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Measurement of Nuclear Radiation

The document discusses the measurement of nuclear radiation using various radiometric instruments and detectors that convert radiation into electrical signals for analysis. It details different types of detectors, their performance parameters, and the principles of gamma-ray spectrometry, including the importance of precision and error management in radiometric measurements. Additionally, it highlights methods to improve measurement accuracy and the challenges faced in airborne gamma-ray spectrometry.

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Kamande Kimani
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18 views23 pages

Measurement of Nuclear Radiation

The document discusses the measurement of nuclear radiation using various radiometric instruments and detectors that convert radiation into electrical signals for analysis. It details different types of detectors, their performance parameters, and the principles of gamma-ray spectrometry, including the importance of precision and error management in radiometric measurements. Additionally, it highlights methods to improve measurement accuracy and the challenges faced in airborne gamma-ray spectrometry.

Uploaded by

Kamande Kimani
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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2.

MEASUREMENT OF NUCLEAR
RADIATION
RADIOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS

Radioactivity is mostly detected by means of ionizing effects of


nuclear radiation. A sensor that converts nuclear radiation into
electrical signals is called the detector. Electrical signals
(ionization current or voltage pulses) are amplified, analyzed,
registered and displayed on the screen of the instrument panel.
Digital number on the instrument display is a measure of
radiation.

Nuclear radiation counts Resultant numerical


value on the display
is a relative measure
of observed radiation.
3 Conversion to physical
radiation units is
performed by means
Detector Electrical pulses of an instrument
Block of instrument calibration constant.
RADIOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS
• Radiation can be measured through the physical and chemical
effects of its interaction with matter. Field and laboratory
radiometric methods are based mainly on the ionizing
properties of radiation and the use of instruments which
convert the radiation into electrical signals. Typical radiometric
instrument consists of a detector (converts the radiation to
electrical signals) and the instrument block (adapts, analyses
and registers signals)

Probe with a detector 1

Instrument block 2 2
DETECTORS

• Detectors:

ionization chambers
proportional counters
Geiger-Müller tubes
scintillation counters
semiconductor detectors
thermoluminiscence detectors
various chemical and mechanical track detectors
DETECTORS FOR GAMMA-RAYS

Density g/cm3

• Thallium activated Sodium Iodide NaI(Tl) scintillation 3.67

• Thallium activated Caesium Iodide CsI(Tl) scintillation 4.51

• Lanthanum Bromide Cerium LaBr3(Ce) scintillation 5.29

• Bismuth Germanium Oxygen Bi4Ge3O12 scintillation 7.13

• High Purity Germanium HP Ge semiconductor

Detection efficiency
increases with density
SCINTILLATION DETECTOR

Gamma quantum

Scintillation crystal

Photomultiplyer

Energy of gamma-ray is converted


into an electrical signal – pulse,
which is registered by the instrument
IAEA
DETECTORS FOR RADON SURVEY

Detected radiation

• Ionization chambers α

• Lucas cells ZnS(Ag) scintillation matter α

• Semiconductor Si detectors α

• Track etch detectors α

• Activated charcoal detectors γ


DETECTORS

Detectors and their performance parameters:

• Detection efficiency (registered/impacted particles)


• Energy resolution (rs = FWHM/E)
• Dead time (time required to process a signal)
• Sensitivity (counts/s per unit radiation)
• Directional sensitivity (counts/s is function of angle of
impacting radiation)

• Total count detectors and spectrometric detectors


DETECTORS
ENERGY RESOLUTION

Rs = FWHM/E
Usually tested
by 137Cs (662 keV)
FWHM – Full
Width at Half
Maximum
DETECTORS
GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM AND ENERGY RESOLUTION

0.609 1.764 MeV

U gamma-ray energy spectrum


Scintillation detector NaI(Tl)

Example of medium
energy resolution

Source of radiation:
226Ra

Geotron Systems Ltd.


DETECTORS
GAMMA-RAY SPECTRUM AND ENERGY RESOLUTION

Example of high energy resolution

Typical germanium detector gamma-ray energy spectrum


DETECTORS
GAMMA-RAY SPECTRA AND ENERGY RESOLUTION

Energy
resolution

high

medium

low

ORTEC 2009
RADIOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS

a) Dosimeters (measure absorbed doses within the time)


b) Intensitymeters (measure the power of the radiation field)

a) Count rate meters (counts/s)


b) Scalers (counts, and time are measured separately)

a) Total count instruments (do not distinguish energy of radiation)


b) Spectrometers (analyze energy of radiation)
Threshold spectrometers
Differential spectrometers
Single channel analyzers
Multichannel analyzers
Spectrometry requirement: Energy spectrum stabilization
PERSONAL DOSIMETERS

Charger

Electrometer with a scale

0 100 mSv

Filmdosimeter Personal dosimeter


(based on exposure of a film) (based on discharge due to ionization)
PERSONAL DOSIMETERS FOR U-MINES

• ALGADE (France) personal dosimeters


for miners (www.algade.com), 300 g,
94x79x63 mm (Used at uranium mine Rozna,
Czech Republic)

• Integrated personal dosimeter with


electrical pump for air sampling, absorption filter, solid-state nuclear
track detector, and a thermoluminiscence detector

• Measuring techniques and detected radiation:


- Long-life alpha radiation emitters (U 238, Ra 226, Po 210,
U 234, Th 230) are collected on the filter and afterwards
measured
- Rn 222 and Rn 220 daughter products are detected by
a solid state alpha track detector LR 115
- External gamma radiation is detected by a LiF TLD
detector
SPECTROMETERS

Amplitude
discriminator
Detector Pulse amplifier Counter

Amplitude
analyzer

Function of a threshold (1) and differential (2) gamma-ray spectrometer


GAMMA-RAY SPECTROMETRY

Amplitude analyzer
with upper and lower
amplitude (energy)
threshold adjustment

Detector + amplifier

4 single channel analyzers

4 count rate meters

Recorder

IAEA TRS No. 212


PRECISION AND ERRORS OF RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS

• Radiation is proportional to the number of disintegrating atoms

• Probability nature of radioactive decay, resulting in varying


number of disintegrating atoms per unit time, causes instant
deviations of radiation named fluctuations of radiation

• Fluctuations of radiation, causing varying recorded signals by


an instrument, affect the precision of radiometric measurement
PRECISION AND ERRORS OF RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS
• If N counts are recorded in time t, then the standard deviation
of the recorded count is:
σ(N) = √Nmean
and the fractional standard deviation of a count (error of
measurement) is:
σ(N)/Nmean = 1/√Nmean

• Count rate n = N/t (counts/s)


Standard deviation of a count rate is:
σ(n) = √n/t
and the fractional standard deviation of a count rate (error of
measurement) is:
σ(n)/n = 1/√nt
!
PRECISION AND ERRORS OF RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS
Background BG

Source S detector

• Measured radiation S+BG = radioactive source (S) + background (BG)


Radiation of the source S = measured radiation (S+BG) – background (BG)

• Precision of measurement of a radioactive source S is affected by the Law of


propagation of errors. Final dispersion of radiometric measurement of the
radioactive source S is :
σ(S)2 = σ(S+BG)2 + σ(BG)2

• Error of a measdurement of the radiation of the source S is the sum of errors of


measured radiation S+BG and measured background radiation BG.
PRECISION AND ERRORS OF RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS
Background

Source Detector (Registered count:


Source + Background)
Radioactivity of a source = Registered count – Background
t = 4 min NS BG = 100 counts
t = 4 min NBG = 44 counts
NS = 100 – 44 = 56 counts
Standard deviation of the radiation of the source
σ(NS) = √ [σ(NS BG)2 + σ(NBG)2]
= √ [100 + 44]
= 12 counts
Error of determination of the source radiation σ(NS)/NS = 12/56
= 0.21 … . 21 %
PRECISION AND ERRORS OF RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS

Portable and laboratory radiometric instruments

• How to improve precision of radiometric measurements:


More sensitive detector (larger volume)
Minimize the background radiation (by shielding)
Improve the geometry source – detector
Extension of time of measurement
PRECISION AND ERRORS OF RADIOMETRIC
MEASUREMENTS

• Gamma-ray spectrometry: interference of K, U and Th gamma-


ray energies. Gamma signal of one element is an useless signal
for the other two elements.

Airborne gamma-ray spectrometry

• Airborne gamma-ray spectrometry: low count rate per second


(scan = 1 s). Precision of measurement is inversely
proportional to registered count/scan. Extension of time of the
scan leads to the loss of survey ground resolution.
How to improve precision of airborne measurement:
increase volume of scintillation crystals
fly at low altitude
fly at low speed

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