CHAPTER

11
Sets, Relations
and Functions
Learning Part
Session 1
● Definition of Set

● Representation of Set

● Different Types of Sets

● Laws and Theorems

● Venn Diagrams (Euler-Venn Diagrams)

Session 2
● Ordered Pair

● Definition of Relation

● Ordered Relation

● Composition of Two Relations

Session 3
● Definition of Functions

● Domain, Codomain and Range

● Composition of Mapping

● Equivalence Classes

● Partition of Set

● Congruences

Practice Part
● JEE Type Examples
● Chapter Exercises

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Session 1
Definition of Set, Representation of Set, Different
Types of Sets, Laws and Theorems, Venn Diagram
(Euler-Venn Diagrams)

Introduction Representation of a Set

The concept of set is fundamental in modern There are two methods for representing a set.
Mathematics. Today this concept is being used in
different branches of Mathematics and widely used in 1. Tabulation or Roster or
the foundation of relations and functions. The theory of
sets was developed by German Mathematician Georg
Enumeration Method
Cantor (1845-1918). Under this method, the elements are enclosed in curly
brackets or braces { } after separating them by commas.
Remark
Definition of Set 1. The order of writing the elements of a set is immaterial, so
{a, b, c}, {b, a, c}, {c, a, b} all denote the same set.
A set is well-defined collection of distinct objects. Sets 2. An element of a set is not written more than once, i.e. the set {1,
2, 3, 4, 3, 3, 2, 1, 2, 1, 4} is identical with the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
are usually denoted by capital letters
A, B, C, X, Y, Z, K . For example,
Examples of sets 1. If A is the set of prime numbers less than 10, then
A # {2, 3, 5, 7}
(i) The set of all complex numbers.
2. If A is the set of all even numbers lying between 2 and
(ii) The set of vowels in the alphabets of English 20, then
language. A # {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
(iii) The set of all natural numbers.
(iv) The set of all triangles in a plane. 2. Set Builder Method
(v) The set of all states in India. Under this method, the stating properties which its elements
(vi) The set of all months in year which has 30 days. are to satisfy, then we write
(vii) The set of all stars in space. A # { x P ( x )} or A # { x : P ( x )}
and read as ‘A is the set of elements x, such that x has the
property P $.
Elements of the Set Remark
The elements of the set are denoted by small letters in 1. “ : ” or “| ” means ‘such that’.
the alphabets of English language, i.e. a, b, c, x, y, z, K . 2. The other names of this method are property method, rule
If x is an element of a set A, we write x ! A method and symbolic method.
(read as ‘x belongs to A’). For example,
If x is not an element of A, then we write x " A (read as 1. If A # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 }, then we can write
‘x does not belong to A’). A # { x ! N : x % 8 }.
For example, 2. A is the set of all odd integers lying between 2 and 51, then
If A # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then 3 ! A, 6 "A. A # { x : 2 & x & 51, x is odd}.
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 787

Some Standard Sets For example,

1. { x : x ! N , 4 & x & 5 } # *
● N denotes set of all natural numbers # {1, 2, 3, K }.
2. { x : x ! R, x 2 ( 1 # 0 } # *
● Z or I denotes set of all integers
3. {x : x 2 # 25, x is even number} # *
# {K, ' 3, ' 2, ' 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, K }.
● Z 0 or I 0 denotes set of all integers excluding zero 2. Singleton or Unit Set
# {K, ' 3, ' 2, ' 1, 1, 2, 3, K }.
A set having one and only one element is called singleton
● Z ( or I ( denotes set of all positive integers or unit set.
# {1, 2, 3,K } # N . For example, { x : x ' 3 # 4 } is a singleton set.
● E denotes set of all even integers Since, x '3 # 4 + x # 7
# {K, ' 6, ' 4, ' 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, K }. , { x : x ' 3 # 4 } # {7 }
● O denotes set of all odd integers
# {K, ' 5, ' 3, ' 1, 1, 3, 5, K }. 3. Subset
● W denotes set of all whole numbers # {0, 1, 2, 3,K }. If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B,
● Q denotes set of all rational numbers # { x : x # p /q, then A is called the subset of B, we write A - B (read as A
where p and q are integers and q ) 0 }. is subset of B or A is contained in B).
● Q 0 denotes set of all non-zero rational numbers Thus, A - B . [x ! A + x ! B ]
{ x : x # p / q, where p and q are integers and p ) 0 and
q ) 0 }. Remark
● Q ( denotes set of all positive rational numbers # { x : x 1. Every set is a subset of itself
# p /q, where p andq arebothpositiveornegativeintegers} i.e., A - A.
2. If A - B, B - C, then A - C.
● R denotes set of all real numbers.
● R 0 denotes set of all non-zero real numbers. For example,
● R ( denotes set of all positive real numbers. 1. If A # {2, 3, 4} and B # {5, 4, 2, 3, 1}, then A - B.
2. The sets { a }, { b }, { a, b }, { b, c } are the subsets of the
● R ' Q denotes set of all irrational numbers.
set {a, b, c }.
● C denotes set of all complex numbers
# {a ( ib : a, b ! R and i # '1}.
4. Total Number of Subsets
● C 0 denotes set of all non-zero complex numbers
If a set A has n elements, then the number of subsets
# {a ( ib : a, b ! R 0 and i # '1}. of A # 2 n .
● Na denotes set of all natural numbers which are less than
or equal to a, where a is positive integer ❙ Example 1. Write the letters of the word ALLAHABAD
# {1, 2, 3, K, a }. in set form and find the number of subsets in it and
write all subsets.
Sol. There are 5 different letters in the word ALLAHABAD
Different Types of Sets i.e., A,L,H,B,D, then set is {A, B, D, H, L}, then number of
subsets # 25 # 32 and all subsets are
*, {A}, {B}, {D}, {H}, {L}, {A, B}, {A, D}, {A, H}, {A, L}, {B, D},
1. Null Set or Empty Set or Void Set {B, H}, {B, L}, {D, H}, {D, L}, {H, L}, {A, B, D}, {A, B, H},
A set having no element is called a null set or empty set or {A, B, L}, {A, D, H}, {A, D, L}, {A, H, L}, {B, D, H}, {B, D, L},
void set. It is denoted by * or { }. {B, H, L}, {D, H, L}, {A, B, D, H}, {A, B, D, L}, {B, D, H, L},
{A, D, H, L}, {A, B, H, L}, {A, B, D, H, L}.
Remark
1. * is called the null set.
2. * is unique.
5. Equal Sets
3. * is a subset of every set. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, if every element of
4. * is never written within braces i.e., {*} is not the null set. A is an element of B, and every element of B is an element
5. {0} is not an empty set as it contains the element 0 (zero). of A. If A and B are equal, we write A # B.
788 Textbook of Algebra

It is clear that A - B and B - A . A # B. (ii) Set of Gold Medalist students in Civil Branch,
For example, sec A in A.M.I.E. (India).
1. The sets {1, 2, 5} and {5, 2, 1} are equal. (iii) Set of natural numbers less than 500.
2. {1, 2, 3} # { x : x 3 ' 6 x 2 ( 11x ' 6 # 0} 2. Each one of the following is an infinite set.
(i) Set of all integers.
6. Power Set (ii) Set of all points in a plane.
(iii) { x : x ! R, 1 & x & 2 }
The set of all the subsets of a given set A is said to be the
(iv) Set of all concentric circles with centre as origin.
power set A and is denoted by P ( A ) or 2 A .
Symbolically, P ( A ) # { x : x - A }
Thus, x ! P (A) . x - A.
10. Cardinal Number of a Finite Set
The number of distinct elements in a finite set A is called
Remark cardinal number and the cardinal number of a set A is
1. * and Aare both elements of P( A). denoted by n ( A ).
2. If A # *, then P ( *) # {*}, a singleton but * is a null set. For example,
3. If A # {a}, then P( A) # {*, {a}} If A # { '3, ' 1, 8, 9, 13, 17 }, then n ( A ) # 6.
For example, If A # {a, b, c}, then
P( A) or 2A # {*, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}} 11. Comparability of Sets
Also, n( P ( A)) or n( 2A ) # 23 # 8 Two sets A and B are said to be comparable, if either
4. Since, P( *) # {*} A 1 B or B 1 A or A # B, otherwise A and B are said to be
incomparable.
, P( P( *)) # {*, {*}}
and P ( P( P( *))) # {*, {*}, {{*}}, {*, {*}}} For example,
5. If Ahas n elements, then P ( A) has 2n elements. 1. The sets A # { 1, 2 , 3 } and B # { 1, 2 , 4 , 6 } are
incomparable (since A 2 B or B 2 A or A ) B )
2. The sets A # {1, 2, 4 } and B # {1, 4 } are comparable
7. Super Set (since B 1 A).
The statement A - B can be rewritten as B / A, then B is
called the super set of A and is written as B 0 A . 12. Universal Set
All the sets under consideration are likely to be subsets of
8. Proper Subset a set is called the universal set and is denoted by 3 or S
or U .
A set A is said to be proper subset of a set B, if every
element of A is an element of B and B has atleast one For example,
element which is not an element of A and is denoted by 1. The set of all letters in alphabet of English language
A 1 B (read as “A is a proper subset of B ”). U # {a, b, c , K, x , y , z } is the universal set of vowels in
For example, alphabet of English language.
1. If A # {1, 2, 4 } and B # {5, 1, 2, 4, 3 }, then A 1 B i.e., A # {a, e , i, o , u }.
Since, 3, 5 " A. 2. The set of all integers I # { 0 , 4 1, 4 2 , 4 3 ,K } is the
2. If A # {a, b, c } and B # {c , b, a }, then A 2 B (since, B universal set of all even integers
does not contain any element which is not in A). i.e., { 0 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 6 ,K }
3. N 1 I 1 Q 1 R 1 C
13. Union of Sets
9. Finite and Infinite Sets The union of two sets A and B is the set of all those
A set in which the process of counting of elements comes elements which are either in A or in B or in both. This set
to an end is called a finite set, otherwise it is called an is denoted by A 5 B or A ( B (read as ‘A union B ’ or ‘A
infinite set. cup B ’ or ‘A join B ’).
For example, Symbolically, A 5 B # { x : x ! A or x ! B }
1. Each one of the following sets is a finite set. or A 5 B # {x : x ! A 6 x ! B}
(i) Set of universities in India. Clearly, x ! A 5 B . x ! A or x ! B
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 789

For example,
1. If A # {1, 2, 3, 4 } and B # { 4, 5, 6 },
16. Difference of Sets
then A 5 B # {1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6 } # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } If A and B be two given sets, then the set of all those
2. If A # {1, 2, 3 }, B # {2, 3, 4, 5 }, C # {7, 8 }, elements of A which do not belong to B is called difference
then A 5 B 5 C # {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 } of sets A and B. It is written as A ' B. It is also denoted by
A ~ B or A\B or C A B (complement of B in A).
Remark
The union of a finite number of sets A1, A2, A3, K, An is represented
Symbolically, A ' B # { x : x ! A and x " B }
by A1 5 A2 5 A3 5 K 5 An or 5 Ai.
n
Clearly, x ! A ' B . x ! A and x " B.
i #1
n
Symbolically, 5 Ai # {x : x ! Ai for atleast one i} Remark
i #1
1. A ' B ) B ' A
2. The sets A ' B, B ' A and A 7 B are disjoint sets.
14. Intersection of Sets 3. A ' B - A and B ' A - B
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all 4. A ' * # A and A ' A # *
elements which are common in A and B. This set is For example,
denoted by A 7 B or AB (read as ‘A intersection B ’ or ‘A If A # {1, 2, 3, 4 } and B # { 4, 5, 6, 7 }, then A ' B # {1, 2, 3 }.
cap B ’ or ‘A meet B ’).
Symbolically, A 7 B # { x : x ! A and x ! B } 17. Symmetric Difference of Two Sets
or A 7 B # {x : x ! A 8 x ! B } Let A and B be two sets. The symmetric difference of sets
Clearly, x ! A 7 B . x ! A and x ! B A and B is the set ( A ' B ) 5 ( B ' A ) or ( A 5 B ) ' ( A 7 B )
For example, and is denoted by A < B or A = B (A direct sum B).
1. If A # {1, 2, 3 } and B # {3, 4, 5, 6 }, then A 7 B # {3 }.
2. If A # {1, 2, 3 }, B # {2, 3, 4 } and C # {3, 4, 5 }, then i.e., A = B or A < B # ( A ' B ) 5 ( B ' A )
A 7 B 7 C # {3 } and A = B or A < B # ( A 5 B ) ' ( A 7 B )
Remark Remark
The intersection of a finite number of sets A1, A2, A3,K, An 1. A < B # {x : x ! A and x " B}
represented by
n or A < B # {x : x ! B and x " A}
A1 7 A2 7 A3 7 K 7 An or 7 Ai. 2. A < B # B < A (commutative)
i #1
n
Symbolically, 7 Ai # {x : x ! Ai for all i} For example,
i #1
Let A # { 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 } and B # { 1, 3 , 5 , 7 },
then A ' B # { 2 , 4 }, B ' A # { 7 }
15. Disjoint Sets , A < B # ( A ' B ) 5 ( B ' A ) # {2 , 4 , 7 }
If the two sets A and B have no common element.
i.e., A 7 B # *, then the two sets A and B are called disjoint
or mutually exclusive events.
18. Complement Set
Let U be the universal set and A be a set, such that A 1 U .
For example, If A # {a, b, c } and B # {1, 2, 3 }, then A 7 B # *
Then, the complement of A with respect to U is denoted
Hence, A and B are disjoint sets. by A$ or A c or C ( A ) or U ' A .
Remark Symbolically, A$ or A c or C ( A ) # { x : x !U and x " A } .
If S # {a1, a2, a3, K, an}, so Clearly, x ! A$ . x " A.
3n ( 1
number of ordered pairs of disjoint sets of S is .
2 Remark
(Qeach element in either (A) or (B) or neither 1. U$ # * and *$ # U
, Total ways # 3n i.e., A # B, iff A # B # * (1 case) otherwise A 2. A 5 A$ # U and A 7 A$ # *
and B are interchangeable.
For example,
, Number of ordered pairs of disjoint sets of
S #1 (
3n ' 1 3n ( 19
# ;.
Let U # {1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7} and A # {1, 3 , 5 , 7}.
2 2 : Then, A$ # U ' A # {2, 4, 6}
790 Textbook of Algebra

Laws and Theorems Proof

(i) Let x ! A 5 ( B 5 C ) . x ! A or x ! B 5 C
1. Idempotent Laws . x ! A or (x ! B or x ! C )
For any set A,
. (x ! A or x ! B ) or x ! C
(i) A 5 A # A (ii) A 7 A # A
Proof . x ! A 5 B or x ! C
(i) Let x ! A 5 A . x ! A or x ! A . x !(A 5 B ) 5 C
. x !A , x ! A 5 (B 5 C ) . x !(A 5 B ) 5 C
Hence, A 5 A # A Hence, A 5 ( B 5 C ) # ( A 5 B ) 5 C.
(ii) Let x ! A 7 A . x ! A and x ! A (ii) Let x ! A 7 ( B 7 C ) . x ! A and x ! B 7 C
. x !A . x ! A and (x ! B and x ! C )
Hence, A 7 A # A . (x ! A and x ! B ) and x ! C
2. Identity Laws . x ! A 7 B and x ! C
For any set A, . x !(A 7 B ) 7 C
(i) A 5 * # A (ii) A 7 * # * Hence, A 7 ( B 7 C ) # ( A 7 B ) 7 C.
(iii) A 5 U # U (iv) A 7 U # A 5. Distributive Laws
Proof For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(i) Let x ! A 5 * . x ! A and x ! * (i) A 5 ( B 7 C ) # ( A 5 B ) 7 ( A 5 C )
. x !A (ii) A 7 ( B 5 C ) # ( A 7 B ) 5 ( A 7 C )
Hence, A 5 * # A Proof
(ii) Let x ! A 7 * . x ! A and x ! *
. x !* (i) Let x ! A 5 ( B 7 C ) . x ! A or x ! B 7 C
Hence, A 7 * # * . x ! A or (x ! B and x ! C )
(iii) Let x ! A 5 U . x ! A or x !U . (x ! A or x ! B ) and (x ! A or x ! C )
. x !U . x ! A 5 B and x ! A 5 C
Hence, A 5 U #U . x ![( A 5 B ) 7 ( A 5 C )]
(iv) Let x ! A 7 U . x ! A and x !U , x ! A 5 (B 7 C ) . x !(A 5 B ) 7 (A 5 C )
. x !A Hence, A 5 ( B 7 C ) # ( A 5 B ) 7 ( A 5 C ).
Hence, A 7 U # A (ii) Let x ! A 7 ( B 5 C ) . x ! A and x ! B 5 C
3. Commutative Laws
. x ! A and (x ! B or x ! C )
For any two sets A and B, we have
. (x ! A and x ! B ) or (x ! A and x ! C )
(i) A 5 B # B 5 A (ii) A 7 B # B 7 A
Proof . x ! A 7 B or x ! A 7 C
. x !(A 7 B ) 5 (A 7 C )
(i) Let x ! A 5 B . x ! A or x ! B
. x ! B or x ! A , x ! A 7 (B 5 C ) . x !(A 7 B ) 5 (A 7 C )
. x !B 5 A Hence, A 7 ( B 5 C ) # ( A 7 B ) 5 ( A 7 C ).
6. For any two sets A and B, we have
, x !A 5 B . x !B 5 A
(i) P ( A ) 7 P ( B ) # P ( A 7 B )
Hence, A 5 B # B 5 A
(ii) P ( A ) 5 P ( B ) - P ( A 5 B )
(ii) Let x ! A 7 B . x ! A and x ! B
. x ! B and x ! A where, P ( A ) is the power set of A.
. x !B 7 A Proof
, x !A 7 B . x !B 7 A (i) Let x ! P ( A ) 7 P ( B ) . x ! P ( A ) or x ! P ( B )
Hence, A 7 B # B 7 A . . x - A or x - B
4. Associative Laws .x - A7 B
For any three sets A, B and C, we have
. x ! P(A 7 B )
(i) A 5 ( B 5 C ) # ( A 5 B ) 5 C
(ii) A 7 ( B 7 C ) # ( A 7 B ) 7 C Hence, P ( A ) 7 P ( B ) # P ( A 7 B )
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 791

(ii) Let x ! P ( A ) " P ( B ) # x ! P ( A ) or x ! P ( B )

# x $ A or x $ B
More Results on Operations on Sets
#x $ A" B For any two sets A and B, we have
# x ! P (A " B ) 1. A $ A " B, B $ A " B, A ( B $ A, A ( B $ B
2. A ) B & A ( B %
Hence, P ( A ) " P ( B ) $ P ( A " B )
Proof
7. If A is any set, then ( A % ) % & A
Let x ! A ) B # x ! A and x ' B
Proof Let x ! ( A % ) % # x ' A % # x ! A
# x ! A and x ! B %
Hence, ( A % ) % & A
# x !A ( B %
8. De-Morgan’s Laws Hence, A ) B & A ( B %
For any three sets A, B and C, we have 3. ( A ) B ) " B & A " B
(i) ( A " B ) % & A % ( B % Proof ( A ) B ) " B & ( A ( B % ) " B
(ii) ( A ( B ) % & A % " B % & ( A " B ) ( ( B % " B ) [from distributive law]
(iii) A ) ( B " C ) & ( A ) B ) ( ( A ) C ) & (A " B ) ( U
&A" B
(iv) A ) ( B ( C ) & ( A ) B ) " ( A ) C )
Hence, ( A ) B ) " B & A " B
Proof
4. ( A ) B ) ( B & +
(i) Let x ! ( A " B ) % # x ' A " B
Proof ( A ) B ) ( B & ( A ( B % ) ( B
# x ' A and x ' B & A ( (B % ( B ) [from associative law]
# x ! A % and x ! B % & A( +& +
# x ! A% ( B % Hence, ( A ) B ) ( B & +
* x ! (A " B )% # x ! A% ( B % 5. A $ B # B % $ A %
Hence, ( A " B ) % & A % ( B %. Proof Only if part Let A $ B …(i)
(ii) Let x ! ( A ( B ) % # x ' A ( B To prove B %$ A %
# x ' A or x ' B Let x !B% , x 'B
, x 'A [Q A $ B ]
# x ! A % or x ! B %
, x ! A%
# x ! A% " B % Thus, x ! B % , x ! A% [Q B $ A ]
* x ! ( A ( B )% # x ! A% " B % Hence, %
B $ A% …(ii)
Hence, ( A ( B ) % & A % " B %. If part Let B % $ A% …(iii)
(iii) Let x ! A ) ( B " C ) # x ! A and x ' B " C To prove A $ B
# x ! A and (x ' B and x ' C) Let x ! A , x ' A%
# (x ! A and x ' B ) and (x ! A and x ' C) , x 'B % [from Eq.(iii)]
# x ! ( A ) B ) and x ! ( A ) C ) , x !B
Hence, A$ B …(iv)
# x !(A ) B ) ( (A ) C )
From Eqs. (ii) and (iv), we get A $ B # B % $ A %
Hence, A ) ( B " C ) & ( A ) B ) ( ( A ) C ).
6. A ) B & B % ) A %
(iv) Let x ! A ) ( B ( C ) # x ! A and x ' ( B ( C )
Proof A ) B & (A ( B % )
# x ! A and (x ' B or x ' C) & B % ( A & B % ( (A% )% & B % ) A%
# (x ! A and x ' B ) or (x ! A and x ' C) Hence, A ) B & B % ) A%
# x ! ( A ) B ) or x ! ( A ) C ) 7. ( A " B ) ( ( A " B % ) & A
# x !(A ) B ) " (A ) C ) Proof ( A " B ) ( ( A " B % ) & A " ( B ( B % )
Hence, A ) ( B ( C ) & ( A ) B ) " ( A ) C ). [by distributive law]
Aliter &A" +&A
A ) ( B ( C ) & A ( ( B ( C ) % [QA ) B & A ( B % ] Hence, ( A " B ) ( ( A " B % ) & A
& A ( ( B %( C ) % 8. A " B & ( A ) B ) " ( B ) A ) " ( A ( B )
& ( A ( B %) " ( A ( C %) Proof ( A ) B ) " ( B ) A ) " ( A ( B )
& (A ) B ) " (A ) C ) & [( A " B ) ) ( A ( B )] " ( A ( B )
792 Textbook of Algebra

& [( A " B ) ( ( A ( B ) % ] " ( A ( B ) ❙ Example 2. Let A, B and C be three sets such that
& [( A " B ) " ( A ( B )] ( [( A ( B ) % " ( A ( B )] A " B & A " C and A ( B & A ( C . Show that B & C .
& (A " B ) ( U & A " B Sol. Given, A " B & A "C …(i)
Hence, A " B & ( A ) B ) " ( B ) A ) " ( A ( B ) and A ( B & A (C …(ii)
9. A ) ( A ) B ) & A ( B To prove B & C .
Proof A ) ( A ) B ) & A ) ( A ( B % ) From Eq. (i), ( A " B ) ( C & ( A " C ) ( C
& A ( (A ( B % )% , ( A ( C ) " ( B ( C ) & ( A ( C ) " (C " C )
& A ( (A% " B ) , (A ( B) " ( B ( C ) & ( A ( C ) " C
& (A ( A% ) " (A ( B ) [Q A ( C & A ( B ]
& + " (A ( B ) & A ( B , (A ( B) " ( B ( C ) & C [Q A ( C $ C ]
Thus, C & (A ( B) " ( B ( C ) …(iii)
Hence, A ) ( A ) B ) & A ( B
Again, from Eq. (i), ( A " B ) ( B & ( A " C ) ( B
10. A ) B & B ) A # A & B
, ( A ( B ) " ( B ( B ) & ( A ( B ) " (C ( B )
Proof Only if part Let A ) B & B ) A …(i)
, (A ( B) " B & (A ( B) " ( B ( C )
To prove A & B
, B & (A ( B) " ( B ( C )
Let x ! A # (x ! A and x ' B ) or (x ! A and x ! B )
# x ! ( A ) B ) or x ! ( A ( B ) [Q A ( B $ B ]
# x ! (B ) A) Thus, B & ( A ( B) " ( B ( C ) …(iv)
or x !A ( B [from Eq. (i)] From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we have B & C .
# (x ! B and x 'A ) or (x ! B and x ! A) ❙ Example 3. Let A and B be any two sets. If for some
# x !B set X, A ( X & B ( X & + and A " X & B " X ,
Hence, A & B prove that A & B.
If part Let A & B Sol. Given, A (X &B(X &+ …(i)
To prove A ) B & B ) A
and A "X &B"X …(ii)
Now, A)B&A)A&+ [Q B & A ]
From Eq. (ii), A ( ( A " X ) & A ( ( B " X )
and B)A&A)A&+ [Q B & A ] , A & (A ( B) " (A ( X )
* A)B&B)A [Q A $ A " X * A ( ( A " X ) & A ]
Hence, A &B ,A )B &B )A , A & (A ( B) " + [Q A ( X & + ]
11. A " B & A ( B # A & B , A & (A ( B)
Proof Only if part Let A " B & A ( B , A$B …(iii)
Now, x !A , x !A " B Again, A "X & B"X
, x !A ( B [Q A " B & A ( B ] , B ((A " X ) & B ((B " X )
, x !B , (B ( A) "(B ( X ) & B
Thus, A$ B …(i) [Q B $ B " X * B ( ( B " X ) & B ]
Again, y !B ,y !A " B , (B ( A) " + & B [QB ( X & + ]
, y !A ( B [Q A " B & A ( B ] , B(A &B
, y !A , B$ A …(iv)
Thus, B$A …(ii) From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we have A & B.
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have A & B
❙ Example 4. If A and B are any two sets, prove that
Thus, A " B & A ( B , A & B.
P ( A ) & P (B ) , A & B.
If part Let A & B …(iii)
To prove A" B &A( B Sol. Given, P( A ) & P( B ) …(i)
Now, A" B &A" A &A [Q B & A ] …(iv) To prove A & B
and A( B &A( A &A [Q B & A ] …(v) Let x ! A , there exists a subset X of A such that x ! X .
From Eqs. (iv) and (v), we have A " B & A ( B Now, X $ A , X ! P( A )
Hence, A" B &A( B #A &B , X ! P( B ) [from Eq. (i)]
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 793

, X$B (C " M ) % & Set of students which have not both subjects
, x !B [Q x ! X ] Chemistry and Mathematics.
Thus, x !A , x !B ( M ( P ( C ) & Set of students which have all three
* A$B …(ii) subjects Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.
Let y ! B , there exists a subset Y of B such that y !Y . ( M " P " C ) & Set of all students which have three
Now, Y $ B , Y ! P( B )
subjects.
, Y ! P( A ) [Q P ( B ) & P ( A )]
, Y$A Cardinal Number of Some Sets
, y !A [Qy !Y ] If A, B and C are finite sets and U be the finite universal
Thus, y !B , y !A set, then
(i) n ( A % ) & n (U ) ) n ( A )
* B$ A …(iii)
(ii) n( A " B ) & n ( A ) - n ( B ) ) n ( A ( B )
From Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we have A & B
(iii) n ( A " B ) & n ( A ) - n ( B ), if A and B are disjoint
non-void sets.
Use of Sets in Logical Problems (iv) n( A ( B % ) & n( A ) ) n( A ( B )
M & Set of students which have Mathematics. (v) n( A % ( B % ) & n( A " B ) % & n(U ) ) n( A " B )
P & Set of students which have Physics. (vi) n( A % " B % ) & n( A ( B ) % & n(U ) ) n( A ( B )
C & Set of students which have Chemistry. (vii) n( A ) B ) & n( A ) ) n( A ( B )
Applying the different operations on the above sets, then (viii) n( A ( B ) & n( A " B ) ) n( A ( B % ) ) n( A % ( B )
we get following important results. (ix) n( A " B " C ) & n( A ) - n( B ) - n(C ) ) n( A ( B )
M % & Set of students which have no Mathematics. ) n( B ( C ) ) n(C ( A ) - n( A ( B ( C )
P % & Set of students which have no Physics. (x) If A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , K, A n are disjoint sets, then
n (A 1 " A 2 " A 3 " K" A n )
C % & Set of students which have no Chemistry.
& n (A 1 ) - n (A 2 ) - n (A 3 ) - K - n (A n )
M " P & Set of students which have atleast one subject
Mathematics or Physics. ❙ Example 5. If A and B be two sets containing 6 and 3
P " C & Set of students which have atleast one subject elements respectively, what can be the minimum
Physics or Chemistry. number of elements in A " B ? Also, find the maximum
C " M & Set of students which have atleast one subject number of elements in A " B.
Chemistry or Mathematics. Sol. We have, n ( A " B ) & n ( A ) - n ( B ) ) n ( A ( B ),

M ( P & Set of students which have both subjects n ( A " B ) is minimum or maximum according as n ( A ( B )
Mathematics and Physics. is maximum or minimum, respectively.

P ( C & Set of students which have both subjects Physics Case I If n ( A ( B ) is minimum i.e., n ( A ( B ) & 0 such that
and Chemistry. A & {a, b, c , d , e , f } and B & { g , h , i }
C ( M & Set of students which have both subjects * n ( A " B ) & n( A ) - n( B ) & 6 - 3 & 9
Chemistry and Mathematics. Case II If n ( A ( B ) is maximum i.e., n ( A ( B ) & 3, such
that
M ( P % & Set of students which have Mathematics but not A & {a, b, c , d , e , f } and B & {d , a, c }
Physics.
* n( A " B ) & n ( A ) - n( B ) ) n ( A ( B ) & 6 - 3 ) 3 & 6
P ( C % & Set of students which have Physics but not
Chemistry. ❙ Example 6. Suppose A 1, A 2 ,..., A 30 are thirty sets
C ( M % & Set of students which have Chemistry but not each with five elements and B 1, B 2 ,..., B n are n sets
Mathematics. each with three elements.
30 n
( M " P ) % & Set of students which have not both subjects Let " Ai & " B j & S
Mathematics and Physics. i &1 j &1

( P " C ) % & Set of students which have not both subjects Assume that each element of S belongs to exactly ten
Physics and Chemistry. of the A i ’s and exactly to nine of the B j ’s. Find n.
794 Textbook of Algebra

Sol. Given, A’s are thirty sets with five elements each, so Sol. Let F, H and B be the sets of television watchers who
30 watch Football, Hockey and Basketball, respectively.
. n ( A i ) & 5 / 30 & 150 …(i) Then, according to the problem, we have
i &1

If the m distinct elements in S and each element of S belongs n (U ) & 500, n ( F ) & 285, n ( H ) & 195,
to exactly 10 of the A i ’s, so we have n ( B ) & 115, n ( F ( B ) & 45,
30 n ( F ( H ) & 70, n ( H ( B ) & 50
. n( A i ) & 10m …(ii)
i &1 and n ( F % " H % " B % ) & 50,
* From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get 10m & 150 where U is the set of all the television watchers.
* m & 15 …(iii) Since, n ( F % " H % " B % ) & n (U ) ) n ( F " H " B )
n n , 50 & 500 ) n ( F " H " B )
Similarly, . n( B j ) & 3n and . n( B j ) & 9 m
, n ( F " H " B ) & 450
j &1 j &1

9m We know that,
* 3n & 9 m , n & & 3m
3 n( F " H " B ) & n( F ) - n( H ) - n( B ) ) n( F ( H )
& 3 / 15 & 45 [from Eq. (iii)] ) n( H ( B ) ) n( B ( F ) - n( F ( H ( B )
Hence, n & 45 , 450 & 285 - 195 - 115 ) 70 ) 50 ) 45 - n ( F ( H ( B )
* n ( F ( H ( B ) & 20
❙ Example 7. In a group of 1000 people, there are 750
which is the number of those who watch all the three
who can speak Hindi and 400 who can speak Bengali. games. Also, number of persons who watch football only
How many can speak Hindi only? How many can speak
& n( F ( H % ( B % )
Bengali only? How many can speak both Hindi
and Bengali? & n( F ) ) n( F ( H ) ) n( F ( B ) - n( F ( H ( B )
Sol. Let H and B be the set of those people who can speak & 285 ) 70 ) 45 - 20 & 190
Hindi and Bengali respectively, then according to the The number of persons who watch hockey only
problem, we have
& n( H ( F % ( B % )
n ( H " B ) & 1000,
& n( H ) ) n( H ( F ) ) n( H ( B ) - n( H ( F ( B )
n( H ) & 750, n ( B ) & 400
We know that, & 195 ) 70 ) 50 - 20 & 95
n( H " B ) & n( H ) - n( B ) ) n( H ( B ) and the number of persons who watch basketball only
1000 & 750 - 400 ) n ( H ( B ) & n( B ( H % ( F % )
* n ( H ( B ) & 150 & n( B ) ) n( B ( H ) ) n( B ( F ) - n( H ( F ( B )
* Number of people speaking Hindi and Bengali both is & 115 ) 50 ) 45 - 20 & 40
150. Hence, required number of those who watch exactly one of
Also, n ( H ( B % ) & n ( H ) ) n ( H ( B ) the three games
& 750 ) 150 & 190 - 95 - 40 & 325
& 600
Thus, number of people speaking Hindi only is 600.
Again, n ( B ( H % ) & n ( B ) ) n ( B ( H ) & 400 ) 150 & 250 Venn Diagrams
Thus, number of people speaking Bengali only is 250. (Euler-Venn Diagrams)
❙ Example 8. A survey of 500 television watchers The diagram drawn to represent sets are called Venn
produced the following information, 285 watch diagrams or Euler Venn diagrams. Here, we represent the
football, 195 watch hockey, 115 watch basketball, universal set U by points within rectangle and the subset
45 watch football and basketball, 70 watch football A of the set U is represented by the interior of a circle. If a
and hockey, 50 watch hockey and basketball, 50 do set A is a subset of a set B, then the circle representing A is
not watch any of the three games. How many watch all drawn inside the circle representing B. If A and B are not
the three games? How many watch exactly one of the equal but they have some common elements, then to
three games? represent A and B by two intersecting circles.
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 795

Venn Diagrams in Different Situations 7. A ( ( B ( C ) and ( A ( B ) ( C

1. Subset U U
U
B B C B C
A
A A

AÕB B∩C A ∩ (B ∩ C)
2. Union of sets
U U
U U
B C B C
A B A B A A

A∩B (A ∩ B) ∩ C
A ∪ B, when A ∪ B, when
A∩B=φ neither A Õ B nor B Õ A Hence, A ( ( B ( C ) & ( A ( B ) ( C which is
associative law for intersection.
3. Intersection of sets
U U 8. Distributive law
(i) A " ( B ( C ) & ( A " B ) ( ( A " C )
A B A B
(ii) A ( ( B " C ) & ( A ( B ) " ( A ( C )
(i)
A ∩ B, when neither A ∩ B, when U U
A Õ B nor B Õ A A ∩ B = φ (no shaded one) B C B C
4. Difference of sets A A
U U
(B ∩ C) A ∪ (B ∩ C)
A B A B
U U U

A – B, when neither A – B, when B C B C B C

A Õ B nor B Õ A A–B=φ
A A A
5. Complement set
U (A ∪ B) (A ∪ C) (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
It is clear from diagrams that
A
A " (B ( C ) & (A " B ) ( (A " C )
A′ = shaded one (ii)
6. A " ( B " C ) and ( A " B ) " C U U

U U B C B C

B C B C
A A
A A
(B ∪ C) A ∩ (B ∪ C )
B∪C A ∪ (B ∪ C)
U U U
U U
B C B C B C
B C B C
A A A
A A

(A ∩ B) (A ∩ C) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
A∪B (A ∪ B) ∪ C

Hence, A " ( B " C ) & ( A " B ) " C which is It is clear from diagrams that
associative law for union. A ( (B " C ) & (A ( B ) " (A ( C )
796 Textbook of Algebra

9. Symmetric difference Let a, b, c, d, e, f , g denote the elements (students)

contained in the bounded region as shown in the diagram.
U U
P U
A B A B a
e d
g c
b
f
A ∆ B, when neither A ∆ B, when C M
A Õ B nor B Õ A A∩B=φ
and A ∩ B ≠ φ
Then, a - d - e - g & 170
c - d - f - g & 100
Remark
b - e - f - g & 46
Remember with the help of figures.
d - g & 30
U e - g & 23
A B
f - g & 28
_ _
A∩ B A ∩B B∩ A g & 18
After solving, we get g & 18, f & 10, e & 5, d & 12, a & 35,
b & 13 and c & 60
* a - b - c - d - e - f - g & 153
U
A So, the number of students who have not offered any of
_ _
A∩B∩C these three subjects & 175 ) 153 & 22
Number of students studying Mathematics only, c & 60
_ _
A∩ B∩ C A ∩ C∩ B Number of students studying Physics only, a & 35
Number of students studying Chemistry only, b & 13
A ∩ B∩C
_ _ _ _ _ Aliter
B ∩ C ∩ A B ∩ C ∩ A C∩ A ∩ B Let P, C and M be the sets of students studying Physics,
B C Chemistry and Mathematics, respectively. Then, we are
given that
n ( P ) & 70, n (C ) & 46, n ( M ) & 100
n ( M ( P ) & 30, n ( M ( C ) & 28
❙ Example 9. A class has 175 students. The following
table shows the number of students studying one or n ( P ( C ) & 23
more of the following subjects in this case. and n ( M ( P ( C ) & 18
*The number of students enrolled in Mathematics only
Subjects Number of students
& n( M ( P % ( C % ) & n( M ( ( P " C )% )
Mathematics 100
[by De-Morgan’s law]
Physics 70 & n ( M ) ) n ( M ( ( P " C ))
Chemistry 46 & n ( M ) ) {n [( M ( P ) " ( M ( C )]}
Mathematics and Physics 30
[by distributive law]
& n( M ) ) n( M ( P ) ) ( M ( C ) - n( M ( P ( C )
Mathematics and Chemistry 28
& 100 ) 30 ) 28 - 18 & 60
Physics and Chemistry 23
Similarly, the number of students enrolled in Physics only,
Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry 18
n( P ( M % ( C % )
& n ( P ) ) n( P ( M ) ) n( P ( C ) - n ( P ( M ( C )
How many students are enrolled in Mathematics alone,
Physics alone and Chemistry alone? Are there students & 70 ) 30 ) 23 - 18 & 35
who have not offered any one of these subjects? and the number of students enrolled in Chemistry only,
Sol. Let P, C and M denotes the sets of students studying n (C ( M % ( P % ) & n (C ) ) n (C ( M ) ) n (C ( P ) - n
Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics, respectively. (C ( M ( P )
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 797

& 46 ) 28 ) 23 - 18 & 13 e - g & 180 , f - g & 150

and the number of students who have not offered any of g & 28
the three subjects, After solving, we get
n ( M % ( P % ( C % ) & n ( M ( P ( C ) % [by De-Morgan’s law] g & 28, f & 122, e & 152, b & 33, d & 72, c & 203 and a & 268
& n (U ) ) n ( M " P " C ) The number of rivers were polluted by atleast one of the
& n (U ) ) {n ( M ) - n ( P ) - n (C ) ) n ( M ( P ) three impurities
) n ( M ( C ) ) n ( P ( C ) - n ( P ( C ( M )} & (a - b - c - d - e - f - g ) & 878
& 175 ) {100 - 70 - 46 ) 30 ) 28 ) 23 - 8} and the number of rivers were polluted by exactly one of
& 175 ) 153 & 22 the three impurities,
a - b - c & 268 - 33 - 203 & 504
❙ Example 10. In a pollution study of 1500 Indian rivers
Aliter
the following data were reported. 520 were polluted by
Let S, P and C denote the sets of rivers polluted by sulphur
sulphur compounds, 335 were polluted by phosphates, compounds, by phosphates and by crude oil, respectively.
425 were polluted by crude oil, 100 were polluted by
Then, we are given that
both crude oil and sulphur compounds, 180 were
polluted by both sulphur compounds and phosphates, n (S ) & 520, n ( P ) & 335, n (C ) & 425, n (C ( S ) & 100,
150 were polluted by both phosphates and crude oil and n (S ( P ) & 180, n ( P ( C ) & 150 and n (S ( P ( C ) & 28.
28 were polluted by sulphur compounds, phosphates The number of rivers polluted by atleast one of the three
and crude oil. How many of the rivers were polluted by impurities,
atleast one of the three impurities? n (S " P " C )
How many of the rivers were polluted by exactly one & n (S ) - n ( P ) - n (C ) ) n (S ( P )
of the three impurities? ) n ( P ( C ) ) n (C ( S ) - n (S ( P ( C )
Sol. Let S, P and C denote the sets of rivers polluted by & 520 - 335 - 425 ) 180 ) 150 ) 100 - 28 & 878
sulphur compounds, by phosphates and by crude oil
and the number of rivers polluted by exactly one of the
respectively, and let a, b, c, d, e, f , g denote the elements
(impurities) contained in the bounded region as shown in three impurities,
the diagram. n {(S ( P % ( C % ) " ( P ( C % ( S % ) " (C ( P % ( S % )
& n {(S ( ( P " C ) %} " { P ( (C " S ) %} " {C ( P " S ) %}
S U
& n (S ( ( P " C ) % ) - n ( P ( (C " S ) % ) - n (C ( ( P " S ) % )
a
e d & n (S ) ) n (S ( P ) ) n (S ( C )
g c
b
f - n (S ( P ( C ) - n ( P ) ) n ( P ( C ) ) n ( P ( S )
P C - n (S ( P ( C )
- n (C ) ) n (C ( P ) ) n (C ( S ) - n (S ( P ( C )
Then, a - d - e - g & 520 & n (S ) - n ( P ) - n (C ) ) 2n (S ( P ) ) 2n (S ( C )
c - d - f - g & 425 ) 2n ( P ( C ) - 3n (S ( P ( C )
b - e - f - g & 335 , d - g & 100 & 520 - 335 - 425 ) 360 ) 200 ) 300 - 84 & 504
798 Textbook of Algebra

#L Exercise for Session 1

1. If X & {4n ) 3n ) 1: n ! N} and y & {9 (n ) 1) : n ! N}, then X " Y equals
(a) X (b)Y (c) N (d) None of these

2. If Na & {an : n ! N}, then N5 ( N7 equals

(a) N (b) N 5 (c) N 7 (d) N 35

3. If A and B are two sets, then A ( ( A " B ) % equals

(a) A (b) B (c) + (d) None of these

4. If U be the universal set and A " B " C & U, then [( A ) B ) " (B ) C ) " (C ) A)% ] equals
(a) A " B "C (b) A ( B (C (d) A " (B (C ) (d) A ( (B "C )

5. If A and B are two sets, then ( A ) B ) " (B ) A) " ( A ( B ) equals

(a) A " B (b) A ( B (c) A (d) B %

6. If A & {x : x is a multiple of 4} and B & {x : x is a multiple of 6}, then A 0 B consists of all multiple of
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 12 (d) 16

7. A set contains 2n - 1 elements. The number of subsets of this set containing more than n elements equals
(a) 2n ) 1 (b) 2n (c) 2n - 1
(d) 22 n

8. If A & {+, {+}}, then the power set of A is

(a) A (b) {+, {+}, A}
(c) {+, {+}, {{+}}, A} (d) None of these

9. Given n(U ) & 20, n( A) & 12, n(B ) & 9, n( A ( B ) & 4, where U is the universal set, A and B are subsets of U, then
n(( A " B ) % ) equals
(a) 3 (b) 9 (c) 11 (d) 17

10. A survey shows that 63% of the Indians like cheese, whereas 76% like apples. If x % of the Indians like both
cheese and apples, then x can be
(a) 40 (b) 65 (c) 39 (d) None of these

11. In a class of 55 students, the number of students studying different subjects are 23 in Mathematics, 24 in
Physics, 19 in Chemistry, 12 in Mathematics and Physics, 9 in Mathematics and Chemistry, 7 in Physics and
Chemistry and 4 in all the three subjects. The number of students who have taken exactly one subject is
(a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 9 (d) 22
Session 2
Ordered Pair, Definition of Relation, Ordered Relation,
Composition of Two Relations

Ordered Pair and B / A & {4, 5} / {1, 2, 3} & {(4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (5, 1),
(5, 2), (5, 3)}
If A be a set and a, b ! A, then the ordered pair of elements It is clear that A / B 2 B / A .
a and b in A denoted by (a, b ), where a is called the first
coordinate and b is called the second coordinate. ❙ Example 12. If A and B be two sets and A / B & {(3, 3),
Remark (3, 4), (5, 2), (5, 4)}, find A and B.
1. Ordered pairs ( a, b) and ( b, a) are different. Sol. A & First coordinates of all ordered pairs & {3, 5}
2. Ordered pairs ( a, b) and ( c, d ) are equal iff a & c and b & d. and B & Second coordinates of all ordered pairs & {2, 3, 4}
Hence, A & {3, 5} and B & {2, 3, 4}

Cartesian Product of Two Sets

The cartesian product to two sets A and B is the set of all
Important Theorems on Cartesian
those ordered pairs whose first coordinate belongs to A Product
and second coordinate belongs to B. This set is denoted by If A, B and C are three sets, then
A / B (read as ‘A cross B ’ or ‘product set of A and B ’). (i) A / ( B " C ) & ( A / B ) " ( A / C )
Symbolically, A / B & {(a, b ) : a ! A andb ! B } (ii) A / ( B ( C ) & ( A / B ) ( ( A / C )
or A / B & {(a, b ) : a ! A 1 b ! B } (iii) A / ( B ) C ) & ( A / B ) ) ( A / C )
(iv) ( A / B ) ( (S / T ) & ( A ( S ) / ( B ( T ),
Thus, (a, b ) ! A / B # a ! A 1 b ! B where S and T are two sets.
Similarly, B / A & {(b, a ) : b ! B 1 a ! A } (v) If A $ B, then ( A / C ) $ ( B / C )
Remark (vi) If A $ B, then ( A / B ) ( ( B / A ) & A 2
1. A / B 2 B / A (vii) If A $ B and C $ D , then A / C $ B / D
2. If Ahas p elements and B has q elements, then A / B has pq
elements. ❙ Example 13. If A and B are two sets given in such
3. If A & + and B & +, then A / B & +. a way that A / B consists of 6 elements and if three
4. Cartesian product of n sets A1, A 2, A 3,..., A n is the set of all elements of A / B are (1, 5), (2, 3) and
ordered n-tuples ( a1, a2, ..., an ) ai ! Ai , i & 1, 2, 3, ..., n and is (3, 5), what are the remaining elements?
n
denoted by A1 / A2 / ... / An or 3 Ai . Sol. Since, (1, 5), (2, 3), (3, 5) ! A / B, then clearly 1, 2, 3 ! A and
i &1
3, 5 ! B.
❙ Example 11. If A & {1, 2, 3} and B & {4, 5}, find A / B, A / B & {1, 2, 3} / (3, 5)
B / A and show that A /B 2 B / A. & (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 5)
Sol. A / B & {1, 2, 3} / { 4, 5} & {(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), Hence, the remaining elements are (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 3).
(3, 5)}
800 Textbook of Algebra

Relations
Introduction of Relation and if (a, b ) is not an element of the relation R, then we
We use sentences depending upon the relationship of an write a R b (read as ‘a is not related to b ’),
object to the other object in our daily life such as i.e. (a, b ) ' R # a R b.
(i) ‘Ram, Laxman, Bharat, Shatrughan’ were the sons of Remark
Dashrath. 1. Any subset of A / A is said to be a relation on A.
(ii) ‘Sita’ was the wife of Ram. 2. If Ahas m elements and B has n elements, then A / B has
(iii) ‘Laxman’ was the brother of Ram. m / n elements and total number of different relations from A
to B is 2 mn .
(iv) ‘Dashrath’ was the father of Ram.
3. If R & A / B, then Domain R & A and Range R & B.
(v) ‘Kaushaliya’ was the mother of Ram. 4. The domain as well as range of the empty set + is +.
If Ram, Laxman, Bharat, Shatrughan, Sita, Kaushaliya and 5. If A & Dom R and B & Ran R, then we write B & R [ A].
Dashrath are represented by a, b, c, d, e, f and y For example,
respectively and A represents the set, then Let A & {1, 2, 3 } and B & {3, 5, 7 }, then
A & {a , b , c , d , e , f , y } A / B & {(1, 3), (1, 5), (1, 7), (2, 3), (2, 5), (2, 7),
Here, we see that any two elements of set A are related (3, 3), (3, 5), (3, 7)}.
many ways, i.e. a, b, c, d are sons of y. ‘a’ is the son of y is But R$A/B
represented by aRy. Similarly, b is the son of y, c is the son i.e., every subset of A / B is a relation from A to B. If
of y and d is also son of y are represented as b R y, c R y we consider the relation, R & {(1, 5 ), (1, 7 ), (3, 5 ), (3, 7 )}
and d R y, respectively. Then, 1 R 5; 1 R 7; 3 R 5; 3 R 7
If we write here y R a it means that y is the son of a which Also, 1 R 3; 2 R 3; 2 R 5; 2 R 7; 3 R 3;
is impossible, since a is the son of y. Hence, y and a Clearly, Domain R & {1, 3 } and Range R & {5, 7 }
cannot be related like this. Its generally represented as For example,
yRa. Hence, we can say that a and y are in definite order. a Let A & {1, 2, 3 } and B & { 4, 5 }, then number of different
comes before R and y after R. Therefore, aRy may be
relations from A to B is 2 3 /2 & 2 6 & 64 because A has 3
represented as a order pair (a, y ). Similarly, bRy, cRy and
dRy are represented by (b, y ), (c , y ) and (d , y ), respectively. elements and B has 2 elements.
If all pairs will represented by a set, then we see that first
element of each pair is the son of second element. Hence, Types of Relations from One Set to
the set of these pairs may be represented by set R, then
R & {(a, y ), (b, y ), (c , y ), (d , y )}
Another Set
Symbolically, R & {( x , y ) : x , y ! A , where x is son of y} 1. Empty Relation
It is clear that R is subset of A / A A relation R from A to B is called an empty relation or a
i.e., R$A/A void relation from A to B if R & +.
Corollary In above example, if For example,
A & {a, b, c , d } and B & {e , f , y }, then Let A & {2, 4, 6 } and B & {7, 11}
R & {( x , z ) : x ! A, z ! B , where x is son of z} Let R & {(a, b ) : a ! A, b ! B and a ) b is even}
It is clear that R $ A / B. As, none of the numbers 2 ) 7, 2 ) 11, 4 ) 7, 4 ) 11,
6 ) 7, 6 ) 11 is an even number, R & +.
Hence, R is an empty relation.
Definition of Relation 2. Universal Relation
A relation (or binary relation) R, from a non-empty set A A relation R from A to B is said to be the universal
to another non-empty set B, is a subset of A / B. relation, if R & A / B.
i.e., R $ A / B or R $ {(a, b ) : a ! A, b ! B } For example, Let A & {1, 2 }, B & {1, 3 } and
Now, if (a, b ) be an element of the relation R, then we R & {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 3) }
write aRb (read as ‘a is related to b ’) Here, R & A / B
i.e., (a, b ) ! R # aRb Hence, R is the universal relation from A to B.
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 801

Here, dom ( R ) & {1, 3, 5 }, range ( R ) & {2, 4, 6 }

Types of Relations on a Set
and dom ( R )1 ) & {2, 4, 6 }, range ( R )1 ) & {1, 3, 5 }
1. Empty Relation
Clearly, dom ( R )1 ) & range ( R )
A relation R on a set A is said to be an empty relation or a
void relation, if R & +. and range ( R )1 ) & dom ( R ).
For example,
Let A & { 1, 3 } and R & {(a, b ) : a, b ! A and a - b is odd} Various Types of Relations
Hence, R contains no element, therefore R is an empty
relation on A. 1. Reflexive Relation
A relation R on a setA is said to be reflexive, if
2. Universal Relation a R a, 4 a ! A
A relation R on a set A is said to be universal relation on i.e., if (a, a ) ! R, 4 a ! A
A, if R & A / A .
For example,
For example,
Let A & {1, 2 } Let A & {1, 2, 3 }
and R &[(1, 1), (1, 2 ), (2, 1), (2, 2 )] R 1 & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (3, 3 )}
Here, R & A / A R 2 & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (3, 3 ), (1, 2 ), (2, 1), (1, 3 )}
Hence, R is the universal relation on A. and R 3 & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (2, 3 ), (3, 2 )}
3. Identity Relation Here, R 1 and R 2 are reflexive relations on A, R 3 is not a
reflexive relation on A as (3, 3 ) ' R 3 , i.e. 3 R 3 3.
A relation R on a set A is said to be the identity relation on
A, if Remark
R & [(a, b ) : a ! A, b ! A and a & b] The identity relation is always a reflexive relation but a reflexive
Thus, identity relation, R & [(a, a ): 4 a ! A ] relation may or may not be the identity relation. It is clear in the
above example given, R1 is both reflexive and identity relation on A
Identity relation on set A is also denoted by I A . but R2 is a reflexive relation on Abut not an identity relation on A.
Symbolically, I A & [(a, a ) : a ! A ]
For example, 2. Symmetric Relation
Let A & {1, 2, 3 } A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric relation, if
Then, I A & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (3, 3 )} a R b , b R a, 4 a, b ! A
Remark i.e., if (a, b) ! R , (b, a) ! R, 4 a, b ! A
In an identity relation on Aevery element of Ashould be related to For example,
itself only. Let A & {1, 2, 3 }
4. Inverse Relation R 1 & {(1, 2 ), (2, 1)}
R 2 & {(1, 2 ), (2, 1), (1, 3 ), (3, 1)}
If R is a relation from a set A to a set B, then inverse
relation of R to be denoted by R )1 , is a relation from and R 3 & {(2, 3 ), (1, 3 ), (3, 1)}
B to A. Here, R 1 and R 2 are symmetric relations on A but R 3 is
Symbolically, R )1 & {(b, a ) : (a, b ) ! R } not a symmetric relation on A because (2, 3 ) ! R 3
and (3, 2 ) ' R 3 .
Thus, (a, b ) ! R # (b, a ) ! R )1 , 4 a ! A, b ! B.
3. Anti-symmetric Relation
Remark
1. Dom ( R)1 ) & Range ( R) and Range ( R)1 ) & Dom ( R)
A relation R on a set A is said to be anti-symmetric,
2. ( R)1 ) )1 & R if a R b, b R a , a & b, 4 a, b ! A
For example, i.e., (a, b ) ! R and (b, a ) ! R , a & b, 4 a, b ! A
If R & {(1, 2 ), (3, 4 ), (5, 6 )}, then For example,
)1
R & {(2, 1), ( 4, 3 ), (6, 5 )} Let R be the relation in N (natural number) defined by, ‘‘x
is divisor of y’’, then R is anti-symmetric because x divides
* ( R )1 ) )1 & {(1, 2 ), (3, 4 ), (5, 6 )} & R y and y divides x , x & y
802 Textbook of Algebra

4. Transitive Relation ❙ Example 17. Let N be the set of natural numbers and
A relation R on a set A is said to be a transitive relation, relation R on N be defined by x R y # x divides y,
4 x , y !N.
if a R b and b R c , aRc , 4 a, b, c ! A Examine whether R is reflexive, symmetric,
i.e., (a, b ) ! R and (b, c ) ! R , (a, c ) ! R, 4 a, b, c ! A anti-symmetric or transitive.
For example, Sol. (i) x divides x i.e., x R x, 4 x ! N
Let A & {1, 2, 3 } * R is reflexive.
(ii) 1 divides 2 i.e., 1 R 2 but 2 R 1 as 2 does not divide 1.
R 1 & {(1, 2 ), (2, 3 ), (1, 3 ), (3, 2 )}
(iii) x divides y and y divides x , x & y
R 2 & {(2, 3 ), (3, 1)}
i.e., x Ry and y R x , x & y
R 3 & {(1, 3 ), (3, 2 ), (1, 2 )} * R is anti-symmetric relation.
Then, R 1 is not transitive relation on A because (2, 3 ) ! R 1 (iv) x Ry and y Rz , x divides y and y divides z.
and (3, 2 ) ! R 1 but (2, 2 ) ' R 1 . Again, R 2 is not transitive , kx & y and k % y & 2, where k , k % are positive
relation on A because (2, 3 ) ! R 2 and (3, 1) ! R 2 but integers.
(2, 1) ' R 2 . Finally R 3 is a transitive relation. , kk % x & z , x divides z , x Rz
❙ Example 14. Let A & {1, 2, 3} and R & {(a, b ) : a, b ! A , a * R is transitive.
divides b and b divides a}. Show that R is an
identity relation on A. Equivalence Relation
Sol. Given, A & {1, 2, 3} A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation
a ! A , b ! B, a divides b and b divides a.
on A, when R is (i) reflexive (ii) symmetric and (iii)
transitive. The equivalence relation denoted by ~.
, a&b
* R & {(a, a ), a ! A } & {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} ❙ Example 18. N is the set of natural numbers. The
Hence, R is the identity relation on A . relation R is defined on N / N as follows
❙ Example 15. Let A & { 3, 5}, B & {7, 11}. (a, b ) R (c , d ) # a - d & b - c
Let R & {(a, b ) : a ! A, b !B, a ) b is even}. Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
Show that R is an universal relation from A to B. Sol. (i) (a, b ) R (a, b ) , a - b & b - a
Sol. Given, A & {3, 5}, B & {7, 11}. * R is reflexive.
Now, R & {(a, b ) : a ! A , b ! B and a ) b is even} (ii) (a, b ) R (c , d ) , a - d & b - c
& {(3, 7 ), (3, 11), (5, 7 ), (5, 11)} , c - b & d - a , (c , d ) R (a, b )
Also, A / B & {(3, 7 ), (3, 11), (5, 7 ), (5, 11)} * R is symmetric.
Clearly, R&A/B (iii) (a, b ) R (c , d ) and (c , d ) R (e , f ) , a - d & b - c
Hence, R is an universal relation from A to B. and c - f &d -e
, a-d -c - f &b-c -d -e
❙ Example 16. Prove that the relation R defined on the , a - f & b - e , (a, b ) R (e , f )
set N of natural numbers by xRy # 2x 2 ) 3xy - y 2 & 0 * R is transitive.
is not symmetric but it is reflexive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation on N / N .
Sol. (i) 2x 2 ) 3x 5 x - x 2 & 0, 4 x ! N .
❙ Example 19. A relation R on the set of complex
* x R x , 4 x ! N , i.e. R is reflexive. z1 ) z 2
(ii) For x & 1, y & 2, 2x 2 ) 3xy - y 2 & 0 numbers is defined by z 1 R z 2 # is real, show
z1 - z 2
* 1R2
that R is an equivalence relation.
But 2 5 22 ) 3 5 2 5 1 - 12 & 3 2 0 z1 ) z1
Sol. (i) z1Rz1 , ,4z1 ! C , 0 is real
So, 2 is not related to 1 i.e., 2R1 z1 - z1
* R is not symmetric. * R is reflexive.
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 803

z1 ) z 2 R ( R )1 & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (3, 3 )} & Identity

(ii) z1 Rz 2 , is real
z1 - z 2
* R is anti-symmetric.
6 z ) z1 9 6 z 2 ) z1 9
, )8 2 ; is real , 8 ; is real It is clear that R is reflexive.
7 z1 - z 2 : 7 z1 - z 2 :
Since, (1, 1) ! R, (2, 2 ) ! R, (3, 3 ) ! R and R is transitive.
, z 2 Rz1, 4 z1, z 2 ! C
Since, (1, 2 ) ! R and (2, 3 ) ! R , (1, 3 ) ! R
* R is symmetric.
z )z
Hence, R is partial order relation.
(iii) Qz1 Rz 2 , 1 2 is real
z1 - z 2

,
6 z1 ) z 2 9
8
-
6z ) z 9
; & )8 1 2 ;
7 z1 - z 2 :
Composition of Two Relations
7 1 2:
z z
If A, B and C are three sets such that R $ A / B and
6z ) z 9 6z ) z 9 S $ B / C, then (SOR ) )1 & R )1 OS )1 . It is clear that aRb, bSc
, 8 1 2;-8 1 2; &0
7 z1 - z 2 : 7 z1 - z 2 :
, aSORc.
, 2(z1z1 ) z 2 z 2 ) & 0 , | z1| 2 & | z 2 | 2 ...(i) A B C
2 2 R S
Similarly, z 2 Rz 2 , | z 2 | & | z 3 | ...(ii)
a c
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get b
z1Rz 2 ,z 2 Rz 3
, | z1| 2 & | z 3 | 2 SOR

, z1Rz 3 More generally,

*R is transitive. ( R 1 OR 2 OR 3 O ... OR n ) )1 & R n)1 O ... OR 3)1 OR 2)1 OR 1)1
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
❙ Example 20. Let R be a relation such that
R & {(1, 4 ), ( 3, 7 ), (4, 5), (4, 6 ), (7, 6 )}, find
Ordered Relation (i) R )1OR )1 and (ii) (R )1 OR) )1 .
A relation R is called ordered, if R is transitive but not an Sol. (i) We know that, ( RO R ))1 & R )1 O R )1
equivalence relation. Dom ( R ) & {1, 3, 4, 7 }
Symbolically, a R b, b R c , a R c , 4 a, b, c ! A Range ( R ) & { 4, 5, 6, 7 }
For example, R R

Let R & {(1, 2 ), (2, 1), (2, 3 ), (3, 2 ), (1, 3 )}.

1
Here, R is symmetric. 1 3 4
3 4 5
Since, (1, 2 ) ! R , (2, 1) ! R, (2, 3 ) ! R , (3, 2 ) ! R 4 5 6
7 6 7
and R is transitive. 7
Since, (1, 2 ) ! R, (2, 3 ) ! R , (1, 3 ) ! R ROR
but R is not reflexive.
We see that,
Since, (1, 1) ' R, (2, 2 ) ' R, (3, 3 ) ' R 1 <= 4 <= 5 , (1, 5) ! ROR
Hence, R is not an equivalence relation. 1 <= 4 <= 6 , (1, 6) ! ROR
* R is an ordered relation. 3 <= 7 <= 6 , (3, 6) ! ROR
* ROR & {(1, 5), (1, 6), (3, 6)}
Partial Order Relation Then, R )1 O R )1 & ( RO R ))1
& {(5, 1), (6, 1), (6, 3)}
A relation R is called partial order relation, if R is
reflexive, transitive and anti-symmetric at the same time. (ii) We know that, ( R )1OR ))1 & R )1O ( R )1 ))1 & R )1 O R
For example, Since,
R & {(1, 4 ), (3, 7 ), ( 4, 5), ( 4, 6), (7, 6)}
Let R & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (3, 3 ), (1, 2 ), (2, 3 ), (1, 3 )} )1
* R & {( 4, 1), (7, 3), (5, 4 ), (6, 4 ), (6, 7 )}
* R )1 & {(1, 1), (2, 2 ), (3, 3 ), (2, 1), (3, 2 ), (3, 1)}
* Dom ( R ) & {1, 3, 4, 7 }, Range ( R ) & { 4, 5, 6, 7 }
804 Textbook of Algebra

Dom ( R )1 ) & { 4, 5, 6, 7 }, Range ( R )1 ) & {1, 3, 4, 7 } R R )1

4 <= 6 <= 7 , ( 4, 7 ) ! R )1 O R
–1
R R R R )1
7 <= 6 <= 4 , (7, 4 ) ! R )1 O R
1 1 R R )1
4
3 5 3 7 <= 6 <= 7 , (7, 7 ) ! R )1 O R
4 6 4
7 7 7 * R )1 O R & {(1, 1), (3, 3), ( 4, 4 ), (7, 7 ), ( 4, 7 ), (7, 4 )}

R –1OR Hence, ( R )1 O R ))1 & R )1 O R & {(1, 1), (3, 3)

We see that, ( 4, 4 ), (7, 7 ), ( 4, 7 ), (7, 4 )}
)1
R R
1 <= 4 <= 1 , (1, 1) ! R )1 O R
R R )1
Theorems on Binary Relations
)1
3 <= 7 <= 3 , (3, 3) ! R O R If R is a relation on a set A, then
R R )1 (i) R is reflexive , R )1 is reflexive.
4 <= 5 <= 4 , ( 4, 4 ) ! R )1 O R (ii) R is symmetric , R )1 is symmetric.
R )1
R
4 <= 6 <= 4 , ( 4, 4 ) ! R )1 O R (iii) R is transitive , R )1 is transitive.

#L Exercise for Session 2

1. If A & {2, 3, 5}, B & {2, 5, 6}, then ( A ) B ) / ( A ( B ) is
(a) {(3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5)} (b) {(3, 2), (3, 5), (3, 6)}
(c) {(3, 2), (3, 5)} (d) None of these

2. If n( A) & 4, n(B ) & 3, n( A / B / C ) & 24, then n(C ) equals

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 17 (d) 288
3. The relation R defined on the set of natural numbers as
{(a, b ) : a differs from b by 3} is given by
(a) {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6), ...} (b) {(4, 1), (5, 2), (6, 3), ...} (c) {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), ...} (d) None of these
4. Let A be the non-void set of the children in a family. The relation ‘x is a brother of y ’ on A, is
(a) reflexive (b) anti-symmetric (c) transitive (d) equivalence
5. Let n( A) & n, then the number of all relations on A, is
2
(a) 2 n (b) 2 n! (c) 2 n (d) None of these

6. If S & {1, 2, 3, .., 20}, K & {a, b , c, d }, G & {b , d , e, f }. The number of elements of (S / K ) " (S / G ) is
(a) 40 (b) 100 (c) 120 (d) 140
7. The relation R is defined on the set of natural numbers as {(a, b ): a & 2b }, then R )1 is given by
(a) {(2, 1) (4, 2) (6, 3), …} (b) {(1, 2) (2, 4) (3, 6), …} (c) R )1 is not defined (d) None of these
8. The relation R & {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3),(1, 2),(2, 3), (1, 3)} on set A & {1, 2, 3} is
(a) reflexive but not symmetric (b) reflexive but not transitive
(c) symmetric and transitive (d) Neither symmetric nor transitive
9. The number of equivalence relations defined in the set S & {a, b , c} is
(a) 5 (b) 3! (c) 23 (d) 3 3
10. If R be a relation > from A & {1, 2, 3, 4} to B & {1, 3, 5}, i.e. (a, b ) ! R # a > b , then ROR )1, is
(a) {(1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3,5), (4, 5)} (b) {(3, 1), (5, 1), (3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
(c) {(3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5)} (d) {(3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5)}
Session 3
Definition of Functions, Domain, Codomain and Range,
Composition of Mapping, Equivalence Classes,
Partition of Set, Congruences

Functions which is read as f is a mapping from A to B.

The other terms used for functions are operators or
transformations.
Introduction A B

If two variable quantities x and y according to some law x

are so related that corresponding to each value of x y=f(x)
(considered only real), which belongs to set E, there
corresponds one and only one finite value of the quantity Remark
y (i.e., unique value of y). Then, y is said to be a function 1. If x ! A, y & [ f ( x )] ! B, then ( x, y ) ! f .
(single valued) of x, defined by y & f ( x ), where x is the 2. If ( x1, y1 ) ! f and ( x 2, y2 ) ! f , then y1 & y2.
argument or independent variable and y is the
dependent variable defined on the set E.
For example, If r is the radius of the circle and A its area,
then r and A are related by A & ?r 2 or A & f (r ). Then,
Domain, Codomain and Range
Domain The set of A is called the domain of f (denoted
we say that the area A of the circle is the function of
by D f ).
the radius r. Graphically,
Codomain The set of B is called the codomain of f
(denoted by C f ).
x Input y = f(x)
Output Range The range of f denoted by R f is the set consisting
of all the images of the elements of the domain A.
Range of f & [ f ( x ) A x ! A ]
Where, y is the image of x and x is the pre-image of y
under f . The range of f is always a subset of codomain B.

Remark
1. If to each value of x, which belongs to set E there Onto and Into Mappings
corresponds one or more than one values of the quantity y.
In the mapping f : A = B such
Then, y is called the multiple valued function of x defined on
the set E. f (A) & B
2. The word ‘FUNCTION’ is used only for single valued function. i.e., Range & Codomain
For example, y & x is single valued functions but y 2 & x is a
multiple valued function.
Then, the function is Onto and if f ( A ) 0 B, i.e. Range 0
* y 2 & x , y & @ x for one value of x, y gives two values.
Codomain, then the function is Into.

Remark
Definition of Functions Onto functions is also known as surjective.

If A and B be two non-empty sets, then a function from A Method to Test Onto or Into Mapping
to B associates to each element x in A, a unique element Let f : A = B be a mapping. Let y be an arbitrary element
f ( x ) in B and is written as
in B and then y & f ( x ), where x ! A. Then, express x in
f
f : A = B or A <= B terms of y.
806 Textbook of Algebra

Now, if x ! A, 4 y ! B, then f is onto Let y & 2x , then x &

y
and if x ' A, 4 y ! B, then f is into. 2
5
For into mapping Find an element of B which is not Now, if we put y & 5, then x & 'N.
2
f -image of any element of A.
This show that 5 ! N has no pre-image in N . So, f is into.
Hence, f is one-one and into.
One-one and Many-one Mapping
❙ Example 22. Show that the mapping
(i) The mapping f : A = B is called one-one mapping, if
f :R = R : f ( x ) & cos x , 4 x !R is neither one-one nor
no two different elements of A have the same image
onto.
in B. Such a mapping is also known as injective
mapping or an injection or monomorphism. Sol. Let x 1, x 2 ! R.
Method to Test One-one If x 1 , x 2 ! A, Then, f ( x1 ) & f ( x 2 ) , cos x 1 & cos x 2
then f (x 1 ) & f (x 2 ) , x 1 & 2n? @ x 2 , x 1 2 x 2
, x 1 & x 2 and x 1 2 x 2 * f is not one-one.
, f (x 1 ) 2 f (x 2 )
Let y & cos x , but )1 B cos x B 1
(ii) The mapping f : A = B is called many-one mapping,
* y ! [ )1, 1]
if two or more than two different elements in A have
the same image in B. [ )1, 1] 0 R
Method to Test Many-one So, f is into (not onto).
If x 1 , x 2 ! A, then f ( x 1 ) & f ( x 2 ) Hence, f is neither one-one nor onto.
, x1 2 x2
From above classification, we conclude that Constant Mapping
function is of four types The mapping f : A = B is known as a constant mapping,
(i) One-one onto (bijective) if the range of B has only one element.
(ii) One-one into For all x ! A, f ( x ) & a, where as a ! B.
(iii) Many-one onto
(iv) Many-one into Identity Mapping
The mapping f : A = B is known as an identity mapping,
Number of Functions (Mappings) at if f (a ) & a, 4 a ! A and it is denoted by I A .
One Place in a Table Remark
Let f : A = B be a mapping such that A and B are finite IA is bijective or bijection.
sets having m and n elements respectively, then
Description of mappings Equal Mapping
(i) Total number of mappings from A to B Let A and B be two mappings are f : A = B and g : A = B
(ii) Total number of one-one mappings from A to B such that
(iii) Total number of many-one mappings from A to B f ( x ) & g ( x ), 4 x ! A
(iv) Total number of onto (surjective) mappings from A to B Then, the mappings f and g are equal and written as
f & g.
(v) Total number of one-one onto (bijective) mappings from A to B
(vi) Total number of into mappings from A to B Inclusion Mapping
The mapping f : A = B is known as inclusion mapping.
❙ Example 21. Let N be the set of all natural numbers.
Consider f : N = N : f ( x ) & 2x , 4 x ! N . Show that f is If A $ B, then f (a ) & a, 4 a ! A.
one-one into. Equivalent or Equipotent
Sol. Let x 1, x 2 ! N , then
or Equinumerous Set
f ( x1 ) & f ( x 2 )
The mapping f : A = B is known as equivalent sets, if A
, 2x 1 & 2x 2 , x 1 & x 2
and B are both one-one and onto and written as A ~ B
* f is one-one.
which is read as ‘A wiggle B ’.
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 807

Inverse Mapping 2. Let h : A = B, g : B = C and f : C = D

be any three functions. Then, ( fog ) oh & fo( goh).
If f : A = B be one-one and onto mapping, let b ! B, then 3. Let f : A = B, g : B = C be two functions, then
there exist exactly one element a ! A such that f (a ) & b, so (i) f and g are injective , gof is injective.
we may define (ii) f and g are surjective , gof is surjective.
f )1
:B =A: f )1
(b ) & a (iii) f and g are bijective , gof is bijective.
4. An injective mapping from a finite set to itself in bijective.
# f (a ) & b
)1
The function f is called the inverse of f . A functions is ❙ Example 24. If f :R = R and g :R = R be two
invertible iff f is one-one onto. mapping such that f ( x ) & sin x and g ( x ) & x 2 , then
(i) prove that fog 2 gof .
Remark ? ?
1. f )1 ( b) $ A (ii) find the values of ( fog ) and (gof ) 68 9; .
2 73:
2. If f : A = B and g : B = A, then f and g are said to be
invertible. Sol. (i) Let x ! R
* ( fog )x & f { g ( x )} [Q g ( x ) & x 2 ]
❙ Example 23. Let f :R = R be defined by
& f { x 2 } & sin x 2 …(i)
f ( x ) & cos ( 5x - 2). Is f invertible? Justify your answer.
[Q f ( x ) & sin x ]
Sol. For invertible of f , f must be bijective (i.e., one-one onto).
and ( gof ) x & g { f ( x )}
If x 1 , x 2 ! R, & g (sin x ) [Q f ( x ) & sin x ]
then f ( x1 ) & f ( x 2 ) 2
& sin x …(ii)
, cos(5x 1 - 2) & cos(5x 2 - 2) [Q g ( x ) & x 2 ]
, 5x 1 - 2 & 2n? @ (5x 2 - 2)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get ( fog )x 2 ( gof ) x , 4 x ! R
, x1 2 x 2 Hence, fog 2 gof
* f is not one-one. (ii) From Eq. (i), ( fog )x & sin x 2
But )1 B cos(5x - 2) B 1
? ? 1
* )1 B f (x ) B 1 * ( fog ) & sin &
2 4 2
Range & [ ) 1, 1] 0 R
and from Eq. (ii), ( gof ) x & sin 2 x
* f is into mapping. 2
? ? 6 39 3
Hence, the function f ( x ) is no bijective and so it is not * ( gof ) & sin 2 & 8 ; &
invertible. 3 3 7 2 : 4

❙ Example 25. If the mapping f and g are given by

Composition of Mapping f & {(1, 2), (3, 5), (4, 1)}
Let A, B and C be three non-empty sets. Let f : A = B and and g & {(2, 3),(5, 1), (1, 3)},
g : B = C be two mappings, then gof : A = C. This write down pairs in the mapping fog and gof.
function is called the product or composite of f and g, Sol. Domain f & {1, 3, 4 }, Range f & {2, 5, 1}
given by ( gof ) x & g { f ( x )}, 4 x ! A. Domain g & {2, 5, 1}, Range g & {1, 3}
A B C Q Range f & Dom g & {(2, 5, 1)}
f : AÆ B g : BÆC
* gof mapping is defined.
x
y = f(x) z=g{f(x)} Then, gof mapping defined following way
f g
{1, 3, 4} æÆ {2, 5, 1} æÆ {1, 3}
gof : A Æ C

gof
Important Remarks
1. (i) ( fog ) x & f {g ( x )} (ii) ( fof ) x & f {f ( x )} We see that, f (1) & 2, f (3) & 5, f ( 4 ) & 1
(iii) ( gog ) x & g{g( x )} (iv) ( fg ) x & f ( x ). g( x ) and g(2) & 3, g(5) & 1, g(1) & 3
6f 9 f( x ) * ( gof )(1) & g { f (1)} & g (2) & 3
(v) ( f @ g ) x & f ( x ) @ g( x ) (vi) 8 ; x & ; g( x ) 2 0
7g: g( x ) ( gof )(3) & g { f (3)} & g (5) & 1
808 Textbook of Algebra

( gof )( 4 ) & g { f ( 4 )} & g (1) & 3 Continue this process, we see that the equivalence class
Hence, gof & {(1, 3), (3, 1), (4, 3)} [ 4 ] & [0], [5] & [1], [6] & [2], [7 ] & [3], [8] & [0]
Now, since Range of f 0 Dom f Hence, total equivalence relations are [0], [1], [2], [3] and
* fog is defined. also clear
(i) I & [0] " [1] " [2] " [3]
Then, fog mapping defined following way (ii) every equivalence is a non-empty.
g f
{2, 5, 1} æÆ {1, 3, 4} æÆ {2, 5, 1} (iii) for any two equivalence classes [a ] ( [b ] & +.

We see that,
fog
g (2) & 3 , g(5) & 1, g(1) & 3
Partition of a Set
f (1) & 2 , f (3) & 5, f ( 4 ) & 1 If A be a non-empty set, then a partition of A, if
* ( fog )(2) & f { g (2)} & f (3) & 5 (i) A is a collection of non-empty disjoint subsets of A.
( fog )(5) & f { g (5)} & f (1) & 2 (ii) union of collection of non-empty sets is A.
( fog )(1) & f { g (1)} & f (3) & 5 i.e., If A be a non-empty set and A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 are
Hence, fog & {(2,5),(5,2),(1,5)} subsets of A, then the set { A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 } is called
partition, if
(i) A 1 " A 2 " A 3 " A 4 & A
Equivalence Classes (ii) A 1 ( A 2 ( A 3 ( A 4 & +
For example,
If R be an equivalence relation on a set A, then [a ] is
equivalence class of a with respect to R. If A & {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 } and A 1 & {0 }, A 2 & {1}, A 3 & { 4 } and
A 4 & {2, 3 }, then we see that for P & { A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 }
Symbolically, X a or [a ] & { x : x ! X , x R a }.
(i) all A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 are non-empty subset of A
Remark (ii) A 1 " A 2 " A 3 " A 4 & {0, 1, 2, 3, 4 } & A and
1. Square brackets[ ] are used to denote the equivalence classes. (iii) Ai ( A j 2 +, 4 i 2 j (i, j & 1, 2, 3, 4 )
2. a ![ a] and a ![ b] ,[ a] & [ b] Hence, from definition P & { A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , A 4 } is
3. Either [ a] & [ b] or [ a] ( [ b] & + partition of A.
4. Equivalence class of a also denoted by E( a) or a.
( a ) b)
5. If a ~ b, & k, the total number of equivalence class is m.
m
Congruences
❙ Example 26. Let I & {0, @ 1, @ 2, @ 3, @ 4, ...} and Let m be a positive integer, then two integers a and b are
R & C(a, b ) :(a ) b ) / 4 & k , k ! ID is an equivalence said to be congruent modulo m, if a ) b is divisible by m.
relation, find equivalence class. i.e., m a )b F
a)b
Sol. Given, &k a )b
4 ) +
, a & 4k - b, where 0 B b > 4 0
It is clear b has only value in 0, 1, 2, 3. * a ) b & mF, where F is a positive integer.
(i) Equivalence class of [0] & {x : x ! I and x E 0} The congruent modulo ‘m’ is defined on all a b ! I by a G b
& { x : x ) 0 & 4k } & {0, @ 4, @ 8, @ 12, ...) (mod m), if a ) b & mF, F ! I - .
where, k & 0, @ 1, @ 2, @ 3, ...
(ii) Equivalence class of [1] & {x : x ! I and x E 1} ❙ Example 27. Find congruent solutions of 155 G 7
& { x : x ) 1 & 4k } & { x : x & 4k - 1} (mod 4).
& {..., ) 11, ) 7, ) 3, 1, 5, 9, ...} 6 155 ) 7 148 9
Sol. Since, 8 & & 37 ;
(iii) Equivalence class of [2] & {x : x ! I and x E 2} 7 4 4 :
& { x : x ) 2 & 4k } & { x : x & 4k - 2} and a & 155, b & 7, m & 4
& {..., ) 10, ) 6, ) 2, 2, 6, 10, ...} a ) b 155 ) 7 148
* F& & &
(iv) Equivalence class of [3] & {x : x ! I and x E 3} 4 4 4
& { x : x ) 3 & 4k } & { x : x & 4k - 3} [here,a & 155,b & 7]
& {..., ) 9, ) 5, ) 1, 5, 9, 13, ...} & 37 (integer)
 Chap 11 Sets, Relations and Functions 809

❙ Example 28. Find all congruent solutions of 8 x G 6 7F - 3

, x&
4
(mod 14).
4 F - 3( F - 1)
Sol. Given, 8x G 6 (mod 14) &
4
8x ) 6
* F& , where F ! I - 3
x & F - ( F - 1), where F ! I -
14 4
* 8x & 14 F - 6 and here greatest common divisor of 8 and 14 is 2, so there
14 F - 6 are two required solutions.
, x&
8 For F & 3 and 7, x & 6 and 13.

#L Exercise for Session 3

1. The values of b and c for which the identity f ( x - 1) ) f ( x ) & 8x - 3 is satisfied, where f ( x ) & bx 2 - cx - d , are
(a) b & 2, c & 1 (b) b & 4, c & ) 1 (c) b & ) 1, c & 4 (d) b & ) 1, c & 1
x )1
2. If f ( x ) & , then f (ax ) in terms of f ( x ) is equal to
x -1
f (x ) - a (a ) 1)f (x ) - a - 1 (a - 1) f (x ) - a ) 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) None of these
1 - af (x ) (a - 1)f (x ) - a ) 1 (a ) 1) f (x ) - a - 1

3. If f be a function satisfying f ( x - y ) & f ( x ) - f ( y ), 4 x, y ! R. If f (1) & k , then f (n ), n ! N is equal to

(a) k n (b) nk (c) k (d) None of these

4. If g & {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7)} is a function described by the formula g ( x ) & Hx - I, what values should be
assigned to H and I?
(a) H & 1,I & 1 (b) H & 2, I & ) 1 (c) H & 1, I & ) 2 (d) H & ) 2, I & ) 1

5. The values of the parameter H for which the function f ( x ) & 1 - Hx , H 2 0 is the inverse of itself, is
(a) )2 (b) )1 (c) 1 (d) 2

6. If f ( x ) & (a ) x n )1/ n, where a J 0 and n ! N, then fof ( x ) is equal to

(a) a (b) x (c) x n (d) a n

7. If f ( x ) & (ax 2 - b )3, the function g such that f ( g( x )) & g (f ( x )), is given by
1/ 2 1/ 2
6 b ) x1/ 3 9 1 6 x 1/ 3 ) b 9
(a) g (x ) & 88 ;; (b) g (x ) & (c) g (x ) & (ax 2 - b )1/ 3 (d) g (x ) & 88 ;;
7 a : (ax 2 - b )3 7 a :

8. Which of the following functions from I to itself are bijections?

(a) f (x ) & x 3 (b) f (x ) & x - 2 (c) f (x ) & 2x - 1 (d) f (x ) & x 2 - x
x )m
9. Let f : R ) {n} = R be a function defined by f ( x ) & , where m 2 n. Then,
x )n
(a) f is one-one onto (b) f is one-one into (c) f is many-one onto (d) f is many-one into

10. If f ( x - 2y , x ) 2y ) & xy , then f ( x , y ) equals

x2 ) y2 x2 ) y2 x2 - y2 x2 ) y2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 4 4 2
 Shortcuts and Important Results to Remember
1 Every set is a subset of itself. 23 The identity relation on a set is also called the diagonal
2 Null set is a subset of every set. relation on A.
3 The set {0} is not an empty set as it contains one element 24 For two relations R and S, the composite relations RoS,
0. The set { +} is not an empty set as it contains one SoR may be void relations.
element +.
25 Every polynomial function f : R = R of degree odd is
4 The order of finite set A of n elements is denoted by O ( A)
ONTO.
or n ( A).
5 Number of subsets of a set containing n elements is 2 n . 26 Every polynomial function f : R = R of degree even is
6 Number of proper subsets of a set containing n elements INTO.
is 2 n ) 1. 27 (i) The number of onto functions that can be defined
7 If A & +, then P ( A) & +; * n (P( A)) & 1. from a finite set A containing n elements onto a finite
set B containing 2 elements & 2 n ) 2
8 The order of an infinite set is undefined.
9 A natural number p is a prime number, if p is greater than (ii) The number of onto functions that can be defined
one and its factors are 1 and p only. from a finite set A containing n elements onto a finite
set B containing 3 elements & 3n ) 3 5 2 n - 3
10 Finite sets are equivalent sets only, when they have equal
number of elements. 28 If a set A has n elements, then the number of binary
11 Equal sets are equivalent sets but equivalent sets may not relations on A & n n .
2

be equal sets.
12 If A is any set, then A $ A is true but A 0 A is false. 29 If fog & gof , then either f )1 & g or g )1 & f .
13 If A $ B, then A " B & B 30 If f and g are bijective functions such that f : A = B and
14 A 0 B # A $ B and A 2 B g : B = C, then gof : A = C is bijective. Also,
15 x ' A " B # x ' A and x ' B (gof ))1 & f )1og )1.
16 x ' A ( B # x ' A or x ' B
31 Let f : A = B, g : B = C be two functions, then
17 If A1, A2 , ..., An is a finite family of sets, then their union is
n (i) f and g are injective , gof is injective
denoted by " A i orA1 " A2 " A3 " ... " An .
i &1 (ii) f and g are surjective , gof is surjective
18 If A1, A2 , A3 , ..., An is a finite family of sets, then their (iii) f and g are bijective , gof is bijective
n
intersection is denoted by ( Ai 32 Let f : A = B, g : B = C be two functions, then
i &1

or A1 ( A2 ( A3 (K( An . (i) gof : A = C is injective , f : A = B is injective

19 R ) Q is the set of all irrational numbers. (ii) gof : A = C is surjective , g : B = C is surjective

20 Total number of relations from set A to set B is equal to (iii) gof : A = C is injective and g : B = C is surjective ,
2 n ( A ) n ( B ). g : B = C is injective
21 The universal relation on a non-empty set is always
(iv) gof : A = C is surjective and g : B = C is injective ,
reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
f : A = B is surjective
22 The identity relation on a non-empty set is always
anti-symmetric. 33 An injective mapping from a finite set to itself is bijective.