Course Instructor

ANUJ GHIMIRE
Course Overview and
Objective
About TOC
 It is one of the most fundamental course of Computer
science.
 Will help to understand how people thought about the
computer Science and Automation.
 It is mainly about what type of problem can really
compute mechanically, how fast and how much of
space does it take to do so.
 This course is about the fundamental capabilities and
limitations of computers.
About TOC
 Nowadays, the Theory of Computation can be divided
into the following three areas:
 Automata Theory
 Deals with definitions and properties of different types of
“computation models” (FA, PDA, Turing Machines).
 Computability Theory
 Tries to classify problems as being solvable or unsolvable.
 Complexity Theory
 Classifies problems according to their degree of “difficulty”.
Give a rigorous proof that problems that seem to be “hard” are
really “hard”.
Objectives of TOC
 To provide basic understanding of theory to:
 Build formal mathematical models of computation.
 Analyse the inherent capabilities and limitations of these
models.
 Course Goals:
 Simple practical tools you can use in later courses, projects,
etc. The course will provide you with tools to model
complicated systems and analyse them.
 Inherent limits of computers: problems that no computer can
solve.
 Better fluency with formal mathematics (closely related to
skill at debugging programs).
Applications of TOC
 Design of Compiler
 Pattern Matching
 Design of the Embedded System (Traffic Light System,
Attendance through the Bio-Metrics).
 Natural Language Processing
 Vending Machines (ATM, Token Generation).
Syllabus
Syllabus
Syllabus
Syllabus
Evaluation Criteria

Let’s Discuss !!!!

Evaluation Process
 Attendance
 Assignments
 Term Examinations
 MCQ
 Presentations or Report Submissions
DISCLAIMER
 This document does not claim any originality and
cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed textbooks.
 The information presented here is merely a collection
from various sources as well as freely available material
from internet and textbooks.
 The ownership of the information lies with the
respective authors or institutions.
 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1: Brief Review of Set Theory,

Function and Relation
Set Theory
 A set is any well defined collection of distinct objects,
called as elements or members of the set.
 Some examples of a set are:
 All vowel alphabets
 All district of Nepal
 A collection of coins
 There is no restriction on the number of elements
allowed in a set; there may be an infinite number, a
finite number or even no elements at all.
Set Theory
 In general capital letters A, B, S, W, Z, .... are used to
denote sets while the small letter a, b, c, x, y, z,.. are
used to denote the members of the sets unless other
wise stated.
 If 'a' is an element of a set A we write this as a ∈ A and
read as "a belongs to the set A". Again if 'a' is not an
element of the set A we write this as a ∉ A and read as
"a does not belong to the set A."
 If A be the set of natural numbers then it is written as:
A={1,2,3,4,………………}
Representation of a Set
 A set may be specified by the following methods:
 Description Method
 In this method a set is specified by a verbal description.
 For example, the set S of numbers 1, 2 and 3 is designated as:
S= the set of positive integers less than 4.
 Tabulation Method
 In this method a set is specified by listing all elements in a set.
Thus, we can write the set S of numbers 1, 2 and 3 as:
S={1,2,3}
 Note that each of the sets {1, 2, 3}, {2, 3, 1} and {3, 1, 2} are the
same.
Representation of a Set
 Rule Method or Set-builder method
 Here a set is specified by stating a characteristic property
common to all elements in the set.
S={x  x is an integer and 1 ≤ x ≤3}
 This is read as the set of all elements x such that x is a positive
integer less than 4. The vertical bar denotes 'such that’.
 This method is suitable when the set has a larger number of
elements. For example, if we take all men in Kathmandu owing
Pulsar Bike it will be inconvenient to write the names of all
persons within braces. But we can write this set briefly as:
 S={x: x is a man in Kathmandu who owns Pulsar Bike}
Special Set
 We refer to specific sets of numbers so often that
we give them special names.
 These sets, and their corresponding symbols, will
be referenced throughout this course.
 Natural Numbers:
 We define the Natural Numbers to be:
N = { 1, 2, 3,..…….}
 Note that the natural numbers are “closed” under
addition and multiplication.
Special Set
 Integers:
 We define the Integers to be:
Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
 Note that Z is “closed” under addition, subtraction, and
multiplication.
 Rational Numbers:
 We define the Rationals to be:
Q = { p/q | p,q ∈ Z and q ≠0}
 Note that Q is “closed” under addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and non-zero division.
Special Set
 Irrational Numbers:
 I = {all infinite, nonrepeating decimals}
 Obviously, irrational numbers are impossible to write
down exactly.
 We use symbols to represent special values such as p, e,
and 2.
 The Irrationals are not closed under addition,
subtraction or multiplication.
Special Set
 Real Numbers:
 R = {all decimal expansions}
 The Real Numbers are created by adjoining the Rational
with the Irrationals.
 The Reals are closed under all operations.
 Complex Numbers:
 Real Number fall short when solving simple polynomial
equations like x2 + 1 = 0.
 The Complex Numbers patch this hole.
 C = {a + bi | a,b  R and i =  (-1)}
Singleton and Empty Set
 A set may have only one element; it is then called a
singleton or unit set.
 For example, {1} is the set with 1 as its only element; thus
{1} and 1 are quite different.
 Empty set is a set with no element at all and is denoted
by φ.
 P={x: x is the male students of Padma Kanya Campus}
 Note that the set {0} is not an empty set since it
contains zero as its element.
 Any set other than the empty set is said to be non-
empty.
Finite and Infinite Set
 A set consisting of finite number of elements is called
finite set.
 The set of days in a week is a finite set.
 A set consisting of infinite number of elements is
called infinite set.
 A set of all odd numbers is an infinite set.
 Thus, S= {1, 3, 5,.........} is an infinite set.
Disjoint and Overlapping Set
 Two or more sets are said to be disjoints, if there are no
common elements among.
 A={a, b, c}
 B = {e, f, g}, here A and B are disjoint sets.
 Two or more sets overlapping set if there area at least
one common element among.
 A={a, b, c}
 B = {c, d, e}, here A and B are overlapping sets.
Universal Set
 The set of all the entities in the current context is
called the universal set, or simply the universe.
 In other word it is a set that has all the elements
associated with a given set, without any repetition and
is denoted by U.
 The context may be a integers, for example, where the
Universal set is limited to the particular entities under
its consideration. Also, it may be any arbitrary
problem, where we clearly know where it is applied.
Subset
 A set that consists of some or all elements of another
set is called subset of the set.
 The set A is subset of the set B if and only if each
elements of A is also an element of B.
 In symbols we write A  B (and read as 'A is subset of
B) if and only if x  A implies that x  B
 Some examples of a subset are as follows:
 If A{1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} then, A  B.
 Every set A is a subset of itself that is A  A.
 Null set φ is a subset of any set S.
 If A{a, b, c} and B {b, a, c}, then A  Band B  A. Then A
and B are called equal sets.
Power Set
 The possible subsets in a set {a} will be φ and {a}.
Hence, the number of subsets that can be formed out
of a set consisting of one element is 21 =2.
 Similarly, the possible subsets in a set {a, b} will be 4,
i.e. φ, {a}, {b} and {a, b} which are 4=22 in number.
 If we take a set {a, b, c} with the three elements a, b
and c then its possible subsets will be 8=23 in number.
Power Set
 Proceeding in this manner, we conclude by induction
that a set with n elements has 2n subsets. This includes
the null set and the given set.
 So, the set of possible subsets from any set is known as
power set of that set.
 Let A={a, b, c} be any set then power set of A is
 P(A)=(φ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a} and {a, b, c})
Countably Infinite Set
 A set is said to be countably infinite set if its elements
can be put one-one correspondence with the set of
natural numbers. For example,
 Z = {x: x is a element of integers}
= {……-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .....}
 Here, we can't never count the cardinality of sets but if
we arrange elements is such a way that
 Z={0, -1, 1, -2, 2, -3, 3, ...}
 And then if we are asked to count number of elements
up to -3, we can do that. So. the set of integers is the
countably infinite set.
Uncountable Set
 A set is uncountable if it contains so many elements
that they can't be put one to one correspondence with
the set of natural numbers.
 In other words, it is opposite to that of countably
infinite set. For example,
 The set of real numbers in {0, 1}.
Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product
 The pair in which first element belongs to first set and
second element belongs to second set is called ordered
pairs. For ordered pairs (a, b), a  A and b  B.
 The Cartesian product of two sets A and B denoted by
A  B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a  A and b 
B. Note that A  B ≠ B  A
 i.e. A  B={(a, b): a  A and b  B}
 B  A={(c, d): c  B and d  A}
 For example,
 Let A(a, b) and B= (c, d) be the two sets
Then, A  B={(a, c), (a,d), (b, c), (b, d)}
B  A={(c, a), (c, b), (d, a), (d, b)}
AB≠BA
Ordered Pair and Cartesian Product
 Example_2
The Cartesian product of {1,3,9}  {b,c,d} is:
{(1,b),(1,c),(1,d), (3,b),(3,c),(3,d),(9,b),(9,c),(9,d)}
Set Operations
 Union:
 For any two sets A and B, the union of A and B, written
as A  B, is the set of all elements which are members
of the set A or the set B or both.
 Symbolically, it is written as
A  B={x| (x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B)}
 From the definition, it follows that
 A  B=B  A
 A  φ = A and
 A  A=A
Set Operations
 Intersection:
 The intersection of any two sets A and B, written as;
A  B, is the set consisting of all the elements which
belong to both A and B. Symbolically,
 A  B = {x|(x ∈ А) and (х ∈ В)}
 From the above definition it follows that for any sets A
and B
 A  B=B  A
 A  A=A
 and A  φ = φ
Set Operations
 Difference:
 Let A and B be two sets and each set is the subset of a
universal set U.
 Then, A difference B denoted by A-B, is the set of all
those elements which belong to A but not B.
 In symbols, we write this as:
A-B={x | x ∈ A and x ∉ B }Also,
Β-Α ={x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A}
Set Operations
 Complement of Set:
 Let A be the subset of a universal set U. Then the
complement of A with respect to U is the set of all those
elements of U which do not belong to A and is denoted
by Ā or A‘ or Ac.
 In symbols, we write this as :
Ac ={x| x ∈ U and x ∉ A}.
Set Operations
 Symmetric Difference:
 Symmetric difference of two sets A and B is the set of all
elements which are in either of the sets and not in their
intersection.
 The symmetric difference is denoted by:
Α Δ Β= (Α-Β)  (B-A).
Properties of Set Operations
 Commutative Law:
 AB=BA
 AB=BA
 Associative Law:
 A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
 A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
 Distributive Law:
 A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
 A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
Properties of Set Operations
 DeMorgan’s Law:
 (A  B)c=𝐴𝑐  𝐵𝑐
 (A  B)c=𝐴𝑐  𝐵𝑐
 Idempotent Property:
 AA=A
 AA=A
Relation
 A relation on sets S and T is a set of ordered pairs (s, t),
where:
 s ∈ S (s is a member of S )
 t∈T
 S and T need not be different.
 The set of all first elements is the “domain” of the
relation, and
 The set of all second elements is the “range” of the
relation.
Relation
 Relation between sets is the every possible subset of
Cartesian product between them.
 Generally, it is denoted by R.
 Suppose S is the set {a, b, c, d, e} and set T is {w, x, y, z}.
Then one of the relation on S and T can be:
 R = {(a, y), (c, w), (c, z), (d, y)}
 Binary Relation: If relation is formed from subsets of
Cartesian product of two sets then it is binary relation.
Types of Relation
 Reflexive Relation:
 A relation R  A  A is reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for each
a ∈ A.
 The directed graph representing a reflexive relation has
a loop from each node to itself.
 Let A= { 1, 2, 3} then
 R= { (1, 1), (2, 2) , (3, 3) } is a reflexive relation defined on set A.
Types of Relation
 Symmetric/Anti- Symmetric Relation:
 A relation R  A  A is symmetric if (b, a) ∈ R whenever
(a, b) ∈ R.
 Let A= { 1, 2, 3} then
 R= { (1, 2), (2, 1) , (2, 3) , (3, 2) } is a Symmetric relation
defined on set A.
 Note: if the relation is not symmetric then it is Anti –
Symmetric.
 In mathematics “is equal t0” relation between real
number is symmetric relation whereas “is less than” is
Anti-Symmetric.
Types of Relation (Question)
 Consider a set A={a,b,c,d} and R  A  A such that
{(a,a),(b,a),(b,b),(c,c),(d,b)}.
 Is this relation
 Reflexive?
 Symmetric?
 Consider a set S={1,2,3,4} and T={a,b,c,d} and R  S  T
such that {(1,a),(1,c),(2,b),(3,c),(3,d),(4,c),(4,d)}.
 Is this relation
 Reflexive?
 Symmetric?
Types of Relation
 Transitive Relation:
 A binary relation on set A is transitive relation if
a, b, c ∈ A and a is related to b and b is related to c then a
is related to C.
 Let A= { 1, 2, 3} then R= { (1, 2), (2, 3) , (1, 3) } is a
transitive relation defined on set A.
 In mathematics “is greater than” or “is less than” relation
between number is transitive relation.
Types of Relation
 Consider the relation as follows:

Is the given relation R

a 1. Reflexive?
a 2. Symmetric?
3. Transitive?
b b

c c

d d
Types of Relation
 Equivalence Relation:
 A relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive are
called equivalence relation.
 Partial Order Relation:
 A relation R on a set S is called a “Partial ordering” or a
“Partial order”, if R is reflexive, anti-symmetric and
transitive.
Function
 A function from a set A to a set B is a binary relation R
on A and B with the following special property:
 for each element a ∈ A, there is exactly one ordered pair
in R with first component a.
 Let C be the set of cities and S be the set of states; and
let
 R1 = {(x, y): x ∈ C, y ∈ S, and x is a city in state y}
 R2 = {(x, y): x ∈ S, y ∈ C, and y is a city in state x}.
Here the relation R1 is a function, since each city is in
one and only one state, but R2 is not a function, since
some states have more than one city.
Function
 Suppose every element of S occurs exactly once as the
first element of an ordered pair.
 In Fig shown, every element of S has exactly one arrow
arising from it.

S
 This kind of relation is called a “function”.
Function
 A function is said to map an element in its domain to
an element in its range.
 Every element in S in the domain, i.e., every element
of S is mapped to some element in the range.
 No element in the domain maps to more than one
element in the range.
 In general, we use letters such as f, g, and h for
functions and we write f : A B to indicate that f is a
function from A to B.
Function
 If a is any element of A we write f (a) for that element
b of B such that ( a, b) ∈ f ; since f is a function, there
is exactly one b ∈ B with this property, so f (a) denotes
a unique object.
 The object f (a) is called the image of a under f.
Types of Function
 One-to-One Function (Injection)
 Onto Function (Surjection)
 One-to-One Onto function (Bijection)
Types of Function
 One-to-One Function (Injection)
 A function f : AB is said to be one-to-one if different
elements in the domain A have distinct images in the
range.

Fig: One to one function

Types of Function
 Onto Function (Surjection)
 A function f : AB is said to be an onto function if each
element of B is the image of some element of A. i.e.,
f :AB is onto if the image of f is the entire codomain,

Fig: Onto function

Types of Function
 One-to-One Onto function (Bijection)
 A function that is both one-to-one and onto is called a
“Bijection”.
 Such a function maps each and every element of A to
exactly one element of B, with no elements left over.

Fig: Bijection function

1.2: Propositional Logic and Proof
in Propositional Logic
 Logic is the generation of idea to solve any
problem.
 Logic is study of reasoning and is concerned
whether the reasoning is correct or not.
 Logic is a basis or language for reasoning
(mathematical and automated).
 Since logic can helps us to reason the
mathematical models it needs some rules
associated with logic so that we can apply those
rules for mathematical reasoning.
 The rules of logic give precise meaning to
mathematical statements and are used to
distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical
arguments.

Types of Logic
 Propositional Logic
 Predicate Logic
 Fuzzy Logic ( Studied in AI……)
Proposition
 A declarative statement that is either true or
false but not the both are called propositions
 Eg: Today is Friday.
2+2=5
Pashupati Nath lies in Kaski district.
However following are not propositions
What is your name? (this is a question)
Please keep silence. (this is a request)
X is even number. (depends on what X represents)
 Variables are used to represent the
propositions.
Eg:
P: Today is Friday.
Q: Kathmandu is capital city of Nepal.
R: It is raining
Here P,Q and R are variables.
Propositional Logic
Logic that deals with propositions for
reasoning is called propositional logic.

The truth and falsehood of propositions is

called its truth value
P: Today is Friday.
P can be either True(T) or False(F) which is the
truth values of P.
 A truth table shows how the truth or falsity of
a compound statement depends on the truth
or falsity of the simple statements from which
it's constructed.
 Truth table are sometimes used for proving
logical questions.
 Simple Propositions
 Compound Propositions

 Simple Propositions are those which contains

only one statements.
 When multiple propositions are combined
together to form a single propositions, then
the resulting propositions are called
compound propositions.
 To form a compound propositions different
connectives are used.
 Thus when a connective is applied to
propositions, then resulting proposition is a
compound proposition
 In propositional logic following connectives
are used
◦ Negation (¬ or ∼ )
◦ Conjunction ( ∧ )
◦ Disjunction ( ∨ )
◦ Implication ( → )
◦ Double Implication ( ↔ )
 Let ‘P’ be a proposition then negation of ‘P’ is
denoted as ‘¬P’ or ‘∼P’ and read as:
“not ‘P’.” or “It is not the case that ‘P’.”
P: Today is Friday.
¬P : Today is not Friday.
or
It is not the case that today is Friday.
P ¬P
T F
F T

Fig: Truth table of Negation

Let ‘P’ & ‘Q’ be propositions then
conjunction of P,Q is denoted as ‘P∧Q’ and
read as:
“P and Q”
P: Today is Friday.
Q: It is raining
P∧Q: Today is Friday and it is raining.
The truth value of conjunction is true if all the
constituent propositions are true otherwise
false. P Q P∧Q
T T T

Fig: Truth table of Conjunction T F F

F T F
F F F
 Let ‘P’ & ‘Q’ be propositions then disjunction
of P,Q is denoted as ‘P∨Q’ and read as:
“P or Q”
P: Today is Friday.
Q: It is raining
P∨Q: Today is Friday or it is raining.
The truth value of disjunction is true if any of
the constituent propositions is true otherwise
false. P Q P∨Q
T T T

Fig: Truth table of Disjunction T F T

F T T
F F F
 Let ‘P’ & ‘Q’ be propositions then implication of P and Q
is denoted as ‘P→Q’ and read as:
“ if P then Q ” or “P implies Q”

Hypothesis Conclusion
(necessary condition) (sufficient condition)
Some variety of implications
 P only if Q
 Q if P
 Q when P
 Q is necessary for p
 Q provided that P
 if P,Q
 Q follows from P
 a sufficient condition for Q is P.

All above statements are denoted as P→ Q .

Eg: If you get a degree then you can get a job.
P: You get a degree.
Q: You can get a job.
P is hypothesis or sufficient condition.
Q is conclusion or necessary condition.

The implication statement will be true if true

hypothesis leads to correct conclusion
otherwise false .
Eg.: If you get a degree then you can get a job.
P: You get a degree.
Q: You can get a job
So P→Q will be in truth table as:

P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Indirect approach
Fig: Truth table of implication
Let ‘P’ & ‘Q’ be propositions then implication
of P and Q is denoted as ‘P↔Q’ and read as:
“P if and only if Q”
Here P and Q both are sufficient and necessary
conditions
P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Fig: Truth table of double implication

 Construct the truth table for the following
compound propositions
 (P→Q)∧(Q→P)
 (P→¬Q)↔(¬P∨Q)
 (¬P↔R)∨[(¬Q∧P)→¬R]
(P→Q)∧(Q →P)

P Q P→Q Q→P (P→Q)∧(Q →P)

T T
T F
F T
F F
(P→Q)∧(Q →P)

P Q P→Q Q→P (P→Q)∧(Q →P)

T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
(P→¬Q)↔(¬P∨Q)
P Q ¬P ¬Q P→¬Q ¬P∨Q (P→¬Q) ↔(¬P∨Q)

T T
T F
F T
F F
(P→¬Q)↔(¬P∨Q)
P Q ¬P ¬Q P→¬Q ¬P∨Q (P→¬Q) ↔(¬P∨Q)

T T F F F T F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
 (¬P↔R)∨[(¬Q∧P)→¬R]
P Q R ¬P ¬Q ¬R ¬P↔R ¬Q∧P (¬Q∧P) (¬P↔R)∨[(¬Q∧P)→¬R]
→¬R

T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
 (¬P↔R)∨[(¬Q∧P)→¬R]
P Q R ¬P ¬Q ¬R ¬P↔R ¬Q∧P (¬Q∧P) (¬P↔R)∨[(¬Q∧P)→¬R]
→¬R

T T T F F F F F T T
T T F F F T T F T T
T F T F T F F T F F
T F F F T T T T T T
F T T T F F T F T T
F T F T F T F F T T
F F T T T F T F T T
F F F T T T F F T T
 These terms are defined in terms of conditional
statements
 Let P→Q be an implication (conditional) statement
then:
Inverse :
An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation
of both the hypothesis and the conclusion.

The inverse of P→Q is ¬P→¬Q .

Eg. The inverse of “If she smiles then she is happy” is

“If she doesn’t smile then she is not happy”.
Converse :
The converse of the conditional statement is
computed by interchanging the hypothesis and the
conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the
converse will be “If q, then p”.

The Converse of P→Q is Q→P.

Eg. The inverse of “If she smiles then she is happy”

is “If she is happy then she smiles”.
Contra-positive :
The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by
interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion of the
inverse statement. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the
contra-positive will be “If not q, then not p”.

The contra-positive of P→Q is ¬Q→¬P.

Eg. The contra-positive of “If she smiles then she is

happy” is “If she is not happy then she doesn’t smile”.
In Conclusion:
 Let P→Q be an implication statement then:
 A statement Q→P is called its converse.
 A statement ¬P→¬Q is called its inverse.
 A statement ¬Q →¬P is called its contra-positive.

“If you do your homework, you will not be punished.” (Implication)

"If you will not be punished, you do your homework”. (converse)
“If you do not do your homework, you will be punished.” (inverse)
"If you are punished, you did not do your homework”. (contra-positive)
 Compound statements can be classified
according to truth table as:
 Tautology
 Contradiction
 Contingency
 A compound statement is said to be
tautology if its truth values are always true no
matter what the truth values of their
constituent propositions.
 Irrespective to the truth values of constituent
propositions, the truth values of compound
propositions are always true.
 Eg. P∨¬P is a tautology
P ¬P P∨¬P
T F T
F T T
 Show that following compound propositions
are tautology:
◦ P→(P∨Q)
◦ [P∧(P→Q)]→Q
 P→(P∨Q)

P Q P∨Q P→(P∨Q) P Q P∨Q P→(P∨Q)

T T T T T T
T F T F T T
F T F T T T
F F F F F T
◦ [P∧(P→Q)]→Q
P Q P→Q P∧(P→Q) [P∧(P→Q)]→Q
T T
T F
F T
F F

P Q P→Q P∧(P→Q) [P∧(P→Q)]→Q

T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
 [(P→Q)∧(Q→R)] →(P→R) show this
compound proposition is a tautology using
truth table.
 A compound proposition whose truth values
are always false are called contradiction.
 Eg. P∧¬P is a contradiction

P ¬P P∧¬P
T F F
F T F
 Contingency is a compound proposition
whose truth values are combination of both
true and false.
 Eg. ¬P∨Q is a contingency

P Q ¬P ¬P∨Q
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
 Let P and Q be two compound propositions
then P and Q are said to be logically
equivalent if their truth values are always
same under same condition of truth values of
constituent propositons.
 Eg.
Implication and its contra-positive are
logically equivalent.
i.e: P→Q ≡¬Q→¬P
P→Q ≡¬Q→¬P

P Q ¬P ¬Q P→Q ¬Q→¬P
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
 Show that following compound propositions
are logically equivalent using truth table.
 P↔Q ≡ [(P→Q)∧(Q→P)]
 [P∨(Q∧R)] ≡ [(P∨Q)∧(P∨R)]
 There are simple three steps to translate the
sentences into propositional logic statements
 Identify all the individual sentences in the given
sentence and represent them by different variables.
 Identify all the connectives used in given sentence.
 Write an expression in terms of variables and
connectives.
Note: we assume there is no negative statements in the
given sentences
 Obtained compound propositional will be the
required statement of propositional logic.
 Eg:. You can access the college internet only if you are a
computer science student or you are not a fresher.
Solution
 Individual sentences are:
 P: You can access the college internet
 Q: You are a computer science student
 R: You are a fresher
 Connectives are:
 You can access the college internet only if you are a
computer science student or you are not a fresher.
 Only if i.e implication (→)
 Or i.e disjunction (∨)
 Not i.e negation(¬)
 Propositional Logic representation:
P →(Q∨¬R)
Hiking is safe along the trail if and only if berries are ripe along
the trail and bears have not been seen along the trail.
Solution
 Individual sentences are:
 P: Hiking is safe along the trail
 Q: Berries are ripe along the trail
 R: Bears have been seen along the trail.
 Connectives are:
Hiking is safe along the trail if and only if berries are ripe
along the trail and bears have not been seen along the trail.
 If and only if i.e double-implication (↔)
 and i.e conjunction (∧)
 Not i.e negation(¬)
 Propositional Logic representation:
P ↔(Q∧¬R)
 Arguments:
◦ An argument in propositional logic is the sequence
of propositions.
◦ The last statement is the conclusion and all its
preceding statements are called premises (or
hypothesis).
◦ The argument is valid if the premises imply the
conclusion
 A valid argument is one where the conclusion
follows from the truth values of the premises.
 To deduce new statements from the statements
whose truth that we already known, Rules of
Inference are used.
 Rules of Inference in propositional logic are:
 Addition
 Simplification
 Modus Ponens
 Modus Tollens
 Hypothetical Syllogism
 Disjunctive Syllogism
 Conjunction
 Resolution
Addition:
 If P is a premise, we can use Addition rule to derive
P∨Q

Example: P: “I will study TOC.”

Q: “I will study Maths.”

“I will study TOC” is true

So, I will study TOC or I will Study Maths.” is true.

Simplification:
 If P∧Q is a premise, we can use simplification rule to
derive P.

Example:
“He studies very hard and he gets best grade”: P∧Q
P: He studies very hard.
Q: He gets best grade

So, “He studies very hard.” P is true.

“He gets best grade.” Q is true.
Modus Ponens:
 If P→Q and P are two premises, we can use
Modus Ponens to derive Q.

Example:“If it snows today, then we will go skiing”.

P→Q
The hypothesis “ it snows today,” P
Then by modus ponens, “We will go skiing.”Q is true
Modus Tollens:
 If P→Q and ¬Q are two premises, we can use
Modus Tollens to derive ¬P.

“If you have a password, then you can log on to

facebook.” P→Q
“You cannot log on to facebook.” ¬Q
Therefore − “You do not have a password .” ¬P
Disjunctive Syllogism:
 If ¬P and P∨Q are two premises, we can use
Disjunctive Syllogism to derive Q.

"The ice cream is not vanilla flavored“. ¬P

"The ice cream is vanilla flavored or chocolate
flavored“. P∨Q
Therefore "The ice cream is chocolate flavored”. Q
Hypothetical Syllogism :
 If P→Q and Q→R are two premises, we can use
Hypothetical Syllogism to derive P→R

Example:
"If it rains, I will not go to school”, P→Q
“If I don't go to school, I won't need to do homework”.
Q→R
Therefore − “If it rains, I won't need to do homework.” P→R
Conjunction :
 If P and Q are two premises, we can use
conjunction to derive P∧Q

Example:
“He is good at study”, P
“He gets highest marks in TOC”. Q
Therefore − “He is good at study and he gets highest
marks in TOC.” P∧Q
Resolution :
 If P∨Q and ¬Q∨R are two premises, we can use resolution
to derive P∨R

P∨Q
¬Q∨R

∴ P∨R

“I will study TOC or I will study Maths .” P∨Q

“I will not study Math or I will study Data Science.” ¬Q∨R
Therefore, “I will study TOC or I will study Data Science.”
P∨R
In Conclusion, rules of Inference are tabulated as:
Rules Name Rules Name

Addition Conjunction

Simplification Disjunctive
Syllogism

Hypothetical
Modus Ponens Syllogism

Modus Tollens Resolution

 Using rules of inference show the following
hypothesis :
◦ It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday.
◦ We will go swimming only if it is sunny.
◦ If we don’t go swimming , then we will go for a
canoe trip.
◦ If we go for a canoe trip, then we will be home by
sunset.
Leads to conclusion:
◦ We will be home by sunset.
 Solution Steps:
 Convert the given sentences into propositional
logic statement.
 Identify the hypothesis and conclusion.
 Use rules of inference in hypothesis to prove
the conclusion.
Identifying individual statements
 p : It is sunny this afternoon.
 q : It is colder than yesterday.
 r : We will go swimming .
 s : we will go for a canoe trip.
 t : We will be home by sunset.

 Identifying and writing hypothesis and conclusion in propositional logic

statements

 Hypothesis are: Hypothesis:

 ¬ p∧q  It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder
 r→p than yesterday.
 ¬r →s We will go swimming only if it is sunny.
 s→t If we don’t go swimming , then we will go for a
Conclusion:

canoe trip.
t
If we go for a canoe trip, then we will be home
by sunset.
Conclusion:
We will be home by sunset.
Hypothesis are: ¬ p∧q
r→p
¬r →s
s→t
Conclusion: t
 Proof:
S.No. Steps Reasons
1 ¬ p∧q Given hypothesis

2 ¬p Using simplification on 1.

3 r→p Given hypothesis

4 ¬r Using modus tollens on 2 and 3.

5 ¬r →s Given hypothesis

6 s Using modus ponens on 4 and 5.

7 s→t Given hypothesis

8 t Using modus ponens on 6 and 7

Hence the given hypothesis leads to the conclusion.

 Using rules of inference show the following
hypothesis :
◦ If you send me an email message then I will finish
writing the program.
◦ If you don’t send me an email message then I will
go to sleep early
◦ If I go to sleep early then I will wake up feeling
refreshed.
Leads to conclusion:
◦ If I don’t finish writing the program then I will wake
up feeling refreshed.
 Solution Steps:
 Convert the given sentences into propositional
logic statement.
 Identify the hypothesis and conclusion.
 Use rules of inference in hypothesis to prove
the conclusion.
Identifying individual statements
 p : you send me an email message .
 q : I will finish writing the program.
 r : I will go to sleep early
 s : I will wake up feeling refreshed.
 Identifying and writing hypothesis and conclusion in
propositional logic statements
Hypothesis:
 Hypothesis are:  If you send me an email message then I
 p→q will finish writing the program.
 ¬p→r If you don’t send me an email message
 r →s then I will go to sleep early
 Conclusion: If I go to sleep early then I will wake up
 ¬q→s feeling refreshed.
Conclusion:
If I don’t finish writing the program them
I will wake up feeling refreshed.
 Hypothesis are: p→q
¬p→r
r →s
Conclusion: ¬q→s
 Proof:

S.No. Steps Reasons

1 p→q Given hypothesis

2 ¬q→¬p Using contra-positive on 1.

3 ¬p→r Given hypothesis

4 ¬q→r Using hypothetical syllogism on 2 and 3.

5 r→s Given Hypothesis

6 ¬q→s Using hypothetical syllogism on 4 and 5.

Hence the given hypothesis leads to the conclusion.

Using rules of inference show the following
hypothesis:
 If Clinton does not live in France, then he does not
speak French.
 Clinton does not drive a Datsun.
 If Clinton lives in France, then he rides a motorcycle.
 Either Clinton speaks French or he drives a Datsun.
Leads to the conclusion
 Clinton ride a motorcycle.
Show that the premises “If my cheque book is
in office, then I have paid my phone bill”, “I
was looking for phone bill at breakfast or I
was looking for phone bill in my office”, “If
was looking for phone bill at breakfast then
my cheque book is on breakfast table” , “If I
was looking for phone bill in my office then
my cheque book is in my office”, “I have not
paid my phone bill” imply the conclusion “My
cheque book is on my breakfast table”
Consider the following two statements:
 Every BCT student must study TOC.
 Pratik is BCT student.
 It looks “logical” to derive:
 Pratik must study TOC.
 However, this cannot be expressed by
propositional logic because we already notice
that none of the logical operators we have
learnt are applicable here.
 i.e Propositional Logic is not expressive.
Consider the statements containing variables as:
a) x>5
b) x=y+2
 These statements are neither true nor false
when the value of variables are not specified.
 The statement x is greater than 5 has two
parts:
 the variable x which is subject of statement.
 the second part “is greater than” is a predicate which is
the property of subject of statement.
 To express such statements we need powerful
logical tool called predicate logic.
 It is also known as First Order Propositional
Logic (FOPL).
 Predicate logic is an extension of Propositional
logic.
 It adds the concept of predicates and
quantifiers to better capture the meaning of
statements that cannot be expressed by
propositional logic.
Moving back to statement: x>5.
We can denote x is greater than 5 as:
P(x), where P is a predicate which denotes “is greater
than 5” and x is a variable
 The statement P(x) is also said to be value of
propositional function P at x.
 When the value of variable i.e. x is assigned the
statement P(x) becomes proposition.
 Here value of x is assigned from domain. Eg:
natural numbers.
Let P(X) denotes “X>5” what is the truth values
of P(2) and P(7) ?
statement P(2) is obtained by assigning
X=2 in “X>5”.
hence “2>5” is false
Similarly
statement P(7) is obtained by assigning
X=7 in “X>5”.
hence “7>5” is true
For statement x=y+2
predicate is defined as P(x,y):“x=y+2”
So,
P(5,3) is true.
P(6,7) is false.
Here x and y are taken from some specific
domain.
Quantifier are used to convert the predicate
logic into propositional logic.
 The process of binding the propositional
variable over given domain is called
quantification.
 Quantification is needed to identify the truth
value of the predicate.
 Two types of Quantification:
 Universal Quantification
 Existential quantification
 Let P(X) be a predicate then universal
quantification of P(X) is denoted by:
∀x P(X)
and read as “for all X P(X)” or “for every X P(X)”
Here ∀ is called universal quantifier.
The truth values of ∀x P(X) is true if P(X) is true for all
the values of the given domain and is false if P(X) is
false for at least one value of the given domain.
Let P(X1,X2,……..Xn) be a predicate such that P(X1),
P(X2)….P(Xn) are different instances.
Then ∀x P(X1,X2,……..Xn) is true if all the above
instances are true and is false if any of the above
instance is false

∀x P(X1,X2,……..Xn)≡ P(X1) ∧ P(X2) ∧ ……………∧P(Xn)

Eg: Let P(X)=X2-1>0, X∈ N What is the truth values of
∀xP(X) ?
Solution,
When X=1, P(1)=12-1>0
=0>0 which is false
So by definition of universal quantification the truth
value of ∀xP(X) is false.

The value of the variable that makes the universally

quantified statement false are called counter example.
Here is this example X=1 is counter example.
 Let P(X) be a predicate then existential
quantification of P(X) is denoted by:
∃x P(X)
and read as “there exist X P(X)” or “for some X P(X)”
Here ∃ is called existential quantifier.
The truth values of ∃x P(X) is true if P(X) is true for at
least one the values of the given domain and is false if
P(X) is false for each value of the given domain.
Let P(X1,X2,……..Xn) be a predicate such that P(X1),
P(X2)….P(Xn) are different instances.
Then ∃x P(X1,X2,……..Xn) is true if all the above
instances are true and is false if any of the above
instance is false

∃ x P(X1,X2,……..Xn)≡ P(X1) ∨P(X2) ∨ …………… ∨ P(Xn)

Eg: Let P(X)=X2-1=0, X∈ N What is the truth values of
∃ xP(X) ?
Solution,
When X=1, P(1)=12-1=0
=0=0 which is true
So by definition of existential quantification the truth
value of ∃ xP(X) is true.

The value of the variable that makes the existentially

quantified statement true are called witness. Here is
this example X=1 is witness.
1.3: Proof
Proof Techniques
 Induction Principle
 Pigeonhole Principle
 Diagonalization Principle
Induction Principle
 Mathematical induction is an important proof
technique that can be used to prove mathematical
theorems or statements
 Let p(n) be a statement. Now our concern is to show
that p(n) is true using mathematical induction.
 For this we first show that p(n) is true for some initial
value like n= 0,1,2,... This step is called basic step.
 Then we assume that p(n) is true for any arbitrary
value 'k' i.e. p(k) is true and show that p(n) is true for
‘k+1" i.e. p(k+1) true. This step is called inductive
step.
Induction Principle
 The principle of mathematical induction is applicable
for the statement containing natural numbers
including zero.
Induction Principle (Example_1)
 Using mathematical induction show that
𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)
1+2+3+4+...............=
𝟐
Solution,
n(n+1)
P(n)=1+2+3+4+...............= is true.
2
Basic Step:
n(n+1)
P(n)=1+2+3+4+...............=
2
𝟏(𝟏+𝟏)
for n=1, P(1)= =1, which is true.
𝟐
𝟐(𝟐+𝟏)
for n=2, P(2)= =3, which is also true.
𝟐
Induction Principle (Example_1)
Inductive Step:
We assume that P(n) is true for any arbitrary value 'k' i.e. P(k)
is true and show that P(n) is true for ‘k+1’ i.e. P(k+1) is true.
k(k+1)
let, P(k)= is true.
2
Now we try to prove for k+1
(k+1)((k+1)+1)
P(k+1) =1+2+3+4+……..+k+(k+1) =
2
k(k+1)
= +(k+1)
2
k k+1 +2(k+1)
=
2
Induction Principle (Example_1)
k+1 (k+2)
=
2
k+1 (k+1+1)
=
2
k+1 ( k+1 +1)
=
2
This shows that when P(k) is true, P(k+1) is also true.
Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true
for all n.
Induction Principle (Example_2)
 Use the principle of Mathematical Induction to verify
that , for n any positive integer, n4-4n2 is divisible by 3
for n >=0.
Solution,
P(n)= n4-4n2 is divisible by 3 for n>=0.
Basic Step:
P(n)= n4-4n2
for n=0, P(0)=o4-4(0)2=0, which is divisible by three is
true.
for n=1, P(1)=14-4(1)2=-3, which is divisible by three is
true.
Induction Principle (Example_2)
Inductive Step:
We assume that P(n) is true for any arbitrary value 'k' i.e. P(k) is
true and show that P(n) is true for ‘k+1’ i.e. P(k+1) is true.
let, P(k)= k4-4k2 is true.
Now we try to prove for k+1
(k+1)4 −4(k+1)2 is divisible by 3.
= k4+4k3+6k2+4k+1-{4(k2+2k+1)}
= (k4-4k2)+4k3+6k2+4k+1-8k-4
= (k4-4k2)+4k3+6k2-4k-3
= (k4-4k2)+4(k3-k)+3(k2-1)
Induction Principle (Example_2)
= (k4-4k2)+4(k3-k)+3(k2-1)
Here, (k4-4k2) is divisible by 3 is assumed to be true.
Again, (k3-k) is divisible by 3 i.e. (k-1)*k*(k+1), which is the
product of three consecutive natural number so it must be
divisible by 3. Hence 4(k3-k) is divisible by 3.
Further, 3(k2-1) is divisible by 3.
Hence we can conclude that the sum of the term which are
individually divisible by 3 is obvious divisible by 3. i.e. (k4-
4k2)+4(k3-k)+3(k2-1) is divisible by 3.
This shows that when P(k) is true, P(k+1) is also true.
Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true
for all n>=0.
Induction Principle (Example_3)
 Prove by mathematical induction that n < 2n for all
positive integers n.
Solution,
P(n)= n < 2n is valid for all positive integers n.
Basic Step:
P(n)= n < 2n
for n=1, P(1)= 1 < 21 = 1 < 2 which is true.
Induction Principle (Example_3)
Inductive Step:
we assume that P(n) is true for any arbitrary value 'k' i.e. P(k)
is true and show that P(n) is true for ‘k+1" i.e. P(k+1) is true.
let, P(k)=k < 2k is true.
Now we try to prove for k+1
i.e. P(k+1)=k+1 < 2k+1 is true.
We have, k < 2k
Multiplying both side by 2,
or, 2*k < 2*2k
0r, 2*k < 2k+1
Induction Principle (Example_3)
or, k+k < 2k+1 ……………..… (1)
Here k is the positive integer and for n=1, it is shown true
already.
So, we need to prove it for
1<k
Adding k on both side,
1+k < k+k …………………. (2)
Comparing (1) and (2),
1+k < 2k+1
This shows that when P(k) is true, P(k+1) is also true.
Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true
for all n.
Induction Principle (CW)
 Using mathematical induction prove that the statement
6*7n-2*3n is divisible by 4 for n=1,2,3,……
 Prove the following statement by using mathematical
induction:
1*1!+2*2!+3*3!+............+n*n! =(n+1)!-1 where (n>=1)
 Use principle of mathematical induction to prove (5n-1)
is divisible by 4 for all integers n > 0.
 Use mathematical induction to show that 2n < n! for any
positive integer n >= 4.
Pigeonhole Principle
 If A and B are finite sets and |A| > |B|, then there is no
one-to-one function from A to B.
 That is, if an attempt is made to pair of the elements of A
(the “pigeons”) with elements of B (the “pigeonholes”),
sooner or later we will have to put more than one pigeon in
a pigeonhole.
 The pigeonhole principle states that if n pigeons are put
into m pigeonholes with n>m, then at least one pigeonhole
must contain more than one pigeon.
Pigeonhole Principle
 Pigeonhole principle can be used to show that certain
languages are not regular.
 We will use pigeonhole principle in the topic pumping
lemma later.
Diagonalization Principle
 Let R be a binary relation on a set A, and the diagonal set
for R denoted by D, be {a:a ∈ A and (a, a) ∉ R}. For each
a ∈ A, let Ra = {b: b ∈ A and (a, b) ∈ R}. Then D is distinct
from each Ra.
 If A is a finite set, then R can be pictured as a square array;
the rows and columns are labeled with the elements of A
and there is a cross in the box with row labeled a and
column labeled b just in case ( a, b) ∈ R.
 The diagonal set D corresponds to the complement of the
sequence of boxes along the main diagonal, boxes with
crosses being replaced by boxes without crosses, and vice
versa.
Diagonalization Principle
 The sets Ra correspond to the rows of the array.
 The diagonalization principle can then be rephrased:
“The complement of the diagonal is different from
each row.”
 Let us consider the set A={a,b,c,d,e,f} and relation
R {(a, b), (a, d), (b, b), (b, c), (c, c), (d, b), (d, c), (d, e),
(d, f), (e, e), (e, f), (f, a), (f, c), (f, d), (f, e) }; notice that
Ra= {b,d}, Rb= {b,c}, Rc= {c}, Rd= {b,c,e,f}, Re = {e,f} and
Rf {a.c.d,e}.
Diagonalization Principle
 All in all, R may be pictured like this:

The sequence of boxes along the diagonal is

Its complement is
Diagonalization Principle
 This corresponds to the diagonal set D = { a, d, f}.
 Indeed, D is different from each row of the array; for
D, because of the way it is constructed, differs from the
first row in the first position, from the second row in
the second position, and so on.
 The diagonalization principle holds for infinite sets as
well, for the same reason: The diagonal set D always
differs from the set Ra on the question of whether a is
an element, and hence cannot be the same as Ra for
any a.
Diagonalization Principle
 The diagonalization principle to make the proof are as
follows:
 Assume condition for contradiction.
 Find the reversed diagonal and check whether it is
different from each row in table or not.
 If it is different from each row in table, it contradict the
assumed condition proving the theorem.
 The set of real numbers in {0, 1} is uncountable
can be proved using diagonalization principle.
Diagonalization Principle
 In the theory of computation, diagonalization is a
fundamental technique used to show that certain
problems are undecidable or uncomputable.
 The basic idea behind diagonalization is to construct a
problem that cannot be solved by any algorithm or
Turing machine.
 One famous example of diagonalization is the proof
that the halting problem is undecidable.
 The halting problem is the problem of determining,
given a program and an input, whether the program
will eventually halt or run forever.
Diagonalization Principle
 Alan Turing proved that there is no algorithm that can
solve the halting problem for all possible programs and
inputs.
 Another example of diagonalization is the proof that there
are infinitely many prime numbers.
 This proof uses a technique called Euclid's proof by
contradiction, which involves assuming that there are only a
finite number of primes and then constructing a new prime
that contradicts that assumption.
 Overall, diagonalization is a powerful tool in the theory of
computation that allows us to prove important results
about the limits of computation.
1.4: Alphabets, Language and
Operations
Alphabet
 Alphabet is a finite non-empty set of symbols.
 The symbols can be the letters such as {a, b, c},
bits {1, 0} ,digits {0,1,2,3...…..9}, common characters
like $, #, etc.
 It is denoted by ∑.
 ∑={0,1} is a binary alphabet.
 ∑={0,1,2,….9} is a decimal alphabet.
 ∑={a, b, c,……, z, A, B, C,……….Z} is an English alphabet.
String
 String is a finite sequence of symbols taken from some
alphabet (∑), where each symbol is element of ∑.
 It is denoted by w.
 Example: Strings over the binary alphabet ∑{ 0, 1 } can
be w={0,1,00,11,001,1101,1111}
 w={aab, abcb, b, cc} are four strings over the alphabet
∑ { a, b, c }.
String
 The number of symbols in a string w is called its
length, denoted by |w|.
 If W=aabab then |w| is 5.
 The empty string denoted by ε(epsilon) is string
having length zero. i.e w= ε then |w| =0.
 The set of all string over an alphabet is denoted by ∑* .
 Example ∑={a,b,c} then
∑*={ε, a, b, c, aa, ab, bc, ca, aca, aacb, ……….}
Power of Alphabet
 The set of all strings of certain length k from an
alphabet is the kth power of alphabet i.e.:
∑k = {w: |w|= k}
 For ∑={0,1}
 ∑0 ={ε}
 ∑1 ={0,1}
 ∑2 ={00, 01, 10, 11}
 ∑3 ={000, 001, 010, 011, 100,101, 110, 111}
Kleen Closure
 The set of all the strings over an alphabet ∑ is called
kleen closure of ∑ and is denoted by ∑* thus, kleen
closure is set of all the strings over alphabet ∑ with
length 0 or more.
∑* = ∑0  ∑1  ∑2  ∑3 ………
 If ∑={a} then ∑*= {an, n=0,1,2,3…….}
∑*= {ε, a, aa, aaa, aaaa, ………….}
Positive Closure
 The set of all the strings over an alphabet ∑ is called
positive closure of ∑ except ε(epsilon) and is denoted
by ∑+,.
∑+ = ∑1  ∑2  ∑3 ………
 If ∑={a} then ∑+= {an, n=1,2,3…….}
∑+= {a, aa, aaa, aaaa, ………….}
String Operation
 String Reversal:
 For any string w, its reversal denoted. wR, is a string
spelled backward.
 Example: w={bbabba} then wR ={abbabb}.
 String Concatenation:
 Two strings over the same alphabet can be combined to
form a third by operation of concatenation.
 The concatenation of strings x and y written xoy or
simply xy is the string x followed by the string y.
 If x=aba and y=bba then xy=ababba and yx=bbaaba
 Note: concatenating the empty string ε with another
string, the result is just the other string.
String Operation
 Suffix of a string:
 String is called suffix of a string w if it is obtained by removing
zero or more leading symbols in w.
 For example: If w= abcd then,
s=bcd, s=cd, s=d are suffix of w
 s is proper suffix if s ≠ w.
 Prefix of a string:
 String is called prefix of a string w if it is obtained by removing
zero or more trailing symbols in w.
 For example: If w= abcd then,
s=a, s=ab, s=abc are prefix of w
 s is proper prefix if s ≠ w.
String Operation
 Substring:
 A strings s is called substring of a string w if it is obtained
by removing one or more leading or trailing symbols in w.
 It is proper substring if s ≠ w.
 A string v is substring of a string w if and only if there are
strings x and y such that w=xvy
 In other word s is a substring of w if s appears
consecutively within w. e.g " deck" is a substring of
abcdeckabcjkl.
Language
 A language denoted by L over an alphabet ∑ is subset
of all the strings that can be formed out of ∑. i.e. a
language is subset of kleen closure over an alphabet
∑ :L  ∑* (set of strings chosen from ∑* defines
language).
 For example:
→ Set of all strings over ∑= {0,1} that ends with 1.
L={1, 01 ,11, 011, 0111,.......}
→ English language is a set of strings taken from
the alphabet ={a, b, c,.....,z, A, B, C,.......Z}.
L= {dbms, TOC, Graphics}.
Language
 Example
For ∑ = { 0, 1}
L= { x : x є { 0,1 } * | x has even number of Zero's }
then 011011100 є L , 1111 є L , 1011011000 ∉ L .
 The infinite language L are denoted as
L= { w є ∑* : w has property P}
Empty Language
 A language is empty if it does not have any strings
within it.
 ε is an empty language and is a language over any
alphabet.
 It does not contain any string.
Membership in Language
 Membership in a language defines association of some
string within the language.
 A membership problem is the question of deciding
whether a given string is a member of some particular
language or not i.e. whether the string belongs to the
given language or not.
 Example: Given, L= {DBMS, TOC, GRAPHICS}, then for
w= "DBMS" the membership of w is true on L and for
w= "HELLO" the membership of w is false in L.
Regular Expression
 Regular Expression is a formula for representing a
language in terms of a form combined using 3
operations union, concatenation and kleen closure.
 A regular expression is a string that describe a whole set
of strings, according to certain syntax rules.
 Any regular expression is recursively defined as:
 Empty state (φ), empty string(ε) symbol of input
alphabet (∑) are regular expression
 Let R1 and R₂ be regular expression then union of R1 and
R2 denoted by (R1 + R2) is also Regular Expression.
Regular Expression
 Let R1 and R₂ be regular expression then concatenation
of R1 and R2 denoted by (R1 . R2) is also Regular
Expression.
 Let R be regular expression then kleen closure of R
denoted by R* is also Regular Expression.
 Note: Every regular expression is associated with
some language.
Regular Expression
 Example of regular expression, Assume that ∑ = {a, b, c}
 Zero or more: a* means “zero or more a’s”,
 To say “zero or more ab’s,” i.e., {ε, ab, abab, …..} you need to say
(ab)*.
 One or more: Since a* means “zero or more a’s”, you can use
aa* (or equivalently a*a) to mean “one or more a’s”.
 Similarly to describe ‘one or more ab’s”, that is {ab, abab,
ababab, ……}, you can use ab(ab)*.
 Zero or one: It can be described as an optional ‘a’ with (a + ε).
 Any string at all: To describe any string at all (with ∑ = { a, b, c}
you can use (a + b + c)*.
Regular Expression
 Any non-empty string: This is written any character from
∑ = {a, b, c} followed by any string at all:
(a + b + c) (a + b + c)*
 Any string not containing ..........: To describe any string at
all that does not contain an ‘a’ (with ∑ ={a, b, c}), you can
use (b + c)*.
 Any string containing exactly one ........: To describe any
string that contains exactly one ‘a’ (with ∑ ={a, b, c}) put
“any string not containing an a”, on either side of the ‘a’
like: (b + c)* a (b + c)* or a(b+c)* or (b+c)*a
Regular Expression
 Example:
(0+1)*=
0*+1*=
(01)*=
0* .1*=
1.1*=
Regular Expression
(0+1)*={ ∈,0,1,00,101,1101,00101,…………}
0*+1*={ ∈,0,1,00,11,111,0000,…………}
(01)*={∈,01,0101,010101,……………}
0* .1*= { ∈,0,1,00,11,000,01,001,0111……}
1.1*={1,11,111,11111,……………}
Regular Expression
 Precedence of Regular-Expression Operators
 The star Operator (* ) is of highest precedence.
 Next in precedence comes the concatenation (.) or dot
operator.
 Finally, unions (+) are grouped with their operands.
 For example:
 The expression 10*+0 is grouped (1(0)*)+0.
Regular Language
 The regular languages are those languages that can be
constructed from the three set operations:
 Union
 Concatenation
 Kleen star.
 Let ∑ be an alphabet. The class of “regular languages”
over ∑ is defined inductively as follows:
 ф is a regular language so as empty string {ε} is regular
language.
 For each symbol σ ε Σ. {σ} is a regular language.
 If L1, L2, L3 are languages, then so is L₁ L2 L3 …….
are also regular.
Regular Language
 If L1, L2 languages, then so is L₁ o L2 o L3 o ………... are
also regular
 If L is a regular language, then so is L*.
 Nothing else is a regular language unless its construction
follows from the above rules.
Algebraic Law for RL
 Commutative law for union: L + M = M + L
 Associative law for union: (L + M) + N = L + (M + N)
 Associative law for concatenation: (LM)N = L(MN) ,
Note that there is no commutative law for
Concatenation, i.e. LM ≠ ML
 The identity for union is: L + ф = ф + L = L
 The identity for concatenation is: L. ε = ε. L = L
 Left distributive law: L(M + N) = LM + LN
 Right distributive law: (M + N)L = LM + LN
 Idempotent law: L + L = L
Algebraic Law for RE
 Laws Involving Closure
 (L*)* = L* – i.e. closing an already closed expression does
not change the language
 ф*=ε
 ε*=ε
 L+ = L. L* = L*L
Some Questions
 Write a regular expression for the language. L: {w ∈ {a, b}*:
w has even number of 'a's followed by odd number of ‘b’ s
 Write a regular expression for the set of strings over ∑{0, 1 }
with exactly two 0's.
 Write regular expressions for the language which generates
strings of even length over the alphabet ∑{a, b}.
 Describe as simply as possible in English the language
corresponding to the regular expression a*b(a*ba*b)*a*
 Write a regular expression for the language in which strings
start and end with same symbol over alphabet ∑{a, b }.
 Write a regular expression for the language in which strings
start and end with different symbol over alphabet ∑{a, b }.
Some Questions
Q1. Answer: (aa)*(bb)*b
Q2. Answer: 1* 0 1*0 1*
Q3. Answer: (aa+ab+ba+bb)*
End of Chapter 1
Thank You !!!!