oil and gas industries for purification purposes.

8. Metal treatment processes like electroplating, anodizing etc.

9. Textile industries for bleaching of fabrics.

Troubleshooting of centrifugal pump

Problem 1. pump fail to start pumping.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Pump is probably not properly primed. Re-prime the pump by opening the air-vent valve, until a
steady and unbroken stream of liquid is obtained.
2 Total static head is probably much higher Calculate the head with accurate vacuum and pressure
than that, for which, pump is designed. gauges. If more, reduce the head or change the pump.
3 Wrong rotation of impeller. Check the direction with the help of arrow marked on
the pump.
4 Strainer or suction line may be clogged (i.e. Clean the same.
choked/blocked).
5 Speed may be too low. Check with tachometer and compare the working speed
with the given speed indicated on the name plate of
pump. Actual speed may be low than rated speed due to
low voltage of electric motor coupled to pump.

Problem 2. pump is not working up to its capacity and pressure.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Air leakage into the pump through suction Find out and plug the leakages.
line.
2 2. Wearing ring, impeller may be worn. Replace or repair the worn out parts.
Shaft may be loose.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Problem 3. pump start and then stops pumping.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Improperly primed or leaky suction line. Reprime the pump and plug the leakages.
2 Air pockets in suction line. Reprime the pump by opening air vent valve.
3 Too high suction lift. Reduce the suction lift

Problem 4. Pumps take too much power i.e. low efficiency.

Sr. Reason Remedy

No.
1 Too high speed. Reduce the speed.
2 Head may be too low and pump delivers Reduce the discharge or alter the pipe.
too much liquid.
3 Shaft may be bent; impeller may be Replace worn out parts.
running against casing, worn out wearing
rings.

Net positive suction head (NPSH):

• NPSH is defined as net head in meters of liquid required to force liquid into the pump through the suction
pipe.
• It is also defined as the head required to make liquid to flow through the suction pipe & enter to eye of
impeller.
• NPSH is also defined as the atmospheric pressure head at inlet of pump minus sum of static suction head,
vapour pressure head frictional head loss in suction pipe & kinetic head loss in suction pipe.
• NPSH = [Atmospheric pressure head] - [ Static suction head + Vapour pressure head + frictional head loss
in suction pipe + kinetic head loss in suction pipe]

Where

Pa = atmospheric pressure,

hs = static suction head,

hfs = Frictional head loss in suction pipe

𝑽𝟐
𝒔
= Kinetic head loss in suction pipe
𝟐𝒈

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Submersible pump :

• Submersible pump is having hermetically sealed motor closely coupled to

pump body. The whole assembly is submerged in the water to be pumped.
• The impellers supported by motor shaft, rotate inside the diffuser which
transfer the liquid leaving each impeller towards the suction opening of the
next impeller.
• Once the liquid has passed through the series of impellers, it is expelled via
the delivery opening.
• Each impeller has its respective vanes diffuser constitutes a pumping stage
which, according to operating principle of centrifugal machines, generate a
pressure increase in fluids which is added to each subsequent pressure
increase induced by the other stages in series.

Advantages :

1.The advantage of these pumps is that it can provide a significant lifting force as it does not depend upon
external air pressure to lift the fluid.

2. It has low initial cost & low operating cost.

3. It provides safety & noiseless & quite in operation.

4. It provides more reliability & longer life.

Applications :

1.These pumps are used for drainage, sewage, pumping, general industrial pumping & slurry pumping.

2.It is suitable for water supply from wells, reservoirs, for domestic use for civil & industrial applications.

Construction and working of single acting reciprocating pump

Working of Single Acting Cylinder:

1. Crank is at Inner Dead Centre (IDC). This crank rotates in clockwise direction.

2. As crank rotates in clockwise direction, the piston moves towards right and vacuum is created on the left
side of the piston.

3. This vacuum causes suction valve to open and consequently the liquid is forced from the sump into the left
side of the piston.

4. When crank is at the ODC the suction stroke is completed, and the left side of the cylinder is full of liquid.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

5. As the crank again rotates from ODC (Outer Dead Centre) to IDC, the piston moves inward to the left and
high pressure is build up in the cylinder.

6. The delivery valve open and the liquid is forced into the delivery pipe.

7. The liquid flow to the discharge and tank through the delivery pipe. At the end of delivery stroke the crank
comes to the IDC and the piston is at extreme left position.

Construction and working of double acting reciprocating pump

1.In double acting reciprocating pump also the crank rotates from IDC (Inner Dead Centre) in the clockwise
direction a vacuum is created on the left side of piston and liquid is sucked in from the sump through suction
valve S₁.

2.At the same time, the liquid on the right side of piston is compressed and the high pressure causes the
delivery valve d2 to open and liquid flows into discharge tank.

3.This operation continues till the crank reaches Outer Dead Centre (ODC).

4. When the crank rotate from ODC to IDC, liquid is sucked from the sump through the suction valve S₂ and is
delivered to the discharge tank through the delivery valve di

5.Thus the cycle continuously works and we get more uniform discharge through the double acting
reciprocating pump.

Concept of Slip, Negative slip in reciprocating pump :-

• Slip is defined as the difference between theoretical discharge and actual discharge.
• The actual discharge of pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to leakage.

Slip = Qth - Qact

Generally, Slip is expressed in percentage.

𝐐𝐭𝐡 − 𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
Percentage slip = x 100
𝑸𝒕𝒉

𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
Percentage slip = 1 - x 100
𝑸𝒕𝒉

𝐐𝐚𝐜𝐭
Percentage slip ( 1- Cd )x 100. Where, Cd =
𝑸𝒕𝒉

• When theoretical discharge (Q) is greater than actual discharge (Qact) then slip is known as positive slip.
• When theoretical discharge (Q) is less than actual discharge (Qact) then slip is known as negative slip.

This happens when pump runs at high speed and suction pipe is too long as compared to delivery pipe.
Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.
Comparison between Centrifugal Pump & Reciprocating Pump

Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump

1) Simple in construction because of less number of 1) Complicated in construction, because of more
parts. number of parts.
2) Total weight of pump is less for given discharge. 2)Total weight of pump is more for given discharge.
3) Suitable for large discharge and small heads. 3) Suitable for less discharge and higher heads
4) Requires less floor area and simple foundation. 4) Requires more floor area and comparatively
heavy foundation.
5)Since it has rotating element, there is less wear & 5) Since it has reciprocating element, there is more
tear. wear and tear.
6) Balancing proper. 6) Balancing is not proper.
7) Maintenance cost is less. 7) Maintenance cost is more.
8)Suction and delivery valves are not necessary. 8) Suction and delivery valves are necessary.
9) It can handle dirty water. 9) It can't handle dirty water.
10) Starting torque is more. 10) Starting torque is less.
11) It can run at high speed. 11) It can't run at high speed.
12) It has less efficiency. 12) It has more efficiency.
13) Its delivery is continuous. 13) Its delivery is pulsating.
14) Air vessels are not required. 14) Air vessels are required.
15) Thrust on the crank shaft is uniform. 15) Air vessels are required.
16) Operation is quite simple. 16) Much care is required on operation.

Also Available on Playstore

Vineet Tutorials
Best of Luck

Best of Luck

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

 Unit 5. Flow through open channels
Open channels :- It is defined as passage through which water flows under atmospheric pressure under the
force of gravity.

Types of channels

Natural channels :- The channel having irregular shape which is develop in natural way. Eg. Rivers

Artificial channels :- The channel built artificially for carrying the water for various purposes Eg. Canals

Differentiate between Open channel flow and Pipe flow

Open channel flow Pipe flow

1. Flow is under gravity. 1. Fluid is under pressure.
2. It has free top surface subjected to atmospheric 2. No free top surface.
pressure.
3. Channel must have falling gradient. 3. Any gradient falling as well as a rising.
4. Computation of flow by Manning's formula. 4. Computation of flow by Darcy Weisbatch's
equation

Wetted area :- The area of section of channel getting wet during the flow.

Wetted perimeter :- The parameter of section getting wet during flow.

Hydraulic mean depth for hydraulic radius:- It is the ratio of wetted area to the wetted perimeter.

R = A/P

Most economical channel section :-

The channel section having maximum discharge and minimum cross-sectional area as well as parameter is
called most economical channel section or best channel section.

Condition for rectangular channel to be most economical :-

For efficient discharge for a rectangular channel the depth of the flow should be one half the breadth of
channel i.e. d = b/2. And hydraulic mean depth R = d/2

Condition for trapezoidal channel to be most economical:- for efficient discharge for trapezoidal channel R =
b + 2nd = 2d √1+n²

Velocity Measuring Devices for Channels

Floats, Pitot tube, Current meter are used for measuring velocity of flow in an open channel.

In order to determine the discharge flowing through channel, the mean velocity of flow is required to be
determined. The velocity of flow in channels may be measured by the following methods:

(a) Float, (b) Current meter, (c) Pitot meter.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

Current Meter

A current meter is another instrument, which is commonly used for measuring the velocity of flow in
channels.

Principle:

• Current meter is a miniature reaction turbine. When placed

in a stream of water, it rotates with a speed, which is a
function of the velocity of flow at that point. It can be
calibrated by observing its r.p.m., towing with a carriage
mounted on rails, across still water at known velocities. It
can be used afterwards to measure velocities of flow at
different points in a channel.

• Types of current meters: There are two types of current

meters, differing only in construction. (a) Propeller type or
screw type, (b) Cup type (Fig. 5.24).
• In general, current meter consists of a wheel or revolving element, containing blades or cups and a tail
one which flat vanes are fixed. In a propeller type or screw type current meter, the revolving element
consists of a shaft, with its axis parallel to direction of flow which carries number of propeller blades
mounted around the shaft.
• In a cup type current meter, the wheel or the revolving element has the form of series of conical cups
mounted on the spindle. The spindle is held vertical at right angles to the direction of flow.

Method of using current meter:- The meter is held vertically immersed in the stream of water. The wheel
rotates by the thrust exerted by the flowing water on the blades or cups. The number of revolutions of the
wheel per unit time is proportional to the velocity of flow. A revolution counter operated by dry cell or 12 V
battery is fitted to read velocity. The counter is calibrated, or a calibration curve is provided to read velocity. A
cup type current meter is shown in Fig. 5.24.

Float

This is the oldest and simplest method to find the surface velocity of water. Time required by a float to
traverse a known distance is recorded with the help of stopwatch.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Then, Velocity =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
This gives the surface velocity of water flowing through the channel. Floats are of three types: (i) Surface or
Single float, (ii) Double float and (iii) Rod float or velocity rod.

i) Surface float:

It is a hollow sphere of 20 to 40 cm diameter made of wood or iron sheet, with a flag fixed at its top. The time
required for the travel of the float through a gauging distance of say 100 m is recorded in seconds by a
stopwatch.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
Surface velocity =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞

The average velocity is approximately equal to 80% of surface velocity.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

(ii) Double float:

• A better method of determining the velocity of flow of

water is to use double float. Fig. 5.25 (b) consists a
spherical surface float to which is attached a hollow metal
sphere, heavier than water and suspended from the float
by a chord of known length.
• the depth of lower float can be regulated by the length of
the chord. The velocity is then obtained noting the time
taken by the float to traverse a known gauging distance
100 m as in the case of sing float.
• Double float method directly gives the value of velocity equal to the mean velocity between the surface
and the velocity of the layer traversed by the lower float.

Rod float (Velocity rod) :

• A rod float, as shown in Fig. 5.25 (c), consists of a wooden rod, square or circular section 8 cm x 8 cm to 15
cm x 15 cm or 10 cm diameter. It is painted in black and white colour for alternate 50 cm length and is
provided a flat at its top.
• The wooden rod is made heavy at the bottom by fixing an iron shoe, so as to ensure that the rod floats
vertically.
• The length of rod is about 80% of the depth of flow. A rod is released at the beginning of gauging distance
and time is recorded to travel 100 m.
• Velocity is obtained in a similar way as explained in previous methods. The rod floats while travel with a
velocity equal to the mean velocity of flow.
• Hence, it gives the mean or average velocity directly.

Pitot Tube

• Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of flow at any point (in a pipe or
in an open channel). The velocity of flow in a closed pipe is not the same at
all points of cross-section. For rough calculations, the velocity at centre of
the pipe is measured. The velocity of flow at centre of the pipe is maximum.
Then mean velocity is equal to 0.84 times the maximum velocity.
• A simple pitot tube is a glass tube bent at right angle. The tube is placed in
the moving liquid as shown in Fig. 5.26.

Froude’s Number

The ratio of the inertia force & gravity force is dimensionless parameter is called Froude's number.
𝐕
Fr =
√𝐠𝐃

Fr = Froude's number,

V-Mean velocity of flow,

g = acceleration due to gravity,

R= Hydraulic mean depth.

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.

When F-1 then flow through channel is critical flow."

F, <1 then flow through channel is Subcritical or streaming flow.

F,> 1 then flow through channel is Supercritical or shooting or torrential flow.

Hydraulic jump

The phenomenon occur in open channel when rapidly flowing water suddenly change its height is called
hydraulic jump.

Occurrence of Hydraulic jump OR Location where hydraulic jump form:

1) At the downstream side of the spillway.

2) At the downstream side of sluice gate:

3) At downstream side of canal fall.

4) At the change of gradient from steep slope to mild slope.

Uses of Hydraulic Jump :

1)Mixing of chemicals.

2)Energy dissipation below spillway..

3)Regaining head.

Notch : -

A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through a tank. It is opening in the side of a
tank in such way that the liquid surface in tank is below the top edge of opening.

Types of notches :-

1) Rectangular notch
2) Triangular notch

Advantage of triangular notch over rectangular notch :-

1)For measurement of discharge in each triangular notch, only one reading i e. head (H) is required. 2)The
expression for discharge for right angle V-notch is very simple
3)Triangular notch gives more accurate results for low discharge than a rectangular notch because it gives
greater head even for low discharge
4) Ventilation of triangular notch is not necessary.
5)In most of the case of flow over a triangular notch, the velocity may be neglected

Notes By :- Vineet Bhavsar Sir.