Page 12: Essay Types & Purpose

Beyond the basic five-paragraph structure, different essay types serve distinct purposes and require
specific approaches.

I. Expository Essay

Purpose: To inform, explain, clarify, or define a subject. It presents facts, statistics, and examples to
illuminate a topic.

Key Characteristics:

Objective and factual.

Does not argue a point or persuade the reader.

Uses clear, concise language.

Examples: "How-to" essays, descriptive essays, process analysis essays, cause and effect essays,
comparison and contrast essays.

Structure: Typically includes an introduction, body paragraphs that develop specific aspects of the topic,
and a conclusion that summarizes.

II. Argumentative/Persuasive Essay

Purpose: To convince the reader to accept a particular viewpoint or to take a specific action. It presents
a clear thesis and supports it with logical reasoning and evidence, often addressing counterarguments.

Key Characteristics:

Presents a clear, debatable thesis.

Includes evidence, examples, and reasoning.

Acknowledges and refutes counterarguments.

Structure: Introduction (with thesis), body paragraphs (each supporting a point, with evidence),
counterargument/refutation paragraph(s), conclusion.

III. Narrative Essay

Purpose: To tell a story, often a personal one, to convey a lesson, insight, or experience.

Key Characteristics:

Includes a plot, characters, setting, and conflict.

Uses vivid descriptions and sensory details ("show, don't tell").

Often written in the first person.

Has a clear point or theme, even if not explicitly stated.

Structure: Follows a story arc (introduction of characters/setting, rising action, climax, falling action,
resolution), but also includes reflection on the meaning of the experience.

IV. Literary Analysis Essay

Purpose: To examine, interpret, and explain aspects of a literary work (e.g., novel, poem, play). It argues
a specific interpretation supported by textual evidence.

Key Characteristics:
Focuses on elements like theme, character, symbolism, setting, literary devices, or author's style.

Requires close reading and interpretation of the text.

Uses direct quotations from the text as primary evidence.

Avoids simply summarizing the plot.

Structure: Introduction (with thesis about interpretation), body paragraphs (each analyzing a specific
element with textual evidence and explanation), conclusion.

V. Research Essay

Purpose: To present findings from extensive research on a topic, synthesizing information from multiple
sources to support an original argument or analysis.

Key Characteristics:

Requires thorough research and evaluation of sources.

Integrates evidence from various credible sources.

Includes proper citation (MLA, APA, Chicago, etc.).

Often combines elements of expository and argumentative writing.

Structure: Similar to an argumentative or expository essay but with a strong emphasis on integrating and
citing external research.

Page 13: Sentence Variety & Flow

I. Varying Sentence Openings

Avoid starting every sentence the same way (e.g., with the subject).

Start with an Adverb: Quickly, he ran to the store.

Start with a Prepositional Phrase: In the quiet of the morning, the birds began to sing.

Start with a Participial Phrase: Running quickly, the dog chased the ball.

Start with an Infinitive Phrase: To succeed, one must work hard.

Start with a Dependent Clause: Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.

Start with a Conjunction (for effect): And so, the journey began. (Use sparingly).

II. Combining Sentences

Transform choppy simple sentences into more complex and fluid structures.

Using Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS): Combine two independent clauses.

Original: The sun was setting. The sky turned orange.

Combined: The sun was setting, and the sky turned orange.

Using Subordinating Conjunctions: Create complex sentences by joining an independent and a

Combined: Because she studied hard, she passed the exam. (or She passed the exam because she
studied hard.)

Common subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, unless, until,
when, while, where.

Using Relative Pronouns: Introduce adjective clauses to add detail.

Original: The man is my neighbor. He lives next door.

Combined: The man who lives next door is my neighbor.

Common relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that.

Using Semicolons: Join two closely related independent clauses.

Original: The test was difficult. I still felt confident.

Combined: The test was difficult; I still felt confident.

Using Appositives: Rename a noun or pronoun with a noun phrase.

Original: Dr. Lee is a brilliant scientist. She discovered a new planet.

Combined: Dr. Lee, a brilliant scientist, discovered a new planet.

Transitions connect ideas, sentences, and paragraphs, making your writing smooth and logical.

Adding Information: also, in addition, furthermore, moreover, besides, equally important.

Comparing: similarly, likewise, in the same way, just as.

Contrasting: however, nevertheless, on the other hand, in contrast, conversely, although, despite.

Showing Cause & Effect: therefore, consequently, as a result, thus, hence, because, since.

Illustrating/Giving Examples: for example, for instance, specifically, to illustrate, such as.

Summarizing/Concluding: in summary, to conclude, in brief, finally, in short.

Showing Time: first, next, then, meanwhile, subsequently, eventually, previously, currently.

Showing Space: above, below, beside, near, beyond, to the left/right.

IV. Parallel Structure

Using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance.
This adds balance and rhythm.

Incorrect: She likes to swim, to hike, and riding bikes.

Correct: She likes to swim, to hike, and to ride bikes. (Parallel infinitives)

Correct: She likes swimming, hiking, and riding bikes. (Parallel gerunds)
Page 14: Common Writing Pitfalls & How to Avoid Them

Even experienced writers can fall into these traps. Awareness is the first step to improvement.

I. Wordiness & Redundancy

Problem: Using more words than necessary to express an idea.

Solution:

Eliminate unnecessary phrases: "at this point in time" (now), "due to the fact that" (because), "in the
event that" (if).

Remove redundant words: "future plans" (plans), "true facts" (facts), "past history" (history), "personal
opinion" (opinion).

Replace weak verbs with stronger ones: "made a decision" (decided), "gave a presentation" (presented).

Avoid passive voice when active voice is clearer: "The ball was hit by John" (John hit the ball).

II. Vague & Imprecise Language

Problem: Using general words or phrases that lack specific meaning.

Solution:

Use concrete nouns and strong verbs: Instead of "He did something," try "He completed the task" or "He
destroyed the evidence."

Be specific with adjectives and adverbs: Instead of "a nice day," try "a sunny, breezy day." Instead of
"walked quickly," try "walked briskly."

Avoid clichés and jargon: They often lack originality and can be unclear to some readers.
III. Lack of Specificity/Generalizations

Problem: Making broad statements without providing supporting details or examples.

Solution:

Provide evidence: Back up claims with facts, statistics, examples, anecdotes, or expert opinions.

Use descriptive details: Paint a picture for the reader.

Show, don't tell: Instead of saying a character is "brave," describe their actions that demonstrate
bravery.

IV. Inconsistent Point of View

Problem: Shifting between first person (I, we), second person (you), and third person (he, she, it, they)
within a single piece of writing.

Solution: Choose a consistent point of view and stick to it.

First Person: For personal essays, memoirs.

Second Person: For instructions, direct address (use sparingly in academic writing).

Third Person: Most common for academic essays, reports, objective writing.

V. Overuse of Qualifiers

Problem: Using too many words that dilute the strength of a statement (e.g., very, really, quite,
somewhat, rather, almost, perhaps, maybe, seems to, tends to).

Solution:
Be confident in your assertions: If you are sure, state it directly.

Choose stronger words: Instead of "very happy," use "ecstatic." Instead of "seems to suggest," use
"suggests."

Use qualifiers only when necessary to indicate genuine uncertainty or nuance.

VI. Nominalization (Turning Verbs into Nouns)

Problem: Converting verbs into nouns, often making sentences longer and less direct.

Solution: Use the verb form instead of the noun form.

Nominalization: "The implementation of the plan was successful."

Better: "They implemented the plan successfully."

Nominalization: "We made a decision to proceed."

Better: "We decided to proceed."

Page 15: Understanding Literary Periods & Movements

A brief overview of major literary periods and their defining characteristics helps contextualize and
analyze texts.

I. Old English (c. 450-1066)

Characteristics: Oral tradition, heroic poetry, Christian influence, Germanic roots.

Key Works/Authors: Beowulf, "The Wanderer," "The Seafarer."

Characteristics: Norman Conquest's influence (French vocabulary), rise of chivalry, romance, allegories.

Key Works/Authors: Geoffrey Chaucer (The Canterbury Tales), Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.

III. The Renaissance (c. 1500-1660)

Characteristics: Humanism, classical revival, exploration, emphasis on individual potential, drama,

Key Works/Authors: William Shakespeare (plays, sonnets), Christopher Marlowe (plays), Edmund
Spenser (The Faerie Queene), John Milton (Paradise Lost).

IV. The Neoclassical Period / The Age of Reason (c. 1660-1785)

Characteristics: Emphasis on reason, order, logic, satire, wit, classical forms, public discourse,
didacticism.

Key Works/Authors: John Dryden, Alexander Pope (The Rape of the Lock), Jonathan Swift (Gulliver's
Travels), Daniel Defoe (Robinson Crusoe), Samuel Johnson.

V. Romanticism (c. 1785-1832)

Characteristics: Emphasis on emotion, imagination, individualism, nature, the sublime, the supernatural,
rebellion against reason.

Key Works/Authors: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Lyrical Ballads), Lord Byron, Percy
Bysshe Shelley, John Keats (poets); Mary Shelley (Frankenstein), Jane Austen (novels).

VI. Victorian Period (c. 1832-1901)

Characteristics: Industrial Revolution, social reform, realism, moral earnestness, class issues, growth of
the novel, exploration of doubt and faith.
Key Works/Authors: Charles Dickens, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy (novelists); Alfred, Lord Tennyson,
Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning (poets).

VII. Modernism (c. 1900-1945)

Characteristics: Break from tradition, experimentation with form and narrative, stream of consciousness,
disillusionment, impact of World Wars, fragmentation.

Key Works/Authors: T.S. Eliot (The Waste Land), Virginia Woolf (Mrs. Dalloway), James Joyce (Ulysses),
F. Scott Fitzgerald (The Great Gatsby), Ernest Hemingway.

VIII. Postmodernism (c. 1945-Present)

Characteristics: Skepticism towards grand narratives, irony, pastiche, intertextuality, metafiction,

Key Works/Authors: Samuel Beckett (Waiting for Godot), Kurt Vonnegut (Slaughterhouse-Five), Gabriel
García Márquez (One Hundred Years of Solitude), Toni Morrison (Beloved).

Page 16: Test-Taking Strategies for English Exams

Performing well on English exams requires not just knowledge but also effective test-taking skills.

I. General Preparation

Understand the Format: Know what types of questions will be on the exam (multiple choice, essay, short
answer, grammar identification, literary analysis).

Review Notes & Materials: Go over your class notes, assigned readings, and any study guides.

Practice: Work through practice questions, especially for grammar, vocabulary, and essay prompts.

Manage Your Time: Allocate study time effectively across different topics.

Get Rest & Eat Well: A well-rested mind performs better.

Read the Question Carefully: Understand exactly what is being asked. Look for keywords like "not,"
"except," "always," "never."

Read All Answer Choices: Don't pick the first one that looks correct. There might be a better answer.

Eliminate Obvious Wrong Answers: Narrow down the choices.

Look for Distractors: Be aware of answers that sound plausible but are incorrect.

Context is Key: For vocabulary questions, consider how the word is used in the sentence.

Don't Overthink: Trust your initial instinct if you're well-prepared.

III. During the Exam - Essay Questions

Deconstruct the Prompt:

Identify Keywords: What is the core topic? What are the specific instructions (e.g., "analyze," "compare,"
"contrast," "evaluate," "discuss")?

Determine Scope: What are the boundaries of your response?

Brainstorm: Quickly jot down ideas, evidence, and examples.

Outline Your Essay: Even a brief outline (thesis, main points for each paragraph, key evidence) will save
time and ensure coherence.

Craft a Strong Thesis Statement: This is the backbone of your essay. Make it clear, specific, and arguable.
Manage Your Time:

Allocate time for planning, writing, and proofreading.

Don't spend too long on the introduction.

Ensure each body paragraph has a clear topic sentence, supporting evidence, and analysis.

Use Evidence Effectively:

Integrate quotes or specific textual references (if applicable) seamlessly.

Always explain how your evidence supports your point. Don't just drop quotes.

Maintain Clarity & Coherence:

Use transition words and phrases.

Write in clear, concise sentences.

Ensure your paragraphs are unified and well-developed.

Proofread: After writing, quickly check for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and clarity errors. Even a
quick read-through can catch significant mistakes.

IV. During the Exam - Short Answer Questions

Read Carefully: Understand the specific question.

Be Direct & Concise: Answer the question directly without unnecessary elaboration.
Support with Evidence: If required, provide brief, relevant examples or details.

Pay Attention to Word Limits: If there's a limit, adhere to it.

V. General Exam Tips

Read Instructions Thoroughly: Don't lose points by misunderstanding directions.

Scan the Entire Exam: Get a sense of the length and types of questions before you begin.

Prioritize: Start with questions you feel most confident about to build momentum.

Stay Calm: If you feel overwhelmed, take a deep breath and refocus.

Review Your Answers: If time permits, go back and check your work.