Chapter 4 Integrals

Exercises Pages 115-116

1. (a) Use the corresponding rules in calculus to establish the following

rules when w (t) = u (t) + iv (t) is a complex-valued function of a real variable

t and w’(t) exists:
d
dt w ( t) = w0 ( t) ; where w0 ( t) denotes the derivative of w(t) with
respect to t, evaluated at -t.

(b) Use the corresponding rules in calculus to establish the following rules
when w (t) = u (t) + iv (t) is a complex-valued function of a real variable t and
w’(t) exists:
d 2 0
dt [w (t)] = 2w (t) w (t) :

Solution a:
A function ! (t) is said to be di¤erentiable at t when
d !(t+ t) !(t)
dt ! (t) = limt!0(t+ t) t : Replacing t by -t we get
d ![ (t+ t)] ![ t]
dt ! ( t) = lim
t!0 [ (t+ t) ( t)]
= lim ![ ((t+t t)]t+t)![ t]
t!0
= lim ![ (t+ t)]t ![ t]
t!0
= lim ![ (t+ t)] t
![ t]
t!0
0
= ! (t) :
Solution b:
! (t) = u (t) + iv (t) = u + iv
2 2 2
[! (t)] = (u + iv) = u2 + 2iv + (iv)
d 2 d 2 2 2
dt [! (t)] = dt u + 2iuv + i v
0 0 0 2 0
2u + 2i (uv + u v) + i (2vv )
= 2 u0 +iuv 0 + iu0 v + i2 vv 0
= 2 (u0 + iv) (u + iv) = 2! (t) ! 0 (t) :

Solution:
(a) We have w’(t)=u’(t)+iv’(t) and so w’(-t)=u’(-t)+iv’(-t). Now we have
d d
dt w ( t) = dt [u ( t) + iv ( t)]
d d
= dr [u ( t)] + i dt [v ( t)]
d d
= u ( t) dt ( t) + iv 0 ( t) dr
0
( t)
= u ( t) iv ( t) = [u0 ( t) + iv 0 ( t)] = w0 ( t) :
0 0
2 2
(b) We have [w (t)] = [u (t) + iv (t)]
2 2
= [u (t)] [v (t)]
2
= [u (t) + iv (t)]
2 2
= [u (t)] [v (t)]
n + i2u(t)v(t): Therefore o
d 2 d 2 2
dt [w (t)] = dt [u (t)] [v (t)] + 2iu(t)v(t)

1
 d d 2 2
= dt [u (t)] dt [v (t)] + 2i [u(t)v(t)]
= 2u(t)u (t) 2v(t)v 0 (t) + 2i [u0 (t)v(t) + u(t)v 0 (t)] :
0

Again we have w’(t) = u’(t) + iv’(t).

Therefore 2w(t)w’(t) = 2[u(t)+iv(t)][u’(t)+iv’(t)]
= 2u(t)u’(t)-2v(t)v’(t)+2i[u’(t)v(t)+u(t)v’(t)].
d 2
Thus we have seen that dr [w (t)] = 2w(t)w0 (t):
2. Evaluate the following integrals:
R2 1 2
(a) t i dt;
1
R=6
(b) ei2t dt;
0
R1 zt
(c) e dt (Re z > 0) :
0
R=6 2it
Solution (2b): The derivative of e2it =2i = e2it . Therefore e dt =
p p 0
1
2i 1=2 + i 3=2 1 = i=4 + 3=4:

R2 1 2 R2 1 2i
R2 1
R2
Solution (2a): t i dt = t2 1 t dt = t2 1 dt + i 2t dt =
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
tt j21 = i2 ln (t) j21 = 2 2 ( 1 1) + i2 ln (2) = 2 + i2 ln (2) :
R=6 i2t 1 i2t =6 1 1 1
p
3
Solution (2b): e dt = 2i e j0 = 2i ei =3
1 = 2i 2 +i 2 =
p 0
3
4 + 4i :
R1 zt
RN zt 1 zt N
Solution (2c): e dt = lim e dt = lim ze j0 =
0 N !1 0 N !+1
1 zN
lim z e 1 : As N ! +1, we have Re ( zN ) = N Re z ! 1;
N !+1
zN
so e = eRe( zN ) ! 0: Thus e zN ! 0 as N ! +1. So we have
R1 zt
e dt = lim 1z ezN 1 = z1 = z1 :
0 N !+1
3. Show that if m and n are integers,
R im
2
0 when m 6= n;
e e in d =
0 2 when m = n.
Solution: When n 6= m then an antiderivative is e(m n)i = (m n) i and
when one plugs in 2 i and 0 we get the same thing namely, (m 1 n)i and so when
we subtract we get 0. When n = m then the integrand is 1 and so integral is
2 :
R im
2 R
2
Solution (3): e e in d = ei(m n) d : If m = n, then the right
0 0
R
2
hand side is 1 = 2 : If m 6= n, then the right hand side is equal to
0
1 i(m n) 2 1 1
m ne j0 = m n ei(m n)2
e0 = m n (1 1) = 0:
Solution

2
 This is a very important integral that occurs frequently in analysis. It gives,
e.g., a way to de…ne the Dirac delta function if you are familiar with that from
previous studies. The computation is not particularly di¢ cult. We simply use
that dd eim = imeim ; m 2 Z: Thus, if m 6= n;
R im
2 R
2 i(m n)
e e in d = ei(m n) d = ei(m n) j20 = i(m1 n) ei(m n)2 1 : How-
0 0
ever, since m n 2 Z; we have ei(m n)2 = 1 and thus this integral vanishes. If,
however, m = n, then the integral we did above is incorrect as we are dividing by
R
2 R
2
zero. Indeed, in this case, things are even simpler eim e in d = 1d = 2 :
0 0
4. According to de…nition (2), Section 37, of integrals of complex-valued
R R R
functions of a real variable, e(1+i)x dx = ex cos xdx + i ex sin xdx: Evaluate
0 0 0
the two integrals of the right here by evaluating the single integral on the left
and then using the real and imaginary parts of the value found.

Solution: This is a nice trick as you may remember that the integrals on
the right are rather involved (you have to integrate by parts twice and recognize
that you return to where you began but with the opposite side ... thus you can
solve the desired equation).
The formula follows easily from the de…nition of complex exponents and
R 1
Euler’s formula. Evaluating the left side, we have e(1+i)x dx = (1+i) e(1+i)x j0 =
0
1 1
(1+i) e(1+i) 1 = (1+i) (e cos + ie sin 1) :
1 (1 i) 1
Since (1+i) = 2 ; we have that this is = 2 (1 i) ( e 1) :
R (1+e ) R (1+e )
Thus, ex cos xdx = 2 and ex sin xdx = 2 :
0 0

Rb Rb
7. Apply the inequality a w (t) dt a
jw (t)j dt (a b) to show that
for all values of Rx in the interval
p 1 x 1; the functions
n
Pn (x) = 1 0 x + i 1 x2 cos d (n = 0; 1; 2; : : :) satisfy the in-
equality jPn (x)j 1:

Solution:
Z
1
p n
Pn (x) = x+i 1 x2 cos d
0Z
1
p n
jPn (x)j = x+i 1 x2 cos d
Z 0
1
p n
jPn (x)j x+i 1 x2 cos d
0p
Consider 2
q x +pi 1 x cos = p ei
2
= x2 + 1 x2 cos = x2 + (1 x2 ) cos2

3
 hp i
1 1 x2 cos 1
= tan 2 = tan
h p i
2
0
Let = 1 xx cos :
p n n n n
x + i 1 x2 cos = ei =j j ein =j j
) ein = 1
Z
p n
) The equation jPn (x)j 1
x2 + (1 x2 ) cos2 d
0
p n
) jPn (x)j x2 + (1 x2 ) cos2 d
Z p n
= 1 x2 sin2 + cos2 d
Z0
= 1 d
0
= 1:
jPn (x)j 1:

Exercises Pages 120-122

1. Show that if w(t) = iv(t) is continuous on an interval a t b, then
Ra Rb
(a) w ( t) dt = w ( ) d ;
b a
Rb R 0
(b) w (t) dt = w [ ( )] ( ) d , where ( ) is the function in equation
a
(9), Section 38.
Suggestion: These identities can be obtained by noting that they are valid
for real-valued functions of t.

Ra Ra Ra
Solution: Start by writing I = w ( t) dt = u ( t) dt + i v ( t) dt:
b b b
The substitution s = -t in each of these two integrals on the right then yields
Ra Ra Rb Ra Rb
I= u (s) ds i v (s) ds = w (s) ds: That is, I = w ( t) dt = w (s) ds:
b b a b a
Rb Rb Rb
b) Start with I = w ( t) dt = u (t) dt + i v (t) dt; and this time the
a a a
substitution t = (s) in each of the integrals on the right gives the result.

2. Let C denote the right-hand half of the circle jzj = 2, in the counter-
clockwise direction, and note that two parametric
prepresentations for C are z =
z ( ) = 2ei 2 2 and z = Z (y) = 4 y 2 +iy ( 2 y 2) :
Verify that Z (y) = z [ (y)], where (y) = arctan p y 2
4 y

2 < arctan t < 2 . Also show that this function has a positive deriva-
tive, as required in the condition following equation (9), Section 38.

Solution:
We check

4
 y
i arctan p
z [ (y)] = 2e 4 y2 = 2 cos arctan p y + i sin arctan p y :
4 y2 4 y2
Notice that arctan 4 yy2 is the angle made from the right triangle with base
p
4 y 2 and height y. Thus, the hypotenuse is 2. pUsing this triangle, we
may evaluate the cos and sin to see that z [ (y)] = 2 42 y2 + i2 y2 = Z (y) as
p 2 y2
4 y +p
0 1 y2 1
desired. Noting that (y) = 2 4 y2
4
= p we see
1+ p y 4 y2
4 y2

that the derivative is indeed positive for y 2 ( 2; 2) :

5. Suppose that a function f(z) is analytic at a point z0 = z (t0 ) lying on

a smooth arc z = z (t) (a t b). Show that if w (t) = f [z (t)], then
w0 (t) = f 00 [z (t)] z 0 (t) when t = t0 . Suggestion: Write f(z) = w(x,y)+iv(x,y)
and z(t) = x(t)+iy(t), so that w (t) = u [x (t) ; y (t)] + iv [x (t) ; y (t)] : Then
apply the chain rule in calculus for functions of two real variables to write
w0 = (ux x0 + uy y 0 ) + i (vx x0 + vy y 0 ), and use the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Solution: f (z) = u (x; y) + iv (x; y) and z (t) = x (t) + iy (t) so that w (t) =
u [x (t) ; y (t)] + iv [x (t) + iy (t)]. The chain rule says that w0 (t) = ux x0 (t) +
uy y 0 (t) + i [vx x0 (t) + vy y 0 (t)]. Since ux = vy and uy = vx we get w0 (t) =
ux x0 (t) vx y 0 (t) + i [vx x0 (t) + ux y 0 (t)] = ux z 0 (t) + ivx z 0 (t) = f 0 [z (t)] z 0 (t) :

6. (a) Let y(x) be a real-valued function de…ned on the interval 0 x 1

x3 sin x when 0 < x 1:
by means of the equations y (x) = :
0 when x = 0.
Show that the equation z = x + iy (x) (0 x 1) represents an arc C
that intersects the real axis at the points z = 1=n (n = 1; 2; : : :) and
z = 0.

(b) Let y(x) be a real-valued function de…ned on the interval 0 x 1 by

x3 sin x when 0 < x 1:
means of the equations y (x) = :
0 when x = 0.
Verify that the arc C in part (a) is, in fact, a smooth arc. Suggestion: To
establish the continuity of y(x) at x = 0, observe that
0 x3 sin x x3 when x > 0. A similar remark applies in …nding y’(0)
and showing that y’(x) is continuous at x = 0.

Solution:
(a) For a complex variable we take the x-axis as the real axis and the y-axis
as the imaginary axis. If an arc intersects the real axis. If an arc intersects
the real axis, then y = 0. Given z = x + iy (x) and y (x) = x3 sin x : When
y = 0, we have x3 sin x :
) x3 = 0 or sin x = 0
) x = 0 or x = n ; for n = 1; 2;

5
 ) x = n1
When x = 0, the equation z = x + iy (x) becomes z = 0 + iy (0) ) z = 0:
When x = n1 ; the equation z = x + iy (x) becomes z = n1 + i (0) ) z = n1 :
x3 sin( x );0<x 1
(b) y (x) = 0 when x = 0.
y 0 (x) = 3x2 sin x x cos x = x 3x sin x cos x

0
jy (x)j 0

x 3x sin x cos x 0
jxj 3x sin x cos x 0
jxj 0 or 3x sin x cos x 0)
0 3x sin x cos x 3x 1 when x > 0:
) sin x 1 and cos x 1 :
Exercises Pages 128-130
For the function f and contours C in Exercises
R 1 through 6, use parametric
representations for C, or legs of C, to evaluate f (z) dz:
C
1. f (z) = (z+2)
z and C is
(a) the semicircle z = 2ei (0 );
(b) the semicircle z = 2ei ( 2 );
(c) the circle z = 2ei (0 2 ):
Solution (1a): z = 2ei so z 0 ( ) = 2iei d : Thus the integral is
R 2ei +2 i R
2ei
2ie d = i 2ei + 2 d = 2ei( 0) + 2i = 4 + 2 i:
0 0

R R 2ei +2
R
Solution (1a): f (z) dz = 2ei
2iei d = 2iei + 2i d =
C 0 0
2ei + 2ij0 = 2ei 2e0 + 2 i 0 = 4 + 2 i:
R R i
2 R
2
Solution (1b): f (z) dz = 2e2ei+2 2iei d = 2iei + 2i d =
C 0 0
2ei + 2i j2 = 2ei2 2ei + 4 i 2 i = 4 + 2 i:
Solution (1c): This integration is the sum of the integrations in (a) and (b).
So it is equal to ( 4 + 2 i) + (4 + 2 i) = 4 i:
2. f (z) = z 1 and C is the arc form z = 0 to z = 2 consisting of
(a) the semicircle z = 1 + ei ( 2 );
(b) the segment 0 x 2 of the real axis.
R R
2
Solution (2a): z 0 = iei so the integral is f (z) dz = ei iei : The
antiderivative is e2i =2 and when we plug in the terms cancel so we get 0.
1 when y < 0,
4. f(z) is de…ned by the equations f (z) = and C is
4y when y > 0,
the arc from z = -1-i to z = 1+i along the curve y = x3 :
Solution: Here z (t) = t + it3 so z 0 (t) = 1 + i3t2 . Here 1 t 1: Our
R0 R1
integral is 1 + i3t2 dt + 4t3 1 + i3t2 dt = (1 + i) + (1 + 2i) = 2 + 3i:
1 0

6
 Solution (4): C is parameterized by z (t) = t + it3 ; 1 t 1: If t
< 0, Im z (t) = t3 < 0; so f (z (t)) = 1: If t > 0, Im z (t) = Rt3 > 0, so
f (z (t)) = 4 Im z (t) = 4t3 : We compute z 0 (t) = 1 + i3t2 : Thus f (z) dz =
C
R1 0
R0 0
R1 0
R0
f (z (t)) z (t) dt = f (z (t)) z (t) dt + f (z (t)) z (t) dt = 1 1 + i3t2 dt +
1 1 0 1
R2
4t3 1 + i3t2 dt = t + it3 j0 1 + t4 + i2t6 j10
1
(1 + i) + (1 + 2i) = 2 + 3i:

Problem statement:
R 1 when y < 0,
Evaluate f (z) dz for f (z) = and C is the arc from z
C
4y when y > 0,
= -1-i to z = 1+i along the curve y = x3 :
Solution: The curve can be represented parametrically by (x (t) ; y (t)) =
t; t3 ; 1 t 1: We call C1 the portion
R of C Rwhere 1 R t 0 and
C2 the portion for 0 t 1: Then f (z) dz = f (z) dz + f (z) dz =
C C1 C2
R0 R1
1 1 = i3t2 dt + 4t3 1 + i3t2 dt = t + it3 j0 1 + t4 + i2t6 j10 = (1 + i) +
1 0
(1 + 2i) = 2 + 3i:
6. f(z) is the branch
z 1+i = exp [( 1 + i) log z] (jzj > 0; 0 < arg z < 2 ) of the indicated power
function, and C is the positively oriented unit circle jzj = 1:

Solution: Let z = rei : Then

z 1+i = e( 1+i)(log r+i )
= e log r +i(log r )
= e r [cos (log r ) + i sin (log r )] :
The correct branch is obtained by assuming 0 < < 2 :
The circle C can be parameterized as ei ; 0 < 2 : Therefore
R R
2
i
f (z) dz = e (cos i sin ) ie d (since r = 1 on contour)
C 0
R
2
=i e d (by Euler’s formula)
0
2
=i 1 e
R 1+i
Problem statement: Evaluate f (z) dz for f(z) for the branch z =
C
exp [( 1 + i) log z] (jzj > 0; 0 < arg z < 2 )
of the indicated power function, and C is the positively oriented unit circle
jzj = 1:
Solution:
First, z (t) = eit ; 0 t 2 : Then
R R
2
f (z) dz = exp ( 1 + i) log eit ieit dt
C 0

7
 R
2
= exp ( 1 + i) log eit ieit dt
0
R
2
= i e t dt = ie t j20 = i 1 e 2
:
0
10. Let C0 denote the circle jz z0 j = R, taken counterclockwise. Use the
parametric representation z = z0 + Rei ( ) for C0 to derive the
followingR integration formulas:
dz
(a) z z0 dz = 2 i;
C0
R n 1
(b) (z z0 ) dz = 0 (n = 1; 2; ) :
C0

Solution: Let z = z0 + Rei so that dz = Riei and z z0 = Rei . Then

R
2 R
2
the …rst integral is id = 2 i and the second integral is iRn eni = 0:
0 0

R dz
R 1
Solution: (10a) (z z0 ) dz = Rei
Riei d = 2 i:
C0
n 1
(10b) First possibility: use the antiderivative of (z z0 ) : Second pos-
sibility: parameterize as in a).

11. Use the parametric

R representation in Exercise 10 for the oriented circle
n 1 a
C0 there to show that (z z0 ) dz = i 2Ra sin (a ), where a is any real
C0
number other than zero and where the principal branch of the integrand and
the principal value of Ra are taken. [Note how this generalizes Exercise 10(b).]

Solution:
R a 1
(z z0 ) dz
C0
R R h i
= exp [(1 1) Log (z z0 )] dz exp (a 1) Log Rei i Rei d
C0
R R
= exp [(a 1) (ln R + i )] i Rei d = iR Ra 1 (a 1)i
e ei d
R Ra ia Ra Ra
= iRa eia d = a e j = a eia eia( )
= a [2i sin (a )] :
i i
(e e )
At the last step, we are using sin = 2i :

Exercises Pages 133-134

R dz
1. Without evaluating the integral, show that z2 1 3 when C is the
C
same arc as the one in Exercise 1, Section 41. R
Solution: On the circle z 2 1 3 so the integral is bounded by 31 jdzj :
C
The integral is arclength which is 4 =4 = :

8
 Solution (1): On the contour C, jzj = 2, so z 2 1 = 22
1 z2 1 = 3,
1
R dz
which implies z2 1 1=3: We already know that L (C) = , so z2 1
C
1
3 L (C) = 3:
2. Let C denote the line segment from z = i to z = 1. By observing that,
of all the points on that line segment, the midpoint is the closest to the origin,
R dz p
show that z4 4 2 without evaluating the integral.
C

Solution: The closest point, the midpoint, is (1 + i) =2 at distance p12 away

4 R p
from 0. Thus jzj 1=4 and so the integral is bounded by 4 jdzj = 4 2:
C
3. Show that if C is the boundary of the triangle with vertices at the points
0, 3i, and -4, oriented in the counterclockwise direction (see Figure 47), then
R z
(e z) 60:
C

Solution:
The triangle is a 3-4-5 right triangle, and thus, its length is 12. Note that
jez zj jez j + jzj jez j + 4 on C since it is easy to see that -4 is the point on
the triangle farthest from the origin. Note also that Re z 0 for all points on
the triangle. Thus, jez j = jex j eiy 1 on the triangle. Thus, the integrand is
R z
5 on the triangle. Hence, (e z) dz 5 (12) = 60:
C
4. Let CR denote the upper half of the circle jzj = R (R > 2), taken
R 2z2 1 R(2R2 +1)
in the counterclockwise direction. Show that z 4 +5z 2 +4 dz (R 1)(R2 4) .
2
C
Then, by dividing the numerator and denominator on the right here by R4 ,
show that the value of the integral tends to zero as R tends to in…nity.
2
Solution (4): If z 2 CR , then jzj = R; so 2z 2 1 2z 2 + j 1j = 2 jzj +
2 2
1 = 2R2 + 1, and z 4 + 5z 2 + 4 = z 2 + 1 z 2 + 4 jzj 1 jzj 4 =
2 j2z2 1j 2
R2 1 R2 4 > 0: Thus z42z 2
z
+5z +4 = z +5z 2 +4
4
2R +1
(R2 1)(R2 4) : We may
R
parametrize CR by z ( ) = Rei ; 0 : Then L (CR ) = jz 0 ( )j d =
0
R R R 2z 2 z 2R2 +1
Riei d = Rd = R : Thus z 4 +5z 2 +4 dz (R2 1)(R2 4) L (CR ) =
0 0 CR
R(2R2 +1)
(R2 1)(R2 4) :

Solution: The contour C in the upper half of the circle jzj = R:

On the contour, 2z 2 1 2z 2 + 1 = 2R2 + 1: Similarly, z 4 + 5z 2 + 4
z 4 = 5z 2 4 = R4 5R2 4: We have

9
 (2z2 +1) (2R2 +1)
(z 4 +5z 2 +4) (R4 5R2 4)
for z on the contour C.
(2R2 +1)
Therefore the contour integral is bounded by R (R4 5R2 4) :
The limit of this bound is 0 as R ! 1:

5. Let CR be the circle jzj = R (R > 1), described in the counterclockwise

R Logz +ln R
direction. Show that z 2 dz < 2 R , and then use l’Hospital’s rule
C
to show that the value of this integral tends to zero as R tends to in…nity.

Solution:
i
Let us compute the integral. We use Zthe expression Z 2z = Re for complex
2
numbers belonging to CR : We note that ei d = e i d :
Z Z 2 0 0
[Log(z)] 2i
z 2 dz = R [ln R + i ( + 2k )] e i d
0
jzj=R
Z 2 Z 2
2i i 2 i
= R (ln R + 2k i) e d R e d
Z 2 0 0
2
= R e i d
0
= 4Ri :
4 i
The lim R = 0:
R!1
6. Let C denote the circle jzj = (0 < < 1), oriented in the counterclock-
wise direction, and suppose that f(z) is analytic in the disk jzj 1. Show that
if z 1=2 represents any particular branch of that power of z, then there is a non-
R 1=2 p
negative constant M, independent of , such that z f (z) dz 2 M .
C
Thus show that the value of the integral here approaches 0 as tends to 0.
Suggestion: Note that since f(z) is analytic, and therefore continuous,
throughout the disk jzj 1, it is bounded there (Section 17).

Solution:

Since f(z) is analytic, and therefore continuous throughout the disk jzj 1;
it is bounded there. This implies theZ existence of a constant M such that
R 1=2 M
R 1=2
jf (z)j 2 M for all jzj 1: We have z f (z) dz 2 z dz :
C C
The latter integral
Z 2 is calculated as follows.
R 1=2 1=2
z dz = e [i( +2k )=2] iei d
C 0
Z 2
1=2 ik
=i e ei =2 d
0

10
 = 2 1=2 e ik ei 1
p
= 4 e ik :
1=2
Here k = 0 or k = 1 depending on the branch of the function z : In both
cases we have
R 1=2 M
R 1=2 p
z f (z) dz 2 z dz 2 M:
C C
Hence, as ! 0 the value of the integral tends to zero as w

Exercises Pages 141-142

2. By …nding an antiderivative, evaluate each of these integrals, where the
path is any contour between the indicated limits of integration:
i=2
R
(a) e z dz;
i
R+2i z
(b) cos 2 dz;
0
R3 3
(c) (z 2) dz:
1
4
Solution (2c): An antiderivative is (z 1) =4 so that the integral is evalu-
ated by evaluating at the endpoints which gives 1/4-1/4 = 0.

Solution (2a): Since 1 e z is an antiderivative of e z , so

i=2
R z
e dz = 1 ei =2 ei = (1 + i) = :
i
Solution (2b): Since 2 sin (z=2) is an antiderivative of cos (z=2), so
R+2i
cos z2 dz = 2 sin z2 j0 +2i = 2 sin ( =2 + i) =
0
i ei( =2+i) e i( =2+i) = i ie 1 ( ie) = 1=e + e:
4 3
Solution (2c): Since 41 (z 2) is an antiderivative of (z 2) , so
R
3
3 4 4
(z 2) dz = 14 (z 2) j31 = 41 (3 2) (1 2) = 0:
1 R n 1
3. Use the theorem in Section 42 to show that (z z0 ) dz = 0
C0
(n = 1; 2; ) when C0 is any closed contour which does not pass through
the point z0 . [Compare Exercise 10(b), Section 40.]

Solution: The fundamental theorem of calculus implies that the integrals

are 0. For n = 0; 1; 2; : : : ; the integrals are 0 even if the contour passes through
z0 : For n = 1; 2; : : : ; the integrand is unde…ned at z = z0 : Therefore the
contour must not pass through z0 :

z1=2 in Example 4,
4. Find an antiderivative F2 (z) of the branch f2 (z) of p
Section 43, to show that the integral (6) there has value 2 3 ( 1 + i). Note
that the value of the integral of the function
p (5) around the closed contour
C2 C1 in that example is, therefore, 4 3:

11
 Rp p p
Solution: We want to …nd zdz with z = rei =2
for z = rei with
C2
0 <2 : p
The branch cut in the de…nition p of z can be moved to the positive imag-
inarypaxis inpsuch a way that z does not change on the contour C2 : De-
…ne z = rei =2 forp z = rei with =2 < 5 =2: The antideriva-
tive of this branch of z is given by 23 z 3=2 = 23 r3=2 ei3 =2 for z = rei with
=2 < < 5 =2: The integral over the contour C2 canpbe obtained as follows:
2 3=2 3
3z j 3 = 23 33=2 ei3 =2 j =2
= = 23 33=2 ei3 ei3 =2 = 2 3 ( 1 + i) :

R1 1+e
5. Show that z i dz = 2 (1 i), where zi denotes the principal branch
1
z i = exp (i Log z) (jzj > 0; < Arg z < ) and where the path of integra-
tion is any contour from z = -1 to z = 1 that, except, for its end points, lies
above the real axis.
Suggestion: Use an antiderivative of the branch z i = exp (i Log z)
jzj > 0; 2 < Arg z < 32 of the same power function.
i+1
Solution: An antiderivative is zi+1 . Evaluating at the endpoints we get
i+1 i+1
1 = (1 + i) ( 1) = (i + 1) : The …rst term is 1= (i + 1). The second is
(i+1) log( 1)
e = (1 + i) = e(i+1)i = (1 + i) = e = (1 + i). Putting it together
(1+e )
we get 1 1+ie
= 2 (1 i) :

1 1
Solution: The antiderivative is given by (1+i) z (1+i) = (1+i) e(1+i)Logz ; with
Log (z) being the principal branch of the logarithm. Of course, Log (1) =
0: Since the contour varies on the upper half of the complex plane before
terminating at -1, we can take Log ( 1) = i : By the fundamental theorem of
1 (1+e )
calculus, the integral is equal to (1+i) e0 ei (1+i) = 2 (1 i) :

Exercises Pages 153-156

R
1. Apply the Cauchy-Goursat theorem to show that f (z) dz = 0 when
C
the contour C is the circle jzj = 1, in either direction, and when
2
(a) f (z) = zz 3 ;

(b) f (z) = ze z ;
1
(c) f (z) = z2 +2z+2 ;
(d) f (z) = sec h z;

(e) f (z) = tan z;

(f) f (z) = Log (z + 2) :

Solution:

12
 According to the Cauchy-Goursat theorem if f(z) is an analytic single-valued
function in the convex domain G thanRfor any regular closed curve C contained
in G the following integral vanishes: f (z) dz = 0:
C
(a) In our case f (z) = z 2 = (z 3) : This function has the only singularity
at point z = 3. Throughout the disk jzj 2 the function f(z) is analytic and
single-valued. Hence, according to the Cauchy-Goursat theorem, its integral
R z2 dz
over the curve C : jzj = 1 is equal to zero: (z 3) = 0:
jzj=1
(b) As before, the function f (z) = ze z is analytic and single-valued
throughout
R the disk jzj 2: Hence, by the Cauchy-Goursat theorem
ze z dz = 0:
C
(c) The function f (z) = 1= z 2 + 2z + 2 = (z + 1 + i) (z + 1 i) : Hence,
the function f(z) has singularities only at points z = -1-ipand z = -1+i. Both
points lie outside of the disk jzj 1:2 since j 1 ij = 2 ' 1:4: Hence, the
function Ris analytic throughout the disk jzj 1:2 and by the Cauchy-Goursat
dz
theorem (z2 +2z+2) = 0:
C
(d) The function f (z) = sec hz does not have singularities and is analytic
in any
R …nite disk jzj R: Hence, by the Cauchy-Goursat theorem
sec hzdz = 0:
jzj=1

sin z
(e) The function f (z) = tan z = cos z is not de…ned only if the denominator
is zero; that is cos z = 0. The general solution is z = (2n + 1) 2 ; where n is an
integer. Whatever the values of n may be, the value of z will not lie inside the
unit circle. So tan z is analytic throughout the region. Since f(z) is analytic
inside and on C, the integral of f(z) over C is zero by the Cauchy-Goursat
theorem.
(f) The function f (z) = Log (z + 2) has a singular point z = -2. It is
analytic
R throughout the disk jzj 1:5; and by the Cauchy-Goursat theorem
Log (z + 2) dz = 0:
jzj=1
2. Let C1 denote the positively oriented circle jzj = 4 and C2 the positively
oriented boundary of the square whose sides lie along the lines z = 1; y =
R 1 (Figure 61).
R With the aid of Corollary 2 in Section 46, point out why
f (z) dz = f (z) dz when
C1 C2
(a) f (z) = 3z21+1 ;
z+2
(b) f (z) = sin(z=2) ;
z
(c) f (z) = 1 ez :
p
Solution (2a): The singularities of this function are at 1=3
R which are
inside C2 . Therefore by Cauchy for doubly connected domains, f (z) dz =
R C1
f (z) dz:
C2

13
 n o
Solution (2a): Note that f is analytic in Cn pi , and pi are all interior
3R R 3
to C2 . Both C1 and C2 are positively oriented, so f dz = f dz:
C1 C2
Solution (2b): Note that f is analytic in Cn f2n : n 2 N g. When n = 0,
2n =R0 lies inside
R C2 . When n 6= 0; j2n j 2 > 4, so 2n lies outside C1 .
Thus f dz = f dz:
C1 C2
Solution (2c): Note that f is analytic in Cn f2n i : n 2 N g. When n = 0,
2n i =R 0 lies inside
R C2 . When n 6= 0; j2n ij 2 > 4, so 2n i lies outside C1 .
Thus f dz = f dz:
C1 C2
3. If C0 denotes a positively oriented circle jz z0 j = R, then
R n 1 0 when n = 1; 2; ;
(z z0 ) dz =
C0
2 i when n = 0.
according the Exercise 10, Section 40. Use that result and Corollary 2 in
Section 46 to show that if C is the boundary of the rectangle
0 x 3; 0 y 2, described in the positive sense, then
R n 1 0 when n = 1; 2; ;
(z 2 i) dz =
C
2 i when n = 0.

Solution (3): Note that 2+i lies inside C. Let C0 be a positively ori-
n 1
ented circle fjz (2 + i)j = 1=2g. Then C0 lies inside CR and (z (2 + i))
n 1
is analytic between C0 and C for any n 2 N . Thus (z 2 i) dz =
C
R n 1 0 when n 6= 0;
(z 2 i) dz =
C0
2 i when n = 0.

Solution: Using the statement of Exercise 40.20 and Corollary 2 in section

46 we only have to show that we can take a positively circle centered at z0 = 2+i
n 1
such that f (z) = (z z0 ) is closed on this circle, on the contour C and in
the region between them. If the exponent n-1 is positive or equal to 0, then f
is entire and we can take this circle to be any circle that is large enough. If the
exponent is negative, then f has a singular point in 2+i. This point is contained
in the interior of the rectangle given by C, so again we may take our circle to be
a huge circle enclosing this rectangle, then f has the desired property of being
analytic outside the interior of the rectangle and we may apply the corollary.

4. Use the method described below to derive the integration formula

R1 x2
p
b2
e cos 2bxdx = 2 e (b > 0) :
0
(a) Show that the sum of the integrals of exp x2 along the lower and
upper horizontal legs of the rectangular path in Figure 62 can be written
Ra 2 2 R
a 2
2 e x dx 2eb e x cos 2bxdx and that the sum of the integrals along the
0 0
vertical legs on the right and left can be written
2 R 2 R
b 2
b 2
ie a ey e i2ay dy ie a ey ei2ay dy:
0 0

14
 Thus, with the aid of the Cauchy-Goursat theorem, show that
Ra x2 2 R
a 2 2 R
b
cos 2bxdx = e b e x dx + e (a +b ) ey sin 2aydy:
2 2
e
0 0 0
R1 x2
p
(b) By accepting the fact that e dx = 2 and observing that
0
Rb 2 Rb 2
ey sin 2aydy < ey d y, obtain the desired integration formula by letting
0 0
a tend to in…nity in the equation at the end of part (a).

Solution: For part (a), we …rst consider

R x2 R 2
e dz + e z dz;
C1 C2
where C1 and C2 are the lower and upper legs of the rectangular contour
shown in Figure 62. The lower leg can be parameterized as z = x; a x < a;
and the upper leg as z = x + ib; with x decreasing from a to -a. For both
2 2
parameterizations dz = dx. Along the lower leg e z = e x ; and along the
2 2 2 2 2 2
upper leg e z = e (x+ib) = e x +b 2ibx = e x +b [cos (2bx) + i sin (2bx)] :
Therefore the sum of the integrals along the lower and upper legs is equal to
Ra x2 2 R
a 2
e dx + eb e x [cos (2bx) + i sin (2bx)] dx:
a a
x2 2 2
Notice that e sin (2bx) is an odd function of x while e x and e x cos (2bx)
are even functions of x. Therefore, the sum of the two integrals can be expressed
as
Ra 2 2R
a 2
2 e x dx 2eb e x cos (2bx) dx:
0 0
The left and right legs of the contour in Figure 62 can be parameterized as
z = a + iy with y increasing from 0 to b and as z = a + iy with y decreasing
from b to 0. Use of this parameterization gives the sum of the integrals along
the right and left legs to be
2R 2R
b 2 b 2
ie a ey e i2ay dy ie a ey ei2ay dy:
0 0
i2ay
If Euler’s formula is used for e and ei2ay , we get
2R
b 2
2e a ey sin (2ay) dy
0
for the sum of the integrals along the right and left legs.
2
Since e z is analytic on the contour shown in Figure 62 and everywhere
inside it, Cauchy’s theorem implies that the sum of the integrals
Ra 2 2R
a 2 2R
b 2
2 e x dx 2eb e x cos (2bx) dx and 2e a ey sin (2ay) dy is 0. Therefore
0 0 0
Ra Ra 2 2 R 2 b
e x2
cos (2bx) dx = e b2
e x2
dx + e (a +b ) + ey sin (2ay) dy:
0 0 0
Ra x2
For part (b), we merely have to note that the third term in e cos (2bx) dx =
0

15
 Ra 2 2 R 2
b
e b2
e x2
dx + e (a +b ) + ey sin (2ay) dy above tends to 0 as a ! 1 for any
0 0
b > 0:
6. Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the half disk 0 r
1; 0 , and let f(z) be a continuous function
p de…ned on that half disk by
writing f(0) = 0 and using the branch f (z) = rei =2 r > 0; 2 < < 32
R
of the multiple-valued function z 1=2 . Show that f (z) dz = 0 by evaluating
C
separately the integrals of f(z) over the semicircle and the two radii which make
up C. Why does the Cauchy-Goursat theorem not apply here?

Solution: The branch of z 1=2 which is taken to be f (z) is analytic everywhere

except on the negative imaginary axis and at z = 0: The contour C passes
through z = 0, a point where f (z) is not analytic. Therefore Cauchy’s theorem
does not apply. C canR be deformed very slightly by bumping it up a bit
near the origin. Then f (z) changes only slightly as f (z) is continuous at
zR = 0: Cauchy’s theorem applies over the deformed contour and implies that
f (z) dz = 0: By making
R the bump smaller and smaller and taking the limit,
we can conclude that f (z) dz = 0:
C

Exercises Pages 162-164

1. Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the square whose sides
lie along the lines x = 2 and y = 2. Evaluate each of these integrals:
R e z dz
(a) z ( i=2) ;
CR cos z
(b) z(z 2 +8) dz;
RC zdz
(c) 2z+1 ;
CR cosh z
(d) z 4 dz;
RC tan(z=2)
(e) (z z )2
dz ( 2 < x0 < 2)
0
C

Solution (1a): The function e z is analytic so by CIF the integral is

2 ie i=2 = 2 i ( i) = 2 :
Solution (1b): The function cos (z) = z 2 + 8 is analytic inside the contour
so the integral is 2 i cos (0) =8 = i=4:

Solution (1a): Since i=2 lies inside C, and zcos z

is analytic inside and on
p 2 +8
C (it is analytic throughout C except at 8i, which both lie inside C), so
R e z i=2
z ( i=2) = 2 ie = 2 :
C
Solution (1b): Since 0 lies inside C, and zcos z
is analytic inside and on
p 2 +8
C (it is analytic throughout C except at 8i, which both lie outside C), so
R cos z cos(0) i
z(z 2 +8) dz = 2 i 02 +8 = 4 :
C

16
 R z
Solution (1c): Since -1/2 is inside C and z/2 is analytic in C, so 2z+1 dz =
C
R z=2
z ( 1=2) dz = 2 i (( 1=2) =2) = i=2:
C R cosh z
Solution (1d): Since 0 lies inside C, and cosh is analytic in C, so z 4 dz =
C
2 i
3! cosh(3) (0) = 3i sinh (0) = 0:
Solution (1e): Since x0 lies inside C, and tan (z=2) is analytic in C, so
R tan(z=2) d
(z x )2
dz = 2 i dz tan (z=2) jz=z0 = i sec2 (x0 =2) :
0
C
2. Find the value of the integral of g(z) around the circle jz ij = 2 in the
portion sense when
(a) g (z) = z21+4 ;
1
(b) g (z) = (z2 +4) 2:

Solution (2a): We have z21+4 = z+2i 1 1

z 2i : The …rst factor is analytic inside
1
the contour so the integral is 2 i 4i = 2:
Solution (2b): For the second g (z) = f (z) (z 12i)2 where f (z) = (z+2i)1
2 so

4 i
that by CIF for derivatives the integral is 2 if 0 (2i) = (4i) 3 = 16 :

Solution (2a): Let C denote the positively oriented circle fjz ij = 2g.
1 1
Note that 2i lies inside C, and -2i does not. So (z+2i) and (z+2i) 2 are analytic
R 1 R 1=(z+2i) 1
inside and on C. z2 +4 dz = z 2i dz = 2 i 2i+2i = =2:
C C
Solution (2b): Let C denote the positively oriented circle fjz ij = 2g.
1 1
Note that 2i lies inside C, and -2i does not. So (z+2i) and (z+2i) 2 are an-
R 1
R 1=(z+2i) 2
d 1
alytic inside and on C. (z 2 +4)2
dz = (z 2i)2
dz = 2 i dz z+2i jz=2i =
C C
2 2
2 i (2i+2i) 3 = 2 i 64i = =16:
3. Let C be the circle jzj = 3, described in the positive sense. Show that if
R 2
g (w) = 2z z zw 2 dz (jwj =
6 3), then g (2) = 8 i. What is the value of g(z)
C
when jwj > 3?
Solution (3): Let f (z) = 2z 2 z 2. By CIF g (2) = 2 if (2) = 8 i: For
the second part since the function is analytic inside the contour when jwj > 3
the integral is 0 by Cauchy Theorem.

Solution (3): Let f (z) = 2z 2 z 2. Then f is an entire function. Since

R
2 lies inside C, so by Cauchy’s integral formula, g (2) = fz (z)2 dz = 2 if (2) =
C
2 i4 = 8 i: If w is outside C, let hw (z) = f (z) = (z w). Then
R h is analytic
on and inside C. Thus by Cauchy-Goursat theorem, g (w) = h2 (z) dz = 0:
C
4. Let C be any simple closed contour, described in the positive sense in
R 3
the z plane, and write g (w) = (zz +2z
w)3
dz. Show that g (w) = 6 iw when w is
C
inside C and that g(w) = 0 when w is outside C.

Solution (4): Since z 3 + 2z is analytic in C, so if w is inside C, we have

17
 R z 3 +2z 2 i d2
g (w) = (z w)3
dz = 2 dz 2 z 3 + 2z jz=w = 6 iw: If w is outside C, then
C
(z3 +2z) R z 3 +2z
(z w)3
is analytic inside and on C. Thus g (w) = (z w)3
dz = 0:
C
5. Show that if f is analytic within and on a simple closed contour C and
R 0 R f (z)dz
z0 is not on C, then fz(z)dz
z0 = (z z )2
:
0
C C

R 0
Solution: The Cauchy Integral Formula applied to f’gives f 0 (z0 ) = (zf (z)z0 ) dz:
C
R
The formula for higher derivatives (p.161, (4)) gives f 0 (z0 ) = 21!i (zf (z)
z )2
dz:
0
C
This implies the claim.

6. Let f denote a function that is continuous on a simple closed contour C.

R
Prove that the function g (z) = 21 i C f s(s)ds
z is analytic at each point z interior
0 1
R f (s)ds
to C and that g (z) = 2 i C (s z)2 at such a point.

Solution:
In order to prove the analyticity of the function g(z) we need to demonstrate
that it is di¤erentiable. To this end we need to …nd the linear part of the
increment of the function g (z) : g (z + h) g (z) for every two points z and z+h
interior to C. We have
1 1 h
[s (z+h)] (s z) = (s z)[s (z+h)]
2
= (s hz)2 + (s z)2 [sh (z+h)] :
From the de…nition of function g(z) and from the formula above it follows
that R R f (s)ds
g (z + h) g (z) = 21 i [s f (s)ds
(z+h)]
1
2 i (s z)
C C
1
R f (s)ds 2 1
R f (s)ds
=h 2 i (s z)2
+h 2 i (s z)2 [s (z+h)]
:
C C
Now we have to prove that the second term is of order O h2 : In other
words, we need to limit the second integral in the right-hand side by a constant.
Since both points z and z+h are interior to C, there exists a constant such
that js zj > ; js (z + h)j > : Besides, since f(z) is continuous on C it is
bounded throughout C, i.e., there exists a constant M such that jf (z)j M for
each point
R z 2 fC: Hence, by the Mean Value Theorem
1 (s)ds ML
2 i (s z)2 [s (z+h)] 2 3 =constant.
C
Here L is the length of C. Thus, we obtain that the linear part of the
R f (s)ds
increment of the function g(z) exists and is given by g 0 (z) = 21 i (s z)2
: Hence,
C
the proof that the function g(z) is analytical is complete, and its derivative is
given by the required formula.

18
 i
7. Let C be the unit
R eazcircle z = e ( z ). First show that, for
any real constant a, z dz = 2 i: Then write this integral in terms of to
C
R
derive the integration formula ea cos cos (a sin ) d = :
0
R Solution (7): Since eaz is analytic in C and 0 lies inside C, so we have
eaz
z dz = 2 iea 0 = 2 i: From the de…nition of a line integral, we have
C
R eaz
R exp(aei ) R R
z dz = ei
iei d = i exp aei d : Thus exp aei d = 2 .
C
Since exp aei = exp (a cos + ia sin ) =
a cos
R
e cos (a sin ) + iea cos sin (a sin ) ; so ea cos cos (a sin ) d =
!
R
Re exp aei d = 2 : Since ea cos( )
cos (a sin ( )) =

R0
ea cos cos ( a sin ) = ea cos cos (a sin ), so ea cos cos (a sin ) d =
R R
ea cos cos (a sin ) d : Thus ea cos cos (a sin ) d =
0 0
1
R a cos
2 e cos (a sin ) d = :
1
R f (s)ds
9. Follow the steps below to verify the expression f 00 (z) = i (s z)3
in
C
the lemma in Section 48.
(a) Use the expression for f’(z) in the lemma to show that
f 0 (z+ z) f 0 (z) R f (s)ds R z) z 2( z)2
z
1
i (s z)3
= 21 i 3(s
(s z z)2 (s z)3
f (s) ds:
C C
(b) Let D and d denote the largest and smallest distances, respectively,
from z to points on C. Also, let M be the maximum value of jf (s)j on C and L
the length of C. With the aid of the triangle inequality and by referring to the
derivation of the expression for f’(z) in the lemma, show that when 0 < j zj < d,
the value of the integral on the right-hand side in part (a) is bounded from above
(3Dj zj+2j zj2 )M
by (d j zj)2 d3
L:
(c) Use the results in parts (a) and (b) to obtain the desired expression for
f”(z).

Solution: In view of the expression for f’in

i this lemma.
f 0 (z+ z) f 0 (z) 1
Rh 1 1 f (s)ds
z = 2 i (s z z)2 (s z)2 z
R h C i
2(s z) z
= 21 i (s z z)2 (s z)2
f (s) ds:
C
Then R Rh i
f (z+ z) f 0 (z)
0
1 f (z) 1 2(s z) z 2
z i (s z)3
= 2 i (s z z)2 (s z)2 (s z)3
f (s) ds
R h 3(s i
C C
1 z) z 2( z)2
= 2 i (s z z)2 (s z)3
f (s) ds:
C

19
 b) The triangle inequality tells us that
2 2 2
3 (s z) z 2 ( z) 3 js zj j zj + 2 j zj 3D j zj + 2 j zj : We
also can see that js z zj d j zj > 0 (p.160, line 3). Hence,
2 3 2
(s z z) (s z) (d j zj) d3 > 0: Together we obtain
R h 3(s z) z 2( z)2 i
(3Dj zj+2j zj2 )M
2 3 f (s) ds :
(s z z) (s z) (d j zj)2 d3
C
c) If we let z tend to 0 in this inequality, we …nd
R h 3(s z) z 2( z)2 i
lim 21 i (s z z)2 (s z)3
f (s) ds = 0:
z!0 C
This, together with the result in part a), yields the desired expression for f”.

Exercises Pages 171-173

1. Let f be an entire function such that jf (z)j A jzj for all z, where A is a
…xed positive number. Show that f (z) = a1 z, where a1 is a complex constant.
Suggestion: Use Cauchy’s inequality (Section 49) to show that the second
derivative f”(z) is zero everywhere in the plane. Note that the constant MR in
Cauchy’s inequality is less than or equal to A (jz9 j + R) :
2MR
Solution: By Cauchy inequality we have jf 00 (z0 )j R2 where MR is the
maximum of jf (z)j on the circle of radius R centered at z0 . In this case jzj
A(jz0 j+R)
jz0 j + R so MR A (jz0 j + R). Plugging that in we get jf 00 (z0 )j R2 .
00
As R ! 1 the right hand side goes to 0 and this says that f (z0 ) = 0. Since
this is true for any z0 we have f 00 (z) = 0 for all z and this means f’is a constant
a1 . But this means that f (z) = a1 z + b. Since jf (z)j A jzj we have b1 = 0:

Solution: For R > 0, let CR denote the positively oriented circle

fz 2 C : jzj = Rg : Fix z0 2 C: Then z0 lies inside CR if R > jzj : From
R
Cauchy’s formula, f 00 (z0 ) = 22 i (zf (z)
z )3
dz: For z 2 CR ; (zf (z)
z )3
AR
(R jz j)3
:
0 0 0
CR
L(CR ) 2
AR AR
Thus jf 00 (z0 )j 2 (R jz0 j)3
= (R jz0 j)3
: This inequality holds for all R >
2
AR
jz0 j. Since ! 0 asR ! 1, so jf (z0 )j = 0, i.e., f 00 (z0 ) = 0: Since z0
(R jz0 j)3
00

is chosen from C arbitrarily, so f”(z) = 0 for all z 2 C: Thus f’(z) is constant in

C. Let a1 be the constant and g (z) = f (z) a1 z. Then g’(z) = 0 for all z 2 C:
Thus g(z) is a constant in C. Let the constant be C. Then f (z) = a1 z + C for
all z 2 C: From jf (0)j A0 = 0 we get f(0) = 0. Thus C = 0 and f (z) = a1 z:
2. Suppose that f(z) is entire and that the harmonic function u (x; y) =
Re [f (z)] has an upper bound u0 ; that is, u (x; y) u0 for all points (x; y) in
the xy plane. Show that u (x; y) must be constant throughout the plane.
Suggestion: Apply Liouville’s theorem (Section 49) to the function g (z) =
exp [f (z)] :

Solution: Let g (z) = ef (z) = eu+iv . Since ef (z) = eu and u is assumed

bounded, we have ef (z) a constant. But this means eu constant which means
that u is a constant.

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 Solution: Let g(z) = exp(f(z)). Then g is entire and jg (z)j = exp (u (z))
u0 . From Liouville’s Theorem, g must be a constant. Thus u (z) = ln (jg (z)j)
is also a constant throughout C.
4. Let a function f be continuous in a closed bounded region R, and let
it be analytic and not constant throughout the interior of R. Assuming that
f (z) 6= 0 anywhere in R, prove that jf (z)j has a minimum value m in R which
occurs on the boundary of R and never in the interior. Do this by applying the
corresponding result for maximum values (Section 50) to the function g (z) =
1=f (z) :

Solution: Let g(z) = 1/f(z). Since f is continuous on R, analytic in the

interior of R and f (z) 6= 0 for all z 2 R, so g is continuous in R and analytic in
the interior of R. Since R is closed and bounded, and jgj is continuous, so jgj
attain its maximum on R. That means there is z0 2 R such that jg (z)j jg (z0 )j
for all z 2 R: Thus jf (z)j jf (z0 )j for all z 2 R: If z0 2 int R then from
maximum modulus principle we have g is a constant in int R. Because g is
continuous, so g is also constant in R. From f(z) = 1/g(z) we then have that f
is constant in R which is a contradiction. Thus z0 must lie on the boundary of
R.
2
6. Consider the function f (z) = (z + 1) and the closed triangular region
R with vertices at the points z = 0, z = 2, and z = i. Find points in R where
jf (z)j has its maximum and minimum values, thus illustrating results in Section
50 and Exercise 4.
Suggestion: Interpret jf (z)j as the square of the distance between z and -1.
Solution: We must have jf (z)j taking its maximum on the boundary and
since it is never 0 also its minimum on the boundary. Since jf (z)j is the square
of the distance between z and -1 the maximum is taken on at the furthest point
from -1 which is at z = 2. The closest point is at z = 0.
7. Let f (z) = u (x; y) + iv (x; y) be a function that is continuous on a closed
bounded region R and analytic and not constant throughout the interior of R.
Prove that the component function u (x; y) has a minimum value in R which
occurs on the boundary of R and never in the interior. (See Exercise 4.)
Solution???: Suppose u has a minimum at a point in the interior say at
u (z0 ). Let f (z) = ef (z) which is never 0. We have jf (z)j = eu . The
minimum of this is at z0 . But this violates (4).
10. Let z0 be a zero of the polynomial P (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + +
an z n (an 6= 0) of degree n (n 1). Show in the following way that P (z) =
(z z0 ) Q (z), where Q (z) is a polynomial of degree n-1.
(a) Verify that z k z0k = (z z0 ) z k 1 + z k 2 z0 + + zz0k 2 + z0k 1
(k = 2; 3; :) :
(b) Use the factorization in part (a) to show that
P (z) P (z0 ) = (z z0 ) Q (z), where Q(z) is a polynomial of degree n-1,
and deduct the desired results from this.

Solution (10a): We calculate the right-hand side of the equation:

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 (z z 0 ) z k 1 + z k 2 z0 + + zz0k 2 + z0k 1 = z k +z k 1 z0 + +z 2 z0k 2
+
zz0k 1 z k 1 z0 + + z0k = z k z0k :
(10b) Now P (z) P (z0 ) = a0 + + an z n (a0 + + an z0n )
2 n
= (a a0 ) h+ a1 (z z0 ) + a2 (z z0 ) + + an (z
i z0 )
n 1
= (z z0 ) a1 + a2 (z z0 ) + + an (z z0 )
= (z z0 ) Q (z) :

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