Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals

and Applications, 4th edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Chapter 4

FLUID KINEMATICS

©McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 © StockTrek/Getty Images RF
Satellite image of a hurricane near the Florida coast; water droplets
move with the air, enabling us to visualize the counterclockwise
swirling motion. However, the major portion of the hurricane is actually
irrotational, while only the core (the eye of the storm) is rotational.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Understand the role of the material derivative in

transforming between Lagrangian and Eulerian
descriptions
• Distinguish between various types of flow visualizations
and methods of plotting the characteristics of a fluid flow
• Appreciate the many ways that fluids move and deform
• Distinguish between rotational and irrotational regions of
flow based on the flow property vorticity
• Understand the usefulness of the Reynolds transport
theorem

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–1 ■ LAGRANGIAN AND EULERIAN DESCRIPTIONS

Kinematics: The study of motion.

Fluid kinematics: The study of how fluids flow and how to describe fluid motion.

There are two distinct ways to describe motion: Lagrangian and Eulerian
Lagrangian description: To follow the path of individual objects.
This method requires us to track the position and velocity of each individual
fluid parcel (fluid particle) and take to be a parcel of fixed identity.

With a small number of objects, such In the Lagrangian description, one

as billiard balls on a pool table, must keep track of the position and
individual objects can be tracked. velocity of individual particles.
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 A more common method is Eulerian description of fluid motion.
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow domain or
control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out.
Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables, functions
of space and time, within the control volume.
The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of the
variable for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that time.
For example, the pressure field is a scalar field variable. We define the
velocity field as a vector field variable.

Pressure field : P = P ( x, y , z , t )
→ →
Velocity field : V = V ( x, y , z , t )

a = a ( x, y , z , t )
→ →
Acceleration field :
Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field. The velocity
field can be expanded in Cartesian coordinates as
→ → → →
V = ( u , v, w) = u ( x, y, z , t ) i + v ( x, y , z , t ) j + w ( x, y , z , t ) k

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 In the Eulerian description we don’t
really care what happens to individual
fluid particles; rather we are concerned
with the pressure, velocity, acceleration,
etc., of whichever fluid particle happens
to be at the location of interest at the
time of interest.
While there are many occasions in
which the Lagrangian description is
useful, the Eulerian description is often
more convenient for fluid mechanics
applications.
Experimental measurements are
generally more suited to the Eulerian
description.
(Bottom) Photo by John M. Cimbala.

(a) In the Eulerian description, we define field variables, such as the pressure field and
the velocity field, at any location and instant in time. (b) For example, the air speed
probe mounted under the wing of an airplane measures the air speed at that location.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A Steady Two-Dimensional Velocity Field
→ → →
V = ( u , v ) = ( 0.5 + 0.8 x ) i + (1.5 − 0.8 y ) j
Flow field near
the bell mouth
inlet of a
hydroelectric
dam; a portion of
the velocity field
of Example 4-1
may be used as
a first-order
approximation of
this physical flow
field.

Velocity vectors for the velocity field of Example 4–1. The scale is shown by the
top arrow, and the solid black curves represent the approximate shapes of
some streamlines, based on the calculated velocity vectors. The stagnation
point is indicated by the blue circle. The shaded region represents a portion of
the flow field that can approximate flow into an inlet.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Acceleration Field
The equations of motion for fluid flow
(such as Newton’s second law) are
written for a fluid particle, which we
also call a material particle.
If we were to follow a particular fluid
particle as it moves around in the
flow, we would be employing the
Lagrangian description, and the
equations of motion would be directly
applicable.
Newton’s second law applied to a fluid
For example, we would define the particle; the acceleration vector (purple
particle’s location in space in terms of arrow) is in the same direction as the force
a material position vector vector (green arrow), but the velocity vector
xparticle(t), yparticle(t), zparticle(t) (blue arrow) may act in a different direction.
→ →
Newton's second law : F particle = mparticle a particle
→
→ d V particle
Acceleration of a fluid particle : a particle =
dt
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 ( )
→ →
V particle ( t )  V xparticle ( t ) , yparticle ( t ) , zparticle ( t ) , t

( )
→ → →
→ d V particle d V d V xparticle , yparticle , zparticle , t
a particle = = =
dt dt dt
→ → → →
 V dt V dxparticle V dyparticle  V dzparticle
= + + +
t dt xparticle dt yparticle dt zparticle dt
→ → → → →
d V V V V V
a particle ( x, y, z , t ) =
→
= +u +v +w
dt t x y z
Acceleration of a fluid particle expressed as a field variable:
→ →
d V V  → →  →
a ( x, y , z , t ) =
→
= +  V  V
dt t  
→
V Local  → →  → Advective (convective)
t acceleration  V   V acceleration

→      →  →  → 
Gradient or del operation : = =i + j +k
 x, y, z ,  x y z
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 When following a fluid particle, the x- The components of the
component of velocity, u, is defined as acceleration vector in
dxparticle/dt. Similarly, v=dyparticle/dt and cartesian coordinates:
w=dzparticle/dt. Movement is shown here
u u u u
only in two dimensions for simplicity. ax = +u +v + w
t x y z
v v v v
ay = + u + v + w
t x y z
w w w w
az = +u +v +w
t x y z
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Flow of water through the nozzle of a
garden hose illustrates that fluid particles
may accelerate, even in a steady flow. In
this example, the exit speed of the water
is much higher than the water speed in
the hose, implying that fluid particles
have accelerated even though the flow is
steady.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A first-order finite difference
approximation for derivative dq/dx
is simply the change in dependent
variable (q) divided by the change
in independent variable (x).
Residence time Δt is defined as the
time it takes for a fluid particle to
travel through the nozzle from inlet
to outlet (distance Δx).

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Material Derivative
→ →
d V V  → →  →
a ( x, y , z , t ) =
→
= +  V   V
dt t  
The total derivative operator d/dt in this equation is given a
special name, the material derivative; it is assigned a special
notation, D/Dt, in order to emphasize that it is formed by
following a fluid particle as it moves through the flow field.
Other names for the material derivative include total, particle,
Lagrangian, Eulerian, and substantial derivative.

The material derivative D/Dt is

defined by following a fluid
particle as it moves throughout
the flow field. In this illustration,
the fluid particle is accelerating
to the right as it moves up and
to the right.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 D d   → →
Material derivative : = = +  V 
Dt dt t  
→ → →
DV d V  V  → →  →
a ( x, y , z , t ) =
→
Material acceleration : = = +  V  V
Dt dt t  

DP dP P  → → 
Material derivative of pressure : = = +  V   P
Dt dt t  

The material derivative

D/Dt is composed of a
local or unsteady part
and a convective or
advective part.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Material Acceleration of a Steady Velocity Field
→ → →
V = ( u , v ) = ( 0.5 + 0.8 x ) i + (1.5 − 0.8 y ) j

Acceleration vectors for the

velocity field of Examples 4–1
and 4–3. The scale is shown by
the top arrow, and the solid
black curves represent the
approximate shapes of some
streamlines, based on the
calculated velocity vectors. The
stagnation point is indicated by
the red circle.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–2 ■ FLOW PATTERNS AND FLOW VISUALIZATION
Flow visualization: The visual
examination of flow field
features.
While quantitative study of fluid
dynamics requires advanced
mathematics, much can be
learned from flow visualization.
Flow visualization is useful not
only in physical experiments but
in numerical solutions as well Courtesy of Professor Thomas J. Mueller from the Collection of Professor F.N.M. Brown.

[computational fluid dynamics

(CFD)]. Spinning baseball. The late F. N. M.
Brown devoted many years to developing
In fact, the very first thing an and using smoke visualization in wind
engineer using CFD does after tunnels at the University of Notre Dame.
obtaining a numerical solution is Here the flow speed is about 23 m/s and
simulate some form of flow the ball is rotated at 630 rpm.
visualization.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Streamlines and Streamtubes

Streamline: A curve that is

everywhere tangent to the
instantaneous local velocity
vector.
Streamlines are useful as
indicators of the instantaneous
direction of fluid motion
throughout the flow field.
For example, regions of
recirculating flow and
For two-dimensional flow in the
separation of a fluid off of a
xy-plane, arc length 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦
solid wall are easily identified
along a streamline is everywhere
by the streamline pattern.
tangent to the local instantaneous
Streamlines cannot be directly velocity vector 𝑉= 𝑢, 𝑣 .
observed experimentally
except in steady flow fields.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Consider an infinitesimal arc length 𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥Ԧ𝑖 + 𝑑𝑦Ԧ𝑗 + 𝑑𝑧𝑘 along a streamline;
𝑑 𝑟Ԧ must be parallel to the local velocity vector 𝑉 = 𝑢Ԧ𝑖 + 𝑣Ԧ𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘 by definition
of the streamline. By simple geometric arguments using similar triangles, we
know that the components of 𝑑𝑟Ԧ must be proportional to those of 𝑉
(Fig. 4–16). Hence,
dr dx dy dz
Equation for a streamline : = = = (4 - 15)
V u v w
where dr is the magnitude of 𝑑𝑟Ԧ and V is the speed, the magnitude of
velocity vector 𝑉. Equation 4–15 is illustrated in two dimensions for
simplicity in Fig. 4–16. For a known velocity field, we integrate Eq. 4–15 to
obtain equations for the streamlines. In two dimensions, (x, y), (u, 𝜐), the
following differential equation is obtained:
 dy  v
Streamlinein the xy -plane :   = (4 - 16)
 dx  along a streamline u
In some simple cases, Eq. 4–16 may be solvable analytically; in the general
case, it must be solved numerically. In either case, an arbitrary constant of
integration appears. Each chosen value of the constant represents a
different streamline. The family of curves that satisfy Eq. 4–16 therefore
represents streamlines of the flow field.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Streamlines for a steady, incompressible, two-dimensional velocity field
→ → →
V = ( u, v ) = ( 0.5 + 0.8x ) i + (1.5 − 0.8 y ) j

Streamlines (solid black

curves) for the velocity
field of Example 4–4;
velocity vectors (blue
arrows) are superimposed
for comparison.
The agreement is
excellent in the sense that
the velocity vectors point
everywhere tangent to the
streamlines. Note that
speed cannot be
determined directly from
the streamlines alone.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A streamtube consists of a bundle of
streamlines much like a
communications cable consists of a
bundle of fiber-optic cables.
Since streamlines are everywhere
parallel to the local velocity, fluid cannot
cross a streamline by definition.
Fluid within a streamtube must
remain there and cannot cross the
boundary of the streamtube. A streamtube consists of a bundle of
individual streamlines.
Both streamlines and
streamtubes are
instantaneous
quantities, defined at
a particular instant in
time according to the
velocity field at that
instant. In an incompressible flow field, a streamtube
(a) decreases in diameter as the flow
accelerates or converges and (b) increases in
diameter as the flow decelerates or diverges.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Pathlines
Pathline: The actual path traveled by an individual fluid particle over
some time period.
A pathline is a Lagrangian concept in that we simply follow the path of
an individual fluid particle as it moves around in the flow field.
Thus, a pathline is the same as the fluid particle’s material position
vector (xparticle(t), yparticle(t), zparticle(t)) traced out over some finite time
interval.

A pathline is formed by
following the actual
path of a fluid particle.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Wallet, A & Ruellan, F. 1950, La Houille Blanche 5: 483–489. Used by permission.

Pathlines produced by white tracer particles suspended in water and

captured by time-exposure photography; as waves pass horizontally,
each particle moves in an elliptical path during one wave period.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Particle image velocimetry (PIV): A modern experimental
technique that utilizes short segments of particle pathlines
to measure the velocity field over an entire plane in a flow.
Recent advances also extend the technique to three
dimensions.
In PIV, tiny tracer particles are suspended in the fluid.
However, the flow is illuminated by two flashes of light
(usually a light sheet from a laser) to produce two bright
spots (recorded by a camera) for each moving particle.
Then, both the magnitude and direction of the velocity
vector at each particle location can be inferred, assuming
that the tracer particles are small enough that they move
with the fluid.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Stereo PIV measurements of
the wing tip vortex in the wake
of a NACA-66 airfoil at angle
of attack. Color contours
denote the local vorticity,
normalized by the minimum
value, as indicated in the color
map. Vectors denote fluid
motion in the plane of
measurement. The black line
denotes the location of the
upstream wing trailling edge.
Coordinates are normalized by
the airfoil chord, and the origin
is the wing root.
Photo by Michael H. Krane, ARL-Penn State.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–2 ■ FLOW PATTERNS AND FLOW VISUALIZATION(9)

Pathlines can also be calculated numerically for a known velocity field.

Specifically, the location of the tracer particle is integrated over time from
some starting location 𝑥Ԧ start and starting time 𝑡start to some later time t.

→ → →
x = x start +  Vdt
t
Tracer particle location at time t: (4 - 17)
tstart

When Eq. 4–17 is calculated for t between tstart and tend, a plot of 𝑥Ԧ 𝑡 is
the pathline of the fluid particle during that time interval, as illustrated in
Fig. 4–20. For some simple flow fields, Eq. 4–17 can be integrated
analytically. For more complex flows, we must perform a numerical
integration.
If the velocity field is steady, individual fluid particles follow streamlines.
Thus, for steady flow, pathlines are identical to streamlines.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Streaklines
Streakline: The locus of
fluid particles that have
passed sequentially
through a prescribed
point in the flow.
Streaklines are the most
common flow pattern
generated in a physical
experiment.
If you insert a small tube
into a flow and introduce
a continuous stream of
tracer fluid (dye in a water
A streakline is formed by continuous
flow or smoke in an air
introduction of dye or smoke from a point
flow), the observed
in the flow. Labeled tracer particles (1
pattern is a streakline.
through 8) were introduced sequentially.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Streaklines produced by
colored fluid introduced
upstream; since the flow is
steady, these streaklines
are the same as
streamlines and pathlines.
Courtesy of ONERA. Photo by Werlé.

Streaklines, streamlines, and pathlines are identical in steady flow but

they can be quite different in unsteady flow.
The main difference is that a streamline represents an instantaneous
flow pattern at a given instant in time, while a streakline and a pathline
are flow patterns that have some age and thus a time history
associated with them.
A streakline is an instantaneous snapshot of a time-integrated flow
pattern.
A pathline, on the other hand, is the time-exposed flow path of an
individual particle over some time period.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 In the figure, streaklines are introduced from a smoke wire located just
downstream of a circular cylinder of diameter D aligned normal to the
plane of view.
When multiple streaklines are introduced along a line, as in the figure,
we refer to this as a rake of streaklines.
The Reynolds number of the flow is Re = 93.

Photos by John M. Cimbala.

Smoke streaklines introduced by a smoke wire at two different locations

in the wake of a circular cylinder: (a) smoke wire just downstream of the
cylinder and (b) smoke wire located at x/D = 150. The time-integrative
nature of streaklines is clearly seen by comparing the two photographs.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Because of unsteady vortices shed in an
alternating pattern from the cylinder, the
smoke collects into a clearly defined
periodic pattern called a Kármán vortex
street.
A similar pattern can be seen at much
larger scale in the air flow in the wake of
an island.

Kármán vortices visible in

the clouds in the wake of
Alexander Selkirk Island in
the southern Pacific Ocean.
Photo from Landsat 7 WRS Path 6 Row 83, center: -
33.18, -79.99, 9/15/1999, earthobservatory.nasa.gov.
Courtesy of USGS EROS Data Center Satellite System
Branch/NASA.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 For a known velocity field, a streakline can be generated numerically.
We need to follow the paths of a continuous stream of tracer particles
from the time of their injection into the flow until the present time, using
Eq. 4–17. Mathematically, the location of a tracer particle is integrated
over time from the time of its injection tinject to the present time tpresent.
Equation 4–17 becomes
→ → tpresent →
Integrated tracer particle location: x = x injection +  V dt (4 - 18)
tinject

In a complex unsteady flow, the time integration must be performed

numerically as the velocity field changes with time. When the locus of
tracer particle locations at t = tpresent is connected by a smooth curve,
the result is the desired streakline.

→ → →
x = x start +  V dt
t
Tracer particle location at time t: (4 - 17)
tstart

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Comparison of Flow Patterns in an Unsteady Flow
→
V = ( u , v ) = ( 0.5 + 0.8 x ) i + (1.5 + 2.5sin (t ) − 0.8 y ) j
→ →

An unsteady, incompressible,
two-dimensional velocity field

Streamlines, pathlines, and

streaklines for the oscillating
velocity field of Example 4–5.
The streaklines and pathlines
are wavy because of their
integrated time history, but the
streamlines are not wavy since
they represent an
instantaneous snapshot of the
velocity field.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Timelines
Timeline: A set of adjacent fluid
particles that were marked at the
same (earlier) instant in time.
Timelines are particularly useful
in situations where the uniformity
of a flow (or lack thereof) is to be
examined.

Timelines are formed by marking a line

of fluid particles, and then watching
that line move (and deform) through
the flow field; timelines are shown at
t = 0, t1, t2, and t3.
Velocity vector plot generated from the
timeline at t = t2. A suitable reference
scale must be calculated so that the
lengths of the arrows scale proportionally
to that scale.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Bippes, H. 1972 Sitzungsber, heidelb. Akad. Wiss. Math. Naturwiss. Kl., no. 3, 103–180; NASA TM-75243, 1978.

Timelines produced by a hydrogen bubble wire are used to

visualize the boundary layer velocity profile shape. Flow is
from left to right, and the hydrogen bubble wire is located to
the left of the field of view. Bubbles near the wall reveal a flow
instability that leads to turbulence.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
It is based on the refractive property of light waves.
The speed of light through one material may differ somewhat from that in
another material, or even in the same material if its density changes. As light
travels through one fluid into a fluid with a different index of refraction, the light
rays bend (they are refracted).
Two primary flow visualization techniques that utilize the fact that the index of
refraction in air (or other gases) varies with density: the shadowgraph
technique and the schlieren technique.
Interferometry is a visualization technique that utilizes the related phase
change of light as it passes through air of varying densities as the basis for flow
visualization.
These techniques are useful for flow visualization in flow fields where density
changes from one location in the flow to another, such as such as natural
convection flows (temperature differences cause the density variations), mixing
flows (fluid species cause the density variations), and supersonic flows (shock
waves and expansion waves cause the density variations).

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Unlike flow visualizations involving streaklines, pathlines, and timelines,
the shadowgraph and schlieren methods do not require injection of a
visible tracer (smoke or dye).
Rather, density differences and the refractive property of light provide
the necessary means for visualizing regions of activity in the flow field,
allowing us to “see the invisible.”
The image (a shadowgram) produced by the shadowgraph method is
formed when the refracted rays of light rearrange the shadow cast onto
a viewing screen or camera focal plane, causing bright or dark patterns
to appear in the shadow.
The dark patterns indicate the location where the refracted rays
originate, while the bright patterns mark where these rays end up, and
can be misleading.
As a result, the dark regions are less distorted than the bright regions
and are more useful in the interpretation of the shadowgram.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Color schlieren image of Mach
3.0 flow from left to right over a
sphere. A curved shock wave
called a bow shock forms in front
of the sphere and curves
downstream; its forward-most
location appears as the thin red
band to the left of the yellow
band in this image. The yellow
band is caused by the bow shock
wrapping around the sphere.
Shocks coming off the sphere
downstream are due to boundary
layer separation.
© G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University. Used
with permission.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A shadowgram is not a true optical image;
it is, after all, merely a shadow.
A schlieren image, involves lenses (or
mirrors) and a knife edge or other cutoff
device to block the refracted light and is a
true focused optical image.
Schlieren imaging is more complicated to
set up than is shadowgraphy but has a
number of advantages.
A schlieren image does not suffer from
optical distortion by the refracted light rays.
Schlieren imaging is also more sensitive to
weak density gradients such as those
caused by natural convection or by gradual
phenomena like expansion fans in
supersonic flow. Color schlieren imaging
© G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State
techniques have also been developed. University. Used with permission.

One can adjust more components in a Schlieren image of natural

schlieren setup. convection due to a barbeque grill.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
The direction of fluid flow immediately above a solid surface can be
visualized with tufts—short, flexible strings glued to the surface at one
end that point in the flow direction.
Tufts are especially useful for locating regions of flow separation, where
the flow direction suddenly reverses.
A technique called surface oil visualization can be used for the same
purpose—oil placed on the surface forms streaks called friction lines
that indicate the direction of flow.
If it rains lightly when your car is dirty (especially in the winter when salt
is on the roads), you may have noticed streaks along the hood and
sides of the car, or even on the windshield.
This is similar to what is observed with surface oil visualization.
Lastly, there are pressure-sensitive and temperature-sensitive paints
that enable researchers to observe the pressure or temperature
distribution along solid surfaces.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–3 ■ PLOTS OF FLUID FLOW DATA

Regardless of how the results are obtained (analytically,

experimentally, or computationally), it is usually necessary to plot
flow data in ways that enable the reader to get a feel for how the
flow properties vary in time and/or space.
You are already familiar with time plots, which are especially
useful in turbulent flows (e.g., a velocity component plotted as a
function of time), and xy-plots (e.g., pressure as a function of
radius).
In this section, we discuss three additional types of plots that are
useful in fluid mechanics:
profile plots
vector plots
contour plots

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Profile Plots
A profile plot indicates how the value of a scalar property varies along
some desired direction in the flow field.
In fluid mechanics, profile plots of any
scalar variable (pressure, temperature,
density, etc.) can be created, but the
most common one used in this book is
the velocity profile plot.
Since velocity is a vector quantity, we
usually plot either the magnitude of
velocity or one of the components of
the velocity vector as a function of
distance in some desired direction.

Profile plots of the horizontal

component of velocity as a function of
vertical distance; flow in the boundary
layer growing along a horizontal flat
plate: (a) standard profile plot and (b)
profile plot with arrows.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Vector Plots
A vector plot is an array of arrows indicating
the magnitude and direction of a vector
property at an instant in time.

Streamlines indicate the direction of the instantaneous

velocity field, they do not directly indicate the
magnitude of the velocity (i.e., the speed).
A useful flow pattern for both experimental and
computational fluid flows is thus the vector plot, which
consists of an array of arrows that indicate both
magnitude and direction of an instantaneous vector
property.
Vector plots can also be generated from
experimentally obtained data (e.g., from PIV
measurements) or numerically from CFD calculations.

Fig. 4-4: Velocity vector plot

Fig. 4-14: Acceleration vector
plot. Both generated
analytically.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Results of CFD calculations of flow
impinging on a block:
(a) streamlines
(b) velocity vector plot of the upper
half of the flow
(c) velocity vector plot, close-up view
revealing more details in the
separated flow region
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A contour plot shows curves of constant Contour Plots
values of a scalar property (or magnitude of
a vector property) at an instant in time.
Contour plots (also called isocontour plots) are
generated of pressure, temperature, velocity
magnitude, species concentration, properties of
turbulence, etc.
A contour plot can quickly reveal regions of high
(or low) values of the flow property being studied.
A contour plot may consist simply of curves
indicating various levels of the property; this is
called a contour line plot.
Alternatively, the contours can be filled in with
either colors or shades of gray; this is called a
filled contour plot.

Contour plots of the pressure field due to flow

impinging on a block, as produced by CFD
calculations; only the upper half is shown due
to symmetry; (a) filled color scale contour plot
and (b) contour line plot where pressure values
are displayed in units of Pa gage pressure.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–4 ■ OTHER KINEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS
Types of Motion or Deformation
of Fluid Elements
In fluid mechanics, an element may undergo four
fundamental types of motion or deformation:
(a) translation, (b) rotation,
(c) linear strain (also called extensional strain), and
(d) shear strain.
All four types of motion or deformation usually occur
simultaneously.
It is preferable in fluid dynamics to describe the motion
and deformation of fluid elements in terms of rates
such as
velocity (rate of translation),
angular velocity (rate of rotation),
linear strain rate (rate of linear strain), and Fundamental types of fluid
shear strain rate (rate of shear strain). element motion or
In order for these deformation rates to be useful in the deformation: (a) translation,
calculation of fluid flows, we must express them in (b) rotation, (c) linear strain,
terms of velocity and derivatives of velocity. and (d) shear strain.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A vector is required in order to fully describe the rate of translation in three
dimensions. The rate of translation vector is described mathematically as
the velocity vector.
Rate of translation vector in Cartesian
coordinates:
→ → → →
V = u i +v j+ wk
Rate of rotation (angular velocity) at a
point: The average rotation rate of two
initially perpendicular lines that intersect at
that point.
Rate of rotation of fluid
element about point P

d   a +  b  1  v u 
=  =  − 
dt  2  2  x y 
For a fluid element that translates and
deforms as sketched, the rate of rotation at
point P is defined as the average rotation
rate of two initially perpendicular lines
(lines a and b).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The rate of rotation vector is equal to the angular velocity vector.

Rate of rotation vector in Cartesian coordinates:

→ 1  w v  → 1  u w  → 1  v u  →
=  −  i +  −  j+  − k
2  y z  2  z x  2  x  y 

Linear strain rate: The rate of increase in length per unit length.
Mathematically, the linear strain rate of a fluid element depends on the
initial orientation or direction of the line segment upon which we measure
the linear strain.

Linear strain rate in Cartesian coordinates:

u v w
 xx =  yy =  zz =
x y z

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Linear strain rate in some arbitrary
direction x𝛼 is defined as the rate of
increase in length per unit length in that
direction. Linear strain rate would be
negative if the line segment length were
to decrease. Here we follow the increase
in length of line segment PQ into line
segment P′Q′, which yields a positive
linear strain rate. Velocity components
and distances are truncated to first-order
since dx𝛼 and dt are infinitesimally small.
Using the lengths marked in the figure, the linear strain rate in the xa-direction is
d  P Q  − PQ 
 =  
dt  PQ
Length of P´Q´ in the x𝛼-direction Length of PQ in the x𝛼-direction

 u  
  u + dx  dt + dx − u dt − dx  u
d  x 
 =  (4 - 22)
dt  dx  x
 
 Length of PQ in the x -direction
𝛼

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Volumetric strain rate or bulk strain rate: The rate of increase
of volume of a fluid element per unit volume.
This kinematic property is defined as positive when the volume
increases.
Another synonym of volumetric strain rate is also called rate of
volumetric dilatation, (the iris of your eye dilates (enlarges)
when exposed to dim light).
The volumetric strain rate is the sum of the linear strain rates in
three mutually orthogonal directions.

Volumetric strain rate in Cartesian coordinates:

1 DV 1 dV u v w
= =  xx +  yy +  zz = + +
V Dt V dt x y z

The volumetric strain rate is

zero in an incompressible flow.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Air being compressed by a piston in a
cylinder; the volume of a fluid element in
the cylinder decreases, corresponding to
a negative rate of volumetric dilatation.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Shear strain rate at a
point: Half of the rate of
decrease of the angle
between two initially
perpendicular lines that
intersect at the point.

For a fluid element that

translates and deforms as
sketched, the shear strain
rate at point P is defined as
half of the rate of decrease
of the angle between two
initially perpendicular lines
(lines a and b).

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Shear strain rate, initially perpendicular lines in the x- and y -directions:
1 d 1   u v 
 xy = −  a −b =  + 
2 dt 2  y x 

Shear strain rate in Cartesian coordinates:

1  u v  1  w u  1  v w 
 xy =  +   zx =  +   yz =  + 
2  y x  2  x z  2  z y 

Strain rate tensor in Cartesian coordinates:

 u 1  u v  1  u w  
  +   + 
x 2  y x  2 z x  
  xx  xy  xz   
   1  v u  v 1  v w  
 ij =   yx  yy  yz  =  +   +  
      2  x y  y 2  z y  
zx zy zz  1 w u 1  w v  w 
  +

+  
 2  x z  
2  y  z  z 

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Figure shows a general (although
two-dimensional) situation in a
compressible fluid flow in which all
possible motions and deformations
are present simultaneously.
In particular, there is translation,
rotation, linear strain, and shear
strain.
Because of the compressible nature
of the fluid flow, there is also
volumetric strain (dilatation).
You should now have a better
appreciation of the inherent
complexity of fluid dynamics, and the A fluid element illustrating
mathematical sophistication required translation, rotation, linear strain,
to fully describe fluid motion. shear strain, and volumetric
strain.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 → → →
V = ( u , v ) = ( 0.5 + 0.8 x ) i + (1.5 − 0.8 y ) j

Streamlines for the velocity field

of Example 4–6. The stagnation
point is indicated by the red circle
at x = −0.625 m and y = 1.875 m.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Deformation of an initially square parcel of
marked fluid subjected to the velocity field of
Example 4–6 for a time period of 1.5 s. The
stagnation point is indicated by the red circle at
x = −0.625 m and y = 1.875 m, and several
streamlines are plotted.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–5 ■ VORTICITY AND ROTATIONALITY
Another kinematic property of great importance to the analysis of fluid flows is
the vorticity vector, defined mathematically as the curl of the velocity vector
→ → → →
Vorticity vector:  =   V = curl( V )
→
→1→ → 1  → 
Rate of rotation vector:  =   V = curl  V  =
2 2   2
Vorticity is equal to twice the
angular velocity of a fluid particle

The direction
of a vector
cross product
is determined The vorticity vector is equal to
by the right- twice the angular velocity vector
hand rule. of a rotating fluid particle.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 If the vorticity at a point in a flow field is nonzero, the fluid particle that
happens to occupy that point in space is rotating; the flow in that region is
called rotational.
Likewise, if the vorticity in a region of the flow is zero (or negligibly small),
fluid particles there are not rotating; the flow in that region is called
irrotational.
Physically, fluid particles in a rotational region of flow rotate end over end as
they move along in the flow.

The difference between rotational and irrotational flow: fluid

elements in a rotational region of the flow rotate, but those
in an irrotational region of the flow do not.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Vorticity vector in Cartesian coordinates:
→  w v  →  u w  →  v u  →
 = −  i +  −  j+  −  k
 y z   z x   x y 

Two - dimensional flow in Cartesian coordinates:

→  v u  →
 = − k
 x y 

For a two-dimensional flow in the xy-plane, the vorticity vector always points in
the z- or z-direction. In this illustration, the flag-shaped fluid particle rotates in
the counterclockwise direction as it moves in the xy-plane; its vorticity points in
the positive z-direction as shown.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Contour plot of the vorticity field 𝜁z due to flow impinging
on a block, as produced by CFD calculations; only the
upper half is shown due to symmetry. Blue regions
represent large negative vorticity, and red regions
represent large positive vorticity.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Determination of Rotationality in a Two-Dimensional Flow
steady, incompressible, two- → → →

dimensional velocity field: V = ( u, v ) = x i + ( −2 xy − 1) j

2

→  v u  → → →
 =  −  k = ( −2 y − 0 ) k = −2 y k
 x y 
Vorticity

Deformation of an initially
square fluid parcel subjected
to the velocity field of Example
4–8 for a time period of 0.25 s
and 0.50 s. Several
streamlines are also plotted in
the first quadrant. It is clear
that this flow is rotational.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Vorticity vector in cylindrical coordinates:
→
 1 u z u  →  ur u z  → 1   ( ru ) ur  →
 = −  e r +  −  e  +  −  ez
 r  z z r r  r  

Two-dimensional flow in cylindrical coordinates:

→1   ( ru ) ur  →
=  −  k
r  r  

For a two-dimensional flow in

the r-plane, the vorticity
vector always points in the z
(or z) direction. In this
illustration, the flag-shaped
fluid particle rotates in the
clockwise direction as it
moves in the ru-plane; its
vorticity points in the z-
direction as shown.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Comparison of Two Circular Flows
Flow A − solid -body rotation: ur = 0 and u =  r Streamlines and
K velocity profiles for
Flow B − line vortex: ur = 0 and u = (a) flow A, solid-body
r
rotation and (b) flow
Flow A − solid -body rotation:
→
= 
(
1   r
2
) → →
− 0 k = 2 k B, a line vortex. Flow
r  r  A is rotational, but
→ 1  (K)  → flow B is irrotational
Flow B − line vortex: =  − 0 k = 0 everywhere except
r  r 
at the origin.
The (oversized)
fluid elements in
flow B would also
distort as they
move, but in order
to illustrate only
particle rotation,
such distortion is
not shown here.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 (a) © McGraw-Hill Education/Mark Dierker, photographer (b) © DAJ/Getty Images RF

A simple analogy: (a) rotational circular flow is analogous to a roundabout,

while (b) irrotational circular flow is analogous to a Ferris wheel.
As children revolve around a roundabout, they also rotate at the same angular
velocity as that of the ride itself. This is analogous to a rotational flow.
In contrast, children on a Ferris wheel always remain oriented in an upright position
as they trace out their circular path. This is analogous to an irrotational flow.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 V 1
Line sink : ur = and u = 0
2 L r

Streamlines in the
r𝜃-plane for the
case of a line sink.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 4–6 ■ THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM
Two methods of analyzing the
spraying of deodorant from a spray
can:
(a) We follow the fluid as it moves
and deforms. This is the system
approach—no mass crosses the
boundary, and the total mass of the
system remains fixed.
(b) We consider a fixed interior
volume of the can. This is the control
volume approach—mass crosses the
boundary.

The relationship between the time rates of change of an extensive

property for a system and for a control volume is expressed by the
Reynolds transport theorem (RTT).
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Reynolds transport theorem
(RTT) provides a link between the
system approach and the control
volume approach.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 dBsys dBCV
= − Bin + Bout
dt dt
The time rate of change of the
property B of the system is equal to
the time rate of change of B of the
control volume plus the net flux of B
out of the control volume by mass
crossing the control surface.
This equation applies at any instant in
time, where it is assumed that the system
and the control volume occupy the same
space at that particular instant in time.

A moving system (hatched region) and a

fixed control volume (shaded region) in a
diverging portion of a flow field at times t
and t+t. The upper and lower bounds
are streamlines of the flow.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Let B represent any extensive property (such as mass, energy, or
momentum), and let b = B/m represent the corresponding intensive
property. Noting that extensive properties are additive, the extensive
property B of the system at times t and t + Δt is expressed as

Bsys,t = BCV,t ( the system and CV coincide at time t )

Bsys,t +t = BCV,t +t − BI,t +t + BII,t +t
Subtracting the first equation from the second one and dividing by Δt gives
Bsys,t +t − Bsys,t BCV,t +t − BCV,t BI,t +t BII,t +t
= − +
t t t t
Taking the limit as Δt → 0, and using the definition of derivative, we get
dBsys dBCV
= − Bin + Bout (4 - 38)
dt dt
or
dBsys dBCV
= − b1 1V1 A1 + b2  2V2 A2
dt dt
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 since

BI,t +t = b1mI,t +t = b1 1VI,t +t = b1 1V1tA1

BII,t +t = b2 mII,t +t = b2  2VII,t +t = b2 2V2 tA2

and
BI,t +t b1 1V1tA1
Bin = BI = lim = lim = b1 1V1 A1
t →0 t t →0 t
BII,t +t b2  2V2 tA2
Bout = BII = lim = lim = b2  2V2 A2
t →0 t t →0 t

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 BCV =   b dV
CV

The integral of 𝑏𝜌𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 over the

control surface gives the net amount
of the property B flowing out of the
control volume (into the control
volume if it is negative) per unit time.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Outflow and inflow of mass across the
differential area of a control surface.

dBsys d → →
RTT , fixed CV : =  b dV +  bV  n dA
dt dt CV CS

dBsys  → →
Alternate RTT , fixed CV : = ( b) dV + CS bV  n dA
dt CV t
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 → → →
Relative velocity: V r = V − V CS
dBsysd →
=  b dV +  bV r  n dA
→
RTT , nonfixed CV :
dt dt CV CS

dBsys →
=  bVr  n dA
→
RTT , steady flow:
dt CS

Relative velocity crossing a

control surface is found by
vector addition of the
absolute velocity of the fluid
and the negative of the local
velocity of the control
surface.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Reynolds transport
theorem applied to a
control volume
moving at constant
velocity.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 → → →

 bVr  n dA  bavg   Vr  n dA = bavg mr

→
A A

dBsys d
=  b dV +  mr bavg −  mb r avg
dt dt CV out in
for each outlet for each inlet

mr  avgVr = avg Vr ,avg A

Approximate RTT for well -defined inlets and outlets:

dBsys d
=  b dV +  avg bavgVr ,avg A −  avg bavgVr ,avg A
dt dt CV out in
for each outlet for each inlet

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 An example control volume in which there
is one well-defined inlet (1) and two well-
defined outlets (2 and 3). In such cases,
the control surface integral in the RTT can
be more conveniently written in terms of
the average values of fluid properties
crossing each inlet and outlet.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
One-dimensional Leibniz theorem:
d x = b( t ) db da
 G ( x, t ) dx =  dx + G ( b, t ) − G ( a, t )
b

dt x = a ( t ) a dt dt

A more elegant mathematical derivation of the Reynolds transport

theorem is possible through use of the Leibniz theorem.

The Leibniz theorem takes into

account the change of limits a(t)
and b(t) with respect to time, as
well as the unsteady changes of
integrand G(x, t) with time.

The one-dimensional Leibniz

theorem is required when calculating
the time derivative of an integral (with
respect to x) for which the limits of
the integral are functions of time.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 In three dimensions, the Leibniz theorem for a volume integral is
Three-dimensional Leibniz theorem:
d G → →

 G ( x, y, z , t ) dV =  dV +  GVA  n dA ( 4 - 50)
dt V ( t ) V ( t ) t A( t )

where V(t) is a moving and/or deforming volume (a function of time), A(t)

is its surface (boundary), and 𝑉 A is the absolute velocity of this (moving)
surface (Fig. 4–63). Equation 4–50 is valid for any volume, moving and/or
deforming arbitrarily in space and time. For consistency with the previous
analyses, we set integrand G to 𝜌b for application to fluid flow,
Three-dimensional Leibniz theorem applied to fluid flow:
d  → →

 b dV =  (b) dV +  bVA  n dA ( 4 - 51)

dt V ( t ) V ( t ) t A( t )

If we apply the Leibniz theorem to the special case of a material volume

(a system of fixed identity moving with the fluid flow), then 𝑉 𝐴 = 𝑉
everywhere on the material surface since it moves with the fluid. Here 𝑉
is the local fluid velocity, and Eq. 4–51 becomes
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Leibniz theorem applied to a material volume:
d dBsys  →

 b dV = = ( b) dV + A(t ) bV  n dA

→

dt V ( t ) dt V ( t ) t

The three-dimensional Leibniz

theorem is required when calculating
the time derivative of a volume
integral for which the volume itself
moves and/or deforms with time. It
turns out that the three-dimensional
form of the Leibniz theorem can be
used in an alternative derivation of
the Reynolds transport theorem.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 dBsys  → →
General RTT , nonfixed CV : = ( b) dV + CS bV  n dA
dt CV t

The material volume

(system) and control volume
occupy the same space at
time t (the blue shaded
area), but move and deform
differently. At a later time
they are not coincident.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT

While the Reynolds

transport theorem deals with
finite-size control volumes
and the material derivative
deals with infinitesimal fluid
particles, the same
fundamental physical
interpretation applies to
both.
Just as the material
The Reynolds transport theorem for finite derivative can be applied to
volumes (integral analysis) is analogous any fluid property, scalar or
to the material derivative for infinitesimal vector, the Reynolds
volumes (differential analysis). In both transport theorem can be
cases, we transform from a Lagrangian applied to any scalar or
or system viewpoint to an Eulerian or vector property as well.
control volume viewpoint.
©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Summary
• Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions
• Acceleration Field
• Material Derivative
• Flow Patterns and Flow Visualization
• Streamlines and Streamtubes, Pathlines,
• Streaklines, Timelines
• Refractive Flow Visualization Techniques
• Surface Flow Visualization Techniques
• Plots of Fluid Flow Data
• Vector Plots, Contour Plots
• Other Kinematic Descriptions
• Types of Motion or Deformation of Fluid Elements
• Vorticity and Rotationality
• Comparison of Two Circular Flows
• The Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Alternate Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Relationship between Material Derivative and RTT
©McGraw-Hill Education.