Unit III Sample and Sampling Techniques

(b) (a) Sample – Meaning, characteristics of a good/scientific sample

(b) Sampling techniques – Probability sampling - meaning and types
Non-probability sampling - meaning and types

Prof. (Dr) Anju Srivastava

Department of Home Science
Patna University
srivastava.anju@yahoo.com
9334121405
§ The process of deriving a sample is called a sampling method
§ Sampling forms an integral part of research design as this method derives
quantitative and qualitative data that can be collected as part of a research
study
§ Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined
number of observations are taken from a larger population
§ Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a sub-set of the
population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate
characteristics of the whole population
§ Sampling may be defined as the procedure in which a sample is selected from an
individual or a group of people of certain kind for research purpose. In sampling,
the population is divided into a number of parts called sampling units
§ Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a sub-set (called a “sample”) of a
population of interest for purposes of making observations and statistical
inferences about that population. Social science research is generally about
inferring patterns of behaviors within specific populations
§ Sampling methods are characterized into two distinct approaches: probability
sampling and non-probability sampling
4. Sufficient data accuracy
Having drawn a sample and computed the desired descriptive statistics, it
is possible to determine the stability of the obtained sample value. A
sample represents the population from which it is drawn. It permits a high
degree of accuracy due to a limited area of operations. Moreover, careful
execution of field work is possible. Ultimately, the results of sampling
studies turn out to be sufficiently accurate.
5. Organization of convenience
Organizational problems involved in sampling are very few. Since sample is
of a small size, vast facilities are not required. Sampling is therefore
economical in respect of resources. Study of samples involves less space
and equipment.
1. Low cost
If data is to be collected for the entire population, the cost will be quite high. A
sample is a small proportion of a population. So, the cost will be lower if data is
collected for a sample of population which is a big advantage.
2. Less time consuming
Use of sampling takes less time. It consumes less time than census technique.
Tabulation, analysis etc., take much less time in the case of a sample than in
the case of a population.
3. High Scope
§ The investigator is concerned with the generalization of data. To study the
whole population in order to arrive at generalizations would be impractical.
§ Some populations are so large that their characteristics cannot be measured.
Before the measurement has been completed, the population would have
changed. But the process of sampling makes it possible to arrive at
generalizations by studying the variables within a relatively small proportion of
the population.
6. Intensive and exhaustive data
In sample studies, measurements or observations are made of a
limited number. So, intensive and exhaustive data are collected.
7. Suitable for limited resources
The resources available within an organization may be limited so
studying the entire universe is not viable. The population can be
satisfactorily covered through sampling. Where limited resources
exist, use of sampling is an appropriate strategy while conducting
research.
8. Better rapport
An effective research study requires a good rapport between the
researcher and the respondents. When the population of the study
is large, the problem of rapport arises. But manageable samples
permit the researcher to establish adequate rapport with the
respondents.
1. Chances of bias
A serious limitation of the sampling method is that it involves biased selection
and thereby leads us to draw erroneous conclusions. Bias arises when the method
of selection of sample employed is faulty. Relatively small samples properly
selected may be much more reliable than large samples poorly selected.
2. Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample
Representative sample produces reliable and accurate results only when they are
representative of the whole group. Selection of a truly representative sample is
difficult when the phenomena under study are of a complex nature. Selecting good
sample is difficult.
3. Inadequate knowledge in the subject
Use of sampling method requires adequate subject specific knowledge in sampling
technique. Sampling involves statistical analysis and calculation of probable error.
When researchers lack specialized knowledge in sampling, they may commit
serious mistakes. Consequently, the results of the study will be misleading.
4. Changeability of units
When the units of the population are not homogeneous, the sampling
technique will be unscientific. In sampling, though the number of cases is
small it is not always easy to stick to the selected cases. The units of sample
may be widely dispersed.
Some of the cases of sample may not cooperate with the researcher and some
others may be inaccessible. Because of these problems, all the cases may not
be taken up. The selected cases may have to be replaced by other cases.
Changeability of units stands in the way of results of the study.
5. Impossibility of sampling
Deriving a representative sample is difficult when the universe is too small or
too heterogeneous. In this case, census study is the only alternative.
Moreover, in studies requiring a very high standard of accuracy, sampling
method may be unsuitable. There will be chances of errors even if samples are
drawn most carefully.
 Sampling in research is of two types – probability sampling and
non-probability sampling
§ Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher
sets a selection criteria and chooses members of a population
randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a
part of the sample with this selection parameter.
§ In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members
for research at random. This sampling technique does not have
a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult
for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to
be included in a sample.
 Sample can be selected through different methods. Blalock (1960) classified the
sampling methods into two categories on the basis of the nature of selection of the
sample units.
I) Non- Probability Sampling (Non-Random sampling techniques)
II) Probability Sampling (Random sampling techniques)
I) Non- Probability Sampling (Non-Random sampling techniques)
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and
not every individual has a chance of being included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling
bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker
compared to probability samples and your conclusions may be more limited. If you
use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the
population as possible.
Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative
research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad
population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched
population. There are four main types of probability sample:
1. Convenience sampling
2. Purposive / judgmental sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Referral / Snowball sampling
 1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher. This method is used when the availability of sample is
rare and also costly. So samples are selected based on the convenience .
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data but there is no way to
tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalized
results. Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of survey research as it’s
quick and easy to deliver results.
Example –
You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after each
of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as
you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
 2. Purposive / judgmental sampling
Purposive sampling is also known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling.
This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which best suits the purpose of the study.
This type of sampling involves the researchers using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.
It is often used in qualitative research where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.
Example –
You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
 3. Quota sampling
In quota sampling, a population is first segmented into mutually
exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment is used
to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified
proportion.
Example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males
between the age of 45 and 60. This means that individuals can put a demand on
who they want to sample (targeting).
 4. Referral/Snowball sampling
This technique is used in the situations where the population is completely unknown
and rare. If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. So this referral technique goes
on, increasing the size of population like a snowball.
Example
You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of
all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one
person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with
other homeless people that she knows in the area.
 II) Probability Sampling (Random sampling techniques)
Probability sampling means that every member of the population
has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative
research. If you want to produce results that are representative
of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the
most valid choice.
There are four main types of probability sample:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Systematic sampling
4. Cluster sampling
 1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole
population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.
Example - You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of
Company X. You assign a number to every employee in the company database
from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.
 2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually
slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
regular intervals. Here the selection of elements is systematic and not random
except the first element. Elements of a sample are chosen at regular intervals of
population.
Example –
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you
randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on
the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
 3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into sub-populations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you to draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income bracket, job role
etc). Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many
people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
Example –
The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the
sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata
based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20
men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.
 4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
If it is practically possible that you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques earlier. Clusters are identified using
details such as age, sex, location etc.
Example –
The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your
data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
 Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Definition Probability Sampling is a sampling technique Non-probability sampling is a sampling
in which samples from a larger population are technique in which the researcher selects
chosen using a method based on the theory of samples based on the researcher’s subjective
probability judgment rather than random selection
Alternatively Known as Random sampling method Non-random sampling method
Population selection The population is selected randomly The population is selected arbitrarily

Nature The research is conclusive The research is exploratory

Sample Since there is a method for deciding the Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the
sample, the population demographics are population demographics representation is
conclusively represented almost always skewed
Time Taken Takes longer to conduct since the research This type of sampling method is quick since
design defines the selection parameters before neither the sample or selection criteria of the
the research study begins sample are undefined
Results This type of sampling is entirely unbiased and This type of sampling is entirely biased and
hence the results are unbiased too and hence the results are biased too, rendering the
conclusive research speculative
Hypothesis In probability sampling, there is an underlying In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is
hypothesis before the study begins and the derived after conducting the research study
objective of this method is to prove the
hypothesis
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-
research/
https://towardsdatascience.com/sampling-techniques-
a4e34111d808
https://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/sample.html