Definition-Applied Entomology

 Economic entomology is the study of insects

that are variously related to the welfare of
mankind.
 A study of those insects which are variously
related to the welfare of mankind (Positively
or negatively) is referred as Applied
Entomology and is almost need to know
about various management methods to
curtail the activity of injurious insects and to
encourage the actions of beneficial insects.

Relationship of insects to man

 Insects form a major category comprising

about 2/3 of animal kingdom; affect variously
the wellbeing of man. Man gets benefits
from insects in many ways; without them,
human society could not exist in its present
form.e.g.
 Without pollinating services of bees and
other insect, we would have few vegetables,
few fruits, no coffee, no tobacco and few
flowers.
 Insects provide us honey, beeswax, silk and
many other useful products.
 Many insects’ species are parasites and
predators and keep the crop pests under
check.
 Many of them control weeds.
 Many of them act as scavengers and make
the world little cleaner.
  Insects are the sole or major item of food
for many birds, fish and other animals
(including man in some part of the world).
 Some species have used in the treatment of
certain diseases, in heredity, evolution,
sociology etc.,
 Insects have aesthetic value. Study of
insects is a hobby for some people.
 On the other hand, many insects are
abnoxious or destructive.
 They attack various growing plants, feed on
them, injure them and kill them or
introduce disease into them.
 They attack man’s possessions-home,
clothing; foodgrains and destroy them or
contaminate them.
 They attack man and animals cause
annoyance because of their presence,
odours, bites or stings and many are
vectors of disease of man and animals.

Economics classification of insects

 Based on their relation to man, insects may

be classified into two general groups,
beneficial and injurious.
 Some insects may be considered natural
because man does not feel their effects.

Beneficial Insects: Commercial products derived

from insects
A. Honey
  Honey is used extensively as food and in the
manufacture of many products.
B. Beeswax

 Bees wax is used extensively by industry in

making candles, sealing wax, polishes and
certain type of inks, models, dental
impressions, cosmetics and other products.
C. Silk

 The silk industry is an ancient one. Several

types of silkworms are utilized for
production of commercial silk, but the most
important is Bombyx mori (Mulberry
silkworm).
D.Shellac

 It is produced from the secretions of the lac

insects Laccifer lacca, a type of scale insect
occurring on palas, Ber, kusum banyan, etc.
These insects form encrustations of 6 to 13
mm thick on the twing of the host plant.
These are collected, ground and processed
to get shellac.
E. Dyes and other materials

 Several insects have been used in the

manufacture of dyes. The cochineal insect,
Dactylopius coccus, a scale insect somewhat
similar to mealy bugs, is used for the
production of cochineal dyes. These insects
feed on Opuntia cacti (prickly pear). The dye
obtained from these insects is crimson in
colour and is produce from the dried bodies
of insects. Dyes have also been made from
 other types of scale insects and from certain
cynipid galls.
F. Insects as medicine

 Certain insects have a real medicinal value.

Allantoin is a substance isolated from
secretions of fly maggots and it has
properties of healing deep wounds.
Cantharidin is a substance found in the
blister beetle, Lytta vesicatoria and is useful
internally treating certain urinary diseases
and externally as a vesieeant and counter –
irritant. ‘Specific Medicine Apis’ is extracted
from honeybees by diagnosing the excited
bees in alcohol, and is used against certain
disease like urinary irritation, diphtheria etc.
The bee venom cures rheumatism and
arthritis and is available for hypodermic
injection.
G. Use of insect galls

 The galls contain certain valuable products.

Some of the galls are of medicinal value: the
Aleppo gall of oak has astringent and tonic
properties and has been used for about 25
centuries in Europe and West Asian
Countries. Other insect galls contain dyes
and give inks of permanent nature. The
Aleppo gall is used for dyeing wool and hair
and ink from it had been used for writing
important records in Manasteries in Western
Countries.
Other useful insects
1. Insects and pollination
  The majority of higher plants are cross-
pollinated. They depend on wind and insects
for pollination. While wind pollination may
be a chance, insect aided pollination is
somewhat a sure proposition. Wind
pollinated crop produces large quantities of
dry pollen while the insect pollinated crop
produces less pollen, which is usually sticky
and adheres to the bodies of insects that
visit for the flower. Some species of plants
depend solely on a single of species of insect
or type of insect for pollination e.g.a.
Smyrnafig pollination by fig wasp.b.
Rosaceous plants (apple, pear, cherry,
strawberry) chiefly depend on honeybees.
Many orchard fruits are mainly insect
pollinated. Most important insect pollinator
is honeybee. The value of pollinating insects
to man is enormous. Every time the bees
collect Rs. 100 worth of honey, they make
Rs.2000 worth of seeds and fruits by
pollinating the follows.
2. Entomophagous insects

 The check (control) exerted upon insect

pests by entomolophagous (or insect eating
animals) insect is very important factor in
keeping down the population of pest species.
A classical example of successful control of
an insect pest by a predator is the cottony
cushion scale, Icerya purchase, a serious
pest of orchard in California, by a lady bird
beetle (Vedalia beetle) Rodolia cardinals
introduced from Australia. In less than 2
years the scale insect was completely
 controlled. There are several parasitoids and
predators, which check the pest population.
3. Insect as weed killers

 Many insects feed and destroy noxious weed

plant, e.g.1. Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) was
introduced into Australia and by 1925 had
spread over 25mil acres. In 1925, the larvae
of moth, Cactobalastis cactorum were
introduced into Australia from Argentina.
Now it is almost eradicated with about just
1% of the area it occupied in
1925.2. Hypericum perforatum L., Klamathe
weed or goat weed was introduced into
California in 1900 and by 1940 spread over 2
1/2 mil acres. Chrysomelid, Chrysolina
quadringemina proved effective and now it is
a minor problem.
4. Insects as scavengers

 Insect scavengers are those that feed on

decomposing plants or animals or dung.
They convert these materials into simpler
substances, which are returned to the soil
and are available to plants. They also help to
remove the unhealthful materials from man’s
surroundings.
 Wood boring beetles, termites, carpenter
ants and other wood feeders convert fallen
trees and logs to soil.
 Dung beetles (Scarabaeidae) and dungflies
enhance the decomposition of dung.
 Carrion-feeding insects (blowflies), skin
beetles (Dermestids) are helpful in removal
of carrion from landscape.
5. Insects improve soil fertility
a. Soil enriched by the excretions and dead bodies of
insects.
b. Soil insects improve the physical properties of soil and
add its organic content eg. Spring tails, ants, mole
crickets, cicadas (nymphs), termites, beetles, flies etc.
6. Insects as food of man and animals

 Many animals utilize insects as food. Man

himself is sometimes insectivorous.
 Many fresh water fish feed on mayflies,
stoneflies, caddish flies, mosquito larvae,
various aquatic beetles etc.
 Birds that feed largely or entirely upon
insects have practical value as predators of
insect pests. Eg. Gulls (aquatic bird)
checked a cricket outbreak in Utah. Other
vertebrates’ are toads, frogs; lizards, bats
etc.
 Man in many parts of the world utilizes
insects as food. Grasshoppers, locusts,
crickets, cicadas, large ants, eggs of some
large water bugs, grubs of cockochafer
beeltes, caterpillars of some Saturnid
moths, and larvae and pupae of bees and
wasps are eaten by man in different parts of
the world. Termites are consumed in some
parts of out country.
7. The use of insects in scientific research

 The fruit flies, Drosophila spp. Have been

extensively used in genetic studies.
 These insects have 1. Short life cycle. 2.
Large chromosomes – salivary chromosomes.
3. Great number of easily recognizable
 hereditary variations and 4. Drosophila
sp can be easily reared in large numberat
low cost.
 Insect have been used as experimental
animal in studies of behavior. Studies on
social insects have provided much
interesting and valuable information on
social organization and behavior.
8. The aesthetic value of insects

 For many people, study of insect provides a

stimulating hobby as the study of birds,
flowers etc. Artists, jewelers and designers
have utilized the beauty of insects for
patterns. Some of the butterflies, moths and
beetles have provided basic patterns in many
types of art.
Harmful insects

 Most types of plants are attacked and

injured by insects. The injury is caused by
feeding or ovipositing on the plant or serving
as vectors of plant disease resulting in yield
loss or complete loss of the plant.
1. Injury by feeding

 Phytophagous insects cause damage

resulting in defoliation (eg. Leaf eating
caterpillars), desapping (sucking pests
e.g.aphids, thrips, leaf and planthoppers)
etc.
 Injury by oviposition: e.g.Periodical cicadas
cause wilting of twings when the eggs are
aid. Cowbug on many plants.
  Injury by disease transmission:More than
200 plant diseases are transmitted by
insects. e.g. Bhendi yellow vein clearing
transmitted by whitefly.
2. Insects attacking stored products

 Many insects damage stored produce by

feeding, tunneling or contaminating them.eg.
rice moth, potato tuber moth, red flour
beetle. Pests of wood: All sorts of wooden
structures, such as buildings, furniture,
fence; insects damage posts etc. e.g.
termites, Pests of fabrics: Fabric pests such
as dermestid beetles and clothes moths
cause damage to furs, clothing, blankets,
rugs etc.
3. Insects attacking man and animals

 Insects attack man and animals directly in

four ways.
 Annoyance: Bot flies and face flies cause
great annoyance to man and cattle.
 Venomous insects: Many insects inject
toxins into man and animals that cause
irritation, swelling, pain and sometimes
paralysis. e.g. Bees, Wasps
 Parasitic insects: Many parasitic insects
live in or on the bodies of man or animals
causing irritation, tissue damage or even
death. e.g. Chewing lice of birds, sucking
lice on mammals.
 Disease transmission: Many insects borne
disease have a high mortality rate in man
and animals. Insects transmit diseases in
two. A) As mechanical vectors (houseflies,
 blowflies-typhoid, cholera etc). B) As
biological vectors (Anopheles – Malaria).
Symptoms and types of damage caused by insect
and mite pests

 Any insect that feeds on any part of a plant is

termed as a pest. The types and symptoms of
damage caused to the plants vary according
to the feeding habit and mouthparts of
insects. The damages caused by the insects
are grouped into direct and indirect
damages.
Direct damages

 Injuries caused by biting and chewing

insects, piercing and sucking insects,
internal feeders, subterranean root feeders
and storage pests fall under this category.
Damages caused by insects having biting and
chewing type of mouth parts:

 Defoliation (eg) Hairy Caterpillars

 Scrapping and skeleonization (eg)Epilachna
in brinjal
 Feeding on terminal buds (eg) Brinjal shoot
borer
 Not ching the edges of leaves (eg) Ash
weevil on brinjal
 Shot holes on leaves (eg) Flea beele, Tortoise
beetle
 Windowing (eg) Spodoptera in Banana
 Irregular holes on leaves (eg) Grass hopper
 Leaf rolling, twisting and webbing (eg)
Mangoleaf twisting weevil
  Feeding on flowers and buds (eg) Moringa
bud worm
 Flower webbing (eg) Jasmine webber
 Partial feeding on grain or seeds (Eg.) lab
lab pod borer
Damage caused by insects having piercing and
sucking type of mouth parts:

 Chlorosis (eg.) aphids on Groundnut

 Speckling (eg.) Banana tingids
 Silvering (eg.) Onion thrips
 Mosaic (eg.) Bhendi aphids
 Hopper burn (eg.) Bhendi jassid
 Crinkling and curling of leaves (eg.) chilli
thrips
 Upward and downward curling of leaves
(eg.) Chilli aphids
 Downward cupping of leaves (eg.) Brinjal
aphids
 Elongation of petioles (Eg) Chilli yellow mite
 Distortion and clustering of leaves (eg.)
Mealy bug on coconut
 Tissue proliferation (Eg.) Mealy bug on
Hibicus
 Shoot drying (eg.) Tea mosquito bug on
neem
 Flower and fruit drop/shedding (eg) Mango
hoppers
 Scab/corky/ outgrowth (eg.) Tea mosquito
bug on guava
 Fruit ratting and discolouration (eg.) Citrus
Fruit sucking moth
 Pod/grain shriveling (eg) Pod bug on lablab
Damage caused by internal feeders
  Stem, shoot, boll, fruit and capsule boring
(eg.) Pomegranate fruit borer
 Leaf mining (eg.) Citrus leaf miner
 Gall formation (eg.) Mango leaf gall
 Frothing and gummosis (eg) Spittle bug on
jack
 Oozing out of sap (eg.) Coconut red palm
weevil
 Flower discolouration (eg.) Jasmine bud
worm
Damages caused by subterranean pests

 Removal of sown seeds (eg) Ants on

amaranthus
 Wilting of plants due to feeding on roots (eg)
Root grub on cauliflower
 Tunnelling in vines and tubers (eg) Potato
tuber moth
 Boring, tunneling and emptying of pods (eg)
Sweet potato weevil
 Chlorosis and devitalisation (eg) Root mealy
bug
Damage caused by stored product pests

 Internal feeding of grains (eg) Pulse beetle

 Surface scrapping of grains (eg)
Corcyramoth
 Caking of flour (eg) Red flour beetle
Indirect damages

 Oviposition injury (eg) Cicada, Cowbug

 Making harvest difficult (eg) Red antson
mango, lablab Aphids
 Contamination and loss of quality (eg) Brinjal
fruit borer
  Making nests or cases out of plant parts (eg)
Leaf cutter bee
 Insect carriers (eg) Homopterans (Mealy
bug) carried by ants
 Transmission of plant disease by insects
Virus – (1) Whitefly (eg) Bhendi Vein clearing
(2) Thrips (eg) Tomato spotted with (3) MLO
(Microplasma like Organisms) Leaf hoppers
(eg) Brinjal little leaf.

Field of entomology

 The field of entomology may be divided into

2 major aspects.
 Fundamental Entomology or General
Entomology
 Applied Entomology or Economic
Entomology
Fundamental Entomology

 Fundamental Entomology deals with the

basic or academic aspects of the Science of
Entomology.
 It includes morphology, anatomy, physiology
and taxonomy of the insects.
 In this case we study the subject for gaining
knowledge on Entomology irrespective of
whether it is useful or harmful.
Applied Entomology or Economic Entomology

 Applied Entomology or Economic

Entomology deals with the usefulness of the
Science of Entomology for the benefit of
mankind. Applied entomology covers the
study of insects which are either beneficial
or harmful to human beings.
  It deals with the ways in which beneficial
insects like predators, parasitoids,
pollinators or productive insects like honey
bees, silkworm and lac insect can be best
exploited for our welfare.
 Applied entomology also studies the methods
in which harmful insects or pests can be
managed without causing significant damage
or loss to us.
 In fundamental entomology insects are
classified based on their structure into
families and orders etc. in applied
entomology insects can be classified based
on their economic importance i.e., whether
they are useful or harmful.

Assessment of insect population and damages in

horticultural crops

Need

1. To know the extent of pest load and their

damage.
2. To workout economic injury level (EIL) and
economic threshold level (ETL). C) To
estimate yield loss. d) To decide the timing
of control measures in order to avoid
indiscrimate use of insecticide.
3. EIL: Cost of control measures = Loss by
insect
4. ETL: Level at which, control measures to be
taken to avoid the insect population /
damage reaching EIL.
1. Mango

5. Select five trees (one at the center and four

from the corners of the field) and assess the
pest population / damage as follows.

2. Citrus:

6. Select five trees (one at the centre and four

from the corners of the field) and assess the
pest population/damage as follows.

3. Pomegranate

7. Select five trees (one at the centre and four

from the corners of the field) and assess the
pest damage as follows.

4. Brinjal

8. Select 50 plants at random from one acre

leaving the borders, and record the
observations on pest population and/or
damage at weekly interval starting from 7
days after planting (DAT) up to last picking
of the fruits.

5. Bhendi

9. Select 50 plants at random from one acre

leaving the borders, and record the
abservations on pest population and / or
damage at weekly interval starting from 7
days after planting (DAT) up to last picking
of the fruits.
6.Tomato

10. Select 50 plants at random from one acre

leaving the borders, and record the
observations on pest population and/or
damage at weekly interval starting from 7
days after planting (DAT) up to last picking
of the fruits.

7. Rose

11. Select 10 plants at random and assess the

pest population/damage as follows.

8. Jasmine

12. Select five plants (one at the centre and four

from the corners of the field) and assess the
pest population/damage on follows.

Economic classification of insects

 Insects can be classified as follows based on

their economic importance.
This classification us according to TVR Ayyar.
Insects of no economic importance

 There are many insects found in forests, and

agricultural lands which neither cause harm
nor benefit us.
 They are classified under this category.
 Human beings came into existence 1 million
years ago.
  Insects which constitute 70-90% of all
animals present in this world came into
existence 250- 500 million years ago.
Insects of economic importance
A. Injurious insects
a) Pests of cultivated plants (Crop pests)

 Each cultivated plant harbors many insects

pests which feed on them reduce the yield of
the3 crop.
 Field crops and horticultural crops are
attacked by many insect species. (eg) cotton
bollworm, Rice stem bores.
b) Storage pests

 Insects feed on stored products and cause

economic loss. (eg) Rice weevil, Pulse beetle.
c) Pest attacking cattle and domestic animals

 Cattle are affected by pests like Horse fly,

Fleshfly, Flese and Lice. They suck blood and
sometimes eat the flash.
d) House hold and disease carrying insects

 House hold pests include cockroach, ants,

etc. Disease carrying insects are mosquitoes,
houseflies, bed bugs, fleas etc.
B. Beneficial insects
a) Productive insects
i) Silk worm

 The silk worm filament secreted from the

salivary gland of the larva helps us in
producing silk.
ii) Honey bee

 Provides us with honey and many other

byproducts like bees wax and royal jelly.
iii) Lac insects

 The secretion from the body of these scale

insects is called lac. Useful in making
vanishes and polishes.
iv) Insects useful as drugs, food, ornaments etc,
(a) As medicine eg. Sting of honey bees- remedy for
rhenmatism and arthritis

 Eanthoridin - extracted from blister beetle –

useful as hair tonic.
(b) As food - for animals and human being.

 For animals- aquatic insects used as fish

food.
 Grass hoppers, termites, pupae of moths.
 They have been used as food by human
beings in different parts of the world.
(c) Ornaments, entertainers

 Artists and designers copy colour of

butterflies.
 Beetles worm as necklace.
 Insect collection is a hobby
(d) Scientific research

 Drosophila and mosquitoes are useful in

genetic and toxicological studies
respectively.
(II) Helpful insects
(i) Parasitoids

 These are small insects which feed and live

on harmful insects by completing their life
cycle in a host and kill the host insect.
 Eg.Egg, larval and pupal parasitoids
(ii) Predators

 These are large insects which capture and

devour harmful insects.
 Eg.Coccinellids, preying mantids.
(iii)Pollinators

 Many cross pollinated plants depend on

insects for pollination and fruit set.
 Eg. Honey bees, aid in pollination of
sunflower crop.
(iv)Weed killers

 Insects which feed on weeds kill them

thereby killers.
 Eg. Parthenium beetle eats on parthenium.
Cochineal insect feeds in Opuntia dillenii.
(v) Soil builders

 Soil insects such as ants, beetles, larval of

cutworms, crickets, collum bola, make
tunnels in soil and facilitate aeration in soil.
They become good manure after death and
enrish soil.
(vi) Scavengers

 Insects which feed on dead and decaying

matter are called scavengers. They
 important for maintaining hygine in the
surroundings.
 Eg. Carrion bettles, Rove beetles feed on
dead animals and plants.
d) House hold and disease carrying insects

 Pests which cause damage to belongings of

human being like furniture, wool, paper etc.
Eg. Cockroaches, furniture beetle, sliver fish
etc.
 Pests which cause painful bite, inject
venoms. Eg. Wasps, bees sting us. Hairy
caterpillar nettling hairs are poisonous.
Mosquitoes, bugs bite, piece and suck blood
from us.
 Disease causing Mosquito- Malaria,
Filariasis ,dengue fever. Housefly- Typhoid,
Cholera, Leprosy, Anthrax

Insect ecology

Websters dictionary meaning

 Totality (or) Pattern of relation between

organisms and their environment. A German
biologist ‘Ernst Haeckel (1869) proposed the
term ‘ecology’. This deals with total
relationship of an animal to both its organic
and inorganic environment.
Insect ecology

 Science of insect in relation to their

environment.
Habitat ecology

 Study of habitat and its effects on the

organism. Autoecology: Study of an
individual, its behaviour and the influence of
environment on its life cycle.
Syn ecology

 Study of a group of organism which are

found as a unit. It is also called Community
ecology.
Ecosystem

 A self containing habitat in which living

organisms and the physiochemical
environment interact in an exchange of
energe and matter to form a continuing
cycle.
Biotic balance

 It is the condition of equilibrium in the

population of animals. It is not a static one
but oscillating. The population level is
determined by I. Reproductive potential and
II. Environmental Resistance.
I. Reproductive potential

 The ability of an insect to multiply in a given

time in the absence of environmental
resistance. Factors that affect the
reproductive potential are a) initial
population by fecundity. c) Length of
developmental period and d) sex ratio.
II. Environmental resistance
  The sum total of all factors in on
environment that tends to reduce the rate of
multiplication. Factors that affect the
environmental resistance are a) Physical b)
nutritional, c) host plant and d) biotic.
a) Physical factors
i) Temperature – influence the rate of development
and level of distribution – zone of effective
temperature – aestivation – hibernation.
ii) Light – Certain life stages respond to light –
photoperiodicity,
iii) Moisture – influence distribution and
development,
iv) Climate –average physical conditions in a
locality – influence rate and development.
b) Nutritional factors
i) Availability of food regulate population
abundance.
ii) kind and quality of food influence life cycle.
iii) Host selection – monophagous, polyphagous –
chemical factors in host selection.
c) Host Plant associated factors – rapidity of growth,
foliage characteristics, taste factors etc.
d) Biotic factors
i) Competition – within and among different species
(Inter and intra specific).
ii) Parasites and predators parasites like fungi,
bacteria, protozoo, nematodes and various
arthropods – predators like birds, mammals,
reptiles, amphibions and insects check the
population.
iii) Human population trend – Rapidly growing
world population – growth rate projected world
population – Indian population – resources.
Biotic factor

 Biotic factors of the environment tend to

modify the activities of insects. Individuals
within a population enter into varied
interactions with each other besides
interacting with the adjacent population.
These interactions may be positive (or)
negative according to whether it produces
beneficial or harmful effects on the
interacting individual (or) population. In the
positive interaction, the individuals live
adjusting with each other (Mutusalim,
commensalisms). The negative interaction
leads to competition, parasitism and
predation.
i. Competition

 The active demand by two or more

individuals of the same species of
population. (Intra specific competition) (or)
members of two or more species at the same
trophic level (Inter specific competition) for
a common resource (or) requirement that is
actually limiting. Both intra specific and
inter specific competition contribute to the
density and diversity of a population.
a) Inter specific competition

 Two competing species can’t exist in a same

place for a long time. Inter specific
competiton leads to competitive
displacement. (eg) Mediterranian fruit fly in
Hawai in 1940. The
accidental introduction of oriental fruit fly
 replaces the Mediterranian fruit fly.
Competitive displacement between Nosema
apis and mite Acarapis woodi in Honeybee.
Tribolium(red flour beetle) eliminate
oryzalphilus (saw toothed beetle) both are
grown in same flour.
b) Intra specific competition

 If the common resource is abundance, no

problem in the individual and if it is limited
competition occurs and superior abilities will
survive in the end. (eg) a)Aphid – dispersal.
b) Cannibolsim in American bollworm,
Helicoverpa armigera.
ii. Parasites and predator

 Interaction between predator and prey are

different from the parasite and host
relationship in that the predator and prey
maintain an equilibrium more dynamic than
the parasite and its hosts. The parasites in
general, when the rate of parasitization is
high cause death and resultant elimination of
the hosts. But a predator never eliminates
the prey completely. Parasite includes fungi,
bacteria, protozoa nematodes and other
arthropods. Predator includes insect
predators, birds, mammals, reptiles,
amphibians that check the population.
Abiotic factor (physical factors)
a) Temperature

 It has got a profound influence on the life

cycle of insects. a) Temperature influences
on the rate of development (or) number of
 generation (eg) Temperature is an important
factor in the life of the bed bugs. The
number of generations passed through
during a year is directly dependent on the
ambient temperature. As many as twelve
generations occurs in the tropical and two in
cold climate. For the sugarcane stem borer,
Chilo infuscatellus, the larval period extend
over 16-24 days in summer and 141-171 days
in winter. b) Temperature influences the
fecundity and rate of egg production. (eg)
Cabbage Diamond backmoth lay more
number of eggs at 18° C (larval temperature)
than 22°C. c) Temperature influences the
rate of migration and dispersal. (eg) In
Desert lowest (Schistioceva gregaria),
migration of swarms occurs at 17°C to 20°C.
 Zone of effective temperature. Normal life
activities go on smoothly at a specific
temperature (or) at a specific range of
temperature. This is called the optimum
temperature. The rate of chemical reaction
within tissues is modified by temperature.
Metabolic processes are influenced by
temperature and increase with it upto a
maximum and suddly decline at the upper
lethal temperature. The extreme
temperature alters the insect and the insect
entes into diapauses (resting stage). If the
resting stage is due to low temperature, than
it is called hibernation. If the resting stage is
due to high temperature, it is called
Aestivation.
b) Light
  The radiant energy, termed light is one of
the most important ecological factors
affecting many aspects of the insect life.
Several vital phenomena of the insect
biology (eg) feeding, growth, development,
diapuse, survival and ethology are
profoundly influenced by light.
Photoperiodism: Daily and seasonal duration
of light has profound effect on the
production of sexual form in Aphids. Short
day length is influencing sexual forms, while
long day length is influencing asexual forms
(parthenogenetic) viviparous reproduction.
Photoperiods also influence growth,
metabolism and daily rhythm of activity
(feeding, flying, mating and oviposition). The
light influences on the inception and
completion of diapauses.
 Daily rhythm of activity: It has been
observed that many species of insects are
not equally active throughout the 24 hr of
the day. Some are primarily nocturnal (dark
active); other are diurnal (day active) and
still other which are referred to as
crepuscular (dusk active) are active mainly
at dawn and dusk.
c. Relative humidity

 Termites are a group of insects for which

atmospheric humidity is an important
ecological factor. They usually move towards
a zone of high humidity, when subjected to
the slightest desiccation. Humidity is high,
rice brown plant hopper multiplication is
more. Certain entomogenous fungi requires
 very high humidity for multiplication and
spread (eg) white halo fungus, Verticillum
lecanii attack on coffee green bug.
d. Rainfall

 For normal emergence of adults rainfall is a

must (also it is essential for pupation) for
insect like cutworms, Helicoverpa armigiera,
Spodoptetra litura. If it is excess, grubs like
white grubs will come out of environment
where they are subject to predation. Excess
rainfall control aphids and Diamond
backmoth.
e. Wind

 It helps more in the dispersal of insect

species besides interfering with their normal
feeding, mating and multiplication. (eg) with
the help of wind current Helicorerpa adult
moth fly upto 90 km. Another examples is
the spreads of eriophyid mite in coconut.
f.Soil type

 Type of soil play a role in multiplication of

insects. (eg) wireworms multiply even in
heavy clay soil (poor drainage) with lesser
drainage, Whereas white grub multiply very
well in loose sandy soil (light) with better
drainage.
g)Water

 Standing (stagnated) water helps in

multiplication of insect like mosquitoes.
Running streams are preferred by black flies
and caddish flies.
h) Tropographic factors

 Besides mountain, large areas under water

viz., sea etc also act as physical for the
spread of the insect.
Ecology related terminology
i. Habitat is the place where the organism lives.
ii. Population denotes groups of individuals of any
kind of organism. Insect populations are groups of
individuals set in a frame that is limited in time and
space.
iii. Community in the ecological sense includes all
the populations of a given area. Community can
also be defined as interacting ‘web’ of populations
where individuals in a population feed upon and in
turn are fed upon by individuals of other
populations (Fig. 1)
iv. Ecosystem

 • Ecosystem or ecological system is the

functioning together of community and the
nonliving environment where continuous
exchange of matter and energy takes place.
 • In other words ecosystem is the
assemblage of elements, communities and
physical environment.
 • Ecosystem is the ultimate unit for study in
ecology as they are composed of living
organisms and the nonliving environment.
 Examples of natural ecosystem: Ponds, lakes
and forests ecosystem (Fig.2)
v. Biosphere is the term used for all of the earth’s
ecosystems functioning together on the global scale.
Living Genes Cells Organs Organisms Populations
Communities components
 +
Nonliving components Matter Energy Biosphere
= Biosystems
 Gene Cell Organ Organism Population
Ecosystem
 Figure 3. Flow of matter and energy in an
ecosystem
Agro ecosystem is largely created and maintained to
satisfy human wants or needs. It is not a natural
ecosystem but is man made. Agro ecosystem is the basic
unit of pest management - a branch of applied ecology.
A typical agroecosysyetm (Fig. 4) is composed of
i. more or less uniform crop-plant population
ii. Weed communities
iii. Animal communities (including insects)
iv. Microbiotic communities
v. and the physical environment the react with.
Unique features of Agroecosystem

 Dominated by plants selected by man

 No species diversity and no intraspecific
diversity. Genetically uniform
 Phenological events like germination,
flowering occur simultaneously
 Lack of temporal continuity - due to various
agricultural operations carried out by man
like ploughing, weeding, pesticide
application etc.
 Plants contain imported genetic material
 Nutrients are added

Factors that determine insect abundance

i) Biotic potential
  It is the innate ability of the population to
reproduce and survive. It depends on the
inherited properties of the insect i.e.,
reproduction and survival. Potential
natality is the reproductive rate of the
individuals in an optimal environment.
Survival rate depends on the feeding habits
and protection to young ones (Eg.
Viviparity). Generally insects with high
reproductive rate tend to have low survival
rate and vice versa.
 Insect pests with high reproductive rate and
low survival rate are called r
strategists named after the statistical
parameter r, the symbol for growth rate
coefficient. Such pests succeed because of
sheer numbers. Eg. Aphids.
 K strategists reproduce slowly but effectively
compete for environmental resources and so
their survival rate is high. (K letter denotes
flattened portion of growth curve) Eg.
Codling moth of apple.
 Birth rate or natality is measured as the total
number of eggs laid per female per unit
time. Factors determining birth rate are
fecundity, fertility and sex ratio.
 Death rate or mortality denotes the number
of insects dying over a period.
Example of High reproductive rate

 A single moth of Earias vitella (Bhendi fruit

borer) lays about 200 eggs per female. Life
cycle is completed in 1 month
After 1 month 200 adults
100 male + 100 female
 100 x 200 = 20,000 eggs
After 2nd month 10,000 x 200 = 2,000,000 eggs
After 1 year 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
adults
(i.e., 2 followed by 24 zeroes)
 If a single moth can produce this much, they
will cover 24.32 above earth surface in 1
year. But in reality only a fraction of progeny
completes life cycle due to environmental
resistance.
Environmental resistance is the physical and
biological restraints that prevent a species from
realizing its Biotic potential. Environmental resistance
may be of 2 types.
1. Biotic factors - includes
a) Competition (interspecific and intraspecific)
b) Natural enemies (predators, parasites and
pathogens)
2. Abiotic factors
a) Temperature
b) Light
c) Moisture and water
d) Substratum and medium
Bioresources in ecosystem

 Ecosystem comprises of biological

communities and non-living environment.
Eg. Agro ecosystem, pond ecosystem, etc.).
Bioresources refers to the biodiversity of
various organisms living in that
ecosystem.
 Eg. The different pests of cotton, its natural
enemies, hyperparasitoids, microbes, etc.
are referred to the bioresources in cotton
ecosystem.
  The ecosystem should have more
bioresources. Such ecosystem will be more
stable. Insecticides will deplete the
bioresources in ecosystem and make it less
stable and prone to pest outbreak.
 Natural control will be high when
bioresources (e.g. Parasitoids and
Predators) are more.
Population dynamics and role of biotic factors
Attributes of a population
i. Density: Population size per unit area
ii. Birth rate (Natality): Rate at which new
individuals are added to the population by
reproduction
iii. Death rate (Mortality): The rate at which
individuals are lost by death.
iv. Dispersal: The rate at which individuals
immigrate into and emigrate out of the population.
v. Dispersion: the way in which individuals are
distributed in space. It may be of 3 types.
a) Random distribution
b) Uniform distribution
c) Clumped distribution
vi. Age distribution: the population of individuals
of different ages in the group.
vii. Genetic characteristics: adaptive ness,
reproductive fitness, persistence.
viii. Population growth form: the way in which
population changes / grows as a result of natality,
mortality, and dispersal.
Population dynamics

 Populations grow in two contrasting ways.

They are
i. J- shaped growth form (Fig. 1a)
ii. S- Shaped or sigmoid growth form (Fig. 1b)
NK
Density
Time
 Fig. 1a. J- Shaped growth form Fig. 1b. S -
Shaped growth form. In the J - shaped
growth form, the population density
increases in exponential or geometric
fashion; for example 2,4,8,16,32 … and so on
until the population runs out of some
resource or encounters some limitation (limit
N, Fig. 1a). Growth then comes to a more or
less abrupt halt and density declines rapidly.
Populations with this kind of growth form
are unstable. Their reproductive rate is high
and survival rate is less and so they are r
strategists. A factor other than density
regulates the population. (Eg. Aphids).
 In the S-shaped growth pattern (Fig. 2) the
rate of increase of density decreases as the
population increases and levels off at an
upper asymptote level K, called the carrying
capacity, or maximum sustainable density.
Their reproductive rate is less and survival
rate is more. So they are K strategists. This
pattern has more stability since the
population regulates itself. (Eg.
Hymenopterans).
 The population growth rate or change is
worked out using the formula,
Nt = N0e(b-d) t - Et + It
Where
Nt = number at the end of a short time period
N0 = number at the beginning of a short time
 period
e = base of natural logarithm = 2.7183
b= birth rate
d= death rate
t= time period
E= emigration
I = immigration
Life table: Life tables are tabular statements showing the number of
insects dying over a period of time and accounting for their deaths.

Categories of pests

1. Regular pests: Occurring more frequently

on a crop having close association with the
crop. (eg) Brinjal shoot and fruit borer.
2. Occasional pests: Occurring infrequently
with no close association with a particular
crop (eg) Snake gourd semilooper.
3. Seasonal pests: Occurring during a
particular part of the year. (eg) Red Hariy
Caterpillar (RHC) in groundnut.
4. Pesistent pests: Occurring on a crop almost
throughout the year (eg) thrips on chillies.
5. Sporadic pests: Occurring in a few isolated
localities (eg) coconut slug caterpillar.
6. Epidemic pests: Occurring in severe form
in a region or locality at a particular season
(eg) RHC in groundnut in Bhavan Taluk.
7. Endemic pests: Occurring regularly and
confined to a particular area or locality (eg)
rice gall midge in Madurai dist.

Causes for outbreak of pests

1. Destruction of forest or bringing forest area

under cultivation – shift to cultivated crops.
 (eg) Hairy caterpillar attack on crop plants
near forest areas.
2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides leads to
destruction of natural enemies, pest
resistance,pest resurgence. (eg) Synthetic
pyrethroids on sucking pests.
3. Intensive cultivation (eg) Diamond backmoth
on cauliflower in plains and extensive
cultivation (eg) monoculture of rice leads to
out break of leaf folder.
4. Introduction of new crops (eg) gurkin crop
leads more fruit fly incidence and improved
strains (eg) many high yielding varieties are
more susceptible to insects.
5. Improved agronomic practices (eg) higher
‘N’, close spacing, weed control etc.
improved crop growth and reduced
competition for food to the insects.
6. Introduction of new pest in a new area (eg)
apple woolly aphid.
7. Accidental introduction of foreign pests (eg)
potato tuber moth, cyst nematode of potato,
spiraling white fly on guava.
8. Large scale storage of food grains (eg)
outbreak of stored product pests, rat
problem.

History

 The term pest management comparatively

new, although the ideas from which it is
derived have been developed over many
decades.
 In the late 19th century, S.A. Forbes of the
University of Illinois suggested an
 ecological approach and combinations of
control measures for insect control.
 The value of monitoring pest population
by sampling was realized by the early 20th
century.
 During the 1940s R.F.Smith developed an
outline of Supervised control in California.
 B.R. Bartlett in 1956 coined the term
integrated control.
 Shortly after word V.M.Stern R.F.Smith,
R.Van den Bosch and K.S.Hagen published
on article on the integrated control concept.
 In 1961, the Australian entomologists,
P.W.Geier and L.R. Clark coined the pharse
Pest Management for programmes in
which control methods fit into the biology of
the pest species.
 Johanson 1978 in his article Principles of
insect control has outlined a brief summary
of the concepts on which pest management
is based. 8) Brader (1979) quoted most
suitable definition.
 “Pest management is a system that, in the
context of the associated environment and
the population dynamics of the pest species,
utilizes all suitable techniques and methods
in on compatible manner as possible and
maintains pest populations of level below
those causing economic injury”.

Aims (or) objectives

1. To reduce the crop damage.

2. To prevent the insect to use the crops as
breeding and feeding site by suitable
technique.
3. To utilize two or more control techniques
together in an integrated fashion.
4. To make maximum use of natural mortality
factors.
5. To apply specific control measures only as
and where necessary.

Pest management strategies

 A pest management strategy is the overall

plan to eliminate a pest problem. The
particular strategy developed depends on
the particular life system of the pest and
crop involved.
 Do nothing: When pest densities are below
the economic threshold, ‘do nothing’ is the
stratergy to follow. Otherwise a net loss
occurs from pest management.
 Reduce pest population number: Usually
employment in a therapeutic manner when
densities actually reach the economic
threshold or in a preventing manner based
on a history of problem.
 Reduce the crop susceptibility to pest
injury. This is most effective and
environmentally desirable strategy. The
tactics involved are HPR (hose plant
resistance) and ecological management.
 Combine reduced population numbers with
reduced crop susceptibility – combination
of objectives of all the above strategies to
produce a pest management programme
 with several tacties. The use of multiple
strategies and tacties is a basic principle in
developing insect pest management
programmes.

Components of pest management

1. Bio-ecology of pests

 Knowledge on the life cycle of the pest gives

not only an idea about the duration and
development of the insect, but also it enables
to identify the weak link in the insect’s
growth to direct the management technology
(S. litura – egg mass and larvae remain
together on the under surface of leaves
which facilities the collection and
destruction of the larvae (or) spray
chemicals with less quantity.
2. Pest Surveillance and Monitoring

 This can be done through light / pheromone

trap / sticky trap, which help the timely
application of pest suppression strategies.
3. Cultural control

 It is concerned with the use of farming or

cultural practices associated with the crop
production to make environment less
favourable for the survival, growth and
reproduction of pest species. It is used for
suppresioning pest population both by direct
effect – killing of the pests or by indirect
effect – by providing condition favourable for
 the natural enemies of pests. This includes
crop rotation, crop refuge destruction,
tillage, time of planting, pruning,
fertilization, water management, sanitation,
trap crops.
4. Growing resistant varieties

 The phenomenon of plant resistance is

inherited quality that enables a plant to
avoid, tolerate or recover from the effects of
oviposition or feeding that would cause
greater damage to other genotypes of the
some species under similar environmental
conditions.
5. Mechanical methods

 This involves use of mechanical force or

manual labour either for destruction or
exclusion of pests.
6. Physical methods

 This method envisages use of physical

factors for eradication of insect pests.
Modification of physical factors in the
environment to minimize or prevent pest
problems is making the environment to
minimize or prevent pest problems is making
the environment unsuitable for the entry and
survival of insect.
7. Biological methods

 Biological control of pest may be defined as

the eradication (or) suppression of insects by
encouragement, artificial introduction or
increase of their natural enemies such as
 parasites, predators and disease causing
organism. De Bach (1964) defined the
biological control as the “the action of
parasite, predators or pathogens in
maintaining another organisms population
density at a lower average than would occur
in their absence”.
8. Chemical methods

 Chemical control includes the use of various

chemicals that bring about control of pest
either by toxic properties that cause death to
the insect or by other effects like changing
the behaviour, imparting sterility, impairing
development (or) causing metabolic
disorders to the insects.
9. Genetic method (or) Sterility methods

 This method envisages the use of sterile

insects to bring down the population of pests
(eg.male sterile technique-Male pupae are
sterilized with cobalt – 60 and released. Here
insects are used against the members of
their own species to reduce population levels
and for this reason, the approach often is
called autocidal control.
10. Regulatory methods
i. Preventing entry and establishment of foreign
plant and animal pest in a country.
ii. Eradicating, containing or suppression pests
already established in a limited area.
11. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

 Refers to an ecological approach in Pest

Management in which all available
 techniques are consolidated in unified
programme, so that pest populations can be
managed in such a manner that economic
damage is avoided and side effects are
minimized.

IPM definition

 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a

system that, in the context of associated
environment and population dynamics of the
pest species, utilizes all suitable techniques
and methods in as compatible a manner as
possible and maintains pest populations at
levels below those causing economic injury.
FAO (1967).

Tools or components of integrated pest management

Inputs/ IPM
Requirements Components of IPM
Ecology of pest
Physical methods of pest
control
Pest surveillance Mechanical methods
Host plant Mechanical methods
and monitoring
resistance Cultural methods
Biological methods
ETL Parasitoids Virus
Predators Fungi
Microbes Bacteria
Botanicals Protozova
Chemical control method
Genetic/Biotechnological
approach
Behavioural method
Pheromone
Allelochemical
Legal method
2. Components of organic pest management

The following components may be included in organic

method of pest management

1. Ecology based pest management and Habitat

diversification
2. Use of resistant varieties
3. Wide hybridization
4. Physical methods of pest management
5. Mechanical methods of pest management
6. Use of plant products / botanicals
7. Use of insect pheromones
8. Biological control of pests
9. Use of synthetic organics permissible for use
in organic agriculture
10. Using farmers wisdom in organic farming

Ecology based pest management

 Various eco-friendly tactics of pest

management have to be integrated so as to
avoid the use of chemical pesticides. The
knowledge of interaction among plant, pest,
natural enemies and environment is essential
for effective pest management. When
the balance of nature is disturbed by man
made interventions, nature strikes back in
the form of pest outbreaks. Some examples
of pest outbreaks are as follows
 Whiteflies in brinjal
 Helicoverpa armigera in bhendi
 Slug caterpillar in coconut
 Eriophyid mite on coconut
  Moreover the pest status changes over years
due to interaction of various biotic and
abiotic factors. One has to thoroughly
understand the reasons for outbreak of pests
and their changing status and plan the
management practices accordingly so as to
prevent further outbreaks.

Habitat diversification

 Habitat diversification makes the

agricultural environment unfavourable for
growth, multiplication and establishment of
insect pest populations.
 The following are some approaches by which
the pest population can be brought down.
2. 2. 1. Intercropping system

 Intercropping system has been found

favourable in reducing the population and
damage caused by many insect pests due to
one or more of the following reasons.
 Pest outbreak less in mixed stands due to
crop diversity than in sole stands
 Availability of alternate prey
 Decreased colonization and reproduction in
pests
 Chemical repellency, masking, feeding
inhibition by odours from non-host plants.
 Act as physical barrier to plants.
 The following table gives a few examples of
intercropping system where reduction in
damage level was noticed
Table 1. Effect of intercropping system on pest
levels
 Crop
Sl.
Pest reduced
No.
Sole crop Intercrop

1. Cauliflower onion Diamond back moth

2. Cauliflower Mustard Diamond back moth

3. Onion Agathi Thrips

4. Banana Marigold Nematodes

5. Brinjal Solanum nigrum Whiteflies

 Interplanting maize in cotton fields

increased the population of Araneae,
coccinellidae and Chrysopidae by 62.8-
115.7% compared with control fields. Maize
also acted as a trap crop for H.
armigera reducing the second generation
eggs and damage to bhendi. Hence it is
highly important that appropriate
intercropping systems have to be evolved
where reduction in pest level occurs.
2. 2. 2. Trap cropping

 Crops that are grown to attract insects or

other organisms like nematodes to protect
target crops from pest attack. This is
achieved by
 Either preventing the pests from reaching
the crop or
 Concentrating them in a certain part of the
field where they can be economically
destroyed
Table 2. List of successful examples of trap crop
Sl.
Main Crop Trap crop Pest
No.
1. cauliflower Mustard Diamond back moth

2. Tomato African marigold Helicoverpa

3. Bhendi Castor Spodoptera

 Growing mustard as trap crop 2 rows per 25

cabbage rows for the management of
diamond back moth. First mustard crop is
sown 15 days prior to cabbage planting or 20
days old mustard seedlings are planted.
Growing castor along the border of cotton
field and irrigation channels act as indicator
or trap crop for Spodoptera litura. Planting
40 day old African tall marigold and 25 day
old tomato seedlings (1:16 rows)
simultaneously reduces Helicoverpa damage.
 Growing trap crops like marigold which
attract pests like American bollworm to lay
eggs, barrier crops like maize/jowar to
prevent migration of sucking pests like
aphids and guard crops like castor which
attracts Spodoptera litura in cotton fields
was reported by Murthy and
Venkateshwarulu (1998).
2. 2. 3. Fertilizer management

 Plant growth is dependent on the nutritional

status of the soil which in turn has indirect
effect on pests. High levels of N fertilizer
always favour insects and makes plants more
susceptible to insect infestation (Rathore and
Lal, 1994). On the other hand lower
potassium supply favours the development of
 insects, while optimum and high K has
depressant effects (Dale, 1988).
 The following table (Table 3) shows the role
of nutrient management on pest levels.
Table 3. Effects of host plant nutrition on insect
pests

Sl.
Host plant Insect Response
No.

1. Rice Thrips, GLH, Whorl High K application

maggot, Leaf folder reduces pest
incidence

2. Leaf folder, gall High N levels

midge, BPH, Yellow increases pest
stem borer, WBPH population and
damage

3. Wheat Cutworm (Mythimna Increased N increases

separata) incidence

4. Sorghum Shootfly High P reduced

incidence

5. Cotton Pink boll worm, High N increased

leafhopper incidence

6. Chickpea Helicoverpa armigera N increased

infestation while P
and K reduced

2. 2. 4. Planting dates and crop duration

 Planting dates should be so adjusted that the

susceptible stage of crop synchronizes with
the most inactive period or lowest pest
population. The plantings should be also
based on information on pest monitoring, as
the data varies with location. Crop maturity
also plays an important role in pest
avoidance. The following table (table 4)
 shows the importance of planting dates on
pest population and damage
Table 4. Role of planting dates on pest population
and damage
Sl.
Host plant Insect Response Reference
No.

1. Rice Leaf folder Early palnted rice Dhaliwal et al. (1988)

(upto 3rd week of
June) suppressed
population

2. BPH Planting in end of Krishnaiah et al. (1986)

July in Kharif and
Early in Rabi escapes
attack in AP

3. Gallmidge Lowest incidence iof Uthamasamy and

planted in Aug or Karuppuchamy (1986)
Oct

4. Sorghum Shootfly Advancing sowing Kotikal and Panchbavi

date (Sept - Oct) (1991)
decreased incidence

5. Cotton Leafhopper Higher incidence in Dhawan et al. (1990)

late sown crop

6. Chickpea H. armigera For every 10 day Devendra Prasad et al.

delay in sowing (1989)
4.02% increase in
pod damage

7. Tomato Whitefly (B.tabaci Incidence less if Saikia abd Muniappa

) planted within Jul- (1989)
Nov

8. Chillies Thrips Late planted crop Bagle (1992)

severely affected by
thrips and leaf curl
virus

2. 2. 5. Planting density

 Plant nutrient status, interplant spacing,

canopy structure, etc., affect insect
 behaviour in searching food, shelter and
oviposition site. It also affects natural enemy
population. The effect of plant density on
pest population is shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Effect of plant density on pest population

Sl. Spacing/
Crop Insect Response Reference
No. density

1. Rice Dense Leaf folder, High Kushwaha and

planting BPH incidence Sharma (1981)
Kalode and
Krishnaiah
(1991)

2. Chickpea Dense plant H.armigera High Yadav (1987)

population incidence

3. Less dense Aphis High Lal et al (1989)

population craccivora incidence

4. Sugarcane Dense seed Topshoot borer Low

rate incidence
Singla and
Duhra, 1990
Early shoot High
borer incidence

2.2.6. Destruction of alternate host plants

 Many insects use a wide range of cultivated

plants especially weeds as alternate hosts for
off season carry-over of population. Matteson
et al. (1984) reported that weeds around the
crop can alter the proportion of harmful and
beneficial insects that are present and
increase or decrease crop damage.
Table 6. Alternate hosts to be removed to reduce
damage by pests
Sl. Alternate host to be
Crop Pest Reference
No. removed

1. Groundnut Thrips (Caliothrip Achyranthus aspera Mohan Daniel et

 s indicus) al. (1984)

2. Rice Gallmidge Wild rice (O.nivara)

3. GLH Leersia hexandra

Echinochloa colonum
Kalode and
Krishnaiah (1991)
E.crusgalli

C.dactylon

4. WBPH Chleres barbata

5. Sorghum Earhead midge Grassy weeds Prem Kishore

(1987)

 Destruction of off types and volunteer plants,

thinning and topping, pruning and
defoliation and summer ploughing are other
cultural methods which can reduce pest load
in field.
2. 2. 7. Water management

 Availability of water in requisite amount at

the appropriate time is crucial for proper
growth of crop. Hence, water affects the
associated insects by many ways such as
nutritional quality and quantity, partitioning
of nutrients between vegetative growth and
reproduction etc.
 The following table shows the effect of
irrigation on pest population / damage.
Table 7. Effect of irrigation on pest population /
damage.

Sl.No Crop Insect Response Reference

1. Rice Mealy bug Continuous ponding Gopalan et al. (1987)

of 5cm water reduced
incidence
2. Rice Caseworm Draining of water to Thomas (1986)
and BPH field capacity reduces
incidence

3. Fruit tree Termite Copious irrigation Butani (1987)

nursery reduces incidence

4. Groundnut Aphids Copious irrigation Rao et al. (1991)

increased incidence

2. 2. 8. Crop rotation

 Sustainable systems of agricultural

production are seen in areas where proper
mixtures of crops and varieties are adopted
in a given agro-ecosystem. Monocultures and
overlapping crop seasons are more prone to
severe outbreak of pests and diseases. For
example growing rice after groundnut in
garden land in puddled condition eliminates
white grub.
2. 2. 9. Organic manure

 Application of press mud in groundnut @

12.5 t/ha had a better influence on leaf miner
with lower leaflet damage at 38.84 per cent
and 2.48 larval numbers per plant during
summer 1991. It was 34.93 per cent and
2.72 numbers during kharif, 1991
(Sathiyanandam and Janarthanan,
1995). Rajasekar et al. (1995) reported
that farm yard
manure, Azospirillum and Phosphobact
eria has no significant influence on the
control of leaf hopper and fruit borer in
bhendi. The incidence of paddy plant
and leafhopper was low
 in Azospirillum combined with farmyard
manure (Athisamy and Venugopal
1995). Application of organic manure
lowered the rice gall midge incidence
(5.28%) (Mohankumar et al., 1995).

Use of resistant varieties.

 Host plant resistance forms an important

component of non-chemical method of pest
management. Several resistant varieties of
crops have been evolved against major pests,
through intensive breeding programmes.
Development of varieties with multiple
resistances to several pests / diseases is
essential.

Physical method of pest control

 The following are some examples of the use

of physical methods of insect control
 Use of activated clay at one per cent or
vegetable oil at one per cent has been found
to effectively control damage
by Callosobruchus chinensis in stored
pulses.
 Solar heat treatment of sorghum seeds for
60 seconds using solar drier kills rice
weevil and red flour beetle without affecting
germination of seeds.
 Biogas fumigation for 5 days period caused
mortality of eggs, grubs, adults of pulse
beetle C.chinensis (Mohan et al., 1987;
1989)
  Drying seeds (below 10% moisture level)
prevents insect development.
 Cold storage of fruits and vegetables to kill
fruit flies (1-2° C for 12-20 days).

Mechanical method of control

2. 6. 1. Mechanical destruction

a. Hand picking of caterpillars

b. Hooking of rhinoceros beetle adult with iron hook
c. Sieving and winnowing for stored product insect
control
d. Shaking plants- to dislodge caseworm in rice -to
dislodge June beetles from neem trees

2. 6. 2. Mechanical exclusion

a. Wrapping of fruits against pomegranate fruit borer.

b. Banding with grease - against mango mealy bug
c. Trenching - for larvae of red hairy caterpillar
d. Tin barrier - around coconut tree trunk to prevent rat
damage
e. Rat proof structure in storage go downs

2. 6. 3. Appliances based on mechanical control method

a. Light trap

b. Yellow sticky traps - for attracting aphids and jassids

c. Bait trap - fish meal trap for sorghum shootfly
d. methyl eugenol trap - for fruit flies
e. Probe trap - for stored product insects
f. Pheromone trap - for various adult insects
g. TNAU automatic insect removal bin - for stored
product insects
Use of botanicals in pest management

 Grainge and Ahmed (1988) listed about 2400

plant species with pesticidal properties
(insecticide, acaricide, nematicide, fungicide
etc. which are distributed in 189 plant
families).
 Neem oil at 2% and neem seed kernel
extract (NSKE) at 5% with liquid soap 0.05%
have been proven affective against major
pests of rice, sucking pests of cotton and
vegetable.
 Neem cake applied at 250 kg/ha at last
ploughing before sowing has been found
effective against cotton stem weevil and soil
insects of many other crops.
 Neem seeds contain more than 100
compounds among which azadirachtin has
been found to be biologically most active.
The biological effects of neem products are
insect growth regulation, feeding deterrent
and oviposition deterrent effect.
 Commercial Neem formulations are available
in market which contain varying levels
of azadirachtin (from 0.03% to a maximum of
5%). In India more than 50 firms are
manufacturing neem formulations which are
available in different brand names.
 A few examples are given below

Sl.
Brand name Azadirachtin content
No.

1. Nimbecidine 0.03%
2. Neem guard 0.03%

3. Bioneem 0.03%

4. Jaineem 0.03%

5. Neem gold 0.15%

6. Fortune-aza 0.15%

7. Econeem 0.3%

8. Achook 0.5%

9. Neem azal TS 1.0%

10. Neem azal F 5.0%

 In addition to Neem which belongs to

Meliaceae, plants belonging to Annonaceae,
Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Labiatae, Rutaceae
and many other families have been found to
possess insecticidal activity. Research in this
field will provide valuable information that
will help in managing insect pests with plant
products.

Pheromones in Pest Management

 Pheromones are chemical substances released by

insects which attract other individuals of the same
species.
 Sex pheromones have been used in pest management
in the following ways
a. Monitoring
b. Mating disruption
c. Mass trapping
 These methods can be successfully included
in organic method of pest management. Sex
 pheromones of the following insects are
commercially available in market.
Table 9. Commercially available sex pheromones for insects

Sl.
Common Name Scientific name
No.

1. American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera

2. Pink bollworm Pectinophora

gossypiella

3. Spotted bollworm Earias vitelli

4. Spiny bollworm Earias insulana

5. Tobacco cutworm Spodoptera litura

6. Early shoot borer of Chilo infuscatellus

sugarcane

7. Yellow stem borer of rice Scirpophaga incertulas

8. Diamond back moth Plutella xylostella

9. Mango fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis

10. Melon fruitfly Bactrocera cucurbitae

 Aggregation pheromones of red palm weevil

and Rhinoceros beetle of coconut are also available in
market. Different types of pheromone traps such as
sleeve type trap, delta and sticky traps are also
manufactured and sold by different firms. In addition
to the above many new pheromones of field and
storage pests are being manufactured by commercial
firms and will be available to farmers soon.

Biological control

 Management of pests and disease causing

agents utilizing, parasitoids, predators and
 microbial agents like viruses, bacteria and
fungi is termed as biological control. It is an
important component of IPM.
 The three important approaches in biological
control are
a. Importation: Importation is also called classical
method of biological control where bio-control
agents are imported to control a pests of exotic
origin.
b. Conservation: This is a method of manipulating
the environment to protect the bio-control agents
c. Augmentation: Augmentation aims at mass
production of natural enemies / microbial agents
and field release. Genetic improvement of bio-
control agents to have superior traits also comes
under this category.
 The ICAR and State Agricultural Universities
play an important role in identifying
potential bio-control agents. The commercial
bio-control laboratories mass produce the
agents and distribute among the farmers.
There are at least 20 bio-pesticides
production laboratories in Tamil Nadu
managed by co-operative and private
sectors. The following are the bio-control
agents mass produced in Tamil Nadu.
Table 10. Bio-control agents commercially
produced in Tamil Nadu
Sl.
Biocontrol agents Pests managed
No.

I. Parasitoids

Egg parasitoids

1. Trichogramma sp. Borers, bollworms

2 Telenomus remus Spodoptera litura

 Egg larval parasitoid

3 Chelonus blackburni Cotton bollworms

Larval parasitoids

4. Bracon brevicornis Coconut black headed

caterpillar

5. Goniozus nephantidis Coconut black headed

caterpillar

6. Elamus nephantidis Coconut black headed

caterpillar

7. Bracon kirkpatrici Cotton bollworms

8. B.hebetor Cotton bollworms

Pupal parasitoids

9 Brachymeria spp. Coconut black headed

caterpillar

10 Tetrastychus Israeli Coconut black headed

caterpillar

11. Trichospilus pupivora Coconut black headed

caterpillar

II. Predators

12. Chrysoperla carnea (Green Soft bodied homopteran

lacewing) insects

Cryptolaemus Mealy bugs

montrouzieri (Australian lady
bird beetle)

III Insect Pathogens

13. NPV of Helicoverpa H. armigera

armigera (Virus)

14. NPV of S.litura (Virus) S.litura

15. Bacillus Lepidopteran insects

thuringiensis (Bacteria)

16. Beauveria bassiana (Fungus) Many insect pests

 IV. Fungal Antagonists

17. Trichoderma viride Root rot and wilt causing

fungi (Rhizoctonia solani,
18. Trichoderma harzianum Macrophomina phaseolina,
Fusarium sp.) in pulses,
cotton, oilseeds, vegetables

19. Pseudomonas fluorescence Root rot causing fungi in

various crops

V. Weed killers

20. Neochetina bruchi and Water hyacinth (Aquatic

Neochetina weed)
eichhornae (beetles)

21. Zygogramma Parthenium weed

bicolorata (beetle)

 Even though many commercial bio-control

laboratories are involved in production of
these agents, they are hardly sufficient to
cover less than one percent of the total
cultivated area. Hence there is a vast scope
for improvement.
Table 11. Crop wise pest management practices
using bio-agents/ botanicals

Sl.
Crop Pest Bio-agent
No.

1. Rice Stem Trichogramma japonicum

borer 5 cc/ha/release on 30 and 37 DAT

2. Leaf T.chilonis 5 cc/ha/release on 58, 65

folder and 72 DAT
Neem seed kernel extract 5% spray

3. Gall Platygaster oryzae 1 parasitised gall/

midge 10 m2

Earhead Neem seed kernel powder, Notchi

bug leaf powder, Prosopis leaf powder
4. Sorghum H. HaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
armigera

5. Pulses H. HaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha

armigera NSKE 5% spray
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki 1.5
l/ha

6. Groundn S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha

ut

7 Red hairy AaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha

caterpillar

8. Gingelly Shoot NSKE 5% spray

webber

9. Coconut Rhinocero Metarhizium anisopliae fungus

s beetle incorporated in manure pits
Oryctes baculovirus infected adults
may be released
Neem seed kernel powder + sand
(1:1) in the base of three inner most
leaves

10. Black Release of Goniozus

headed nephantidis 3000 adults/ ha under
caterpillar the coconut tree
Release braconid, bethylid, eulophid
and ichneumonid parasitoids from
January.

11. Termites Neem oil 5% spray upto 2m height of

trunk

12 Mealybug Neem oil 3% spray on leaves

s

13. Cotton S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha

14. H.armiger HaNPV spray at 3.0 x 1012 POB/ha

a at 7 and 12th week after sowing
Trichogramma spp. egg parasitoid @
6.25 cc/ha thrice at 15 days interval
from 45 DAS
Chelonus blackburnii (egg larval
parasitoid)
and Chrysoperla (predator) @
1,00,000 /ha at 6,13 and 14th week
after sowing
15. Sugarcan Early Release 125 gravid female of
e shoot Sturmiopsis inferens
borer Granulosis virus on 25 and 50 DAP
1.1 x 105 IBS/ml

16. Internode T. chilonis egg parasitoid 2.5

borer cc/release, 6 releases at fortnightly
interval from 4th month

17 Tobacco S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha

NSKE 5% spray

18. Citrus Leafminer NSKE 5% spray

19. Grapes Mealybug Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (beetles)

10 per vine
Fish oil insecticidal soap 25g/lit

20. Sapota Budworm NSKE 5% spray

21. Tomato S.litura SlNPV and HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012

and H. POB/ha
armigera B.t. 2 g/lit
(Fruit T. chilonis 50000/ha/release
borers)

22. Brinjal Shoot and NSKE 5% spray

fruit borer

Aphids Chrysoperla carnea Ist instar larva

10,000 /ha

23 Bhendi Fruitborer Trichogramma 1,00,000 /ha

Chrysoperla carnea Ist instar larva
10,000 /ha
B.t. 2 g/lit

24. Chillies S.litura SlNPV and HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012

and H. POB/ha
armigera B.t. 2 g/lit
(Fruit T. chilonis 50000/ha/release
borers)

25. Cabbage, Diamond B.t. 2 g/lit, NSKE 5%

Cauliflow back moth Diadegma semiclausum (parasitoid)
er 50,000/ha

Biotechnological approaches
Biotechnology has provided new avenues for
management of insect pets and it holds great potential
to be included in IPM system.

 The low toxicity of proteinase inhibitors and

Bt alpha-endotoxin as compared to
conventional insecticides would reduce the
selection pressure nd may slow down the
development of resistance.
 Since all plant parts including growing
points would remain covered with toxins,
dependence on weather for efficacy of the
sprays would be eliminated.
 Since toxins will always be there, so there
will be no need of continuous monitoring of
pests.
 Transgenic plant would also provide
protection to those plant parts which are
difficult to be treated with pesticides. Thus,
transgenics may prove useful for controlling
bollworms and borers which are difficult to
control by means of insecticides.
 The cost of application in the form of
equipment and labour will be nil or negative.
 The development cost is only fraction of the
cost of development of conventional
pesticides.
 There would be no problem of contamination
in the form of drift and groundwater
contamination.
 Insecticidal activity would be restricted to
those insects which actually attack the
 plants. Transgenic plants would be safe to
non-target species and human beings.
 Transgenic plants will have inbuilt resistance
to various insects replacing some of the
current pesticide usage with protection
which is intrinsically biodegradable, thus
reducing the use of chemical insecticides
and minimizing the problem of
environmental pollution.

Insecticide status in pest management

 Insecticides application remains one of the

effective, quick methods and most widely
used pest control tactics. When properly
used they provide an efficient, fast, reliable
and cost-effective means of pest control. The
draw backs or risks in their use include
development of resistance, destruction of
natural enemies, poisoning of man and
animals, environmental pollution and
increasing costs. Hence, it is highly needed
to switch over to newer insecticide
molecules to provide on efficient, fast and
reliable means of pest management.
4.1. Criteria for newer insecticide molecules
The newer insecticide molecules should have the
following criteria for their environmental safety with
effective control.

 Safer to natural enemies

 Low mammalian toxicity
 Effective management with low dose
 Broad spectrum
 No / Low residues
  Phytotonic effect
 Suitable formulation
 Suitable method of application
4.2. Groups of new generation insecticides
The new generation insecticides are grouped into

 Neonicotinoids / Nitroquanidines
 Synthetic pyrethroids
 Insect growth regulators
 Organic insecticides
 Organophosphates
 Carbamates
 Insecticide combinations
1. Neonicotinoids
The neonicotinoids includes
i) Imidacloprid – Confidor 200 SL, Caucho 600 FS,
70 WS
ii) Acetamiprid – Pride 20 SP
iii) Thiamethoxam – Actara 25 WG, Cruiser 70 WS
2. Insect growth regulators
 Diflubenzuron - Dimilin 25 WP '
 Teflubenzuron - Nomolt 15 SC
 Fluenoxuron - Cascade 10 DC
 Navaluron - Rimon 10 EC
 All these insecticides are non-systemic in
their action and are coming Under
Benzophenyl urea group of insecticides and
when applied, these insecticides are found to
be causing inhibition of chitin formation
which causes abnormal endodocuticles and
abortive moulting. These insecticides are
effective chewing insects and defoliators.
3. Carbomates
Indoxacarb - Avaunt 14.5 SC
Thiocarb - Larvin 75 WP
Carbosulfan - Marshal 25 EC
These carbamate insecticides are contact and stomach
poison in their action and are targeted against sucking
and chewing insects especially in cotton
4. Synthetic pyrethroids

 Lamda cyhalothrin - Karate 5 EC, Kungfoo

2.5 EC
 Beta cyfluthrin - Bulldock 0.25 SC
 These two synthetic pyrethroids are contact
and stomach poison in action and effective
against sucking and chewing insects. Lamda
cyhalothrin is also having phytotonic effect.
5. Organic insecticides
i. Spinosad - Tracer 45 SC, Success 2.5 SC
ii. Abamectin - Vertimec 1.9 EC
iii. Cartap hydrochloride - Caldan 50 SP
i. Spinosad

 It is extracted from actinomycetes

Saccharopolyspora spmosa. The insecticide
formulation contains two components as
spinosyn A+D. It is a contact and stomach
poison targeted against Helicoverpa
armigera.
ii. Abamectin

 It is extracted from bacteria, Streptomyces

avermectilis. This insecticide is having
contact and translaminar action and it is
used as an Acaricide in ornamentals.
iii. Cartap hydrochloride

 It is extracted from a marin annelid,

Zumbriconereis heteropoda,. This insecticide
 is having systemic contact and stomach
poison and causes paralysis of CNS. It is
effective against chewing and sucking pests.
6. Organophosphates
i. Profenofos - Curacron 50 EC
ii. Triazophos - Hostathion 40 EC
i. Profenofos

 It is contact and stomach poison insecticide

and also having translaminar in action. It is
mainly targeted against sucking pests,
bollworms and mites in different crops.
ii. Triazophos

 It is an effective acaricide and targeted

against sucking and chewing insects. It is
contact and stomach poison

Future needs

 India's consumption of bio-agents like

entomophages, botanical and microbial
pesticides, pheromones etc is less than one
per cent of the total pesticide consumption
compared to 12 per cent globally Hence we
must strengthen our usage of bio-agents in
the IPM techniques suitable in all major
crops.
 Use of pest avoidance tactics, enhancement
of biological pest suppression and adoption
of other non-chemical methods of pest
management would certainly be able to
improve our capabilities in solving much of
the pest problems.
 About 70 per cent of our people depend on
agriculture for their livelihood and more
than 80 per cent of them are small and
marginal category. Hence, IPM components
should be cost effective and environment
friendly to suit the situations of the above
category. Such a goal can be reached
through farmer participatory mode in IPM
technology development and transfer.
 There is very high demand for some
promising bio-control agent and that
practically there is a wide gap between the
demand and supply. This is rather a dicey
situation, which may need to unhealthy
practices. Hence to cater the need of
farmers, unemployed farm graduates may
be encouraged to start commercial
insectaries. Periodical Know-how and do-
how training's have to be organized by the
ICAR and State Agricultural Universities.
 Survey and surveillance of insect pests have
to be carried out at every village level on all
crops using pest monitoring devices viz.,
light traps, pheromone traps baits, fad
lures, trap crops, colour and sticky traps
etc. forecasting and forewarning of insect
pests have to be strengthened with
satellites and computer prediction models.
 More than 500 different crop plant varieties
were identified as source of resistance
against insect pests. However their usage in
the field level is far from satisfactory.
Hence this lab to land gap has to be
bridged. Plant resistance should be the base
 of IPM and all other methods have to be
pyramided over it.
 The most recent introduction of B.t
transgenic plants conferring resistance to
certain insect pests like cotton boll worms
has expanded the scope of IPM. Such plants
where minimum use of insecticides is made
help in conserving biological control agents
and serve as important IPM tool.
 Without a strong commitment to
interdisciplinary research, it is doubtful
that Integrated Pest Management will
become a reality. Hence all allied fields of
Agriculture should join hand in hand to
solve pest problems with more involvement
is very essential.
 Unfortunately, today, the decision on the
pesticide application lies with the dealers,
who in their interest advise farmers to use a
large number of applications of a variety of
chemical pesticides and their mixtures,
whether required or not or whether
efficacious or not. Prescriptions from Plant
protection officials or from Entomologists of
the manufactures can form a better base for
purchase of plant protection chemical just
like a prescription from a doctor for
purchase of medicines. This would also help
remove the social stigma of adherence to
past practices of continuing with hazardous
and not so efficacious chemical pesticides.
Dealer training and imposition of
qualifications for dealers shall definitely
create a positive change towards IPM.
  Each crop/pest and farm level situation is
unique and it is not likely that there could
be an "Off the shelf" available IPM solution
to each crop/pest crisis. There fore, fine
tuning based on scientific studies and
research becomes imperative. It is
definitely a knowledge intensive activity.
 The most important steps to make IPM
movement unstoppable and its benefits self-
evident are:
 Validation of appropriate non-chemical
methods in farmer fields, based on
dependable ETL.
 Extensive transfer of Knowledge package
"through farmer trainings,
 Large scale availability of high quality non-
chemical pest/disease intervention inputs.
 Future needs of IPM greatly depend on
research education, training and marketing
improvements, and they can be re-oriented
as follows.

Important definitions

Allomone

 A chemical substance, produced or acquired

by an organism, which, when it contacts an
individual of another species in the naturl
context, evokes in the receiver a behavioural
or physiological reaction adaptively
favorable to the emitter; cf. kairomone.
Antifeedant
  A natural or synthetic chemical substance
which acts either to inhibit the stimulation of
gustatory receptors which normally
recognize suitable food, or to stimulate
receptors which elicit a negative response to
deterrent chemicals.
Biological control

 Biological pests suppression in its narrow,

classical sense, usually restricted to
the introduction, by man, of parasitoids,
predators, and / or pathogenic
microorganisms to suppress populations of
plant or animal pests; cf. biological insect
pest suppression, natural control.
Integrated pest suppression

 An approach to compatible utilization of all

available forms of pest suppression,
including mechanical, biological, chemical,
and natural control, in a systematic fashion,
with the primary goal of safe, effective, and
economical pest population reduction. It may
be directed at a single important pest
species by combining a variety of measures
against the species, or at a complex of pests,
integrating the individual protective
measures applied against each, so as not to
interfere one with the other.
Microbial pathogen

 Generally, a microorganism which causes

disease in its host; more specifically, a term
used in preference to microbial “insecticide”
 to denote a microorganism used by man to
suppress insect pest populations.
Parasite

 An animal species which lives on or in a

larger animal, the host, feeding upon it, and
frequently destroying it. A parasite needs
only one or part of one host to reach
maturity; cf. parasitoid, predator.
Pheromone

 A pheromone is defined as a chemical or a

mixture of chemicals that is released to the
exterior by an organism and causes one or
more specific reactions in a receiving
organism of the same species.
Predator

 An animal which feeds upon other animals

(prey) that are usually smaller and weaker
than itself, frequently devouring them
completely and rapidly. A predator most
often is required to seek out and attack more
than one prey to reach maturity; cf. parasite,
parasitoid.
Resistance

 The relative amount of inherited qualities

which allow an organism to influence or
reduce the damage done to it by its enemies.
Trap crop

 A small planting of a susceptible and highly

attractive host, planted early in the season,
or removed in space from the main crop, in
 order to divert attack and infestation by pets
and allow for their easy destruction.

Methods and adopted for controlling pests

The control of insect pests falls under following heads

a. Legislative

 By which the Government prevents the

import of infested with insects, which if
introduced into this country, would become
local pests (e.g. potato tubers with
nematodes).
b. Biological method

 The successful control of a pest species by

means of another living organism that is
encouraged and disseminated by man is
called so. It is inexpensive and as long-term
control, causes no pollution and poses no
risk to human health. Biological agents are
available in nature abundantly. Several
pathogens including viruses such as nuclear
polyhedrosis virus (NPV) and granulosis
(GV), bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis,
fungi like Metarhizium,
protozoa like Schizogregarine cause diseases
in insects to destroy them. This method has
been successfully used to control many
important pests in a number of economic
crops.
 The other biological method of control
involves the use of parasitoids and
predators. A parasitoid is an organism which
 completes its life on a single host and
ultimately kills it. A predator on the other
hand is a free living-organism and kills the
host (prey) immediately and requires more
than one prey individuals to complete its life.
If the parasitoid attacks the egg stage of the
host, it is then called egg parasitoid,
(e.g.) Trichogramma chilonis on bhendi
borer. When they attack at the larval stage
of the host, it is then called larval parasitoid,
(e.g.) Apanteles plutella on diamond back
moth caterpillars in cruciferous vegetables.
The predatory group of insects capture and
consume another insects as their food (e.g.)
green lace-wing, Chrysoperla carnea whose
grubs and the maggots of Syrphid flies
dramatically exert control over several
aphids in many crops. The adults and grubs
of ladybird beetles such as Coccinella
septempunctata. Menochilus
sexmaculatus, Brumoicles
suturalis and Scymnus nubilus play
important role in the population regulation
of several sucking pests and defoliating
insects.
c. Cultural methods

 The control of insects through adoption of

ordinary farm practices in appropriate time
in such a way that the insects are either
eliminated or reduced in population is called
the cultural method of control. Proper crop
rotation or tillage operations may help to
keep down the insect population.
  Some early crops are sown in narrow strips
around a major crop to serve as a trap for
the pests that might be common to both. For
instance, sowing of mustard in every twenty
fifth row of cabbage crop will help
preventing higher incidence of diamond back
moth in cabbage and cauliflower and the
preferred mustard plants can be cut and
destroyed when the pest appears. This
practice is called trap cropping.
d. Mechanical method

 Mechanical control is one by which the

insect population is directly hit by
mechanical devices or manual operations.
Mechanical devices include using fly and
maggot traps, setting light and bonfires to
attract adult moths and beetles. Manual
methods involve hand picking of egg masses,
larvae and killing them. Mechanical
exclusion consists the use of devices by
which insects are physically prevented from
reaching the produce (e.g.) wrapping of
individual pomegranate fruits with butter
paper envelopes to save from the attack of
Anar butterfly, Virachola isocrates.
e. By use of insecticide

 Insecticide is a substance or mixture of

sub¬stances used for killing, repelling or
otherwise preventing insects. The insecticide
is referred as a 'repellent' if it prevents the
pest species in attacking its host, an
'attractant' if the pest species is attracted to
source, trapped and an 'antifeedant' if it
 inhibits feeding on the host. The insecticides
are available in any one of the following
formuations:
1. Dusts

 The toxicant is diluted by mixing with or by

impregnation a suitable finely divided
carrier. The carrier may be organic flour
clay. The toxicant in a dust formulation
ranges from 0.5 to 25% (e.g.) endosulfan 4D,
malathion 5D.
2. Granular or Pelleted insecticides

 In a granulation the particle is composed of

a base such as an inert material or vegetable
carrier impregnated or used with the
toxicant which is released from the
formu¬lation in its intact form or as it
disintegrates giving controlled release
particles in the formulation generally
possess a size range of 0.25 mm to 2.38 mm
diameter. The formulations contain 2 to 10%
concentrations of the toxicant (e.g.)
carbrofuran 3G, Phorate 10 G.
3. Wettable powders

 It is a powdered formulation which yields a

rather stable suspension when diluted with
water. The active ingredients such a
formulation ranges from 15 to 95% (e.g)
BHC 50 WP, sulfur 25 WP.
4. Emulsifiable concentrate

 The formulation contains the toxicant solvent

for the toxicant and an emulsifying agent
 (e.g.) endosulfan, EC, dimethoate 30 EC,
fenvalerate 20 EC.
5. Concentrated insecticide liquid

 The toxicant at highly concentrated level is

dissolved in non-volatile solvent. An
emulsifying, agent is not added here (e.g.)
monocrotophos 36 WSC, Phosphamidon 85
WSC.
6. Fumigants

 A chemical compound which is volatile at

ordinary temperatures and sufficiently toxic
is known as a fumigant (e.g.) Ethylene di
bromide, Methyl bromide, Aluminium
Phosphide etc.
7. Fungicide

 Fungicide is any substance that is used to

kill fungi and their spores. They are also
available in dust, wettable powder,
emulsiable concentrates or granular
formulations.

Plant protection appliances

 The important methods of applying

pesticides are dusting and spraying. The
dusting operation allows the dust particles
when falling free either slowly to settle down
due to gravity or drift for long distance due
to wind. The appliances that are used for
applying dust formulations of pesticides are
called dusters. They are either manual or
power operated.
 The spray fluid may be solution, an emulsion,
or a suspension toxicant. To achieve an
effective control of pest, the toxicant is well
distributed and to meet this requirement the
spray fluid is blown down to fine droplets.
The spraying machines may be either hand
operated or power operated ones. Commonly
employed manual operated sprayers are (i)
knap- sack sprayer (hydraulic or pneumatic),
sprayer and pneumatic hand sprayer. Rocker
sprayers are useful for tall trees and
pneumatic hand sprayers are helpful to
spray in gardens. The power operated mist
blowers are useful in field cover more area
in a limited time. A spray volume of 150 to
200 water is necessary to one hectare of
land with power spray with low pressure
high volume sprayers but with low press
volume sprayers like knapsack sprayers
require about 450-500 water to cover one
hectare. Insecticides should be applied in the
morning or evening hours when the weather
is calm or else they will fall on unwanted
areas and also may not hit the target. Before
application insecticides, it must be ensured
that there are no pollinators (like-bees) in
the area; for the same reason insecticides
should not be applied during blossoms when
bees are likely to be at work. After
application of insecticides a time lag (7 – 10
days in case of organophosphorus
compounds and 20-30 days in case of
organochlorine compounds) should be given
before consuming the produce. During this
 period, the insecticides will get degraded
and become non-toxic.
Non-insect pests

 Besides the different kinds of insects which

damage crops, mites, rats, birds and
nematodes cause damage to crop plants.
A. Mites

 Mites possess four pairs of legs as against

insects which do have only three pairs of
legs. In recent years the mites have become
major pests. They cause damage by way of
sucking the cellular materials by forming
severe deformities. The, chemicals which are
used to control the mites are known as
'acaricides'. Sulphur, ethion, dicofol,
phosalone are commonly used as acaricides
at the rate of 15ml per 10 litres of water.
B. Plant nematodes

 Plant nematodes are small organisms which

live soil around the roots of plants. They are
about 0.1 to 1.00 mm in length. They are
confined to the top 20 to 25 cm of soil,
sometimes even to a depth of 3 to.4 m. They
are spread from one field to another through
percolating water and agronomic practices
like ploughing and weeding which involve
transport of soil. Most of the symptoms of
damage by plant parasitic nematodes are
non-specific and often likely be confused
with those caused by other pathogens or soil
factors like poor drainage, lack of soil
 nutrition etc. Some of the commonly
observed symptoms are:
 Stunting and wilting
 Leaf curl
 Browning or bronzing of leaves
 Distortion of leaves, stems
 Brown lesions in roots
 Knot-like galling of roots
 Control of plant parasitic nematodes is
difficult, but nevertheless, necessary for
obtaining profitable yields. Crop rotation
with a non-host crop or application of large
quantities of green leaves or grasses as
mulches or summer fallowing and use of
resistant varieties will reduce the incidence
to some extent. Commonly used nematicides
are DD mixture, dibromoethane, dibromo
chloropropane, thionazin and aldicarb. In
Tamil Nadu, nematode infection is a
devastating problem in banana, citrus,
potato and in vegetable crops like tomato,
chillies and brinjal.

(IPM)

 IPM is a new system approach which has

been necessitated primarily out of the
growing concern about the undesirable side
effects of large scale use of organic
insecticides and often failure of the same to
provide for suppression of pests at economic
level. Attempts to totally suppress the pests
by insecticides may lead to the following
problems:
  Development of resistance to chemicals in
pest population outbreak of secondary pests
resurgence of treated populations
unacceptable residues on food and forage
products and association legal
complications destruction of
beneficial insect predators, parasites and
pollination hazards to personnel involved in
insecticide application, domestic animals
and wild life; and
 Expense of pesticides, involving the cost of
materials, labour and maintenance of
equipments.
 Thus in any IPM programme, the ecological
factors are exploited, the control
methods are so designed that they are
compatible with natural mortality factors in
order to optimize control.

Pest Surveillance and Monitoring

 Pest surveillance is the watch kept on a pest

for decision-making.
Objectives

 The objectives of the pest and disease

surveillance programme in Agricultural and
Horticultural crops are to:
a. Detect species of pest or pathogen present
b. Assess levels of population / damage /
infection
c. Study the influence of weather and seasonal
parameters on pests and diseases.
d. Know new species of pests and diseases.
e. Monitor the behaviour of pests under
 changing cropping pattern / new varieties.
f. Find out natural enemy population
g. Watch the behaviour of pests under
changing cropping pattern/new varieties
h. Assess resistance/susceptibility/break-down
of resistance in crops to pests and diseases.
i. Monitor build-up of resistance in pests and
pathogens to pesticides
j. Mark endomic areas/pest calendar
k. Launch timely plant protection measures on
need-basis,
l. Reduce cost of cultivation
m. Avoid contamination to eco-system, and
n. To forewarn farmers
Methodology for Surveillance

 The surveillance programme encompasses (i)

fixed plot survey and (ii) roving survey. The
fixed plot and roving surveys involve the in-
situ assessment of pests and diseases in the
standing crop. The supporting methodology
includes observations on the activity of pests
by setting up light traps, pheromone traps,
spore trap, etc. The weather parameters of
the respective areas are also recorded to
study their influence on the pests and
diseases.

Classification of pesticides based on target organisms

1. Insecticides eg. endosulfan, malathion

2. Rodenticides eg. Zinc phosphide, warfarin
3. Acaricides eg. dicofol, azinphos methyl
4. Avicides eg. TMTD, anthraquinone
5. Molluscides eg. metaldehyde, trifenmorph
 6. Nematicides eg. DD, ethylene dibromide
7. Fungicides eg. Copper oxychloride,
mancozeb
8. Bactericides eg. Streptomycin sulphate,
aureomycin
9. Herbicides eg. 2,4-D, butachlor
Classification of insecticides
1. Based on chemical nature
A. Inorganic insecticides
eg. Arsenic & Fluorine compounds
B. Organic insecticides

10. Hydrocarbon oils

11. Animal origin eg. Neristoxin
12. Plant origin eg. Nicotine, pyrethrum,
rotenone, neem
13. Synthetic organic compounds
i. Dinitro phenols eg. DNOC
ii. Organothiocyanates eg. thanite
iii. Chlorinated hydrocarbons eg. endosulfan
iv. Organophosphorus compounds eg.
phosphamidon
v. Carbamates eg. carbofuron, aldicarb
vi. Synthetic pyrethroids eg. cypermethrin
2. Based on mode of entry

14. Stomach poison eg. B.t

15. Contact poison eg. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
16. Fumigant eg. DDVP, Lindane
17. Systemic poison eg. Methyl demeton,
Dimethoate
3. Based on mode of action
A. General classification

18. Physical poison eg. inert dusts

 19. Protoplasmic poison eg. heavy metals like
mercury and copper, fluorine and arsenics
20. Respiratory poison eg. hydrogen cyanide,
carbon monoxide
21. Nerve poison eg. organophosphates,
carbamates
B. Matsumura’s classification

22. Physical poison eg. inert dusts.

23. Dissolves wax layer & rearrange them –
cracking.
2. Protoplasmic poison eg. heavy metals like mercury
and copper, fluorine and arsenics
24. Denatures protoplasm.
3. Metabolic inhibitors
i. Carbohydrate metabolism inhibitors eg. Sodium
flouroacetate

25. Inhibits TCA cycle.

ii. Respiratory metabolic inhibitors eg. Rotenoids,
arsenicals

26. Inhibitors of ET chain

27. Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation
iii. Amine metabolism inhibitors eg. Formamidines

28. Induces accumulation of biogenic

amines – octopomine
29. Blocks Na+ channel and also K+
current
iv.Mixed function oxidase inhibitors eg. Synergists
v. Insect hormones eg. Juvenile hormone analogues

30. Affects synthesis of natural JH

 vi. Chitin synthesis inhibitors eg. Diflubenzuron

31. Affects deposition of chitin in

endocuticle
32. Affects other constituents of endocuticle
4. Non metabolic inhibitors (or) neuroactive agents
i. Effect of permeability eg. HCH, DDT
ii. Anticholine esterases eg. OP’s, carbamates
iii. Agents for nerve receptors eg. Nicotenoids
5. Hormone mimics eg. methoprene
6. Stomach poison eg. Bt
C. Insecicides mode of action groups
Group Primary target group Chemical subgroups

1A Acetyl choline esterase Carbamates

1B inhibitors Organophosphates

2A GABA-gated chloride Cyclodienes

2B channel antagonists Polychlorocycloalthanes
2C Fiproles

3A Sodium channel modulators Pyrethroids, pyrethrins

4A Ach receptor Chlornicotinyls

4B agonist/antagonists Nicotine
4C Cartap, bensultap

5A Ach receptor modulators Spinosyns

6A Chloride channel activators Avermectin, emamectin

6B Milebemycin

7A Juvenile hormone mimics Methoprene, hydroprene

7B Fenoxycarb
7C pyriproxyfen

8A Unknown or non specific Methyl bromide

8B action (fumigants) Phosphine generating
comp.

9A (selective feeding blockers) Pymetrozine

9B Cryolite

10A (mite growth inhibitors) Clofentezine, hexythiazox

11A Microbial disrupters of B.t. tenebrionis
11B insect midgut membranes B.t. israelensis
11C (including Bt crops) B.t. kurstaki, B.t. aizawi
11D B.t. sphericus
11E B.t. tolworthi

12A Inhibitors of Organotin miticides

12B oxidativephosphorylation, Diafenthiuron
Disrupters of ATP formation

13A Uncoupler of oxidative Chlorfenapyr

phosphorylation via
disruption of H proton
gradient

15A Chitin biosynthesis Acyl ureas

inhibitors

16A Ecdysone agonists Tebufenozide and related

17A Homopteran chitin Buprofezin

biosynthesis inhibitors

18A Unknown dipteran specific Cyromazine

mode of action

19A Octopominergic agonist Amitraz

20A Site II electron transport Hydramethylnon

inhibitors

21A Site I electron transport Rotenone, METI acaricides

inhibitors

22A Voltage dependent sodium Indoxacarb

channel blocker

Newer insecticide molecules

1. Avermectin insecticides - abamectin, emamectin,

ivermectin
2. Macrocyclic lactone insecticides - spinosad
3. Nicotinoid insecticides - imidacloprid,
thiamethoxam, thiacloprid, acetamiprid,
chlothianidine
4. Oxadiazine insecticides - indoxacarb
5. Thiourea insecticides - diafenthiuron
 6. Urea insecticides - flucofuron, sulcofuron
7. Pyrrole insecticides - chlorfenapyr
8. Pyridazinones - pyridaben
9. Quinazolines - fenazaquin
10. Pyrazole insecticides - ethiprol, chlofenofer,
fipronil
11. Benzoylureas - teflubenzuron, flufenozuron,
diflubenzuron

Miscellaneous insecticide classes

 Methoxyacrylates – Fluacrypyrin
 Naphthoquinones – acequinocyl
 Nereistoxin analogues – thiocyclam, cartap
 Pyridine azomethine – pymetrozine
 Pyrimidanines – pyrimiifen
 Tetronic acids – spiromesifen, spirodiclofen
 Benzenedicarboxamides – flubendiamide

Insecticide formulations

 Formulation involves processing of the

technical grade insecticides for better
storage, handling, measure, application and
efficacy together with safety
 Depending upon the mode of applications,
dry and liquid formulations are common
forms
 They may also be classified as solid, liquid
and gaseous formulations
Classification
1. Solid formulations

 Dust, wettable or water dispersible powder,

granules, capsules, baits etc.
 2. Liquid formulations

 Solution, emulsifiable concentrate, ultra low

volume formulations, suspension etc.
3. Gaseous formulations

 Fumigant, aerosol, foams, smokes, mists and

fog.
Different formulations
EC - Emulsifiable concentrate FS - Flowable concentrate for seed treatment
CG - Encapsulated granule G - Granule
CS - Capsule suspension GC - Macrogranule
DC - Dispersible concentrate GL - Emulsifiable gel
DP - Dispersible powder GP - Flo-dust
EG - Émulsifiable granule GW - Water soluble gel
EO - Emulsion, water in oil OL - Oil miscible liquid
EW - Emulsion, oil in water OP -Oil dispersible powder WDP- Water
ES - Emulsion for seed treatment dispersible powder
FG- Fine granule WG- Water dispersible granules
SC- Suspension concentrate WP- Wettable powder
SE- Suspo- emulsion WS- Water dispersible powder for slurry
SG- Water soluble granule treatment
SL- Soluble concentrate WSC –Water soluble concentrate
SP- Water soluble powder
SS- Water soluble powder for seed
treatment
SU- Ultra-low volume suspension
TB- Tablet

Compatibility of insecticides

 Simultaneous or sequential application of

insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers etc in a
single cropping season advantageous
 Main reason for combinations of pesticides -
saving of time, equipment wear and tear and
cost of application
 problems associated with this practice
i. physical incompatibility (agglomeration, phase
separation etc.)
ii. chemical incompatibility (degradation of active
 ingredient, change in pH)
iii. biological incompatibility (reduction in
bioefficacy of one by other, phytotoxicity)
Consider the following before combination of pesticides
is resorted to

 Do not mix two insecticides, as they will

hasten the development of resistance in
pests
 Do not mix the incompatible pesticides
 Do not mix the pesticides, as a matter of
routine. Apply insecticide-fungicide
combination only when both the target
insect and plant pathogen are above ETL
level.
Tests of compatibility

 Combinations may either prove phytotonic or

phytotoxic sometimes
 Physical and chemical tests undertaken for
testing of insecticide quality and
formulations
 Acidity and alkalinity test
 Emulsion stability test
 Wettability test
 Sieve test
 Bulk density test
 Suspensability test
Compatibility of insecticides Vs. Fungicides

Benomyl Carbendazim COC Cuman-L Dithane - Mancozeb Captan

M45

1. Chlorinate
d
hydrocarbon
s
Dicofol C C C

Endosulfan C

2. Organo
phosphates

Chlorpyriphos C C C

Dichlorvos C C C C

Dimethoate I I C C C C

Malathion C C C C

Methyl- C C
demeton

Monocrotopho C C I C C C
s

Phosphamido C C C C C
n

4. Pyrethroids

cypermethrin C C C I

Compatibility of insecticides Vs. Plant nutrients

(Fertilizers) and Herbicides
Borax Urea Zinc Atrazi Alachlo Metachlo
sulphate n r r

Chlorfenvinphos I

Diazinon C I I

Endosulfan C

Fenitrothion C

Methyldemeton C

Monocrotophos C

Phenthoate C

Phorate C C I

Profenofos C
 Compatibility of insecticides Vs. Biopesticides (Insect
Pathogens)
Bt Ha NPV Sl NPV

Chlorpyriphos

Dimethoate C

Endosulfan C C C

Fenitrothion C C

Methyldemeton I

Monocrotophos C

Phorate

Phosalone C

Phosphamidon C

Quality control of pesticides

Quality control of pesticides

 The effectiveness of the pesticides in pest

control programmes largely depends on the
quality which in turn is the function of
physico chemical properties of the active
ingredients and the characteristics of the
formulations
 The establishment, implementation and the
monitoring of the standards of the quality of
pesticides are very important facets of
improved agricultural production
 The Insecticides Act , 1968
 The Insecticides Rules, 1971
  The main objective of the Act is to regulate
the import, manufacture, sale, transport,
distribution and use of pesticides with a view
to prevent risk to human beings and animals
and for matters connected therewith.
 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
 Pesticide Industries
 Government (Central and State)
Precautions and directions for drawing samples

 do not take sample in an exposed place.

 See that the tools used for sampling are dry
and clean.
 Take necessary precautions regarding
toxicity effect of samples being drawn.
 Avoid contamination during and
after sampling.
 Containers receiving samples - clean, dry
and air tight.
 See that the size of the container receiving
samples is such that it is not completely
filled by the sample.
 Seal the container with the sample air tight
and furnish details regarding sampling, date
of manufacture, name of the manufacturer
etc.
 Store the sample in a proper place.
Scale of sampling

 All samples of a same batch considered as

one lot and samples bearing different batch
numbers considered as separate lots.
 Samples from each lot are to be drawn and
tested.
  The number of containers to be chosen
for sampling depends on the size of the lot.
Physical tests
A. Dust and wettable powder formulations

 Sieving Test for particle size requirement

 Test for bulk density
 Sieve test after accelerated storage
 Compensability test
 Wettability test
B. Emulsion concentrate or emulsifiable
concentrate

 Emulsion stability test

 Cold test, flash point test and heat stability
test
C. Granules

 Attrition test
 Water runoff test, wet test for encapsulation
and liquid holding capacity
Chemical tests

 Test for acidity/ alkalinity

 Active ingredient content
Disposal of pesticides

 All unused pesticides and containers must be

disposed off carefully
 Improper disposal of pesticide wastes and
pesticides containers can result in incidents
of animal poisoning or environmental
contamination
Pesticide wastes may range as follows
  Accidental spillage
 Left over from excess spray mixtures
 Unsold pesticide materials
 Damaged containers
 Pesticides which lost their expiry dates
 Wrong application
Disposal techniques
Disposal of spilled pesticides

 Don't wash with much of water

 Sprinkle moist sand or saw dust
 Remove the contaminated soil and burry
 Wash the contaminated floor with lime or
10% sodium bicarbonate
Disposal – Burial under soil

 Burial site must be carefully chosen

 The area should be marked out and
identified such that leakage of buried
pesticide will not contaminate water bodies.
 Should be buried 50 cm below
 Lime may be mixed to enhance degradation
process
Disposal of containers

 Misuse of containers should be avoided

 Empty and clean the containers before
disposal
 Drain the pesticide in a vertical position for
30 seconds
 Rinse with water thrice
 Make the container unusable by puncturing
and deforming
 Should be buried
  Paper and fibre container should be burnt in
open air
 Herbicide containers should not be burnt in
the vicinity of crops
 When burning don't respire the smoke
 Glass containers should be broken and
buried
Pesticide disposal technology

 The diversity in chemical properties of

pesticides and their formulated products and
the quantity and composition of pesticide
wastes complicate the disposal technology
 No single treatment system can be
universally applied
I. Chemical detoxification and disposal methods

 Acid or base hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction

or irradiation
 Other methods such as fixation, wet
scrubbing, Chlorinolysis, neutralisation,
precipitation, ion exchange and solvent
extraction for treating industrial pesticide
production plant effluents and other
industrial wastes.
II. Physical detoxification and disposal methods
1. Incineration

 This is the best method of detoxification and

disposal of non-metallic toxicants.
2. Ocean incineration

 In this the incinerator is taken into the sea in

a ship and hazardous chemicals are
combusted.
 3. Deep well injection and ground burial and use of
chemically modified peat are other physical disposal
methods
III. Biological detoxification and disposal methods

 Soil incorporation
 Land fills
 Activated sludge system
 Enzymatic treatment.

Biorational insecticide

 Biorational pesticide
 “Any type of insecticide active against pest
populations, but relatively innocuous to
non-target organisms, and, therefore, non-
disruptive to biological control” (Stansly et
al.1996).
 An insecticide can be “innocuous” by having
low or no direct toxicity, or by having
systemic or by moving rapidly into the leaf
through the leaf surface, or by having short
field residual, thereby minimizing exposure
of natural enemies to the insecticide.
 an insecticide can be innocuous to one
natural enemy or even some life stages
of one natural enemy but can be toxic to
another natural enemy or other life
stages
 The biorational nature of pesticides depends
upon the time, pest and crop upon which
they are used
 It needs good safety on non-target pest
Chemical Action Common Name Target Pest
 Systemics Imidacloprid Whiteflies, aphids
(nicotinoids) Thiamethoxam Whiteflies, aphids
Acetamiprid Whiteflies, aphids

Insect Growth Pyriproxyfen Whiteflies, aphids

Regulators Buprofezin Whiteflies
Tebufenozide Leps.
Methoxyfenozide Leps.
Novaluron Whiteflies, Leps.

Miscellaneous Pymetrozine Aphids, whiteflies

Spinosad Leps., leafminers
Indoxacarb Leps.
Emamectin benzoate Leps., leafminers
Chlorantraniliprole Leps., leafminers

Pesticide 2007

Dose
S.No Chemical Trade
(a.i. ha- Crop Pest
. name name
1)

1. Flubendiamide Fame 24g cabbage Diamond back moth

480 SC

2. Flubendiamide 48g Tomato Helicoverpa

480 SC armigera

3. Flubendiamide 60g Chillies Fruitborer

480 SC

4. Flubendiamide 48g Redgram Maruca testulalis,

480 SC Excelastis atomosa
Helicoverpa
armigera

5. Flubendiamide 48g cotton bollworms

480 SC

6. Flubendiamide 24g rice Leaf folder

480 SC

7. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Rice Stem borer and leaf

folder

8. Fipronil 5SC Regent 50g Rice Stem borer and leaf

folder
9. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Grapes Thrips

10. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Chillies Thrips

11. Imidacloprid Confidar 50g Grapes Grapevine flea

200 SL Tatamida beetle

12. Imidacloprid 25g Cucumber Sucking insects

200 SL

13. Imidacloprid 50g Tobacco Sucking pests

200 SL

14. Imidacloprid 15g okra Sucking pests

17.8 SL

15. Imidacloprid 25g okra Sucking pests

17.8 SL

16. Imidacloprid 50g Cotton Sucking pests

17.8 SL

17. Imidacloprid 70 Admire 24.5g Cucumber Aphids, leaf hoppers

WG

18. Triazophos Hostothion 600g cotton Bollworms

20EC

19. Triazophos 200g Chillies Sucking pests

40EC

20. Spirotetramat 60g Chillies Sucking pests

150 OD

21. Spirotetramat 75g Cotton Sucking pests

150 OD

22. Emamectin Proclaim 11g Cotton & Helicoverpa

benzoate 5 SG Bhendi armigera

23. Emamectin - 15g Bhendi Fruit borer

benzoate 5 EC

24. Emamectin - 15g cotton Bollworms

benzoate 5 EC

25. Emamectin 20g Bhendi Fruit borer

benzoate 1.9 EC

26. Emamectin 20g cotton Bollworms

benzoate 1.9 EC
27. Thiamethoxam 25g Cotton Sucking pests
25 WG

28. Thiamethoxam Actara 25g Rice GLH & BPH

25 WG

29. Indoxacarb 14.5 Isacarb, 75g Cotton Bollworms

SC Avaunt

30. Indoxacarb 14.5 25g Cabbage Diamond back

SC moth

31. Indoxacarb (KN 4og Cabbage Diamond back

128)15 EC moth

32. Indoxacarb (KN 75g Cotton Bollworms

128)15 EC

33. Spinosad 2.5 SC Success 18.75g Cabbage Diamond back

moth

34. Spinosad 45 SC Tracer 75g Chillies Fruit borers

35. Bifenthrin 10 EC Talstar 50g Rice Leaf folder

36. Spiromesifen Oberon 120g Okra Red spidermite

240 SC

37. Spiromesifen Oberon 96g Tea Tetranychid mite

240 SC

38. Buprofezin 25 200g Cotton Sucking pests

SC

39. Buprofezin 25 200g Rice GLH & BPH

SC

40. Buprofezin 25 Applaud 325g Grapes Mealybugs

SC 25 SC

41. Ethiprole 10 SC 50g Rice BPH, WBPH

42. Thiacloprid 24 Alanto 50g Rice BPH, WBPH

SC

43. Propargite 570 Omite 570g Okra Red spider mite

EC

44. Fenazaquin 10 Magister 100g Okra Red spider mite

EC
 45. Fenpyroximate 5 Senda, 30g Chillies mite
SC Mitigate

46. Chlorpenapyr 10 Intrepid 100g Cabbage Diamond back

SC moth

47. Diafenthiuron 50 0.16g Cardamom Shoot and

WP capsule borer,
thrips

48. Diafenthiuron 50 Pegasus 0.1g Cardamom thrips

WP

49. Acetamiprid 20 Pride 50g Cotton Sucking pests

SP

50. Abamectin 1.9 Abamectin 22.5g Cotton Boll worms

EC

51. Chlorantranilipr Coragen 40 g Chillies Fruit borers

ole 20 SC

52. Chlorantranilipr Coragen 40 g Tomato Fruit borers

ole 20 SC

53 Chlorantranilipr Coragen 40 g Red gram Pod borer

ole 20 SC complex

54. Chlorantranilipr Coragen 10 g Cabbage Diamond back

ole 20 SC moth

55 Lambdacyhaloth Icon 62.5g/ Household Mosquito

rin 10%WP 1000sq.ft

56 Lambdacyhaloth Karate 25 g Brinjal, Borers

rin 5 CS Zeon okra ,toma
to

New molecule of pesticide and their dosage against key

pests

S.No Dose
Chemical name Trade name CROP PEST
. (a.i. ha-1)

1. Flubendiamide Fame 24g cabbage Diamond back moth

 480 SC

2. Flubendiamide 48g Tomato Helicoverpa armigera

480 SC

3. Flubendiamide 60g Chillies Fruitborer

480 SC

4. Flubendiamide 48g Redgram Maruca testulalis,

480 SC Excelastis atomosa
Helicoverpa armigera

5. Flubendiamide 48g cotton bollworms

480 SC

6. Flubendiamide 24g rice Leaf folder

480 SC

7. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Rice Stem borer and leaf

folder

8. Fipronil 5SC Regent 50g Rice Stem borer and leaf

folder

9. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Grapes Thrips

10. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Chillies Thrips

11. Imidacloprid 200 Confidar 50g Grapes Grapevine flea beetle

SL Tatamida

12. Imidacloprid 200 25g Cucumber Sucking insects

SL

13. Imidacloprid 200 50g Tobacco Sucking pests

SL

14. Imidacloprid 17.8 15g okra Sucking pests

SL

15. Imidacloprid 17.8 25g okra Sucking pests

SL

16. Imidacloprid 17.8 50g Cotton Sucking pests

SL

17. Imidacloprid 70 Admire 24.5g Cucumber Aphids, leaf hoppers

WG

18. Triazophos 20EC Hostothion 600g cotton Bollworms

19. Triazophos 40EC 200g Chillies Sucking pests

20. Spirotetramat 150 60g Chillies Sucking pests

OD

21. Spirotetramat 150 75g Cotton Sucking pests

OD

22. Emamectin Proclaim 11g Cotton & Helicoverpa armigera

benzoate 5 SG Bhendi

23. Emamectin - 15g Bhendi Fruit borer

benzoate 5 EC

24. Emamectin - 15g cotton Bollworms

benzoate 5 EC

25. Emamectin 20g Bhendi Fruit borer

benzoate 1.9 EC

26. Emamectin 20g cotton Bollworms

benzoate 1.9 EC

27. Thiamethoxam 25 25g Cotton Sucking pests

WG

28. Thiamethoxam 25 Actara 25g Rice GLH & BPH

WG

29. Indoxacarb 14.5 Isacarb, 75g Cotton Bollworms

SC Avaunt

30. Indoxacarb 14.5 25g Cabbage Diamond back moth

SC

31. Indoxacarb (KN 4og Cabbage Diamond back moth

128)15 EC

32. Indoxacarb (KN 75g Cotton Bollworms

128)15 EC

33. Spinosad 2.5 SC Success 18.75g Cabbage Diamond back moth

34. Spinosad 45 SC Tracer 75g Chillies Fruit borers

35. Bifenthrin 10 EC Talstar 50g Rice Leaf folder

36. Spiromesifen 240 Oberon 120g Okra Red spidermite

SC

37. Spiromesifen 240 Oberon 96g Tea Tetranychid mite

 SC

38. Buprofezin 25 SC 200g Cotton Sucking pests

39. Buprofezin 25 SC 200g Rice GLH & BPH

40. Buprofezin 25 SC Applaud 25 325g Grapes Mealybugs

SC

41. Ethiprole 10 SC 50g Rice BPH, WBPH

42. Thiacloprid 24 SC Alanto 50g Rice BPH, WBPH

43. Propargite 570 EC Omite 570g Okra Red spider mite

44. Fenazaquin 10 EC Magister 100g Okra Red spider mite

45. Fenpyroximate 5 Senda, 30g Chillies mite

SC Mitigate

46. Chlorpenapyr 10 Intrepid 100g Cabbage Diamond back moth

SC

47. Diafenthiuron 50 0.16g Cardamom Shoot and capsule

WP borer, thrips

48. Diafenthiuron 50 Pegasus 0.1g Cardamom thrips

WP

49. Acetamiprid 20 SP Pride 50g Cotton Sucking pests

50. Abamectin 1.9 EC Abamectin 22.5g Cotton Boll worms

51. Chlorantraniliprol Coragen 40 g Chillies Fruit borers

e 20 SC

52. Chlorantraniliprol Coragen 40 g tomato Fruit borers

e 20 SC

53 Chlorantraniliprol Coragen 40 g Red gram Pod borer complex

e 20 SC

54. Chlorantraniliprol Coragen 10 g Cabbage Diamond back moth

e 20 SC

55 Lambdacyhalothri Icon 62.5g/ Household Mosquito

n 10%WP 1000sq.ft

56 Lambdacyhalothri Karate Zeon 25 g Brinjal, Borers

n 5 CS okra ,tomato
 Objectives

The objectives of the pest and disease surveillance

programme in Agricultural and Horticultural crops are to:

a. Detect species of pest or pathogen present

b. Assess levels of population / damage / infection
c. Study the influence of weather and seasonal
parameters on pests and diseases.
d. Know new species of pests and diseases.
e. Monitor the behaviour of pests under changing
cropping pattern / new varieties.
f. Find out natural enemy population
g. Watch the behaviour of pests under changing
cropping pattern/new varieties
h. Assess resistance/susceptibility/break-down of
resistance in crops to pests and diseases.
i. Monitor build-up of resistance in pests and pathogens
to pesticides
j. Mark endomic areas/pest calendar
k. Launch timely plant protection measures on need-
basis,
l. Reduce cost of cultivation
m. Avoid contamination to eco-system, and
n. To forewarn farmers

Methodology for Surveillance

 The surveillance programme encompasses (i)

fixed plot survey and (ii) roving survey. The
fixed plot and roving surveys involve the in
situ assessment of pests and diseases in the
standing crop. The supporting methodology
includes observations on the activity of pests
by setting up light traps, pheromone traps,
 spore traps, etc. The weather parameters of
the respective areas are also recorded to
study their influence on the pests and
diseases. The observations on the pests and
diseases cover their alternate cultivated host
crops and weed host plants.
A. Fixed Plot Survey

 Two fields of about 1 acre in size are

selected in two different villages in the
jurisdiction of each Agricultural Officers.
Five micro plots each of the size of one
square metre area are fixed in each field.
These micro plots are laid one each in four
quarters of the field and one in the middle.
The micro plots should be fixed about 10
metres away from the bunds. The
observations for most of the pests are
confined to five micro plots in each field.
B.Roving Survey

 The roving survey is conducted every week

at the rate of two fields in each of the four
villages in the jurisdiction of each
Agricultural Officers (T&V). In each field,
observations are recorded from the south
west corner by a diagonal walk.

Surveillance programme - three kinds

 The reports involved in the surveillance

programme are of three kinds.
White card report or Normal report
  This is a weekly report in which the pest and
disease situations are reported regularly.
Yellow card

 This is a special reporting system wherever

pest or disease is noticed at 50% of the
economic threshold level but still not
attained ETL status. The information is
immediately passed on for alerting the Joint
Director of Agriculture (T&V), his subject
matter specialists, and the scientists.
Red card

 This reporting system is adopted when a

pest or a disease has reached the critical
economic threshold level where immediate
action programme has to be launched for
controlling the pest or disease.

Survey

 Regular survey activity is necessary for

successful surveillance programmes.
Surveys may be qualitative or quantitative.
 Qualitative survey aims at pest detection,
employed with newly introduced pests and
often precedes quantitative survey.
 Quantitative survey attempts to define
numerically the abundance of an insect
population in time and space; useful for
future population detection and assessment
of damage potential.

Sampling
  Sampling requires that we take a
representative part of the total population
and base our estimate on that part. Sampling
technique is the method used to collect
information for a single sample.
 Sampling programme describes when
sampling is to begin, location of samples,
number of samples and how often samples
should be taken.
 Common sampling techniques are In situ
counts, knock down, netting, trapping,
extraction from soil, indirect technique.

Definitions

Decision making

 Decision making is the key stone in insect

pest management programmes; it indicates
the course of action to be taken in any pest
situation.
Economic Damage: is the amount of injury, which
justifies the cost of artificial control measures.
Gain Threshold: is the tem used to express the
beginning point of economic damage.
Management cost (Rs. /acre)
Gain Threshold = ——————————————————=
kg/acre
Market value of the product (Rs. /kg)
Economic Injury Level (EIL): is defined as the lowest
number of insects that will cause economic damage or
the minimum number of insect that would reduce yield
equal to gain threshold.
Economic Threshold (ET):

 Indicate the number of insects (density or

intensity) / damage when management
action should be taken to prevent
population/ damage reaching EIL.
Market value/crop value: is one of the most variable
factors and accounts for much of the change in EILs.
The relationship between EIL and market value is
inverse.
Management Costs: The cost of managing a pest
population must be estimated before profitability of an
action can be assessed.

Life table

 Life table is a condensed tabulation of

certain vital statistics of insect population,
which provides a format for recording, and
accounting for all population change is the
life cycle of a species. So the construction of
life table is an important component in the
understanding of the population dynamics of
a species. But it takes considerable time and
manpower to obtain realistic results. If
carried out correctly life table remain the
most important analytical technique
available for identifying key mortality
components in an insect pest’s life cycle.
 Age specific life tables are more commonly
used in entomology than time- specific life
tables. The former are based on the fate of a
real cohort throughout a generation, while
the latter are based on the fate of an
imaginary cohort. Age specific life table
 provides a means of identifying the potential
role of parasitoids and predators in the
regulation of pest population. The data
required to construct a life table for key
factor analysis are a series of successive
samples taken from each life stage of a
generation. The first step in constructing a
life table is to obtain an estimate of the
potential natality (Number of individual
entering post-ovarial stage). This is
calculated from an estimate of the mean
fecundity per female, which is multiplied by
the number of female of reproductive age.
Mortality refers to the total mortality
obtained in a population.

Utility of life tables

1. Calculation of replacement rate: A

valid life table can be determining whether a
population is growing, declining, or
remaining stable.
2. Simulation: Once a valid life table is
constructed for on insect population, it may
be used to stimulate the out come of
management decisions.
3. Determination of key factors: Key factor
analysis has proved to be a valuable aid in
identifying the environmental factors most
closely related to intergenerational
population trend.

Limitation
  Life table analysis is only as valid as the accuracy
of the sampling techniques used to obtain initial
data.

ntroduction

Introduction

 Use of natural enemies to suppress pest

species. The Natural enemies are
Predators, Parasitoids and Pathogens.
Classical biological control is cottony
cushion scale Icerya purchase in 1889
with Roaolia cardinalis beetle (Miracle of
Entomology). The steps involved in
biological control are
 Conservation and encouragement of
indigenous natural enemies.
 Importation of exotic natural enemies.
 Augmentation (mass rearing and release).
 Qualities of an effective natural enemy: 1)
Good host searching capacity. 2) Host
specificity. 3) Wider adaptability 4) High
dispersal ability 5) Amenability to
culturing. 6) Ability to withstand
competition. 7) Ability to outnumber the
pest. 8) High survival capacity.

Parasitoids

Parasite
  An animal species, which lives on or in a
larger animal, the host, feeding upon it, and
frequently destroying it. A parasite needs
only one or part of host to reach maturity.
Parasitoid

 An insect parasite of an arthropod; parasitic

only in its immature stages, destroying its
host in the process of its development, and
free living as an adult.
Types of parasitoids
1. Based on the developmental site in the host
a. Ectoparasitoid

 An insect parasite which develops externally

on its arthropod host.
 (eg). Bracon brevicornis on coconut black
headed caterpillars.
b. Endoparasitoid

 An insect parasitoid which develops within

the body of its arthropod host.
 (eg) Eriborius trochanteratus on coconut
black headed caterpillar.
2. Based on host specificity
a. Monophagous parasitoid

 Highly host specific attacking a single host

species. E.g. Parasierola
nephantidis (Goniozus) (Bethylidoe)
on Opisina arenosella (coconut black headed
caterpillars).
b. Oligophagous parasitoid
(Stenophagous): Attacking a group of related host
species.
c. Polyphagous parasitoid: Attack a wide variety of
host species. (eg) Trichogramma Spp.
(Trichogrammatidae) on eggs of
many Lepidopteran species.
3. Based on the host
a. Primary parasitoid: A parasitoid parasitizing a pest.
It is beneficial (eg) Trichogramma sp.
b. Seconday parasitoids: A parasitoid attacking
another parasitoid. It is harmful (eg.) Opisina
arenosella (pest) Bracon brevicornis (Primary parasitoid)
– Pleurotropis sp. (secondary parasitoid).
c. Tertiary parasitoid: A parasitoid attacking
secondary parasitoid. It is beneficial. (eg) Trichospilus
coerulescens

 All parasitoids whose hosts are parasitoids

are called as hyperparasitoids (Parasitoids of
Parasitoids).
4. Based on the number of parasitoids developing
from a single host insect
a.Solitary parasitoid:

 One progeny alone is capable of completing

its development in or on its host
(eg) Eriborus trochanteratus.
b. Gregarious parasitoid:

 Several progeny are capable of completing

its development in or on a single host. (eg)
Bracon breviconis.
 A further extension of gregaiousness is
Polyembryony in which several individuals
develop from a single egg. (eg) Platygaster.
5. Based on the stage of host insect attacked
Order: Hymenoptera (90% of parasitoid coming under
this order)
I.Egg parasitoid
a. Trichogramma chilonis: Trichogrammatidae –
Eggs of sugarcane internode borer, cotton
bollworm, rice leaf folder.
b. T. japonicum: Trichogrammatidae – Eggs of rice
stem borer
c. Telenomus rowani : Scelonidae – Eggs or rice
stem borer
d. T.remus : Scelonidae – Eggs of tobacco
caterpillar
II. Egg-Larval parasitoid
a. Chelonus blackburni: Braconidae – Eggs of
cotton spotted bollworm.
III. Larval parasitoid
a. Bracon hebetor: Braconidae – Larvae of coconut
black headed caterpillar
b. B.brevicornis :Braconidae – Larvae of coconut
black headed caterpillar
c. Compoletis chloridae: Ichneumonidae – Larvae of
H. armigera
d. Cotesia plutella :Braconidae – Larvae of
diamondback moth
e. Eriborus trochanteratus: Ichneumonidae – Larvae
of coconut black headed caterpillar
f. Goniozus nephantidis : Bethylidae – Larvae of
coconut black headed caterpillar
g. Platygaster oryzae: Platygasteridae – Larvae of
rice gall midge.
IV. Larval – Pupal parasitoid
a. Isotima javensis: Ichneumonidae – Pre – pupal
parasite of top shoot borer of sugarcane.
V.Pupal parasitoid
a. Brachymeria nephantidis; Chalcidae – Pupae of
coconut black headed caterpillar.
 b. Tetrastichus israeli: Eulophidae – Pupae of
coconut black headed caterpillar.
c. Trichospilus pupivora: Eulophidae – Pupae of
coconut black headed caterpillar.
d. Xanthopimpla punctata : Ichneumonidae
VI. Nymphal and adult parasitoid
a. Aphelinus mali : Aphelinidae – Aphids
b. Encarsia formosa: Aphelinidae – Cotton whitefly
Order: Diptera (10% of parasitoid coming under this
order)
I. Larval parasitoid
a. Sturmiospsis inferens: Tachinidae: Larvae of
sugarcane early shoot borer.
b. Spaggossia bassiana: Tachinide: Larvae of
coconut black headed caterpillar.
II. Larval – pupal parasitoid
a.Eucelatoria bryani: Tachinidae : Larvae of
H.armigera

Types of Parasitism

 Parasitism is a relationship between two

species in which one, the parasite, obtains
its nutritional requirements from the body
material of the other, the host.
 Simple parasitism: There is a single
attack of the parasitoid on the host
irrespective of the number of eggs laid.
(eg) Parasierola nephantidis on Opisina
arenosella.
 Super parasitism: Many individuals of the
same species of the parasitoid attack a
single host, (eg) Trichospilus
pupivora on Opisina arenosella.
  Multiparasitism: Parasitism by different
species of parasitoids on the same host at a
time. (eg) Eriborus trochanteratus, Bracon
brevicornis and Parasierola
nephantidis attacking Opisina arenosella.
 Hyperparasitism: Parasitoids attacking
another parasitoids. (eg) Pleurotropis
sp. (Hyperparasitoid) on Bracon
brevicornis (Primary parasitoid)
 Cleptoparasitism: Attack by a parasitoid
on a host previously parasitized by another
parasitoid. (eg) Eurytoma pini on Pine shoot
moth
 Autoparasitism (Adelphoparasitims): A
special type or parasitism in which the
female develops as a primary parasitoid,
but the male is a secondary parasitoid
through females of its own species.
(eg) Encarsia formosa a parasitoid of white
fly.

Adaptations in parasitioids

 Egg is laid on the host plant of the host by

the parasitoid. Egg of the parasitoid is
ingested into the body system of the host.
(eg) Tochinid fly.
 Parasitic larva finds its host when it moves in
search of food. (eg) Tachinid maggot.
 Eggs are laid on the outer surface of the
host. The parasitic grubs remain outside and
feed on the host. (eg) Bethlid on Opisina.
 Eggs may be laid outside. The hatching
grubs bore the body wall of the host and
feed inside the host.
 Eggs are laid and development occurs inside
the host.
 Adult parasites are highly efficient in
locating the host.
 They posses sense organs to locate the hosts.
 Ovipositor is suitably developed for proper
egg placement.
 Polyembryony – several individuals develop
from a single egg. Because of this, the larger
host is thoroughly exploited.
 Phoresy – One organism is utilized by
another for transport. (eg) A chalcid
parasitoid attaches itself to ant and gets
transported to ants nest for parasitizing the
ant grubs.

Ideal qualities of a parasitoid

 High host searching capacity – This is one of

the primary requisite particularly in a
situation of low host density.
 Having a narrowly limited host range – so
that when the pest population is reduced low
densities, the parasite is able to maintain
itself on alternate hosts. Alternate hosts may
accommodate the parasite population during
seasons when pest may accommodate the
parasite population during seasons when
pest is not available or when the pest is
controlled by chemical insecticides.
However, the available host range should not
be so large that the parasite population host
range should not be so large that the
parasite population dissipates itself upon
economically harmless species.
  Having a life cycle considerably shorter than
that of the pest when the pest population
consists of overlapping generations and
having a life cycle synchronized with that of
the pest when the pest population is
composed of a single development stage at
any time.
 Potential rate of increase (high fecundity) to
keep the pest population under check.
 Able to survive in all habitats occupied by
the pest i.e. the natural enemy should have
adaptability to a board range of climatic
variations.
 Able to be cultured easily in the laboratory
 Able to quickly reduce the pest population
 Absence of superparasitism and
multiparasitism.

Parasitoids of agricultural importance

Parasitoids of agricultural importance

 Trichogramma sp. – egg parasitoid of

sugarcane intermode borer.
 Chelonus balckburni – egg larval parasitoid of
potato tuber moth
 Bracon brevicornis – Larva parasitoid of
coconut blackheaded caterpillar (BHC)
 Parasierola nephantidis – Larva parasitoid of
coconut BHC
 Eriborus trochanteratus – Larva parasitoid of
coconut BHC
 Eucelatoria bryani – Larval parasitoid of
American bolloworm Helicoverpa armigera
 Sturmiopsis inference – Larval parasitoid of
 sugarcane shoot borer
 Eucarcelia illota – Larval pupal parasitoid
of H.armigera
 Trichospilus pupivora – Pupal parasitoid of
coconut BHC
 Tetrastichus israeli – Pupal parasitoid of
coconut BHC

Insect predators

 A predator is a free living organism

throughout its life, it kills the prey, usually
larger than the prey and requires more than
one prey to complete its development.
Differences between Predators and Parasitoids
Predator Parasitoid

1. Very active Sluggish

2. Stronger and larger Smaller and not stronger

3. More intelligent than prey Not more markedly more

intelligent than the host.

4. Habitat is independent of Habitat is made and

the host determined during their
developmental period by
that of host

5. Life cycle is longer Life cycle is short

6. Seized prey is killed and Takes a longer time to kill

eaten immediately the host

7. Several insects are attacked Require only one host

in a short period

8. Attack on prey is meant for It is for providing food for

obtaining food for the the off spring
attacking predator

9. Organs of locomotion and Not so well developed

 mouth parts are well
developed

10. Ovipositor not well Ovipositor well developed

developed

11. Not specialized in food Exhibit food specialization

habits

Adaptations in insect predators

1. Vision

 i) Compound eyes are large. (eg) Dragonfly –

the compound eyes are holoptic each eye
with 20,000 immatidia. The entire head is
covered by the compound eyes. Even slight
movement can be perceived in the field of
vision.
 ii) Mobility of head enhances the vision (eg)
preying mantis.
 iii) Protruberant compound eyes (eg)
Robberfly
2. Special organs

 i)Mask: Labium is modified as prehensile

organ in naiads of dragon fly. It is an
elongated joined structure bearing hooks at
the apex. When it is not in use, it is folded
kept over the face and forms mask.
 ii)Raptorial leg or grasping leg. The femur
and tibia are toothed, spines and the prey is
caught between femur and tibia. (eg)
Preying mantis, water scorpion.
 iii) Basket like leg arrangement found in
Dragonflies to capture the prey while at
flight.
  iv). Mandibulosucktorial mouth parts for
piercing and sucking body fluid, (eg)
Dragonfly adult.
3. Fast flying capacity is found in most of the flying
predators for chasing and capturing the prey.
4. Rapid pounce upon the prey while at flight (eg)
Robberfly adult.
5. Trapping

 Ant lion grubs and ground beetle grubs

construct conical and vertical pits,
respectively for trapping the prey.
6. Stinging predators

 Few wasps sting and paralyse the victims

and store them as food for the young ones.
They keep a caterpillar per nest and lay an
egg in each nest. The nest is then closed by
the wasp.
I. Insect predators of agricultural importance
Insects Order and Name Prey insect
Family

1.Coleoptera

i)Coccinellidae- Coccinelia -Aphids

(Lady bird beetle) septumpunctata -Aphids
C.rependa -Grape vine mealy
Scymnus coccivora bug
Menochilus -Mealy bugs and
sexmaculata scales
Rodolia cardinalis -Cottony cushion
Chilocorus nigritus scale
Cryptolaemus -Tapioca scales
montrouzieri -Grape vine mealy
bug

ii)Carabidae (ground Parena lacticincta -Coconut black

beetle) Ophionea sp. headed caterpillar
Paederus fuscipes -Rice BPH
-Rice leaf folder
iii)Cicindellidae
(Tiger beetle)

2.Hemiptera

i.Reduviidae Rhinocoris fuscipes -H.armigera

(Reduviid bug) Platymeris -Coconut rhinoceros
laevicollis beetle

i.Miridae (Mirid bug) Cyrtohimus -Rice hoppers

lividipennis

ii.Velidae (Riffle bug) Microvelia -Rice leaf and plant

atrolineata hoppers

3. Neuroptera

i.Chrysopidae (Lace Chrysoperla carnea -Aphids, scales

wing fly) bollworms mealy
bug

i.Chrysopidae (Lace Chrysoperla carnea -Aphids scales

wing fly) bollworms mealy
bug

ii.Myrmeliontidae
(Antlion)

4.General predators

i.Dragon flies Naiads and adults On small insect,

butterflies

ii. Damsel flies Naiads and adults On small insects,

caterpillars

iii. Preying mantids Naidas and adults Grasshoppers,

caterpillars,
butterflies

iv. Giant water bug Adults Small aquatic

insects

v.Robber flies Adult Small insects

vi.Hover flies Larva Aphids

(Syrphids)

vii.Wasps Adult Caterpillars

Other
i.Arachmids Spiders scorpions On insects and mites
and mites

ii.Fishes Gambusia offinis, On mosquito larvae

Fundulus

iii.Amphibians Frogs and toads On small insects

iv.Birds Ducks, Owls Rice BPH

King crow, Mynah, On rats
Wood pecker Caterpillar

v.Reptiles Lizards,Snakes Small insects, Rats

2. Mass production of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri

Field release

 For citrus mealy bug and grape vine mealy

bug, release 10 beetles/tree (or) vine. Before
releasing the predators, the ant movement
should be arrested.
Biological control – microbials

 Microorganisms which cause diseases in

host insects are known as insect pathogens.
Utilisation of insect pathogen and their
products in the suppression of insect pests is
known as microbial control (eg) virus,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rickettsiae and
nematodes.
 Desirable attributes of an insect pathogen:
Highly virulent, Cost effectiveness, Harmless
to other forms of life, Rapid prevention of
pest feeding.
a. Insect viruses
  Insect viruses are often occluded in protein
crystals called inclusion bodies.
 There are 3 types of inclusion viruses.
 Nuclear polyhedrosis virus
(NPV):Occluded singly or in groups in
polyhedral inclusion bodies. Site of
multiplication is in cell nucleus of epidermis,
fat body, blood cells and trachea. Symtom
is Wipfelkrankheit or top disease (eg)
NPV of Spodoptera and NPV of Helicoverpa
armigera.
 Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus
(CPV): Spherical virions are occluded singly
in polyhedral inclusion bodies. Site of
multiplication is cytoplasm of midgut
epithelium (eg) CPV of cabbage looper
Trichoplusia ni.
 Granulosis virus (GV): Virions are
occulded singly in small inclusion bodies
called capsules. Site of multiplication is
either cytoplasm or nucleus of epidermis,
trachea and fat body (e.g) GV of Early shoot
borer sugarcane. The important family
among the viruses is Baculoviridae, which
include nuclear polyheadrosis viruses (NPV)
and granulosis viruses (GV). They are
obligate pathogens requiring the living host
insects for development and multiplication.
Disease caused by the virus is called as
virosis. They are highly specific and do not
attack benficial insects besides safe to other
animals including man.
a. Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV)
  The virus consist of proteinaceous
polyhedral occlusion bodies inside which the
virions or virus rods are embedded.
Mode of entry

 The virus should be ingested to produce the

disease (Per as). Due to alkaline gut juice,
the virions are liberated from the polyhedral
coat, which attack nuclei of cells of
tissues viz., fat body tracheal matrix,
haemocytes, sarcolemma of muscles,
neurilemma and nerve cells of ganglion and
brain.
Symptoms

 Insects become dull in colour, feeding rate is

reduced and larvae become pinkish white
especially in the ventral side due to
accumulation of polyhedral. In advanced
stage larvae become flaccid, the skin
becomes very fragile and eventually rupture,
Diseased larvae hand upside down from the
plants. This is called tree top disease (or)
Wipfelkrankeit
Incubation period

 4-6 days depending upon the stage of the

infection, weather conditions and dose of
virus. Early instars are most susceptible to
the virus.
1. Mass culturing of NPV of Spodoptera litura

 S.Litura can be mass cultivated using the

natural food – castor leaves in plastic
 container under laboratory conditions. The
steps involved in the production of S.litura

Dose

 The dose of S.litura virus is 250 larval

equivalent (LE)/ha. The dose is expressed as
LE and one LE is 6x109 POBs. One LE can
be obtained from three fully grown up and
virus infected or diseased larvae.
2. Mass culturing of NPV of Helicoverpa armigera

3. Mass production of NPV of Amsacta albistriga

 The A.albistriga larvae cane be collected

form the groundnut fields from endemic
areas, and reared in the laboratory using
Calotropis leaves after removing the wax
layer with the help of muslin cloth. The NPV
treated Calotropis leaves are given to the
preistarved larvae and the procedure for
NPV production is similar as that
of S.litura NPV.

Pesticide application methods

 The desired effect of pesticide can be

obtained only if it is applied by an
appropriate method in appropriate time. The
method of application depends on nature of
pesticide, formulation, pests to be managed,
site of application, availability of water etc.
1. Dusting

 Dusting in carried out in the morning hours

and during very light air stream. It can be
done manually or by using dusters. Some
times dust can be applied in soil for the
control of soil insects. During is cheaper and
suited for dry land crop pest control.
2. Spraying

 Spraying is normally carried out by mixing

EC (or) WP formulations in water. There are
three types of spraying.
3. Granular application

 Highly toxic pesticides are handled safely in

the form of granules. Granules can be
applied directly on the soil or in the plant
parts.
 The methods of application are
a) Broadcasting: Granules are mixed with equal
quantity of sand and broadcasted directly on the
soil or in thin film of standing water. (eg)
Carbofuran 3%G applied @ 1.45kg/8 cent rice
nursery in a thin film of water and impound water
for 3 days.
b) In furrow application: Granules are applied at
the time of sowing in furrows applied @ 3 g per
meter row for the control of sorghum shootfly.
c) Side dressing: After the establishment of the
plants, the granules are applied a little away from
the plant (10-15 cm) in a furrow.
d) Spot application: Granules are applied @ 5 cm
away and 5 cm deep on the sides of plant. This
reduces the quantity of insecticide required.
 e) Ring application: Granules are applied in a
ring form around the trees.
f) Root zone application: Granules are
encapsulated and placed in the root zone of the
plant. (eg) by mixing it with equal quantity of sand
in the central whorl of crops like sorghum, maize,
sugarcane to control internal borers.

h) Pralinage: The surface of banana sucker

intended for planting is trimmed. The sucker is
dipped in wet clay slurry and carbofuran 3G is
sprinkled (20-40 g/sucker) to control burrowing
nematode.
4. Seed pelleting/seed dressing

 The insecticide mixed with seed before

sowing (eg.) sorghum seeds are treated with
chlorpyriphos 4ml/kg in 20 ml of water and
shade dried to control shootfly. The
carbofuran 50 SP and imdacloprid is directly
used as dry seed dressing insecticide against
cotton sucking pests.
5. Seedling root dip

 It is followed to control early stage pests (eg)

in rice to control sucking pests and stem
borer in early transplanted crop, a shallow
pit lined with polythene sheet is prepared in
the field. To this 0.5 kg urea in 2.5 litre of
water and 100 ml chlorpyriphos in 2.5 litre
of water prepared separately are poured.
The solution is made upto 50 1 with water
and the roots of seedlings in boundless are
dipped for 20 min before transplanting.
6. Sett treatment

 Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05%

malathion for 15 minutes to protect them
from scales. Treat the sugarcane setts in
0.05% Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 175 g/ha or 7
g/l dipped for 15 minutes to protect them
from termites.
7. Trunk/stem injection

 This method is used for the control of

coconut pests like black headed caterpillar,
mite etc. Drill a downward slanting hole of
1.25 cm diameter to a depth of 5 cm at a
light of about 1.5m above ground level and
inject 5 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC into
the stem and plug the hole with cement (or)
clay mixed with a fungicide. Pseudo stem
injection of banana, an injecting gun or
hypodermic syringe is used for the control of
banana aphid, vector of bunchy top disease.
8. Padding

 Stem borers of mango, silk cotton and

cashew can be controlled by this method.
Bark of infested tree (5x5 cm) is removed on
three sides leaving bottom as a flap. Small
quantity of absorbent cotton is placed in the
exposed area and 5-10 ml of Monocrotophos
36 WSP is added using an ink filler. Close
the flap and cover with clay mixed with
fungicide.
9. Swabbing
  Coffee white borer is controlled by swabbing
the trunk and branches with lindane 1 per
cent suspension.
10. Root feeding

 Trunk injection in coconut results in

wounding of trees and root feeding is an
alternate and safe chemical method to
control black headed caterpillar, eriophyid
mite, red palm weevil. Monocrotophos 10 ml
and equal quantity of water are taken in a
polythene bag and cut the end (slant cut at
45) of a growing root tip (dull white root) is
placed inside the insecticide solution and the
bag is tied with root. The insecticide
absorbed by root, enter the plant system and
control the insect.
11. Soil drenching

 Chemical is diluted with water and the

solution is used to drench the soil to control
certain subterranean pests. (eg)
Chlorpyriphos / dimethoate used against
cutworms, soilmealy bug.
12. Capsul placement

 The systemic poison could be applied in

capsules to get toxic effect for a long period.
(eg) In banana to control bunchy top vector
(aphid) the insecticide is filled in gelatin
capsules and placed in the crown region.
13. Baiting

 The toxicant is mixed with a bait material so

as to attract the insects towards the toxicant.
 A) Spodoptera. A bait prepared with 0.5 kg
molasses (jiggery), 0.5 kg carbaryl 50WP and
5 kg of rice bran with required water (3
litres) is made into small pellets and dropped
in the field in the evening hours. B) Rats:
Zinc phosphide is mixed of 1:49 ratio with
food like popped rice or maize or cholam or
coconut pieces (or) warfarin can be mixed at
1:19 ratio with food. Ready to use cake
formulation (Bromodiolone) is also available.
C) Coconut rhinoceros beetle: Castar rotten
cake 5 kg is mixed with insecticide.
14. Fumigation

 Fumigants are available in solid and liquid

forms. They can be applied in the following
way. Soil: To control the nematode in soil,
the liquid fumigants are injected by using
injecting gun. Storage: Liquid fumigants like
Ethylene dibromide (EDB), Methyl bromide
(MB), carbon tetrachloride etc. and solid
fumigant like Aluminium phosphide are
recommended in godowns to control stored
product pest. Trunk: Aluminium phosphide
½ to 1 tablet is inserted into the affected
portion of coconut tree and plugged with
cement or mud for the control of red palm
weevil.

. Preparation of spray solution

1) Quantity of insecticide required. The requirement of

quantity of commercial formulation of the insecticide
can be calculated by the formula.
 Volume of spray fluid x Strength of the spray
solution desired (%)

=
――――――――――――――――――――――――――
――――――

Strength of commercial formulation (%)

2. Strenth of the finished spray solution: To calculate the

strength of a finished spray solution when a known
quantity of chemical is added to known quantity of
water, the following formula may be adopted.

Quantity of the insecticide used x

Strength of the insecticide (%)

=
――――――――――――――――――――――――――
―――――――

Quantity of finished spray solution

required

3. In case of granules

Recommended dose
a.i./ha x 100

Quantity of chemical needed =

――――――――――――――――――――― x Area

% a.i.of insecticide

Points to be considered in spray fluid preparation

spraying

 Use good quality water to prepare spray

fluid
  Prepare spray fluid in clean drum or plastic
buckets
 For mixing pesticide, use long handled stir
 Always prepare spray fluid just before use
 Spraying should be done under ideal
weather conditions
 The walking speed of the operator should be
uniform to ensure even coverage of spray
chemicals in the targt area.
Botanicals

 Among the plant derivatives, neem oil 0.5 to

3 per cent and neem seed kernel extract 5
per cent with teepol 0.05 per cent are quite
effective against major pest of fruits crops,
vegetables etc. Neem oil (NO): to get a per
cent solution first mix 30 ml of neem oil with
5 ml of sticking agent teepol until white
emulsion is formed. Then add one litre of
water and mix thoroughly for use of spray
fluid. Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE): For
the preparation of 5 per cent NSKE, take 50
gm of powered seed kernel and soak it the in
small quantity of water, over night. Filter
through muslin cloth and make up the
volume to one litre. Add one ml of teepol per
litre before spraying high volume sprayer.
Neem leaf powder: Powder shade dried
neem leaves and use as such to word off
stored product pests. Neem products are
applied as high volume sprays during early
morning or late evening hours for better
efficacy with low degradation. The following
neem based pesticide formulations have
been registered provisionally under the
 Insecticides Act, 1968 for the control of
insect pests of okra, red gram, cotton,
Bengal gram, brinjal, cabbage, potato,
tomato, tobacco, rice, groundnut, fruit trees,
etc.

Formulation Trade name

Neem triterpene emulsion (Kernel extract Margocide CK 20 EC

containing 0.03% azadirachtin)

Neem oil emulsion containing azadirachtin Margocide OK 20 EC Nimbecidine

0.03%

Neem oil based WSP containing azadirachtin Achook

0.03%

Azadirachtin technical concentrate 10% w/w Neemgold

(0.15%)

Neem oil 93% EC containing 0.03% w/w RD-9 Repelin 93 EC

azadirachtin

Other plant products

Chrysanthemum

 Pyrethrum based formulations are obtained

from flowers of chrysanthemum. Two
formulations like Pyrethrum 0.2% D and
Pyrethrum 1% EC are registered for use
against the pests of vegetables.
Tobacco

 Waste tobacco extract, nicotine 40% solution

and nicotine sulphate 10% WDP registered
for research purpose. Notchi leaf extract
10% mahua oil 3%, pinnai oil 3% pungam oil
3% etc. are used in pest management.
Vegetable edible oils are also used as seed
dressing material (1:100) to avoid the egg
 laying by pulse beetles in black gram, peas,
lab-lab, green gram.

Safe handling of pesticides

1. Storage of pesticide

a. Storehouse should be away from populated

areas, wells, domestic water storage, tanks.
b. All pesticides should be stored in their original
labeled containers in tightly sealed condition.
c. Store away from the reach of children, away from
flames and keep them under lock and key.

2. Personal protective equipment: Protective

clothing that cover arms, legs, nose and head to
protect the skin.

a. Gloves and boots to protect the skin.

b. Helmets, goggles and facemask to protect hair,
eyes and nose.
c. Respiration to avoid breathing dusts, mists and
vapour.

3. Safety in application of pesticides

 Safe handling of pesticides (Fig.) involves

proper selection and careful handling during
mixing and application.
a) Pesticide selection

 Selection of a pesticide depend on the type

of pest, damage, losses caused, cost etc.
Safety before application: i) Read the label and leaflet
carefully. ii) Calculate the required quantity of pesticide.
iii) Wear protective clothing and equipment before
handling. iv) Avoid spillage and prepare spray fluid in
well ventilated area. v) Stand in the direction of the wind
on back when mixing pesticides. vi) Don’t eat, drink or
smoke during mixing. vii) Dispose off the containers
immediately after use.
b) Safety during application
i) Wear protective clothing and equipment. ii) Spray
should be done in windward direction. iii) Apply correct
coverage. iv) Do not blow, suck or apply mouth to any
spray nozzle. v) Check the spray equipment before use
for any leakage.
c) Safety after application: i) Empty the spray tank
completely after spraying. ii) Avoid the draining the
contaminated solution in ponds, well or on the grass
where cattle graze. iii) Clean the spray equipment
immediately after use. iv) Decontaminate protective
clothing and foot wear. v) Wash the hands thoroughly
with soap water, preferably have a bath. vi) Dispose off
the containers by putting into a pit. vii) Sprayed field
must be marked and unauthorized entry should be
prevented. First aid: In case of suspected poisoning, call
on the physician immediately. Before calling on a doctor,
first aid treatments can be done by any person.
Swallowed poison: 1) during vomiting, head should be
faced downwards. 2) Stomach content should be
removed within 4h of poisoning. 3) To give a soothing
effect, give either egg mixed with water, gelatin, butter,
cream, milk, smashed potato. 4) In case of nicotine
poisoning, give coffee or strong tea.
Skin contamination: 1) contaminated clothes should
be removed. 2) Thoroughly wash with soap and water.
Inhaled poison: 1) Person should be moved to a
ventilated place after loosing the tight cloths. 2) Avoid
applying frequent pressure on the chest.
 Antidotes and medicine for treatment in pesticide
poisoning

S.N Antidote / Medicine Used in poisoning due to

o

1. Commont salt (Sodium Stomach poison in general

chloride)

2. Activated charcoal (&g) in Stomach poison in general

warm Magnesium oxide (3.5
g) water Tannic acid (3.5g)

3. Gelatin (18 g in water) of Stomach poison in general

Flour or milk power (or)
Sodium thiosulphate

4. Calcium gluconate Chlorinated insecticide, Carbon

tetrachloride, ethylene
dichloride. Mercurial compound

5. Phenobarbital (or) Stomach poison of chlorinated

Pentobarbital or azapam (5- hydrocarbon insecticides.
10 mg) intravenons
administrations

6. Sodium bicarbonate Stomach poison of

organophosphate compounds

7. Atropine sulphate (2-4 mg Organophosphate Compounds

intramuscular / intravenous
administrations) or PAM
(Pyridine –Z aldoxime N-
methyliodide)

8. Atropine sulphate (2-4 mg Carbamates

intramuscular / intravenous
administrations)

9. Enobarbital, Synthetic pyrethoid

Diphenylhydration

10. Potassium permanganate Nicotine, Zinc phosphide

11. Vitamin K1 and K2 Warfarin, Zinc phosphide

12. Afferine sodium benzonate Carbon disulphide, methyl

bromide
13. Inephrine Methyl bromide

14. Methyl nitrite ampule Cyanides

15. Etachlopramide (10 mg) Cyclodiene compounds

intravenous

INSECT OF MANGO
INFLORESCENCE FEEDER

Mango hopper-Idioscopus
niveosparsus Leth, I.clypealis Leth
and Amritodes atkinsoni Leth.

( Cicadellidae : Hemiptera )

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

tender shoots and inflorescence resulting in
withering and shedding of flower buds and
flowers leads to wilting and drying of shoots
and leaves.
 The flower stalks and leaves of infested trees
become sticky due to the deposition of
honey-dew secreted by the hoppers that
encourages the growth of black sooty mould
on foliage and other plant parts.
 The peak activity is confined during blossom
and the loss ranges from 25 to 60 %. During
the off - season, the hoppers congregate on
newly developed shoots and suck the sap,
results in malformation the leaves feeding on
them.
  As a consequence, leaves become malformed
and undersized.
 The hoppers take shelter in cracks and
crevices on the barks during non-flowering
season.
Bionomics

 Of these three species, A. atkinsoni is the

largest one occurring right through the year
and other two species have been observed to
be mostly present during the blooming of the
tree.
 The largest A. atkinsoni has two spots on
scutellum while the smalll. clypealis has two
spots on scutellum and dark spot on the
vertex, while the least sized 1 . niveosparsus
has three spots on scutellum.
 The adult hopper is light greenish-brown
with black and yellow markings, wedge
shaped with broad head measures 3-4 mm in
length.
 It inserts the eggs singly into the plant
tissues of young leaves, shoots, flower stalks
and unopened flowers.
 A female lays about 200 eggs.
 The eggs hatch in 4-7 days.
 The nymph with red eyes appeared while
yellowish green to greenish brown during
the 5 instar occupying 8-13 days.
 The total life cycle from egg to adult takes 2-
3 weeks for completion.

. Aphid

2. Aphid-Toxopetra odinae Vdg.

 (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

tender shoots and inflorescence resulting
drying up of the same plant parts and
development of sooty mould.
Management

 Spray dimethoate 30 EC 1.77ml or

methyldemeton 25 EC 1 ml / litre water

3. Flower webber-Eublemma versicolor (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar webs together the flower

buds and inflorescence.
 It remains inside the web and feeds on the
floral parts and also tunnels into the flower
stalks.
Bionomics

 The moth is purplish grey with an oblique

line on the wings.
 It lays eggs singly on the pedicels and sepals
of flower buds.
 The incubation period is 3-4 days.
  The full grown larva is smooth, greenish
yellow with light brown head and a pro -
thoracic shield measuring 20 mm in length.
 The larval period is 18-20 days.
 It pupates inside the inflorescence and
emerges as adult in 8-9 days.
 The life cycle is completed in 29-33 days.
Management

 Remove and destroy affected flowers and

tender shoots.
 Spray dimethoate 30 EC 0.06% or methyl
demeton 25 EC 0.05% or Dimethoate 0.03
%.

.Hairy caterpillar Eurproctis fraterna M. Porthesia

scintillans Wlk.
(Lymantridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar webs the inflorescence and

feed on them causing shedding of flower
buds and flowers.
Bionomics

 The adult moth of E. fraterna is yellowish

with pale transverse lines on the fore wings.
 The larva is reddish brown with reddish head
surrounded by white hairs and long tufts of
hair all over the body and a long preanal
tuft.
 The adult of P. scintillans is yellowish with
spots on the edges offore wings.
  The larva is yellow colored with brown head,
a yellow stripe with a central red line on the
body and tufts of black hairs dorsally on the
first three abdominal segments.

5. Loopers Thalassodes quadraria Guen. (Geometridae :

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larvae web together the inflorescence

and tunnel into the flower stalk.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is greenish in colour.

 The larva possessing the colour of new shoot
and assuming a typical pose on•twing in
often mistaken for a leaf petiole.

6. Looper

6. Looper- Chloroclystis sp. (Geometridae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva enters in the flower buds and

damages the ovaries of newly opened flowers
Bionomics

 The adult moth is small and delicate with

greyish wings bearing wavy lines.

7. Flower gall midge-Procystiphora mangiferaae Felt.

 (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot feeds on the internal content of

the buds which become conical in shape,
turn brown and drop.
 The infestation results in flower dropping
and malformation of flowers.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is light orange in colour.

 It lays eggs inside the flower buds.
 The maggot feeds on stalks of stamen,
anthers, and ovary.
 It pupates inside the bud itself.
 The life cycle is completed in 12-24 days.

8. Flower gall midge-Erosomyia indica Felt.

(Cecidomyiidae: Diptera )

Damage

 The maggot infests the flower buds,

inflorescence stalk and developing fruits.
 The inflorescence becomes stunted and
malformed.
 The infested bud does not open.
Bionomics

 The adult is yellowish in colour.

 It lays the eggs on inflorescence peduncle or
at the base of developing fruit.
  The maggot is yellowish and it pupates in the
soil.

9.Flower gall midge-Dasyneura amaramanjarae Grov.

(Cecidomyiidae :Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot feeds on the ovary and the

nectaries of growing bud which fail to
produce fruits.
 Several larvae are found in single flower.
Bionomics

 The adult flies insert the eggs into un opened

flower buds.
 A female fly lays about 40-50 eggs.
 The incubation period is 30-36 hours.
 The larva becomes full fed after three moults
and drop down to the soil to undergo
diapause.
 The maggot hibernate in soil thus the carry
over of the pest to the next year is
accomplished.
 When the favourable condition set in they
pupate and emerge as adults.
BORERS

1.Stemborer-Batocera rufomaculata Dejean.

(Cerambycidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The larva chews out the bark resulting zig-
zag galleries and silken webbed masses
comprising of chewed materials and excreta.
Bionomics

 Adult moth is pale brown with fore wings

having brown spots and streaks and white
hind wings.
 The larva is 40-45 mm long, stout and dirty
brown in colour.

2.Bark caterpillar

2.Bark caterpillar-Indarbela tetraonis Moore

and L.quadrinotata Wlk. (Metarbelidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The larva chews out the bark resulting zig-

zag galleries and silken webbed masses
comprising of chewed materials and
excreta.
Bionomics

 Adult moth is pale brown with fore wings

having brown spots and streaks and white
hind wings.
 The larva is 40-45 mm long, stout and dirty
brown in colour.

3. Shoot borer Clumetia transversa Walk. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
 Damage

 The caterpillar bores into the tender shoots

from top to downwards make a
characteristic tunnel to a depth of 5-6
inches.
 The damage resulted in stunting of whole
seedling with individual twigs showing a
peculiar terminal bunchy appearance.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is greyish with dark grey

wing having wavy designs.
 The eggs are laid singly and they hatch in 2-
3 days.
 The larva is dark pink with dark brown pro -
thoracic shield.
 It pupates in soil on the damaged shoot.

4. Fruit borer-Hyalospila leuconeurella Rogonot.

(Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva borers into the developing fruits and

tunnel into the pulp.

5. Fruit fly

6. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) dorsalis Hend.

( Tephritidae : Diptera )
 Damage

 The maggot destroy and convert the pulp

into a bad smelling, discoloured semi
liquid mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and
start rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes
out on pressing.

Bionomics

The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and
yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the
skin of the ripening fruits. A single female lays up to 200 eggs
during oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full grown in about 7
days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.
Management

1. Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off -

season.
2. Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
3. Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol
1 ml/ 1 litre of water + 1 ml of Malathion solution.
4. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep them at 25
different places in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect and
destroy the adult flies.
5. Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia
philippinensis.
6. Use bait spray combining molasses or jaggery 10g/1 and one
of the insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC
2 ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two
rounds at fortnightly intervals before ripening of the fruits.
7. Spray fenthion 2 ml / litre or Malathion 2 ml / litre of water.

6. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) dorsalis Hend.

( Tephritidae : Diptera )

Damage
  The maggot destroy and convert the pulp
into a bad smelling, discoloured semi liquid
mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and start
rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes out
on pressing.

Bionomics

 The adult fly is brown or dark brown with

hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15
just beneath the skin of the ripening fruits. A
single female lays up to 200 eggs during
oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full
grown in about 7 days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

 Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae

during the off - season.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
 Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol.
Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of water
+ 1 ml of Malathion solution.
 Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep
them at 25 different places in one ha
between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy the
adult flies.
 Conserve parasitoids like Optius
compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or
jaggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50
WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals
before ripening of the fruits.
 7. Spray fenthion 2 ml / litre or Malathion 2 ml / litre of
water.

6. Mango nut weevil - Sternochetus mangiferae Fab.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

 The grub tunnel in a zig - zag manner

through the pulp endocarp and the seed coat
and they finally reach the cotyledons.
 As the fruit develops the tunnel get closed.
 The grub feeds on the cotyledons and
destroy them.
 The adults who emerge from the pupae also
feed on the developing seed and this may
hasten the maturity of infested fruits.

Bionomics
 The adult weevil is stoutly built, 6 mm long,
dark brown in colour.
 It lays eggs singly on the marble sized fruits
by scooping out the surface tissue and cover
over with a transparent secretion.
 The ovipositon puncture heals leaving
minute spot. On a single fruit up to 15 eggs
may be laid in a day.
 The egg period is 7 days.
 The newly hatched out grub is creamy,
yellow apodous tunnel the fruit pulp and
enter into cotyledons.
 The larval period is 20-30 days. It undergoes
five larval instars and pupate inside the nut
along the concave side.
 The pupal period is 7 days. The total life
cycle occupies 40-50 days.
 The adult often remain inside the nut until
they are thrown away after consumption of
the pulp.
  The weevil hides in crevices of the tree trunk
as they have longevity of 10 months.
Management

 Follow prophylactic measures in Neelum and

Bangalora varieties as these varieties are
susceptible.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits, which
contain 85 % of the weevil
 Spray emamectin benzoate 1 ml / litre during
marble stage and second spray at 15 days
after the first spray.
 Take up insecticides spray directing towards
the base of the trunks during the non-
flowering season.
 Tieing red ant colonies in mango orchards
help to reduce the damage of nut weevil
remarkably.

LEAF FEEDERS

1. Shoot webber

1. Shoot webber- Orthaga exvinacea Hmps.

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs together the leaves and

feed on them.
 The infested leaves wither and dry up. In
case of severe attack, a tree shows many
webbed nests of leaves presenting on the
whole a sickly appearance.
Bionomics
 The adult moth is greyish with dark patches on the wings.
It lays eggs in small clusters on the silken webbing's or singly
on the ribs of the leaves.
 Fecundity is 30-50 egg / female.
 The egg period is 4 days.
 The larva is pale green with dark bands.
 The larval period is about a month.
 It undergoes 5 instars and pupates within silken cocoon in
the webbed up clusters for 1 -14 days.
Management

 Remove and destroy webbed leaves along with larvae and

pupae.
 Spray carbaryl 50 WP at 0.1%.
 Encourage activity of predators, carabid beetle Parena
lacticincta; reduviid Oecama sp; parasitoid Hormiusa and
fungus Paecilomyces farinosus.

. Leaf caterpillar

2. Leaf caterpillar-Bombotelia jocosatrix Guen.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva feeds on tender leaves causing

defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth has dark brown fore wing.

3. Leaf caterpillar-Euthalia garuda M. (Nymphalidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on leaves.

Bionomics
  The adult butterfly is brownish black with
white spots on wings. The caterpillar has the
colour of lead and is not easily detected on it

4. Slug caterpillar

4. Slug caterpillar-Parasa lepida Cramer. (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves

gregariously in the beginning,
subsequently they disperse.
 It causes severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is stout with wing expanse

of 4.0 cm and having green wings fringed
with brown patches.
 The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on
the under surface of leaves.
 The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.
 The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs /
female.
 The egg period is 7 days.
 The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with
yellowish green body bearing a greenish
blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green
stripes laterally.
 The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes
seven instars.
 It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish
cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5 weeks.
Management
  Set up light traps to monitor and kill the
adult moths.
 Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or)
dichlorovos 0.02 % or malathion 0.05 %
solution.
 In severe cases, root feeding of
monocrotophos as explained earlier
under leaf eating caterpillar may be taken
up with safety precautions.
 Collect all the stages of pests viz., eggs on
tree trunks, leaves, larvae
during migration stage, pupae in soil and
leaf sheath and adult moth
during emergence and destruction.
 Organise mass collection campaign
involving farmers, school children
and college students.
 Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using
specially designed tractor mounted tall
tree sprayer.
 Dust methyl parathion or Dimethoate 0.03
% / tree using power operated bellowed
crane duster to reach tall trees.
 Encourage the predatory birds to pick up
the larval stages.

5. Leaf miner

5. Leaf miner- Acrocercops syngramma Meyr.

( Gracillaridae : Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The caterpillar mines into the leaves producing
blister like patches on them.

Bionomics

 The adult moth is silvery grey moth with fringes

of hairs on the wing margin.
 The larva is reddish brown in colour.

6.Shoot borer

6.Shoot borer - Platypeplus (= Argyroploce)

aprobola Meyr. ( Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs together the leaves, buds and

flowers and bore into shoots.

7. Leaf midges - Amradiplosis amraemyia Grover., A.

brunneigallicola Rao and
A.echinogalliperda Mani. (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot forms different shapes and sizes of

galls on leaves.
 Bionomics

 The adult is tiny mosquito like fly and the maggot

is yellowish in colour.
Management

 Spray diniethoate1.7ml or methyl demeton 2 ml /

litre of water.

8. Leaf mining weevil

8. Leaf mining weevil Rhychaenus mangiferae Marshl.

(Curculionidae : Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub mines into the tender leaves

while the adult weevil scrapes the leaf
surface. In severe cases leaves crumble
and dry up.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is brown with enlarged

hind femur. It lays eggs singly within
minute holes bitten on the lower side of
tender leaves.
 The egg period is 2-3 days.
 The grub mines the leaves and pupates in
an oval chamber within the mine.
 The larval and pupal periods are 5.5 and
3.33 days respectively.
 The total life cycle takes about 12 days for
 oviposition.

9. Leaf twisting weevil

9. Leaf twisting weevil- Apoderus tranquebaricus F.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult weevil has the habit of cutting

and twisting the mango leaves into shapely
thimble like rolls which remain attached to
the parent leaves.
 The grub feeds on the leaf tissue within
the leaf roll.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is medium sized, reddish

brown with a long snout. Eggs are laid in
each leaf roll.
 The grub pupates within the leaf roll.
Management

 Spray insecticides like monocrotophos at

1.25 ml or Dimethoate 0.03 % / litre of
water to check the spread of infestation.

10. Leaf cutting weevil

10. Leaf cutting weevil - Deporaus (= Eugnamptus)

marginatus Pasc. (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage
  The adult beetles cut down the leaf at the base
and cause holes on the tender leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is small, black and brown with

a long snout.
 The female excavate the cavities by the snout
and lays eggs singly on the under surface of
tender leaves.
 The grub mines the fallen leaf feeding on the
mesophyll.
 It pupates in small oval chamber.

11. Red ant

11. Red ant-Oecophylla smaragdina Fab. ( Formicidae :

Isoptera)

Damage

 The worker ants stitch together the terminal

leaves with silk thread in the form of nests
which remain green.
 The ant distributes the aphids, mealy bug and
scales on different parts of the tree thus helping
to spread their infestation.
 It gives annoyance to person who climbs up the
trees.
Bionomics

 A colony of red ant has one queen, a number of soldiers, and

two kinds of workers.
 Egg, larva, pupae are housed separately.
 The eggs are covered with mucilage.
The egg period is 4-8 days. There are three larval instars.
The pupa is stored in any where and has duration of 5-7 days.
The ant is carnivorus feeding on flies, moths, beetles, and
caterpillars.
Management

 Manage red ants if harvesting is found very difficult by using

neem oil 30 ml /liter. Do not eradicate or control red ants.

SAP FEEDERS

1. Whitefly

1. Whitefly- Aleurocanthus mangiferae Q & B.

(Aleyrodidae: Hemiplera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the

under surface of leaves causing yellowing of
leaves in patches.
Management

 Remove the weeds like Clerodendron

infortunatum and grass by ploughing during
June-July.

2. Scale

2. Scale - Chionaspis vitis Green. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

 causing yellowing

3. Mealy bug

3. Mealy bug-Drosicha mangiferae Green.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 It infests the leaves and inflorescence.

Management

 Remove alternative weed hosts

like clerodendran by ploughing during June -
July.
 Spray chloropyriphos 20 EC 2.5 ml / litre or
monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 ml / litre of water.
 Rake up soil to destroy ovisacs and dust
carbaryl 15 D or lindane 1.3 D around tree
basin.

4. Leaf psyllid

4. Leaf psyllid - Microceropsylla brevicornis D.L.

Crawford. (Psyllidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymph feeds on tender stems, leaf

stalks and leaf veins.
 The infested leaves drop and dry up.
 The sooty mould growth is occurred on
 leaves due to honey dew secretion of the
bug.
Bionomics

 The adult bug is greenish yellow in colour.

 It inserts egg singly on leaf tissues.
 The incubation period is 8-9 days.
 It has five nymphal instars completed in
19-24 days.

NON- INSECT PESTS

1.Red spider mite

1.Red spider mite- Oligonychus mangiferae Rash &

Sap. (Tetranychidae : Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the lower leaf surface.

2.Eriophyid mite

2. Eriophyid mite -Aceria mangiferae Sayed.

(Eriophyidae : Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the internal and axillary buds

resulting in stoppage of their growth and
development of close lateral buds.
 The infestation results in the crowded bud
formation becoming and malformed.
 SAPOTA
I. BORERS

1. Leaf webber

1. Leaf webber or chickoo moth - Nephopteryx

eugrapllylla Rag. (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar webs together the leaves

scrape the chlorophyll and reduced to net
work of veins.
 It also bores inside the buds, flowers and
some time tender fruits become withered
and shed.
 Presence of clusters of dried leaves
hanging from webbed shoots and
appearance of dark brown patches on
leaves and cluster of dead leaves are the
typical symptoms of attack.

Bionomics

 The adult moth is greyish with fore wings

having brown or black spots and hind wing
semi hyaline.
 The female lays pale yellow, oval shaped
eggs in-groups of 2 or 3 or singly on leaves
and buds of young shoots.
 The fecundity is 374 eggs per female.
 The egg period is 2-11 days.
  The larva is pinkish in colour with three
dorso lateral brown stripes on each side.
 It pupates in leaf web itself for 8-9 days.
 The total life cycle is completed in 26 - 92
days.
 There are 7-9 overlapping generation per
year.
 The maximum activity of pest is seen
during June-July.
Management

 Plant less susceptible PKM 1 sapota

variety.
 Collect and destroy webbed leaves, shoots
and buds along with larvae.
 Use light trap @ 1/ha to monitor activity.
 Spray two rounds of carbary 10.1%
or Bacillus thuringiensis 0.1% or NSKE 5%
along with sticking agent or phosalone
0.05% or malathion 0.1% in alternation at
20 days interval from new shoot formation
to harvest of fruits.

2. Bud worm

2. Bud worm - Anarsia epotias Meyr. (Gelechiidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar bores into the flower buds by

webbing the: floral buds and flowers together.
The infested floral parts shed.
Bionomics
  The adult moth is grey coloured with black
patch on wings.
 The Larva is small, slender, pinkish brown in
colour with black head and yellowish brown
thoracic shield.
Management

 Spray phosalone 35 BC 2 ml / litre or

Dimethoate 0.03 % / litre

3. Fruit fly

3. Fruit fly - Bactrocera dorsalis Bend. B.

zonatus Saund.,B. tau and B. correctus Beezzi.
( Tephritidae : Diptera )

Damage

 The maggot destroy and convert the pulp

into a bad smelling, discoloured semi
liquid mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and
start rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes
out on pressing.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is brown or dark brown with

hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15
just beneath the skin of the ripening fruits.
  A single female lays up to 200 eggs during
oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full
grown in about 7 days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.
Management

 Plough the interspaces to expose the

pupae during the off - season.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
 Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol.
Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of
water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take
10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep
them at 25 different places in one ha
between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy
the adult flies.
 Conserve parasitoids like Optius
compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or
jaggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50
WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly
intervals before ripening of the fruits.

4. Sapota Seed borer

4. Sapota Seed borer - Trymalitis margaritas

Biology
 The mating of male and female moths was
observed during evening hours between
7.00 to 11.00 p.m. and the period of coitus
lasted for 8 to 13 minutes.
 The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-
oviposition period lasted for 1.50 to 2.1,
1.0 to 2.0 and 1.0 to 2.2 days, respectively.
 The fecundity was ranged from 29 to 255
with an average 161.8±77.236 eggs per
female.
 The incubation period varied from 10.35 to
12.25 days with an average of 11.16 ±
0.715.
 The average percentage of eggs hatched
was found to be 92.
 The total period required for completion of
larval development ranged from 10.75 to
13.75 days with an average of 12.33 ±
0.832 days.
 The first instar larvae were very minute,
white in colour with pinkish tinge, without
distinctly segmented and hairless body.
 The average length and breadth of first
instar larva was 1.761 ± 0.038 and 0.692
± 0.012 mm, respectively.
 Fully developed larvae was pinkish in
colour and it measured about 12.467
±0.022 mm in length and 2.673 ± 0.013
mm in breadth.
 The full grown larva stopped feeding come
out of the seed and started folding the leaf
with the help of series of silken threads to
form a cocoon.
 The pre-pupal period varied from 17 to 33
minutes.
  The pupa was small, dark brown in colour
and obtect.
 The pupal period ranged from 10.0 to 15.0
days with an average of 13.15 ± 1.663
days.
 The pupa measured from 7.61 to 10.10 mm
in length and 2.6 to 3.6 mm in breadth.
 The adult moths were small in size, having
whitish forewings with grayish spots on it
and fringed with hairs at the margins of
the wings.
 The hind wings were cream coloured with
thick hairs at the margins.
 The adult measured 7.1 to 12.0 mm in
length, 2.1 to 2.6 mm in breadth.
 The adult male lived for 3.25 to 6.0 days,
while female moths lived for 4.0 to 7.0
days.
 Total life cycle from egg laying to
emergence of adults varied from 34.10 to
45.0 days with an average of 38.5 ± 3.117
days.
Management

 Sapota seed borer is an invasive pest that

might have been accidentally introduced in
India from Sri Lanka a decade back.
 The seed borer attacks immature fruits
and it is difficult to distinguish between
infested and uninfested fruits prior to the
 emergence of larvae.
 Tiny holes
 Fruits with tiny exit holes are the only
indication of seed borer infestation. During
the tunnelling process, the larva drags out
the excreta from the seed to the pulp.
 Majority of the larvae emerge from the
seeds after feeding on the cotyledons
completely and prior to ripening of the
fruit.
 Small black ants inhabit such damaged
fruits. The larva on exiting from the fruit
cuts a leaf and folds it over to make a fine
shell-like structure within which it
pupates.
 The adult is a small delicate greyish white
moth with bell shaped wings and
resembles bird droppings.
 The seed borer incidence depends on the
variety and availability of susceptible stage
of fruits (marble-lime size fruits).
 There is no variety that is completely
resistant to the seed borer infestation.
 After main fruiting season, the pre-
seasonal stray fruits serve as source of
survival during off season.
 Thus, Sanitation is to be maintained for
eliminating the sources of seed borer
infestation.
 Collection and destruction of the off season
stray mature fruits after main harvest till
November will bring down the pest
incidence.
 Erecting light traps in the field during
cropping season will attract adult moths
 and will minimize the incidence.
 Effective management of seed borer relies
primarily on the stage of spray
intervention.
 The time of application is crucial in the
management of seed borer.
Spraying

 First spray intervention should be made

when the fruits are of small lime size and
thereafter the sprayings should be
repeated at fortnightly intervals during
main fruiting season.
 Alternating the sprays of Deltamethrin 2.8
EC at 1 ml/l and Bt at 1 ml/ at fortnightly
interval will bring down the seed borer
infestation.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Hairy caterpillar

1.Hairy caterpillar Metanastria hyrtaca Cram.

( Lasiocampidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves causing defoliation.

Bionomics

 The adult is stout grayish brown moth exhibiting sexual

dimorphism.
 Male moth has pectinate antenna and chocolate brown
patch in the middle of fore wings.
 Female moth is bigger in size with longer and broader
wings having wavy transverse bands.
 The larva is nocturnal, cylindrical grayish brown, stout
and hairy.
Management

 Kill the aggregating larvae on the bark using a torch of

fire or with a bucketful of cowdung slurry during the
day time in households.
 Spray fish oil rosin soap to kill the larva because of
asphyxiation.
 Expose burning torches against hairy caterpillars which
are on trunks.
 Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC 0.04% or Dimethoate 0.03 %
or malathion 50 EC 0.1% or phosalone 35 EC 0.07% or
carbaryl 50 WP 0.1%.

2. Leaf twisting weevil

2. Leaf twisting weevil - Apoderus

tranquebaricus Fa b. (Curculionidae : Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult weevil has the habit of cutting

and twisting the mango leaves into shapely
thimble like rolls which remain attached to
the parent leaves.
 The grub feeds on the leaf tissue within
the leaf roll.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is medium sized, reddish

brown with a long snout.
 Eggs are laid in each leaf roll.
 The grub pupates within the leaf roll.
Management

 Spray insecticides like monocrotophos at

1.25 ml or endosulfan 2.0 ml / litre of
water to check the spread of infestation.
 3. Leaf miner

3. Leaf miner - Acrocercops syngramma Meyr.

(Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar mines into the leaves

producing blister like patches on them.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is silvery grey moth with

fringes of hairs on the wing margin.
 The larva is reddish brown in colour.

III. SAP FEEDERS

. Whitefly

1.Whitefly - Trialeurodes ricini Misra. ( Aleyrodidae :

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Water soaked spots on the leaves which

become yellow and dried.
 Colonies of whitefly on the under surface
of leaves.
Bionomics

 The adults are pale yellow with white

wings covered with waxy powder.
 It lays eggs in clusters on the under
surface of leaves. Nymphal stage
 undergoes four instars.
 The life cycle is completed in 19-20 days
during July-September.

2. Striped mealy bug

2. Striped mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Ckll.

(Psedococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Yellowing of leaves in older plants.

 Under surface of leaves and terminal
shoots covered with white mealy mass.
Bionomics

 The female mealy bug lays 185-409 eggs

during an oviposition period of 20-29 days.
 The egg period is 3-4 hours.
 The nymph undergoes 4 instars.
 The nymphal period is 26-47 days.
 Adult female lives for 36-53 days and male
for 1 - 3 days.

. Green Scale

3. Green Scale - Coccus viridis

Introduction

 The green scale, Coccus viridis (Green), an

insect pest of citrus and other plants, is
found out-of-doors and in greenhouses in
 Florida.
 This pest was first found in Florida near
Davie.
 This insect is also referred to as the coffee
green scale.
Adults

 The adult female is shiny pale green with a

conspicuous black, irregular U-shaped
internal marking that is dorsally visible to
the naked eye.
 Two sub-marginal black eye spots are also
present and can be seen with a hand lens.
 The outline shape may be described as
elongate-oval and moderately convex.
 Adult scales are 2.5 to 3.25 mm. Dead
scales are light brown or buff color and the
black internal marking is lost.

Nymphs

 Nymphs, or immature green scales are

oval, flat and yellowish green in color, and
have six short legs.
 There are three nymphal stages before
becoming an adult, each stage being larger
and more convex than the previous stage.
Eggs

 Eggs are whitish green and elongate-oval

and are laid singly and hatch beneath the
female where they are protected.
  Eggs hatch from a few minutes to several
hours after being laid.
Life History and Habits

 Green scale is parthenogenetic and

oviparous.
 Some adults were observed by Fredrick to
complete egg deposition in eight days, and
others deposited eggs over a 42-day
period.
 In south Florida, the length of time that
passed from the egg to egg-depositing
maturity during the late summer months
was from 50 to 70 days. Eggs hatch into
crawlers that wander around the plant or
disperse to other hosts.
 Once a suitable leaf or green shoot is
found the nymphs settle and begin to feed.
 They usually remain in this same spot
unless their position becomes unfavorable.
 The mature female does not move.
 Green scale appears in a rather definite
pattern on citrus leaves.
 The undersurface of the leaf is preferred,
and adult scales may be found in a line
along both sides of the midrib and lateral
leaf veins.
 Often they attack the young shoots, then
one can usually see only a mass of scales.
Host Plants

 The green scale has a wide host range

consisting of vegetable, fruit and
ornamental crops.
 The preferred host for green scale in
 Florida is groundsel bush, Baccharis
halimifolia L., a non-cultivated plant.
Preferred cultivated hosts are gardenia
and ixora.
 The Division of Plant Industry has
recorded green scale on 174 hosts in
Florida since 1942.
Economic Importance

 This tropical soft scale may occur on

cultivated hosts in commercial nurseries,
resulting in a quarantine of the infested
plants until the scale is under control.
 Usually infestations are accompanied by
sooty mold, a black fungus growth, which
develops on honeydew excreted by the
scale.
 Accumulations of sooty mold cause the
infested plant to be unsightly.
 When large populations are present
yellowing, defoliation, reduction in fruit set
and loss in plant vigor are caused.
 This pest is especially damaging to young
trees in the first two years after
transplanting.
Management
Chemical control

 Direct insecticidal sprays to lower leaf

surfaces and new growth to give thorough
coverage.
Biological control

 Several entomogenous fungi were

observed associated with green scale on
 citrus, and some apparently played an
important role in the natural limitations of
the scale on citrus during certain seasons
of the year.
 In Florida, these fungi include: the white-
fringed
fungus, Verticilium (Cephalosporium ) lec
anii (Zimmerman); Aschersonia
cubensis (Cuban aschersonia); the pink
scale fungus, Nectria diploa; and a grayish
blue fungus
 The white-fringed fungus is the most
common and apparently causes the highest
percentage of mortality.
 All attempts to artificially spread or
inoculate the fungus to healthy green scale
were unsuccessful.
 The green scale is often associated with
ants. Controlling ant populations help to
reduce levels of this pest.
 Ants protect the green scales from lady
beetles and other predators.
 In turn, the ants feed on the sweet
honeydew excreted by the scales.
 Without the ants the green scale is more
vulnerable to predation by beetles.

Predators-Chilochorus nigritus

Restrict Ant movement

Cultural Control
  Scales are usually brought into greenhouse
situations with the introduction of infested
plant material.
 All plant material going into the
greenhouse should be thoroughly
inspected for scales and other insects
before being introduced.
4. Mealy bugs - Planococcus citri (Pseudococcidae:
Homoptera)

5. Aphids

5. Aphids -Toxoptera aurantii (Aphididae : Homoptera)

Hosts

 This aphid has over 120 hosts that

include camellia, cocoa,
coffee, Ficus, Hibiscus, Ixora, kamani,
lime, macadamia, mango, mock
orange, Pittosporum, pomelo and Vanda
orchid.
Damage

 Aphids feed by sucking sap from their

hosts. This often causes the plants to
become deformed, the leaves curled and
shriveled and, in some cases, galls are
formed on the leaves.
 In most cases the black citrus aphid is a
minor pest of coffee wherever it is found.
 This pest congregates on the tender young
shoots, flower buds and the undersides of
young leaves.
 They are not known to feed on the older
and tougher plant tissues On coffee it
causes some leaf distortion and
malformation of growth of leaves and tips
of shoots.
 It is often more a serious pest in nurseries.
 Like other soft bodied insects such as
leafhoppers, mealybugs and scales, aphids
produce honeydew.
 This sweet and watery excrement is fed on
by bees, wasps, ants and other insects.
 The honeydew serves as a medium on
which a sooty fungus, called sooty mold,
grows.
 Sooty mold blackens the leaf, decreases
photosynthesis activity, decreases vigor
and causes disfigurement of the host.
 When the sooty mold occurs on fruit, it
often becomes unmarketable or of a lower
grade as the fungus is difficult to wash off.
 Aphids vector many plant diseases which
cause substantially greater losses than
caused by direct feeding injury.
 This is often the most damaging feature of
an aphid infestation.
 The black citrus aphid is a vector of virus
diseases of Coffea liberica, Coffea
arabica var. bullata (blister spot)
and Coffea excelsa (ringspot). Fortunately,
aphid vectored viruses of coffee have not
been reported in Hawaii.
 On Citrus it is a vector of
Citrus tristeza virus, citrus infectious
mottling virus and little leaf and lemon-
ribbing virus of lemon.
  Presently, Citrus tritesa virus is the only
known citrus virus that occurs in Hawaii.
Biology

 The development of this aphid is

temperature dependent. At 77°F a
generation (nymph to adult) may take as
little as 6 days.
 In cooler temperatures (below 59°F), a
generation may take as long as 20 days.
 Higher temperatures also reduce
development rate, at 86û F populations of
this aphid will sharply decline.
 Generations are continuous throughout the
year in Hawaii.
Eggs

 Eggs are not produced by this species.

 Females give birth to living young.
 Infested young shoots
Nymphs

 There are four nymphal stages of this

aphid.
 The first stage is approximately 1/36 inch
in length and the last about 1/17 inch.
 They are without wings and brownish in
color.
Adults

 Only females are found.

 They are oval, shiny black, brownish-black
or reddish brown in color, either with or
without wings, measuring 1/25 to 1/12 inch
in body length and having short black-and-
 white banded antennae.
 Winged individuals tend to have darker
abdomens and be slightly thinner.
 The incidence of winged individuals is
dependent on the population density and
leaf age.
 Reproduction is partheneogenic or non
sexual.
 Females start reproducing soon after
becoming adults.
 They produce 5 to 7 live young per day, up
to a total of about 50 young per female.
Behavior

 Newly born nymphs are found grouped

together since mothers do not move about
while birthing.
 This is the only aphid with an audible
stridulation or high piercing sound caused
by the aphid rubbing two parts of it body
together much like crickets.
 Large colonies will produce this scrapping
sound when they are disturbed.
Management
Non-Chemical Control

 Several natural enemies of the black citrus

aphid keep this pest under control.
 Sometimes to the extent that insecticides
are usually unnecessary.
 Predators in Hawaii include Allograpta
obliqua Say, Chrysopa basalis, Chrysopa
microphya McLachlan, Coccinella
inaequalis Fabricius, Coelophora
inaequalis, Platyomus lividigaster Mulsant
 and Scymnodes lividgaster.
 The parasites in Hawaii include Aphelinus
semiflavus Howard and Lysiphlebus
testaceipes (Cresson).
 There are many other predators and
parasites to this pest throughout the
world.
 This pest is also controlled by the
entomogenous fungus Acrostalagmus
albus.
Chemical control

 If chemical control becomes necessary

either insecticidal oil, or a synthetic
aphidicide (insecticide) may be used.
 Chemical control should only be applied at
the first signs of damage during periods of
flush growth.
 Flush growth (young red leaves) on coffee
should be completely moistened after
application of chemicals.

INSECT OF CITRUS
I. BORERS

1. Lime or Orange tree borer

1. Lime or Orange tree borer - Cheledonium

cinctum Guer and C.alcamene Thoms.
(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage
  The grub bores into stem and feeds
on the internal tissues, which
resulted in drying of terminal shoots
in early stages, followed by wilting of
thicker branches and main stem.
Bionomics

The adult is dull metallic green to dark violet with a

yellow band across the middle of the elytra and in 2.5-
3cm long.
 It lays eggs at an angle of twigs or thorns and covers by
a resinous fluid secretion.
 A single female can lay up to 30-50 eggs.
 The incubation period is 11-72 days.
 The grub is creamy white with flat head.
 It pupates in the tunnel for about three weeks.
 The life cycle is completed in one year.
 The adult beetle emerges during April and May and
remains within the pupal chamber for a long time.
Management

 Prune the infested branches containing grubs.

 Plug the fresh holes with cotton soaked in
monocrotophos solution mixed at 5 ml / 20 ml of water.
 Follow the padding with monocrotophos 2.5 ml +2.5 inl
of water.
 Check multiplication of borers by keeping orchard clean
and drench soil around tree with chlorpyriphos 20 EC 5
ml /1.
 Prune and destroy damaged branches containing grubs
before they enter trunk.
 Swab trunks with carbaryl 50 WP at 20 g/1 to avoid egg
laying.
 Collect and kill eggs and grubs from barks and bore
holes.
 Inject 10 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC or kerosene,
petrol, carbon disulphide or chloroform plus creosote
(2:10) in live bore holes and plug with wet clay.
 Spray monocrotophos or dimethoate 0.03 % /1 in case
on infestation on leaves by adult beetles.
 Alternate hosts in the nearby vicinity like jamun, guava,
litchi, pomegranate, neem, or kapok should also be
 treated.
 Encourage activity of natural enemies, Syrphus spp.
and Coccinella septumpunctata
2. Orange trunk borer - Anoplophora
versteegi Ritsema. (Lamiidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub tunnels into the trunk and feeds

on the internal content of the trunk
resulting the death of the tree.
 The adult beetle feeds on the leaf tissue
along the mid rib, keeping the margins
intact.
Bionomics

 The female beetle lays eggs singly in

cracks on bark up to 2 feet height from the
ground.
 A single female lays about 33-85 eggs.
 The grub feeds on sap wood making
horizontal galleries before it enter into
centre of the trunk.
 The larval period is 267-290 days. It
pupates inside the gallery for 33-43 days.
Management

 Hand picks the adults by shaking the trees

and kills them.
 Paint the base of the tree trunk with
persistent insecticides.

3. Bark caterpillar
3. Bark caterpillar - Indarbela tetraonis Moore.
(Metarbelidae: Lepideptera)

Damage

 The grub bores into the bark and sap wood

making zig-zag galleries filled with silken
webbed masses comprising chewed up
materials and excreta.
 In severe infestation the flow of sap is
interfered.
 The growth of the plant is arrested and
fruit formation capacity is drastically
reduced.

Bionomics

 The adult moth is pale brown with rufous

head and thorax.
 The female lays eggs in masses of 15-25
under loose bark of the trees.
 A single female lays about 2000 eggs in
her life span.
 The egg period is 8-10 days.
 The newly hatched larva is dirty brown
while the full grown caterpillars have pale
 brown bodies with dark brown head
measuring 50-60 mm in length.
 The larval period is 9-11 months.
 It pupates inside the tunnel for 3-4 weeks.
 The adult moth emerges during summer.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Citrus leaf miner

1.Citrus leaf miner - Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton.

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva mines into the tender leaves and

form zig - zag galleries which feeds on the
epidermal cells leaving behind the
remaining leaf tissues quite intact.
 The infested leaves turn pale, gets
distorted, and dry.
 The mining of larval may lead to secondary
infection by fungi and bacteria causing
citrus canker.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is tiny, silvery white with

4.2 mm wing expanse with fringed wings.
 It lays eggs singly on the leaves and twigs.
 The fecundity is 36-76 eggs per female.
 The egg period is 2-10 days.
 The larva enters the leaf tissues and feed
inside the galleries.
 The larval period last for 5-10 days.
 It pupates in a leaf curl at the leaf margin
 within a silken cocoon.
 The pupal period is 6-12 days.
Management

 Grow less susceptible variety like PKM 1.

 Collect and destroy damaged leaves along
with larvae.
 Spray dichlorvos 76 WSC 1 ml/1 or
dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/ 1 or fenthion 100
EC 1 ml / 1 or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5
ml/1 or imidacloprid 200 SL 0.5 ml/ 1 or
NSKE 5% or neem oil 3% after new flush
formation.
 Encourage activity
of parasitoids, Tetrastichus
phyllocnistoides, Elasmus sp, and Bracon
phyllocnistoides.

2. Citrus butterfly

2. Citrus butterfly -Papilio demoleus Linn and P.

polytes ( Papilionidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The young larvae found on the upper

surface of leaves and feed on the leaf
lamina from margin to mid rib.
 The grown up caterpillar feeds even on
matured leaves and cause severe
defoliation to the entire plant.

Bionomics

 The adult butterfly is a black and yellow swallow tailed.

 The female lays singly or in groups of 2-3 eggs on leaves.
The fecundity is 183 eggs per female.
The incubation period is 8-6 days.
The caterpillar is yellowish ¬green with horn like structure
on the dorsal side of the last body segment.
 The larval period is 8-16 days.
 The full grown larva spins a girdle around its body and
pupates on a twig.
 The pupal period is 8-11 days.
 There are four to five overlapping generation in a year.
Management

 Hand picks and destroys the larvae.

 Spray dimethoate 0.03 % / litres when the infestation is
moderate to severe.
 Spray carbaryl 0.1% or dimethoate 0.03 % or NSKE 5%
 Encourage activity of egg parasitoids, Trichogramma
sp., Telenomus sp., and larval parasitoid, Apanteles
spp. Charops sp. and Brachymeria sp.

3. Leaf roller

3. Leaf roller- Psorostichia ( = Tonica ) zizyphi Staint.

(Oecophoridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs together and folds the

leaves.
 It feeds from within the leaf roll on the
epidermis of leaves.
 The infestation resulted in rolling and
crinkling of leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is small brown.

 The female moth lays eggs singly or in
group along the mid ribs of leaves.
 A female can lays up to 404 eggs in her life
 span.
 The egg, larval and pupal period are 3-5, 9-
11 and 5-10 days respectively.
 It pupates in leaf folds.
 The total life cycle of the pest is completed
in 20-31 days.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged leaf folds

along with larvae and pupae.
 Encourage activity of Brachymeria
euploeae and Apanteles sp.
 Spray carbaryl 10.1% or dimethoate 0.03
% or NSKE 5%.

4. Blue butterfly

4. Blue butterfly- Tarucus indica Fab and Chilades

laius Cramer. (Lycaenidae Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva feeds on leaves and causes

defoliation.

III. SAP FEEDERS

1. Fruit sucking moths

1. Fruit sucking moths - Eudocima (= Othreis)

conjuncta Cramer. E. fullonica Cramer., E. materna
Linn and E. ancilla Cramer. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The adult moth pierces the fruits for
sucking the juice and make characteristic
pin-hole damage in citrus and other fruits.
 The feeding site is easily infected with
fungi and bacteria causing rotting and
dropping of fruits.

Bionomics

The adult moth of E. conjuncta is faint orange brown having

marginal dark bands mixed with white spots on hind wings.
E. materna has three black spots on the fore wings. O. ancilla
has white bands in the middle fore wing. E. fullonica has
tripod black mark in the forewing and curved marking in hind
wing.
 The moth is nocturnal in habit.
 It lays eggs on wild plants and weeds in and around the citrus
orchard.
 The egg period is about 2 weeks.
 The larvae is stout, typical semi looper, has a dorsal hump on
the last segment of the body.
 The larva passes five instars and completes its larval stage in
4 weeks.
 It pupates for 2 weeks in the dried leaves or in the soil.
Management

 Remove and destroy the alternative weed host plants

especially Tinospora cardifolia, Cocculus pendulus in the
vicinity of the orchard.
 Bait with fermented molasses at 100 g + malathion 50 EC @
10 ml / litre of water.
 Bag the fruit with polythene bags punctured at the bottom
individually fruits in small-scale area.
 Create smoke on one side of the field and allow it individual
fruits in small¬ scale area.
 Set up light traps or food lures to attract and kill the moths.
 Cover the entire field / orchard with nylon net and spray with
contact insecticide.
 Collect and dispose off damaged fallen fruits to prevent
further attraction of adults.
 Cover fruits with polythene bags (300 gauge) punctured at
the bottom.
 Apply smoke to prevent moth attck.
  Use light traps or food lure (pieces of fruits) to attract moths.

2. Aphids

2. Aphids -Toxoptera citricidus Kirkaldy and T.

aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae Hemipetera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

the leaves resulting stunting, curling of
leaves and falling of flower buds and
developing fruits.
 The infested leaf attracts sooty mould due
to honeydew secretion of the insect.
Bionomics

The adult fly is dark orange with smoky wings and fore wings
having four whitish areas of the irregular shape.
 The female fly lays yellowish brown, oval eggs arranged in
spiral on broad leaves.
 The egg period is 7-14 days.
 The nymphal period is 38-60 days with four nymphal instars.
 It pupates on leaf surface.
 The pupal period last for 100-131 days. There are two
generations in a year.
Management

 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1.5 ml/litre of water.

3. Whitefly

3. Whitefly - Dialeurodes citri Ashmead. ( Aleyrodidae :

Hemiptera ) Black fly Aleurocanthus woglami

Damage

 The nymphs and adults desap the leaves

 and young shoots.
 The nymphs excrete honey dew in large
quantities which attracts the black fungus
causing sooty mould development on the
leaf surface.
 The infested plants are stunned, and
produce few blossoms.
Bionomics

 The adult is small measuring 1.02 -1.52

mm in length.
 The female lays oval, pale yellowish eggs
singly on the lower surface of the young
leaves.
 It lays up to 200 eggs in her life span. The
eggs hatch in 10-20 days.
 The larva crawls about for a few hours and
then inserts its proboscis into the
succulent portion of the twigs.
 It pupates on the surface of leaves.
 The nymphal period is 25-71 days.
 The pupal period last for 114-159 days.
 There are two generations in a year.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged leaves,

flowers and fruits along with life stages.
 Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/1 or
monocrotophos 36 WSC 1ml/1.
 Use yellow sticky traps at 15/ha.
 Spray quinolphos 25 EC at 2 mil litre of
water or monocrotophos 36 WSC 2.5 mil
litre of water.

4. Citrus mealy bug

 4. Citrus mealy bug - Pseudococcus
filamentosus Cockerell. (Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap

causing wilting and drying of young
seedlings.
 The infested plants develop sooty moulds
on the surface of leaves due to honeydew
excreted by the insect.
Bionomics

The female lays eggs in masses of 300 on the plant surface.

The eggs are hatched in 10-20 days.
The nymphs crawl out and feed on under surface of leaves.
A white waxy covering develops on their bodies.
The nymphs become full grown in 6-8 weeks.
The male nymphs spin cotton like cocoons and pupate within
it.
 All the stages of development occur at the same time.
Management

 Debark the branches and- apply methyl parathion paste.

 Use sticky trap on the shoot bearing the fruits at a length of 5
cm.
 Use dichlorovos (0.2 %) in combination with fish oil rosin
soap (25 g I litre) as spray or dipping fruits for two minutes.
 Apply aldicarb lOG 50 g I tree around the base at the time of
pruning.
 Release the coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri @ 10 beetles/tree.
 Release an exotic parasitoid Leptomastrix dactylopii 5000-
7000 I ha.
 Put a band of diazinon 5 g around the tree trunk leaving 30
cm from the main stem.
 Follow ant control methods such as destruction of ant holes,
red ant nests and skirting of citrus trees after harvest.
 Use sticky traps on fruit-bearing shoots at a length of cm
 Collect damaged leaves, twigs and stems along with mealy
bug colonies and destroy.
 Single soil application of aldicarb 10 G at 50 g/ tree around
base during pruning.
  Spray methyl parathion 0.1% emulsion, dimethoate 150 ml
plus kerosene oil 250ml in 100 1 of water or carbaryl 0.05%
plus oil 1% or malathion 0.1% or monocrotophos 0.1%.

5. Citrus red scale

5. Citrus red scale - Aonidiella aurantii Maskell.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 It settles in large numbers on stem,

branches, leaves and fruits and suck the
cell sap.
 The infested plants become stunted, loose
the vigour and gradually dry up.
Bionomics

 The female scale produces young one (crawlers) which moves

for a short period, settle and cover with a white waxy
secretion.
 It reaches sexual maturity in 10-15 weeks.
 There are several generations in a year.

6. Cottony cushion scale

6.Cottony cushion scale - Icerya purchasi Maskell.

( Margarodidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the twigs

and leaves.
 The infested twigs are killed and leaves
turned pale and dropped prematurely.
 The development of sooty mould on the
infested leaves is typical symptom.
 Bionomics

 It reproduces parthenogenetically as the

males are rare.
 The female scale lays up to 700 eggs in the
ovisac held behind the body.
 The newly hatched out nymphs feeds on
leaves and twigs.
 It becomes adult after moulting for three
times.
 The life cycle is completed in 46-240 days.
Management

 Collect damaged twigs and stems along

with soft and hard scales and destroy.
 Spray methyl parathion 0.03% emulsion or
dimethoate + kerosene oil at 150 ml + 250
ml respectively in 100 1 of water or
carbaryl 0.05% + oil 1% or malathion 0.1%
or monocrotophos 1 ml/ 1 or fenthion 100
EC 1 ml/l.
 Spray fish oil rosin soap 25 g/1 or neem oil
3% or dimethoate 0.03 % /1.
 Encourage natural enemies, Aphelinus sp.,
and predators, Chilocorus
nigritus, Scymnus sp. and Rodolia
cardinalis.
 Enforce ban by law, transport of wattle
from the Nilgiris and kodaikanal to
elsewhere.

7. Citrus psylla

7. Citrus psylla - Diaphorina citri Kuwayama.

 ( Psyllidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs are found congregated on

young half open leaves and desap the
same.
 The infestation resulted in arresting the
growth of the plants.
 Since the insect inject the toxins along
with saliva, the leaves and flower buds wilt
and die gradually.
 It also acts as vector of citrus virus causing
citrus decline disease.
Bionomics

The adult is brown with its head lighter brown and pointed
measuring 3 mm in length.
 A female lays 500 almond shaped orange coloured and
stalked eggs on tender leaves and shoots.
 The incubation period is 10-20 days in winter, 4-6 days in
summer.
 The nymphs are flat orange yellow in colour and louse like
creature.
 The nymphal period is 10-11 days. The females live longer
than males.
 There are 8-9 over lapping generation in a year.
Management

 Prune the affected trees and dried shoots periodically prevent

the multiplications of psyllids.
 Conserve the natural enemies by avoiding broad-spectrum
insecticides.
 Spray neem seed kernel extract 5 % or neem oil 1 % or
monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1 ml or quinalphos at 1 ml with
0.5ml teepol / litre of water.
 Spray dimethoate 1675 ml or malathion 1250 ml / ha during
February ¬March, May-June and July-August.
 Encourage activities of natural enemies such
as Syrphids and Chrysopids.
 IV. NON – INSECT PESTS

1. Citrus mite

1. Citrus mite - Panonychus citri Mc Gregor.

(Tetranychidae: Acarina)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adult suck the sap from

leaves, tender fruits and green bark.
 In case of severe infestation there is
complete defoliation of plants.
 The infested fruits turn yellow and remain
undeveloped.
Bionomics

 It lays about 50 eggs each arranged singly

along large veins on the lower surface of
leaves.
 The eggs are round, minute and orange in
colour which are embedded in the leaf
tissues.
 The egg period is 7 days.
 The freshly hatched out nymphs desap the
leaves for 304 days. It is full grown in 4-5
days, moult and transform into adult mite.
 The total life cycle is completed in 17-20
days.

2. Mite

2. Mite - Phyllocoptes oleivorus Ashmead.

(Eriophyiidae: Acarina)
 Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

from the under surface of leaves and fruit
surface.
 The infestation causes bronzing of leaves
and silvery, scaly discoloration on lemon
fruits and rusty to black discolorations on
the other citrus fruits.
Management

 Spray fenazaquinone 2 ml / litre or

wettable sulphur 50 WP 2 g / litre of water.

INSECTS OF BANANA
I. BORERS

1. Rhizome weevil

1. Rhizome weevil - Cosmopolites sordidus Germ.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub bore into the sucker and tunnel

into the rhizome resulting death of the
unopened leaves at the heart of the plant
is called "pipe" and withering of outer
leaves. A result of severe attack, the plants
show pre - mature withering.
 Scarcity of leaves and production of under
sized fruits.
  The corm of infested plants has extensive
tunnels plugged with excreta.
 High incidence of pest occurs during April
- October.
Bionomics

The adult weevil is stout measuring 12.5 mm in length and

4.5 mm in width and dark brown. in colour.
 It lays its eggs in small burrow made on the plant at ground
level.
 The incubation period is 5-8 days. The grub is apodus and
yellowish with reddish head.
 The larval period is about 25 days. It constructs a pupal
chamber near the surface of corm and change into pupa
within.
 The pupal period is 6 days. The adult has long life and can
remain alive for one year.
Management

 Trap adult weevil with pseudo stem chopped into pieces

 Uproot and destroy the infested rhizome from the field.
 Use pest free suckers for planting.
 Apply carbofuran 3 G 10 gram per plant at the time of
planting.
 Trap adult weevils with corm chopped into small pieces and
kept near infested clump at 65/ha (Banana corm split trap) or
use cosmolure traps at 5/ha.
 By paring and pralinage method, apply carbofuran 3 G 40g or
phorate 10 G 20g; or apply lindane 1.3 D 20 g or carbaryl 10-
20 g/ sucker before planting.
 Dip suckers in monocrotophos 0.05% and plant 24 h later.

2. Pseudostem borer

2. Pseudostem borer - Odoiporus

longicollis (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The first instar larvae feed on the tissues

around the air chamber of the leaf sheath.
 The second instar larva bores into the
 inner sheaths of the pseudostem and
moves across in a horizontal or slight
oblique direction.
 The third and fourth instar larvae feed
voraciously and riddle the pseudo stem
cutting a thin hole on the out surface of
the pseudostem for better aeration.
 The infested part of pseudostem
decomposes as a result of which plants
become very weak and break easily in
wind.
 Exudation of plant sap from leaf sheath,
yellowing and withering of leaves,
immature ripening of fruits, destroying of
flower primordia, decaying of leaf sheath
and corm and finally falling of whole plant
are the symptoms of damage.
 The severity of pest notices in ratoon crop
compre to first year crop
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is reddish brown and

black measuring 1.3 cm long. It thrusts the
eggs within the air chamber of leaf sheath
through oviposition slit made by rostrum at
the rate of one egg per air chamber.
 Eggs are laid in the area of the
pseudostem about 1 - 1.5 metres above the
ground level.
 The incubation period is 3-5 days in
summer and 5-8 days winter.
 The grubs are apodous and have duration
of 26.2 days in summer and 68.1 days in
winter with five larval instars.
 It pupates in the tunnel towards the
 periphery.
 The pupal period last for 20-24 days in
summer and 37- 44 days in winter. Adult
feeds on tissue of leaf sheath from its inner
surface and also on decaying tissues.
 Infective for up to 13 days after feeding on
infected material.
Management

 Adopt good husbandry practices such as

weeding, manuring and mulching which
improve weevil tolerance.
 Remove dried leaves periodically and keep
the field clean.
 Prune the side suckers every month.
 Use healthy and pest free suckers to check
the pest incidence.
 Spray monocrotophos 36WSC at 1 ml /
litre of water.
 Do not dump infested materials into
manure pit.
 Uproot infested trees, chop into pieces and
burn.
 Spray methyl parathion 50 EC 2 ml/1 or
monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/1 on trunk.
Alternatively, dilute 50 ml of
monocrotophos 36 WSC with 350 ml of
water and inject 4 ml (2ml at 45 cm from
ground level, another 2 ml 150 cm from
ground level) using banana injector’ or
long needle in the pseudostem at monthly
intervals from 5th to 8th month. Do not
follow stem injection after 8 months of
growth.
 . Fruit fly

3. Fruit fly - Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel. (Tephritidae :

Diptera )

Damage

 The maggot destroy and convert the pulp

into a bad smelling, discoloured semi
liquid mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and
start rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes
out on pressing.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is brown or dark brown with

hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15
just beneath the skin of the ripening fruits.
 A single female lays up to 200 eggs during
oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full
grown in about 7 days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.
Management
1. Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off -
season.
2. Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
3. Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol
1 ml/ 1 litre of water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take 10 ml
of this mixture per trap and keep them at 25 different places
in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy the adult
flies.
 4. Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia
philippinensis.
5. Use bait spray combining molasses or jiggery 10g/1 and one
of the insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC
2 ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two
rounds at fortnightly intervals before ripening of the fruits.
6. Spray fenthion 2 ml / litre or Malathion 2 ml / litre of water.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Banana aphid

1.Banana aphid - Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 There is no direct damage caused by this

pest but it acts as a vector for the
notorious virus disease bunchy top disease
of banana.
 The disease is characterised by the initial
appearance of green streaks on the
secondary veins on the ventral side of
lamina.
 The affected leaves become brittle and
petioles completely elongated.
 The leaves become small and eventually
the crown of plants becomes composed of
stunted leaves, which present bunchy top
appearance.
Bionomics

 The adult viviparous insects are of two

forms, winged and wingless.
 The alate viviparous female has reddish to
dark- brown body measuring on an
 average of 1.45 mm in length. In the
apterous viviparous female the body is
reddish to dark brown measuring on an
average 1.55 mm in length.
 The male insects are not observed. The
female reproduces parthenogenetically.
 The female gives birth to young ones from
the second day, of its emergence.
 A female brings forth 32-50 young ones.
The nymph has 4 instars conferring a
period of 8-9 days.
 The aphids occur on banana plant in
colonies.
 They shelter at the base of the
pseudostem, top region of the pseudostem
and leaf axils.
 The population is high from early
September to late January with two peaks
in between one during September-October
and the other during December-January.
 Moderate temperature and high humidity
favours the increase in aphid population.
 Infective aphid can transmit the virus to
healthy plant in 1.5-2 hours of feeding.
 The minimum acquisition feeding time for
nymph is 16 hours.
 The aphid remains infective for up to 13
days after feeding on infected material.
Management

 Spray methyl demeton 2 ml / litre or

monocrotophos 1 ml / litre or dimethoate
1.70 ml / litre of water,
 Direct the spray towards the crown and
pseudostem base up to ground level at 21
 days interval at least thrice.
 Avoid injection of monocrotophos after
flowering.
 Destroy diseased plants with rhizome.
 Inject 5 ml of 2, 4-D herbicide (125 mg/1)
into pseudostem using injecting gun for
effective killing of diseased plants.
 Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or
monocrotophos 36 WSC 250 ml/ha or
dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml/ha to control
aphids. Direct spray towards crown and
pseudostem base at 21 days interval at
least thrice.
 Follow pseudostem injection with
monocrotophos 36 WSC after diluting 1 ml
in 4 ml of water at 45 days interval. Use
banana injector devised by TNAU or
lumbar puncture needle. Avoid injecting
monocrotophos after flowering.
 Encourage activity of
predators, Scymnus, Chilomenes
sexmaculata, Chrysoperla carnea and
other coccinellids; and
entomopathogen, Beauveria bassiana.

2. Tingid bug

2. Tingid bug - Stephanits typicus Dist. (Tingidae:

Hemiptera )

Damage

 The lacewing feeds in the sap of leaves

causing the discoloration of the leaves.
 Management

 Collect and destroy damaged leaves,

flowers and fruits along with life stages.
 Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/1 or
monocrotophos 36 WSC 1ml/1.
 Use yellow sticky traps at 15/ha.

3. Scale

3. Scale - Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

causing yellowing of leaves in patches

4. Spittle bug

4. Spittle bug - Phymatostetha deschampsi Linn.

(Cercopidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults suck the juice from

the leaves causing yellowing of leaves.

5. Leaf thrips

5. Leaf thrips - Helionothrips kadaliphilus Ram &

 Marg. (Thripidae : Thysanoptera )

Damage

 It infests the lower surface of the leaves

causing blighted appearance and
yellowing.
 In severe cases of infestation the leaf
dries.
Management of lacewing bug and thrips

 Spray methyl demeton 20 EC 2 ml / litre or

monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.25ml ml/ litre of
water

6. Flower thrips

6. Flower thrips - Thrips florum Schmutz. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera )

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the fruits

and flowers resulting corky scab on fruits
and flowers.

7. Fruit rust thrips

7. Fruit rust thrips - Chaetanaphothrips

signipennis Bag. (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
 Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck

the sap from the leaves and fruits.
 The infestation resulted in yellowing of
leaves and rusty growth over the fruit.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged leaves, fruits

and flowers.
 Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/1 or
dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/1 or
monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.25 ml/1.

III. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Woolly bear

1. Woolly bear - Pericallia ricini Fab. (Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillars feed on the leaves

voraciously and cause severe defoliation

2. Tobacco caterpillar

2. Tobacco caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The larva feeds on the leaves causing
defoliation during night hours.

3. Bag worm

3. Bag worm - Kophenae cuprea Moore. (Psychidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva scrapes the chlorophyll and later

it riddles with irregular holes on the
leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is brownish in colour.

 The larva is also brownish covered with
conical bag.

4. Leaf beetle

4. Leaf beetle - Nodostoma subcastatum Jacoby.

(Eumolpidae : Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult beetle bite small holes on leaves.

IV. NON-INSECT PESTS

1. Burrowing nematode

1. Burrowing nematode - Radapholus similis

Damage

 The nematode in banana cause black-head

toppling disease.
 At the bearing stage toppling of trees is an
obvious symptom of attack due to root rot.
 The feeding of nematodes causes
discoluration of cortex.
 The wounding cause’s discolouration as a
result reddish brown cortical lesions
develop.
 Both roots and corm of the plants are
attacked and the necrosis decrease the
root system to a few short stubs, reduction
in the leaf size, yellowing of leaves and
reduction in bunch weight.
 The trees succumb to winds and yield loss
up to 39 per cent has been recorded due to
nematodes.

Management

 Remove the nematode affected plants along

with corm from the field and burn it.
 Pre -treat the suckers (Paring and pralinage)
with carbofuran 3 G after removing the
discoloured portions.
 The suckers and dipped in the clay slurry
and 40 g of carbofuran granules are
sprinkled over the surface and planted.
 Dip the suckers in 0.05 % solution (1.5 ml /
litre of water) of monocrotophos 36 WSC at
the time of planting.
  Apply carbofuran granules @ 10-20 gm/
plant around the pseudostem two months
after planting.

INSECTS OF GUAVA
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Tea mosquito bug

1. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis antonii Sign.

(Miridae: Hemiptea)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults feed on the young

leaves, buds and tender shoots the tissues
around the feeding punctures die and dry
up due to toxic action of saliva injected.
 It results the water soaked lesions followed
by brownish spots at the feeding site.
 Resin exudes from the feeding puncture.
Blossom or inflorescence blight and die
back symptoms appear.
 The terminal shoots are also dried.
Shedding of flowers and nut also takes
place.
Bionomics

 The adult is a reddish brown bug with red

thorax and black and white abdomen.
 The eggs are inserted into the epidermis of
tender shoots, axis of inflorescence, the
buds and midribs.
 The eggs are sausage shaped, 2 mm long,
 slightly covered with a pair of breathing
filaments which project out its operculum.
 The egg period is 5 to 7 days.
 Nymphal period is 15 days.
 The reddish brown and ant like nymphs
undergoes five instars.
 The life cycle is completed in 22 days.
 This pest attacks guava, cocoa, pepper,
cinchona, tamarind, mango, neem, cotton
and avocado.
Management

 Remove dead wood and criss cross

branches in cashew plantations atleast
once in two to three years will help in
effective spraying of insecticides against
the pest.
 Collect and destroy damaged fruits.
 Use light trap at 1/ha to monitor the
activity of moths.
 Ensure clean cultivation as weed plants
serve as alternate hosts.
 Spray hostothioan at 2 ml / litre or
carbaryl 50 WP 2 g /litre or malathion 50
EC at 1ml/litre or neem oil 3 % spraying
should be done in early morning or late
evenings, at least four times at 21 days
interval during fruiting season.

2. Aphids

2. Aphids -Aphis gossypii Glover. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage
  It is a potential pest on cotton infesting
tender shoots and under surface of the
leaves.
 They occur in large numbers suck the sap
and cause stunted growth, gradual drying
and result in death of the plants.
 Development of black sooty mould due to
the excretion of honey dew giving the plant
a dark appearance. Being a polyphagous
pest, it is recoreded in brinjal, bhendi,
chillies,guava and gingelly. Curling and
crinkling of leaves are typical symptoms.
Bionomics

 Yellowish or greenish brown nymphs found

on the under surface of leaves.
 They are often attended by ants for the
sweet honey dew secretion.
 Winged forms may be seen under crowded
conditions.
Management

 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1.5ml /

litre or dimethoate 30 EC at 1.7 ml / litre
of water.

3. Guava scale

3. Guava scale -Chloropulvinaria psidii Mask.

(Coccidae: Hemiptera)

Damage
  Both nymphs and adults of scales are
found in large numbers of the under
surface of leaves, tender twigs and shoots
causing yellowing and distortion of leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult is shield shaped, oval, yellowish

green measuring 3 mm in length.
 The female lays eggs in a ovisac beneath
the body.
 The first instar crawlers move and start
feeding on the tender portion of the plants

4. Whitefly

4. Whitefly - Aleurotuberculatus psidii Singh.

(Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the under

surface of the leaves causing yellowing
symptoms.
Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the under

surface of the leaves causing yellowing
symptoms.

5. Spiraling whitefly

5.Spiraling whitefly - Aleurodicus dispersus Russell.

 ( Aleyrodidae : Hemiptera )

 The spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus

dispersus Russell poses threat to many
agricultural and horticultural crops both in
the glasshouse and field conditions in
India.
 Aleurodicus dispersus, native to Caribbean
islands and Central America, is reported to
occur in North America, South America,
Asia, Africa, Australia and several Pacific
islands.
 In India, it was first recorded in 1993 at
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on tapioca.
Biology

 Eggs are laid in a typical spiral pattern

from which the whitefly derives its
common name. Female whitefly lays
yellowish white eggs, which hatch in 7
days and 4-6 days and 5-8 days. Fecundity
ranges from 51.8 to 64.06 eggs/ female.
There are four nymphal instars, which are
greenish, white and oval. The duration of
first, second, third fourth instar lasts for
2.15-6.50, 2.7-5.00, 2.9- 5.96 days and 6.5-
8.1 days. Fourth instar nymphs are
covered with heavy wax material. The total
nymphal period normally lasts for 12 to 14
days and pupal period lasts for 2 to 3 days.
Development from egg to adult occupies
18 to 23 days and 22.5-29.66 days. Adults
are larger with dark reddish brown eyes
and fore wings with characteristic dark
spots. Adults live for 13 to 22 days.
Host plants

 Aleurodicus dispersus is highly polyphagous and is known to

attack about 500 plants in different countries and 280 in
India alone. The host plants highly preferred by A.
dispersus in India are tuber crop viz., Manihot esculenta,
vegetables viz., Capsicum annum, Solanum melongena,
Lycopersicon esculantum, Abelmoschus esculentus,
Cucurbita maxima, oil seeds viz., Arachis
hypogaea and Ricinis communis, fibre crop Gossypium spp,
fruit trees viz., Psidium guajava, Carica papaya, Musa
spp., Punica granatum and Terminalia catappa,
ornamentals viz., Rosa indica, Hibiscus spp., Acalypha
indica, Poinsettia pulcherrima, Michelia champaca and shade
trees viz., Ficus religiosa, Baunia purpurea, Cassia
fistula, Thespesia populnea, Manihot glaziovii etc.
Damage

Nymphs and adults congregate generally on the lower

surface, but sometimes on the upper surface of leaves of the
host plants, stem (cassia) and fruits (papaya) and suck the
sap. premature leaf fall and yellowing of leaves in groundnut
in Tamilnadu. Yellow speckling, crinkling and curling of the
leaves was noted when the infestation was severe on tapioca.
The injury caused by heavy infestations was usually
insufficient to kill the plants.
 The copious white, waxy flocculant material secreted by
nymphs is readily spread elsewhere by wind and creates a
very unsightly nuisance. Furthermore, honeydew is produced
which serves as substrate for dense growth of sooty mould,
which interfere with photosynthesis.
 The sticky honeydew carried by wind on the flocculant wax
adheres to windows and cars and causes considerable
annoyances. Complaints were received for allergies and
dermatitis.
Management

 Management of polyphagous invasive pests like spiralling

whitefly becomes all the more difficult because of the
multitude of host plants that grow wild in nature and support
the build-up of the pests.
 Cultural control: Use of clean planting material delays the
appearance of the whitefly population. Pruning the heavily
infested trees and shrubs was recommended to minimise the
spiralling whitefly incidence. Subsequent to the pruning the
population rapidly increased with in 4-5 months on guava.
Physical control

Light trap was more appropriate tool for monitoring. A simple

method for trapping large number of A. dispersus with light
traps coated with Vaseline. Fluorescent light smeared with
castor oil attracted and trapped large number of adults.
Maximum adults were attracted and caught in yellow color
sticky trap.
Chemical control

 Application of chemicals to the lower surface of infested

leaves thoroughly reduces the whitefly abundance but
temporarily. Tobacco extract (4%,) was found effective in
minimising the spiralling whitefly. Spraying of neem oil (2%),
fish oil rosin soap (4%) and detergent soap solution (5%)
reduces the whitefly population. Contact insecticides like
malathion and carbaryl at 0.10% were also found effective
against young nymphs.
 Dichlorvos 0.08% was found toxic to various stages of
spiralling whitefly.
 Triazophos 0.08% and phosalone 0.07% were equally
effective against spiraling whitefly.
 Application of neem oil 2% and neem seed kernal extract 3%
were found to be effective in suppressing the nymphal and
adult whitefly population.
 Troazophos at 0.03% was found to be highly effective against
spiralling whitefly Chorpyriphos at 0.04% was found to
effective against A.dispersus.
Biological control

 Pruning the infested plants is only a temporary measure since

the reinfestation starts after some time. Though certain
chemicals were recommended, there are certain difficulties
in managing pest by chemical means. Synthetic insecticides
do not adequately control this whitefly since the nymphs are
covered with heavy waxy flocculent materials. Only the adults
are susceptible to the insecticidal applications. Application of
insecticides would temporarily reduce the whitefly
abundance. Even if the whitefly is controlled on some plants,
there is heavy migration from roadside trees to the cultivated
crops.
 Chemical control is impracticable because of abundance of
host plants including extremely large size trees and wide
spread distribution. Therefore, alternate methods such as
biological control could help in the suppression of A.
dispersus. As A. dispersus is an exotic pest in most countries,
classical biological control is considered to be the best option
for a sustainable management.
 The aphelinid parasitoids Encarsia haitiensis and Encarsia
guadeloupae have given excellent control of spiralling
whitefly in several countries Malaysia, Philippines, Benin,
Togo, Ghana, Nigeria Guam, Taiwan, Australia, Hawaii and
some other Pacific islands.

6. Mealybug

6. Mealybug - Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green.

( Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera )

Damage

 Mealy bugs found on leaves, shoots, nodes,

bunch and loose bark of grapevine.
 Infestations of the growing point with
mealy bug results in malformation of
leaves and shoot tips.
 The greatest damage is done to the fruit
bunches.
 Honey dew secreted by mealy bug nymphs
and adults, support the growth of sooty
mould on leaves, shoots and branches,
sooty and sticky bunches harbouring mealy
bugs and their white cottony wax masses
tend to be inferior in the market value as
table grapes.
 Raisin cannot be prepared from such
bunches.
 The quality of the wine is affected. In case
of severe infestation in the nursery, young
vines are often killed.
 The yield loss by mealy bug alone is
ranging from 50-100 % in the field.
Bionomics
  The adult females are pinkish and sparsely
covered with white wax.
 Each female deposits from 350-500 eggs in
a loose cottony terminal ovisac during a
week's time.
 The eggs are orange in colour. The egg
period is 5-10 days.
 The crawlers are also orange in colour.
 The females have three, while males have
four nymphal instars. A generation is
usually completed in a month but extended
in winter months.
Management

 Debark the vines and swab with methyl

parathion to minimize the population.
 Apply sticky substances viz., tack-trap or
bird tangle foot on the shoot bearing the
fruit bunch at a length of 5 cm to keep the
bunches free from infestation.
 Release exotic predator Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri Muls. in grape vine garden @
1000-1500 beetles per acre (a single
predator consumes 900-1500 mealy bug
eggs or 300 nymphs in its development)
 Combine the release of predator and
spraying of insecticides dichlorovos (0.20
%) or chlorpyriphos (0.05 %) since they are
non toxic to Cryptolaemus.
 Apply granular insecticide aldicarb @ 50 g
per vine or phorate 10G @20 gm per vine
around the base of the plant.
 Avoid the spraying of insecticides viz.,
malathion, carbaryl, diazinon, dimethoate,
monocrotophos, methyl demeton,
 phasalone, quinolphos, fenitrothion,
methyl parathion since they are highly
toxic to the predator.

7. Mealybug

7. Mealybug - Ferrisia virgata ( Pseudococcidae :

Hemiptera)

 See under tomato

8. Thrips

8. Thrips - Selenothrips rubrocinctus Giard.

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage

 It infests the leaves causing yellowing.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Hairy caterpillar

1. Hairy caterpillar - Euproctis subnotata Walker.

( Lymantriidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on leaves and floral parts.

2. Leaf roller

2.Leaf roller - Eucosma rhothia Meyr. ( Eucosmidae :

 Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The caterpillar rolls the leaves and feeds within

the roll.

III. BORERS

1. Bark eating caterpillar

1. Bark eating caterpillar - Indarbela tetraollis Moore.

(Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva feeds on the bark under silken

galleries which serve as shelter and it also
bores into the stem and branches and
killing them eventually.

2. Castor capsule borer

2. Castor capsule borer - Dichocrocis (=Conogethes)

punctiferalis Guen.
(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva borers into the central core of

the pseudostems resulting in the death of
the central spindle causing charactersic
“dead heart” symptom.
  In the case of capsules, the caterpillars
bore into the immature capsules and feed
on the seeds rendering them empty. The
caterpillars occasionally tunnel into the
panicle also.
 A characteristic indication for the presence
of the larvae is the oozing out of excreted
frass materials at the mouth of the bore
hole, which are very conspicuous on the
stem or pods.
Bionomics

 The adult is a medium sized brownish

yellow coloured moth with a number of
dark spots on the wings.
 It lays eggs on the top leaf axils of young
pseudostem.
 The larva bore into the tender parts of the
panicle, flower buds and immature
capsules only, the later stage larva bore
into the stem.
 The full grown larva is measuring 15-25
mm long and it pupates within the larval
tunnel inside the pseudostems.
 The life cycle is completed within 25-40
days.
Management

 Collect and destroy the affected plant

parts.
 Destroy the alternate host plants from the
vicinity of the plantation
 Spray phosalone 3 ml/litre or Dimethoate
0.03 % /lit or quinolphos 4 ml/litre or
fenthion 1.25ml / litre of water
 3. Fruit borer

3. Fruit borer -Duedorix isocrates Fab. ( Lycaenidae :

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores inside the developing

fruits and feeds on the pulp and seeds.
 The infested fruits are infected by fungi
and bacteria causing fruit rot disease.
 The damaged fruits ultimately fall off and
give an offensive odour.
 It causes 40-90 per cent damage to the
fruits.
Bionomics

The adult butterfly is medium sized with wing expanse of 40-

50 mm.
 The female moth is glossy brownish violet while the male is
bluish violet in colour.
 The female lays eggs singly on the calyx of flowers and on
small fruits.
 The egg period is 7-10 days.
 The young larvae bore into the developing fruits.
 The larval period is completed in 18-47 days. It pupates
inside the fruits.
 The pupal period last for 7-34 days.
 It completes four generations per year.
Management

 Grow less susceptible varieties.

 Remove calyx from the fruits to prevent the hatching of eggs
and subsequent damage.
 Collect and destroy the infested fruits.
 Cover the fruits with polythene or muslin bags during
flowering period to prevent egg laying when fruits are up to 5
cm diametre
 Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as oviposition deterrent, 2 to
3 times at 15 days interval commencing from flowering and
during butterfly activity.
 Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing capacity of 60 fruits).
  Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis at 1 lakh /
acre.
 Spray thiochlopril 2 ml/ litre of water.
 Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days between the day
of insecticide application and harvesting of fruits in the field.

4. Fruit fly

4. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) diversus Coq.

( Tephritidae : Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot bores into the fruits and feeds

on soft pulp.
 The infested fruits show small cavities with
dark greenish punctures and when cut
open, the wriggling maggots are seen
inside.
 It infestation causes rotting and dropping
of fruits.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is smoky brown with greenish black thorax

having yellow marking.
 It is active throughout the year except severe cooler months.
 It lays the eggs on the soft skin offruits. The egg period is 1-4
days during July.
 The maggot is pale cream in colour, cylindrical in shape
measuring 5-8 mm in length.
 The larval stage lasts for 4-5 days. It pupates in soil.
 The pupal period extends from 7 days in August to 13 days in
November.
 The adult stage over winters in cooler months.

Adult
Management

 Collect and destroy fallen and infested fruits by dumping in a

pit and cover with a thick layer of soil or apply lindane 1.3 D
over them.
 Plough interspace to expose pupae.
 Encourage parasitoids Opius compensates and Spalangia
philippinensis.
 Use methyl eugenol lure trap (25/ha) to monitor and kill
adults or prepare methyl eugenol and malathion 50 EC
mixture at 1:1 ratio and use 10 ml mixture / trap.
 Use polythene bag fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal +
1 ml dichlorvos soaked in cotton at 50 traps/ha. Renew fish
meal and dichlorvos soaked cotton once in 20 and 7 days
respectively.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or jaggery 10g/ 1 and one
of the insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4 g /1, two
rounds at fortnight interval before ripening of the fruits.
 Spray hostothion 2ml /litre or malathion at 1 ml/1 four times
at 15 days interval.
 Rake the soil around the tree during the pest incidence and
apply lindane dust 1.3 % at 25 kg /ha.

IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Scarlet mite

1. Scarlet mite -Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes.

(Tenuipalpidae : Acarina )

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap

from fruits which resulted in browning of
nodal regions, appearance of brown
patches on calyx and surface of fruits.
 In severe infestation, it covers the entire
surface of fruits leading to splitting of
fruits.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged plant parts.

 Spray wettable sulphur 2 g/ 1 or
proporgite 1 ml/litre
INSECTS OF AONLA
I. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Leaf roller

1. Leaf roller - Caloptilia acidula (Meyr.)

(Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Slender greenish caterpillar rolls up apical

extremity of leaves and lives within the fold.
 Folded portion is skeletonized and dried up.
Bionomics

 Larvae pupate within leaf fold and pupal period

is for 8 to 10 days.
 Larva is cylindrical and yellow with thin
scattered hairs.
 Adult is a small brownish moth.

SAP FEEDERS

1. Whitefly

1. Whitefly - Trialeurodes rara Singh

(Aleyrodidae:Hemiptera)

 Nymphs and adults suck sap by remaining

from undersurface of leaves, affected
leaves,which show yellowing and turns to
brown incolour.
 Whitefly colonies are present on ventral
side and they are yellowish in colour.

2. Aphid
2. Aphid - Setaphis bougainvillea T. (Aphididae:
Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both adults and young ones congregate on

under surface of leaves and continuously
suck the sap and results in yellowing.
 Yellowing of leaves is the symptom of
damage caused by colonies of nymphs and
adults found on under surface of the
leaves.

3. Bug

3. Bug- Scutelleria nobilis Fab. (Scutelleridae:

Hemiptera)

 Adult is a blue metallic green bug.

 It sucks sap from the leaves and twigs and
causes yellowing of leaves.

4. Fruit piercing moth

4. Fruit piercing moth -Othreis

fullonia and O.maternal (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Adult moth sucks sap from fruits by making

puncture and there is secondary infection and
affected fruits rotting and falls down.
Management
  Remove and destroy the weed plants
like Tinospora and Cocculus.
 Remove and destroy damaged fruits.
 Smoke orchards during evening hours to get rid
off adults.
 Use light traps at 1 / ha.
 Use poison bait (malathion 0.05% plus
fermented molasses or crude sugar and fruit
juice to attract and kill adults).

III. BORERS

1. Fruit borers

1. Fruit borers - Deudorix isocrates (Lycaenidae:

Lepidoptera), Achace janata (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Larvae feed on leaves and bore into developing

fruits.
 They feed on hard green seeds and damage
whole fruit.
IPM

 Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

 Spray monocrotophos 1.25 ml/l.

2. Bark caterpillar

2. Bark caterpillar - Indarbela tetraonis (Metarbelidae;

Lepidoptera)

Damage
  It makes tunnels in main trunk and
branches. Larvae construct loose irregular
webbing of silken thread along with
excretory pellets, pieces of bark and frass.
 Infestation results in deterioration of
vitality of tree and reduction of yield
Management

 Keep the orchards clean

 Collect loose and damaged barks and destroy them.
 Kill larvae by inserting thin iron spike or wire into the hole.
 Spot application of 10 ml of monocrotophos or fenthion or
methyl parathion / 1 of water.

. Apical twig gall maker

1. Apical twig gall maker - Betousa stylophora

 The pest causes gall formation on stem

and shoot.
 The larva of this moth tunnels in the apical
portion of the shoot and infested portion
bulges into a gall. When the larva is active,
reddish gum-like secretion extrudes
through a hole at one end.
 Fresh galls are generally formed during
the season between June and August. The
full size galls measure from 2.3 to 2.5 cm
in length and 1 to 1.5 cm in width.
 This pest attack may result in stunted
growth of the trees, affecting flowering
and fruiting pattern.
 In the initial stage of the infestation,
terminal shoots swell in size very soon and
full size galls can be seen in the month of
 September - October.y discouraging the
overcrowding of branches, pruning the
galls and destroying it along with the pest
after harvest is one of the ways of
managing the pest attack.
 In the regular case of occurrence, any
systemic pesticide may be sprayed in the
beginning of the season and will be
repeated for every 15 days, if needed.

4. Aphid

2. Aphid - C. emblica

Damege

 Aphid, C. emblica in colonies was found

sucking the cell sap from leaflets, tender
shoots and green fruits.
 It also secreted large quantity of honey
dew which favoured the development of
shooty mold affecting vitality of the trees
and also quality of the fruits.
Control measure

 The lady bird beetles (Coccinellids) were

observed predating on this aphid.

5. Mealy bug

5. Mealy bug

Damage twig

 The nymphs were found sucking the cell sap

from tender shoots or twigs,
 The infestation was at a very low level.

Damage twig

Control measure

 Generalized predators viz., spiders and mantid

were observed feeding on this pest on aonla
trees.

6. Leaf eating hairy caterpillar

 4. Leaf eating hairy caterpillar - S. celtis

Damage

 The pest was found defoliating the leaflets and

young twigs.

Biological control

 It was also parasitized by two

hymenopterans viz., Cotesia (Apanteles) sp.
and Charops sp.

7. Foliage defoliating weevil

7. Foliage defoliating weevil - M. discolor

INSECTS OF JACKFRUIT
I. BORERS
1. Shoot and fruit borer

1. Shoot and fruit borer - Margaronia caesalis Wlk.

(Pyraustidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bore into tender shoots, flower

 buds and developing fruits.
 As a result of attack, wilting of affected
shoot, buds dries up and drop down while
the fruit start rotting.
 The fallen fruits due to borer damage also
serve as a source of the pathogen entry
Bionomics

 The adult moth is brown with grey

elliptical patterns on the wings.
 It lays eggs on tender shoot and flower
buds.
 The caterpillar is pink with black wart and
bright hairs.
 It pupates inside the tunnel.
 The pupae are reddish brown.
 The total life cycle is about 4-5 weeks
Management

 Remove and destroy the affected shoots,

flower buds and fruits in the initial stage of
the attack.
 Cover the fruits with perforated alkathene
bags of convenient size.
 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 2ml/ litre or
carbaryl 50 WP 0.1 %,4gms
 Spray copper oxychloride at 0.25 % to
check if there is fruit rot incidence

2. Bark borer

2. Bark borer - lndarbela tetroanis Moore.

(Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The larva nibble the trunk or main stem
and bore into the same making a short
tunnel downwards.
 The excreta and fine chewed wooden
particles are thrown out over the holes on
trunk and main branches in web masses

3. Stem borer Bark borer

3. Stem borer Bark borer - Batocera

rufomaculata Dejean. (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grubs feed by tunneling through the

bark of branches and main stem.
 The damage may also show itself by the
shedding of leaves and drying of terminal
shoots in early stage of attack.
 When the damage occurs at the main stem,
the whole tree succumbs.
Bionomics

 The adult is a large longicorn beetle about

5 cm long and 1.6 cm broad and yellowish
brown in colour.
 It has two pink dots and lateral spines on
thorax. It lays eggs singly on the bark, or
cracks and crevices on the tree trunk or
branches hatch in about 1-2 weeks.
 The grub is stout with well-defined
segmentation and yellow in colour.
  The grub makes zig - zag burrow beneath
the bark.
 The grub feeds on the internal tissues and
become full fed in about six months.
 It pupates inside the tunnel itself.
 The pupal period is. 19-36 days.
Management

 Remove and destroy the dead trees and

affected branches from the garden.
 Swab trunk with carbaryl 20 g/1.
 Use light trap 1 / ha to attract adult moths
or beetles.
 Locate bore holes, spike out grubs using a
needle or iron wire.
 Exclude the alternative host, silk cotton
from mango orchards.
 Grow less susceptible varieties viz.,
Neelam, Humayudin, and Panchavarnam.
 Swab coal tar + Kerosene (1 :2) on the
basal part of the trunk up to 3 feet high
after scraping the loose bark to prevent
the female from egg laying.
 Spike out the grub if the bore holes are
located, and add insecticide emulsion
(monocrotophos 0.1 % at 20 ml / hole) a
fumigant tablets (3 g aluminium
phosphide) or petrol and seal the holes
with the mud.
 Follow padding with monocrotophos 36
WSC 10 ml per tree soaked in absorbent
cotton when the trees are not in bearing
stage.
 Apply carbofurean 3 - 5 g per hole and
plug with mud after removing the grub by
 using needle.
 Apply carbofuran granules in the soil at 75
g / tree basin.

4. Bud weevil

4. Bud weevil - Ochyromera atrocarpi M.

( Curculionidae : Coleoptera )

Damage

 The grubs bore into tender buds and fruits.

 The infested buds and flowers fall to
ground.
 The adult weevil feeds on leaves causing
defoliation.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Leaf caterpillar

1. Leaf caterpillar - Glyphodes bivitralis Sign.

(Pyraustidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on leaves cause

defoliation.

2. Leaf webber

2. Leaf webber - Perina nuda Fab. (Lymantriidae:

 Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillars infest the leaves cause

defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is dimorphic; female with

brownish white wings; male with half
brownish and half wings.
 The female lays eggs in clusters or rows on
the leaves.
 The eggs are pink in colour, cylindrical,
round and 0.7 mm long.
 The larval period is 16-20 days. The pupal
period last for 5-9 days.
 The total life cycle is completed in 27-39
days.
Management

 Hand pick and destruct the larva in the

initial stage of attack.
 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5
1.25mllitre or chloropyriphos 20 EC 2.5 ml
/ litre of water.

III.SAP FEEDERS

. Lace wing bug

1. Lace wing bug - Stephanitis chariesis D&M.

( Tingidae : Hemiptera)
 Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

under surface leaves causing yellowing
symptom.

2. Spittle bug

2. Spittle bug - Cosmoscarta relata D. and Clovia

lineaticollis M.(Cercopidae :
Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs cover the branches with its frothy

secretion causing yellowing and drying of
terminal shoots.
Management

 Spray methyl parathion 50 EC 2 ml/1ml / litre.

 Dust methyl parathion 2 % or quinalphos 1.5 %
at 5 kg per medium sized tree.

3. Aphid

3. Aphid - Greenidia atrocarpi Westw. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

causing yellowing symptom.
 4. Citrus aphid

4. Citrus aphid - Toxoptera aurantii Boyen.

( Aphididae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

leaves causing yellowing of the leaves.

5. Thrips

5. Thrips - Pseudodendrotllrips divivasana R.K and M.

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage

 It infests the leaves causing whitish patch on

leaves and these patches coalise and turns to
yellowing.

6. Mealy bug

6. Mealy bug - Nipaecoccus viridis mask Mask.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the tender

leaves and shoots.
Bionomics

 The adult female is dark casteneous

 covered with sticky cretaceous white ovi-
sac.
 It lay eggs in ovisacs; which are rounded,
cylindrical, and chestnut in colour.
 A single female lays about 200-400 eggs.
 The egg period is 7-10 days.

7. Pink waxy scale

7. Pink waxy scale - Ceroplastes rubens Mask.

(Coccidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 It covers the shoot and fruit in stalk suck sap

and excretes honeydew, which develop the
sooty mould later.

INSECTS OF GRAPE
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Leafhopper

1. Leafhopper - Erythroneura sp (Cicadellidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap

resulting in tiny white spots on the foliage.
 In case of severe infestation, leaves turn
yellow, brown and in severe case fall from
the vines.
Bionomics

 The leafhopper deposited the eggs on the

leaf tissues.
 The eggs are hatched in 14 days. The
nymphs are pale in colour and wingless.
 It feeds on the lower surface of leaves and
become adults after molting five times.
 The nymphal period is 3-5 weeks. This pest
completes 2-3 generations in the season.

2. Grapevine thrips

2. Grapevine thrips - Rhipiphorothrips

cruentatus Hood.
(Heliothripidae: Thysanotptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate/scrape

the epidermis of leaves and suck the sap
due to laceration silvery patches.
 Infest the under surface of leaves and suck
the cell sap.
 The infestation resulted in development of
silvery white scorchy patches on the
leaves.
 The attacked vine either does not bear
fruits or the fruit drop off prematurely.
 It lays bean shaped eggs on the under
surface of leaves.
 The fecundity of the hopper is 50 eggs per
female.
 The eggs period is 3-8 days.
  The nymphs are small yellowish brown in
colour.
 The nymphal period last for 9-20 days.
 The pupal period is 2-5 days.
 On emergence of adults both sexual and
parthenogenetic reproduction takes place
simultaneously

3. Thrips

3. Thrips - Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood. (Thripidae:

Thysanotptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the tender

leaves causing curling and crinkling of
leaves. The crop growth stunted and
bronzed, the infested buds and flowers
become brittle and drops.
Bionomics

 The insect reproduces asexually as well as

parthenogenetically. The female thrips
inserts the eggs into the veins of leaves. It
lays about 40-50 eggs. The nymphs on
hatching crawl on to the tender shoot for
feeding. It pupates in sheltered places such
as leaf axils, leaf curls and base of flowers
and fruits. Egg period is 5 days and larval
period is 7-8 days. Pre-pupal period is 18-24
hours and pupal period is 48-56 hours. The
total life cycle is completed within 10-15
days.
 Management

 Inter-crop with agathi Sesbania grandiflora

to provide shade which regulates the thrips
population.
 Apply carbofuran granules at 200 g /cent
area in the nursery.
 Root dip the chilli seedlings in
monocrotophos 0.05 % solution for 20
minutes before transplanting gives
protection up to 28 days.
 Apply dust formulation of insecticides early
in the morning at 25 kg/ha.
 Spray dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/ litre or
formothion 2 ml/ litre thrice at fortnightly
intervals.

. Whitefly

4. Whitefly - Aleurocanthus spiniferus Singh.

(Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

the under surface of leaves causing
yellowing symptom.

5. Mealy bug

5. Mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)

 This is the striped mealybug, Ferrisia

virgata (Cockerell). Notice the very long
waxy filaments around the body, the long
 tails and the presence of two stripes on the
body. This species does produce an egg
mass or ovisac.
 Fringe heavy & wedge-shaped
 2 dark stripes on the back
 Body fluid light color
 No ovisac produced
 Anal filaments present and about one-half
the length of the body

6. Mealy bug

6. Mealy bug - Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera )

Damage

 Mealy bugs found on leaves, shoots, nodes, bunch and loose bark of
grapevine.

 Infestations of the growing point with mealy bug results in

malformation of leaves and shoot tips.

 The greatest damage is done to the fruit bunches. Honey dew

secreted by mealy bug nymphs and adults, support the growth of
sooty mould on leaves, shoots and branches, sooty and sticky
bunches harbouring mealy bugs and their white cottony wax masses
tend to be inferior in the market value as table grapes.

 Raisin cannot be prepared from such bunches.

 The quality of the wine is affected.

 In case of severe infestation in the nursery, young vines are often

killed.

 The yield loss by mealy bug alone is ranging from 50-100 % in the
field.

Bionomics
  The adult females are pinkish and sparsely
covered with white wax.
 Each female deposits from 350-500 eggs in a
loose cottony terminal ovisac during a
week's time.
 The eggs are orange in colour. The egg
period is 5-10 days.
 The crawlers are also orange in colour.
 The females have three, while males have
four nymphal instars.
 A generation is usually completed in a month
but extended in winter months.
Management

 Debark the vines and swab with methyl

parathion to minimize the population.
 Apply sticky substances viz., tack-trap or
bird tangle foot on the shoot bearing the
fruit bunch at a length of 5 cm to keep the
bunches free from infestation.
 Release exotic predator Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri Muls. in grape vine garden @
1000-1500 beetles per acre (a single
predator consumes 900-1500 mealy bug
eggs or 300 nymphs in its development)
 Combine the release of predator and
spraying of insecticides dichlorovos (0.20 %)
or chlorpyriphos (0.05 %) since they are non
toxic to Cryptolaemus.
 Apply granular insecticide aldicarb @ 50 g
per vine or phorate 10G @20 gm per vine
around the base of the plant.
 Avoid the spraying of insecticides viz.,
malathion, carbaryl, diazinon, dimethoate,
monocrotophos, methyl demeton, phasalone,
 quinolphos, fenitrothion, methyl parathion
since they are highly toxic to the predator.

7. Hard scale

7. Hard scale - Aspidiotus cycloniae Comst.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 It infests the grapevine.

8. Coreid bug

8. Coreid bug - Anoplocnemis phasiana F. (Coreidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults feed on tender shoots

results in withering and drying up of leaves.

9. Fruit sucking moth

9. Fruit sucking moth - Othreis fulloniea Cramer., O.

materna Linn., and O. aneilla Cramer. (Noctuidae:
Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The adult moth pierces the fruits for

sucking the juice and make characteristic
pin-hole damage in fruits.
  The feeding site is easily infected with
fungi and bacteria causing rotting and
dropping of fruits.
Bionomics

 The adult moth of E. conjuncta is faint

orange brown having marginal dark bands
mixed with white spots on hind wings. E.
materna has three black spots on the fore
wings. O. ancilla has white bands in the
middle fore wing. E. fullonica has tripod
black mark in the forewing and curved
marking in hind wing.
 The moth is nocturnal in habit.
 It lays eggs on wild plants and weeds in
and around the orchard.
 The egg period is about 2 weeks. The
larvae is stout, typical semi looper, has a
dorsal hump on the last segment of the
body.
 The larva passes five instars and completes
its larval stage in 4 weeks.
 It pupates for 2 weeks in the dried leaves
or in the soil.
Management

 Remove and destroy the alternative weed

host plants especially Tinospora
cardifolia, Cocculus pendulus in the
vicinity of the orchard.
 Bait with fermented molasses at 100 g +
malathion 50 EC @ 10 ml / litre of water.
 Bag the fruit with polythene bags
punctured at the bottom individually fruits
in small-scale area.
  Create smoke on one side of the field and
allow it individual fruits in small¬ scale
area.
 Set up light traps or food lures to attract
and kill the moths.
 Cover the entire field / orchard with nylon
net and spray with contact insecticide.
 Collect and dispose off damaged fallen
fruits to prevent further attraction of
adults.
 Cover fruits with polythene bags (300
gauge) punctured at the bottom.
 Apply smoke to prevent moth attack.
 Use light traps or food lure (pieces of
fruits) to attract moths.

10. Castor semilooper

10. Castor semilooper - Achaea janata Linn.

( Noctuidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The adult moths suck the juice from the fruits

causing rotting and dropping of fruits.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Flea beetle

1. Flea beetle - Scleodonta strigicollis Mots.

(Eumolpidae: Coleoptera)
 Damage

 The adult flea beetles bite small holes on

tender leaves.
 The grub feeds on roots.
Bionomics

The adult is shining beetle with a metalic bronze colour and

black patches on elytra measuring 4.5mm long.
 The female lays eggs beneath the bark in groups of20-40.
 The fecundity is 220 -569 eggs per female.
 The eggs are hatched in 4-8 days.
 The larval period lasts 34-45 days.
 It pupates in an earthern cell.
 The pupal period is 7-11 days.
 The total life cycle is completed in 52 days.
 The adult hibernates in March and from May onwards they
start feeding on tender shoot and leaves.
Management

 Remove the loose bark at the time of pruning and spray

phosalone 35 EC 2 ml I litre of water after pruning.

2. Leaf roller

2. Leaf roller - Sylepta lunalis Gn. (Pyraustidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar rolls up the leaves causing

defoliation.

3. Sphinx moth

3. Sphinx moth - Hippotion celerio L. (Sphingidae:

Lepidoptera)
 Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves voraciously

and causes severe defoliation

4. Leaf miner

4. Leaf miner - Phyllocnistis toparcha Meyr.

(Gracillariidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar mines into the leaves.

5. Leaf eating caterpillar

5. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Young caterpillars of both the insects bore

into the tomato fruits while they mature.
The Helicoverpa larva remains partly out
on the fruit hole while eating, where as
the Spodoptera caterpillar can be seen
remaining wholly inside the fruit. The bore
holes are generally plugged with excreta.
Bionomics

 H.armigera – The adult moths are marked

with characteristic ‘V’ shaped speck on the
 light brownish fore wing and a smoky dark
border on the hind wing. It lays spherical
yellow colour eggs singly on tender parts
of plants. It has very high fecundity which
may go up to 3000 eggs/female. They
hatch 4-8 days and the caterpillars may
start feeding on young foliage and later
move to the young tomato fruits. There is a
remarkable change of colour as the
caterpillar passes from one instar to
another. It pupates in an earthern cocoon
in soil. Pupal period is 10-25 days.
 S.litura – The adult moths are stout with
grayish brown alternated with white
markings on the fore wing while the hind
wings are radiantly white with a brown
border. The eggs are laid in masses and
covered with brown hairs on the surface of
the affected leaves. The young caterpillars
are voracious and may start feeding on
young foliage and finally they migrate to
young fruits. Laval period is 2-3 weeks.
Pupation takes place in an earthern cocoon
in soil.
Management

 Collect and destroy the infested fruits from

the field.
 Collect the egg masses of S.litura and
destroy them.
 Collect and destroy the larvae of the
H.armigera and S.litura.
 Set up light traps to attract and kill the
moths of both pests.
 Set up pheromone traps @ 12 / hectare to
 attract the male moths H.armigera and
S.litura.
 Release an egg parasitoid Trichogramma
chilonis for 6 times @ 50,000 / hectare /
week, first release coinciding with
flowering time and based on ETL of 4-6
moths / six pheromone traps.
 Spray NPV of H.armigera at 450 LE per
hectare + cotton seed kernel powder 300
g/hectare thrice. Each application should
be followed by Trichogramma releases.
 Spray NPV of S.litura at 250 LE per
hectare in the evening hours.
 Prepare poison bait (Rice bran 12
kg/Jaggery 2.5 kg + carbaryl 50 WP 1.25
kg and water 7.5 litres / hectare) and keep
the bait in the evening hours to attract the
cater pillars of S.litura.
 Grow simultaneously 40 days old America
tall marigold and 25 days old tomato
seedlings at 1.16 rows.
 Spray endosulfan 35 EC 2 ml / litre or
carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/litre or Bacillus
thuringiensis @ 2 g. / litre or quinolphos
2.5 ml / litre of water.

III. BORERS

1. Stem girdler

1. Stem girdler - Sthenias grisator Fab.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage
  The grub bores into the bark and tunnels
into the dry wood.
 The infestation resulted in wilting of
branches and then the entire vine.
 The beetles have the habit of ringing the
vines resulting in drying up of the regions
beyond the cut.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is greyish brown with

white and brown irregular marking
resembling the bark colour, elytra have an
elliptical greyish median spot and an eye
shaped patch measuring 24 mm long.
 The eggs are thrust in between barks and
sapwood in clusters of 2-4 eggs by female
beetle, which cuts branches slits under the
bark of girdled branch.
 The egg period is 8 days.
 The hatched out grub feed inside the stem
and completes its larval stage by 7-8
months.
 The total life cycle occupies more than a
year.
Management

 Cut and burn the infested branches below

the girdling point.
 Hand picks the beetles and destroys them
which may help in migrating this longing
horn beetle.
 Swab the trunk with carbaryl 50 WP 4 g /
litre of water.

2. Grape vine beetle

2. Grape vine beetle - Sinoxylon anale Lesne.
(Bostrychidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grubs and adults cause damage to the

grape vine.
 The adult beetle makes circular hole and
extending to the center of the stem.
 It constructs longitudinal galleries and forms a
number of exist.
 The attacked plant gradually dry and dies away.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is sturdy, walks slowly and

flies rarely.
 The female lays eggs in the tunnels.
 The grub is thickly slightly curved and yellowish
white in colour.
 The chewed out materials are thrown out of the
holes.
Management

 Remove loose bark, prune and destroy the

infested parts to prevent the infestation by the
beetle.
 Spray carbaryl 50 WP at 2 kg / ha to the
dormant woody portion of the vines.

INSECTS OF BER
I.BORERS

1. Fruit borer
 1. Fruit borer - Meridarchis scyrodes Meyr.
(Carposinidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar borers into the fruits

feeding on the pulp and accumulating fecal
frass within.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is small, dark brown, in

colour while the larva is reddish brown in
colour.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

 Spray malathion 2 ml/1 or dimethoate 1.5
ml /1 at the time of fruit set, two rounds at
15 days interval.

2. Fruit fly

2. Fruit fly - Carpomyia vesuviana Costa. (Tephritidae:

Diptera)

Damage

 The maggots bore into the pulp forming

reddish brown galleries.
 The infested fruits rot and turn dark brown
and smell offensively.
Bionomics
  The adult fly is small, black spotted with
banded wings.
 It lays creamy white and spindle shaped
eggs in cavities made on the fruits by
ovipositor.
 Fecundity of the insect is 22 eggs / female.
 The incubation period is 2-3 days.
 The maggots feed on the flesh of the fruit
and fully grown in 7-10 days.
 The maggot comes out of fruit by making
1-2 holes in the skin.
 It pupates in soil for 14-30 days.
Management

 Remove and destruct the infested fruits

from the ber orchard.
 Incorporate lindane 1.3 % or
chlorphyriphos 0.4 % dust 40 kg / hectare
to the soil under the tree or near the trees
to reduce the fruit fly incidence.
 Cultivate fruit fly resistant varieties such
as Safeda Illaichi, Chinese, Sanaur-1,
Tikadi and Umran.
 Collect and destroy fallen and infested
fruits by dumping in a pit and covering
with a thick layer of soil or incorporate
lindane 1.3 D 30 g/tree.
 Plough interspaces to expose pupae.
 Encourage parasitoids Opius
compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use methyl eugenol lure trap (25/ha) to
monitor and kill adults of fruit flies or
prepare methyl engenol and malathion 50
EC mixture at 1:1 ratio and take 10 ml
mixture/trap.
  Use polythene bags fish meal trap with 5 g
of wet fish meal + one ml dichlorvos
soaked in cotton at 50 traps / ha. Fish meal
and dichlorvos soaked cotton should be
renewed once in 20 and 7 d respectively.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or
jaggery 10 g/ 1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50
WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnight interval
before ripening of the fruits.
 Spray malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1 or
dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/1 or dichlorvos
0.1% at the time of flower formation and
fruit set.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Hairy caterpillar

1. Hairy caterpillar - Thiacidas postica Walker.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves

causing defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is greyish brown with black

double lines on wings. The female moth
lays eggs on the lower surface of leaves in
batches. A single female can lay up to 318-
708 eggs. The incubation period is 5-13
days. The larva is grey brown hairy
 caterpillar. The larval period is 16-55 days.
It pupates in a cocoon for 7-39 days.
Management

 Hand pick egg masses and caterpillars and

destroy.
 Use light trap at 1/ha to attract adults.
 Spray lambda cyhalothrin 5 % EC 0.5 ml/1
or malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1 or carbaryl
50WP 2 g/1.

2. Leaf webber

2. Leaf webber - Psorosticha zizyphi S. (Oecophoridae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs together leaves causing

defoliation.

3. Leaf butterfly

3. Leaf butterfly - Tarucus theophrastus Fab.

(Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves.

Bionomics

 The adult butterfly is blue in colour.

 The caterpillar is small, fleshy green, EP:
 3-5; LP; 15 and PP: 5-7 days.

4. Tussoc caterpillar

4. Tussoc caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb.

(Lymantriidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds leaves causing defoliation.

5. Grey weevil

5. Grey weevil - Myllocerus transmarinus Hbst.

(Curculionidae : Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult weevil scrapes and feed on the

leaves.

III. SAP FEEDERS

1. Spittle bug

1. Spittle bug - Machaerota plantiae (Cercopidae :

Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs infest the leaves and feed on them.

. Mealy bug
 2. Mealy bug - Drosicha mangiferae Green
and Drosichiella tamarindus Green.(Margarodidae:
Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults feeds on foliage

causing yellowing symptom.

3. Lac insect

3. Lac insect - Kerria (=Laccifer ) lacca Kerr.

(Tachardidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the twigs.

Management

 Collect and burn affected branches after

pruning
 Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 1 ml/1.

4. Scale insect

4. Scale insect - Aspidiotus orientalis (Diaspididae :

Hemiptera)

Management

 Prune all the infested materials, collect and

burn them.
  Spray methyl demeton 25 EC at 2 ml / litre of
water.

IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Mite

1. Mite - Phytoptipalpus transitans (Tenuipalpidae :

Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the foliage.

2. Red spider mite

2. Red spider mite - Eutetranychus banksi Me Greg.

(Tetranychidae : Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the leaves causing scarification of

leaves.

INSECTS OF POMEGRANATE
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Thrips

1. Thrips - Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood.

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage
  Both nymphs and adults lacerate the
tender leaves in the margins and suck the
sap from the exuding lacerated material.
 The infestation resulted in silvery white
patches on leaves with black excreta
leading to yellowing and withering.
Bionomics

 The adult female is dark brown with yellow

legs and antennae.
 The male has yellowish abdomen.
 The nymph is reddish in colour.
Management

 Spraying profenophos @ 1ml/lit

2. Mealy bug

2. Mealy bug - Planococcus lilacinus Ckll.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

 Mealybugs are important sucking pests of

pomegranate.
Life history

 Adult females are small oval, elongate, soft

bodied and wingless, covered with
mealywax.
 Of the two common species, Planococcus
citri is oval, elongate and lays eggs in a
fluffy ovisac, while P.lilacinus is globose
and the eggs are not laid in ovisac.
 The mealy bug lays 100-1000 eggs.
  The females attains maturity in about a
month.
Damage

 Mealy bug attack nodes, spikes, berries,

tender branches, leaves and roots leading
to debilitation of the plant and crop loss. In
some cases, the mealy bugs infest the
roots.
Influence of weather

 Mealy bug population increases if warm

and humid conditions prevail. Continuous
monsoon, high humidity and low
temperatures are detrimental to mealy bug
development. The migration of mealybugs
starts in September/October from the
ground to the aerial parts of the coffee
plant through the main stem. The attack of
mealybugs becomes severe during summer
and with intermittent showers/irrigation.
Ant association

 Mealybugs produce honeydew and ants

are attracted to it. Ants provide sanitation
and protection from natural enemies. In
the absence of ants the nymphs get
trapped in honeydew and the natural
enemies activity also increases.
Control measures

 Maintain optimum shade.

 Control ants by dusting Quinalphos 1.5%
or methyl parathion 2% or Malathion 5%
dust around the base of the bush and
 shade trees and destroy ant nests.
 Remove and destroy weeds, as many of
them harbor the pests.
 Spray the affected patches with
Quinalphos 25 EC or Fenitrothion 50 EC @
300 ml or Fenthion 1000 @ 150 ml or 4
liters of kerosene in 200 litres of water
along with 200 ml of an agricultural
wetting agent. While spraying kerosene.
The spray solution should be stirred
frequently to avoid setting of kerosene. If
the root zone is affected, drench it with
any one of the above insecticide solutions,
except kerosene emulsion.
 Release the parasitoid, Leptomastix
dactylopii against P. citri or the
preadtor, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri irrespective of the species of
mealybugs.

3. Whitefly

3. Whitefly - Siphoninus phillyreae Halidy.

(Aleyrodidae : Hemiptera )

Damage

 It infests the lower surface of leaves causing

yellowing.

. Spiralling whitefly

4. Spiralling whitefly - Aleurodicus dispersus Russell.

 (Aleyrodidae : Hemiptera )

 The spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus

dispersus Russell poses threat to many
agricultural and horticultural crops both in
the glasshouse and field conditions in
India.
 Aleurodicus dispersus, native to Caribbean
islands and Central America, is reported to
occur in North America, South America,
Asia, Africa, Australia and several Pacific
islands. In India, it was first recorded in
1993 at Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on
tapioca.
Biology

 Eggs are laid in a typical spiral pattern

from which the whitefly derives its
common name. Female whitefly lays
yellowish white eggs, which hatch in 7
days and 4-6 days and 5-8 days. Fecundity
ranges from 51.8 to 64.06 eggs/ female.
There are four nymphal instars, which are
greenish, white and oval.
 The duration of first, second, third fourth
instar lasts for 2.15-6.50, 2.7-5.00, 2.9-
5.96 days and 6.5- 8.1 days. Fourth instar
nymphs are covered with heavy wax
material.
 The total nymphal period normally lasts for
12 to 14 days and pupal period lasts for 2
to 3 days. Development from egg to adult
occupies 18 to 23 days and 22.5-29.66
days. Adults are larger with dark reddish
brown eyes and fore wings with
 characteristic dark spots. Adults live for 13
to 22 days.
Host plants

 Aleurodicus dispersus is highly polyphagous and is known to

attack about 500 plants in different countries and 280 in
India alone. The host plants highly preferred by A.
dispersus in India are tuber crop viz., Manihot esculenta,
vegetables viz., Capsicum annum, Solanum
melongena, Lycopersicon esculantum, Abelmoschus
esculentus, Cucurbita maxima, oil seeds viz., Arachis
hypogaea and Ricinis communis, fibre crop Gossypium spp,
fruit trees viz., Psidium guajava, Carica papaya, Musa
spp., Punica granatum and Terminalia catappa,
ornamentals viz., Rosa indica, Hibiscus spp., Acalypha
indica, Poinsettia pulcherrima, Michelia champaca and shade
trees viz., Ficus religiosa, Baunia purpurea, Cassia
fistula, Thespesia populnea, Manihot glaziovii etc.
Damage

Nymphs and adults congregate generally on the lower

surface, but sometimes on the upper surface of leaves of the
host plants, stem (cassia) and fruits (papaya) and suck the
sap. premature leaf fall and yellowing of leaves in groundnut
in Tamilnadu. Yellow speckling, crinkling and curling of the
leaves was noted when the infestation was severe on tapioca.
The injury caused by heavy infestations was usually
insufficient to kill the plants. The copious white, waxy
flocculant material secreted by nymphs is readily spread
elsewhere by wind and creates a very unsightly nuisance.
Furthermore, honeydew is produced which serves as
substrate for dense growth of sooty mould, which interfere
with photosynthesis.
 The sticky honeydew carried by wind on the flocculant wax
adheres to windows and cars and causes considerable
annoyances. Complaints were received for allergies and
dermatitis.
Management

 Management of polyphagous invasive pests like spiralling

whitefly becomes all the more difficult because of the
multitude of host plants that grow wild in nature and support
the build-up of the pests.
Cultural control

 Use of clean planting material delays the appearance of the

whitefly population. Pruning the heavily infested trees and
shrubs was recommended to minimise the spiralling whitefly
 incidence. Subsequent to the pruning the population rapidly
increased with in 4-5 months on guava.
Physical control

Light trap was more appropriate tool for monitoring. A simple

method for trapping large number of A. dispersus with light
traps coated with Vaseline. Fluorescent light smeared with
castor oil attracted and trapped large number of adults.
Maximum adults were attracted and caught in yellow color
sticky trap.
Chemical control

 Application of chemicals to the lower surface of infested

leaves thoroughly reduces the whitefly abundance but
temporarily. Tobacco extract (4%,) was found effective in
minimising the spiralling whitefly. Spraying of neem oil (2%),
fish oil rosin soap (4%) and detergent soap solution (5%)
reduces the whitefly population. Contact insecticides like
malathion and carbaryl at 0.10% were also found effective
against young nymphs. Dichlorvos 0.08% was found toxic to
various stages of spiralling whitefly.
 Triazophos 0.08% and phosalone 0.07% were equally
effective against spiraling whitefly. Application of neem oil
2% and neem seed kernal extract 3% were found to be
effective in suppressing the nymphal and adult whitefly
population. Troazophos at 0.03% was found to be highly
effective against spiralling whitefly Chorpyriphos at 0.04%
was found to effective against A.dispersus.
Biological control

 Pruning the infested plants is only a temporary measure since

the reinfestation starts after some time. Though certain
chemicals were recommended, there are certain difficulties
in managing pest by chemical means. Synthetic insecticides
do not adequately control this whitefly since the nymphs are
covered with heavy waxy flocculent materials. Only the adults
are susceptible to the insecticidal applications.
 Application of insecticides would temporarily reduce the
whitefly abundance. Even if the whitefly is controlled on some
plants, there is heavy migration from roadside trees to the
cultivated crops. Chemical control is impracticable because
of abundance of host plants including extremely large size
trees and wide spread distribution. Therefore, alternate
methods such as biological control could help in the
suppression of A. dispersus. As A. dispersus is an exotic pest
in most countries, classical biological control is considered to
be the best option for a sustainable management.
 The aphelinid parasitoids Encarsia haitiensis and Encarsia
guadeloupae have given excellent control of spiralling
 whitefly in several countries Malaysia, Philippines, Benin,
Togo, Ghana, Nigeria Guam, Taiwan, Australia, Hawaii and
some other Pacific islands.

5. Aphid

5. Aphid - Aphis punicae Pass. ( Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves

causing curling yellowing of leaves and
wilting of terminal shoots and premature
fruit drop.
Bionomics

 The aphids are greenish brown in colour.

 The winged as well as wingless form
reproduces partheneogenetically and is
viviparous.
Management

 Prune and burn the infested as well as water shoots to check

the further multiplication.
 Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 1.75 ml or monocrotophos 36 SL
at 1 ml or oxymteyl demeton 25 EC at 1 ml or imidachloprid
200 SL at 0.4 ml flitre of water 2 - 3 times at an interval of
10-12 days.
 Apply carbofuron 3 G at 130 g fplant to control this pest
effectively.
 Releases of first instar larvae of green lace wing
bug. Chrysoperla carnea at 15 larvae f flowering branch four
times at 10 days interval starting from flower initiation
during April.

6.Thrips

6.Thrips - Anaphotrhips oligochaetus Kerny

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
 Damage

 Nymphs and adults of the species were

seen on the under surface of the leaves, on
fruits and flowers.
 The lacerating and sucking by the thrips
resulted in shriveling of leaves and fruits.
 Scarring of rind was also observed on
fruits due to desapping, resulting in
decreased marketability of fruits.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Bagworm

1. Bagworm - Clania cramari Westw. (Psychidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar scrapes the tissues of

leaves causing circular holes on the leaf
surface.
 It causes severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The female moth is apterous, maggot like

and the male moth is winged.
 The eggs are laid within the pupal case.
 The larva constructs its case and
remaining within it feed on the leaves.
 It becomes full-grown in about five weeks.

. Hairy caterpillar
2. Hairy caterpillar - Euproctis fraterna M.
(Lymantriidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva feeds on leaves causes defoliation.

3. Slug caterpillar

3. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cramer.

(Cochlididae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves

gregariously in the beginning,
subsequently they disperse.
 It causes severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is stout with wing expanse

of 4.0 cm and having green wings fringed
with brown patches.
 The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on
the under surface of leaves.
 The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.
The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs /
female.
 The egg period is 7 days.
 The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with
yellowish green body bearing a greenish
blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green
stripes laterally.
  The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes
seven instars.
 It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish
cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5 weeks.
Management

 Set up light traps to monitor and kill the

adult moths.
 Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or)
dichlorovos 0.02 % or malathion 0.05 %
solution.
 In severe cases, root feeding of
monocrotophos as explained earlier
under leaf eating caterpillar may be taken
up with safety precautions.
 Collect all the stages of pests viz., eggs on
tree trunks, leaves, larvae
during migration stage, pupae in soil and
leaf sheath and adult moth
during emergence and destruction.
 Organise mass collection campaign
involving farmers, school children
and college students.
 Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using
specially designed tractor mounted tall
tree sprayer.
 Dust methyl parathion or endosulfan dust
@ 1 kg / tree using power operated
bellowed crane duster to reach tall trees.
 Encourage the predatory birds to pick up
the larval stages.

4. Semilooper

4. Semilooper - Achaea janata Linn. (Noctuidae:

 Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The semilooper caterpillar feeds on leaves

while the adult moth pierces the fruits with
its proboscis for feeding causing injury on
the surface of fruits.

5. Ash weevil

5. Ash weevil - Myllocerus maculosus Desb.

(Curculionidae : Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult weevil scrapes the chlorophyll

content of the leaves causing defoliation.

III. BORERS

1. Anarbutterfly

1. Anarbutterfly - Virachola isocrates Fab. (Lycaenidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores inside the developing

fruits and feeds on the pulp and seeds.
 The infested fruits are infected by fungi
and bacteria causing fruit rot disease.
 The damaged fruits ultimately fall off and
 give an offensive odour.
 It causes 40-90 per cent damage to the
fruits.
Bionomics

The adult butterfly is medium sized with wing expanse of 40-

50 mm.
 The female moth is glossy brownish violet while the male is
bluish violet in colour.
 The female lays eggs singly on the calyx of flowers and on
small fruits.
 The egg period is 7-10 days.
 The young larvae bore into the developing fruits.
 The larval period is completed in 18-47 days. It pupates
inside the fruits.
 The pupal period last for 7-34 days.
 It completes four generations per year.
Management

 Grow less susceptible varieties.

 Remove calyx from the fruits to prevent the hatching of eggs
and subsequent damage.
 Collect and destroy the infested fruits.
 Cover the fruits with polythene or muslin bags during
flowering period to prevent egg laying when fruits are up to 5
cm diametre
 Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as oviposition deterrent, 2 to
3 times at 15 days interval commencing from flowering and
during butterfly activity.
 Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing capacity of 60 fruits).
 Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis at 1 lakh /
acre.
 Spray thiochlopril 2 ml/ litre of water.
 Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days between the day
of insecticide application and harvesting of fruits in the field.

2. Fruit borer

2. Fruit
borer - Dichocrocis (= Conogethes) punctiferalis Guen
. (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The caterpillar occasionally causes the damage
by boring into the fruits and feeding on the
pulp.
Bionomics

. Fruit fly

3. Fruit fly - Bactrocera zonatus Saund. (Tephritidae:

Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot destroy and convert the pulp

into a bad smelling, discoloured semi
liquid mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and
start rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes
out on pressing.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is brown or dark brown with

hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15
just beneath the skin of the ripening fruits.
 A single female lays up to 200 eggs during
oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full
grown in about 7 days.
  It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.
Management

 Plough the interspaces to expose the

pupae during the off - season.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
 Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol.
Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of
water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take
10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep
them at 25 different places in one ha
between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy
the adult flies.
 Conserve parasitoids like Optius
compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or
jiggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50
WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly
intervals before ripening of the fruits.
 Spray fenthion 2 ml / litre or Malathion 2
ml / litre of water.

IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

. Eriophyid mite

1. Eriophyid mite - Aceria granati Can and Massal.

(Eriophyidae: Acarina)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults live inside the rolls at

the edges of leaves.
  The infested leaves become linear and
deformed.

2. Red spider mite

2. Red spider mite - Tetranychus punicae Hirst.

(Tetranychidae: Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the leaves from the under surface of

leaves causing yellowing and dropping of
leaves.

INSECTS OF FIG
I. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Wild silk worm

1. Wild silk worm - Opcinara varians Wlk.

(Bombycidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar defoliates the trees.

Bionomics

 The adult moth is pale whitish.

 The full-grown larvae are smooth, pale grey in
colour measuring 30 mm long.

. Leaf caterpillar
 2. Leaf caterpillar - Glyphodes phyloalis W.
(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva infests the leaves causing defoliation.

3. Hairy caterpillar

3. Hairy caterpillar - Hypsa ficus F. (Hypsidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva defoliates the trees.

Bionomics

 The adult moth is yellow with black dots on the

wings.
 The caterpillar is about 25 mm long, black in
colour with yellowish brown warts bearing
white hairs.
 It pupates in soil.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged leaves along with

larvae.
 Use light trap @ 1 / ha to attract and kill adults.
 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 2 ml /litre or
malathion 50 EC 0.1%.

4. Leaf roller
 4. Leaf roller - Phycodes radiata Ochs and P.
minor Moore. (Glyphipterygidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar rolls the leaf and feeds

within.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is greyish brown in colour.

 The eggs are laid singly or in batches of 2-
15 on either side of leaves.
 The egg period is 4-6 days. The caterpillar
of F. radiata is yellowish-white with a dark
stripe on each side, while the caterpillar F.
minor is light green with yellow shiny
head.
 The larval period is 30-35 days.
 It pupates within the leaf fold for 8 - 10
days.

5. Grass hopper

5. Grass hopper - Poecilocerus pictus Fb. (Acrididae:

Orthoptera)

Damage

 It feeds on leaves irregularly and causes severe

defoliation.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Spittle bug
1. Spittle bug - Cosmoscarta niteara D. (Cercopidae :
Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs infest the leaves of fig.

2. Psyllid bug

2. Psyllid bug - Pauropsylla depressa C. (Psyllidae :

Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults desap the leaves

producing galls on the leaves.

3. Mealy bug

3. Mealy bug - Drosicha mangiferae Green.

(Margarodidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves.

4. Mealy bug

4. Mealy bug - Planococcus lilacinus Ckll.

(Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera)

Damage
  It infests foliage causing yellowing symptom.

5. Hard scale

5. Hard scale - Aspidiotus cycloniae C. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

leaves and tender twigs.

. Thrips

6. Thrips - Gigantothrips elegans Z. ( Phloeothripidae :

Thysanoptera )

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the tender

leaves and results in curling and drying up of
the same.

III. BORERS

1. Mango stem borer

1. Mango stem borer - Batocera rufomaculata Dejean.

(Cerambycidae : Coleoptera)

Damage
  The larva tunnel into the main stem or
branches and makes zig - zag tunnels in
the wood.
 The tunnels interfere the sap flow affecting
the foliage and fruit production.
 In severe cases, the infested trees
ultimately dry and dies.
Management

 Keep orchards clean.

 Collect loose and damaged barks and
destroy them.
 Kill grubs by inserting a thin iron spike or
wire into the hole.

2. Fruit fly

2. Fruit fly - Dacus (= Strumeta) dorsalis Hend.

( Tephritidae : Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot destroy and convert the pulp

into a bad smelling, discoloured semi
liquid mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and
start rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes
out on pressing.
Bionomics
  The adult fly is brown or dark brown with
hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15
just beneath the skin of the ripening fruits.
 A single female lays up to 200 eggs during
oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days. The maggot
feeds on pulp and become full grown in
about 7 days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.
Management

 Plough the interspaces to expose the

pupae during the off - season.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
 Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol.
Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of
water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take
10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep
them at 25 different places in one ha
between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy
the adult flies.
 Conserve parasitoids like Optius
compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or
jiggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50
WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly
intervals before ripening of the fruits.

3. Fig midge

3. Fig midge - Anjeerodiplosis peshawaransis Mani.

 (Cecidomyiidae : Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot bores inside the fruit and

feeds on the pulp within.
 The infested fruits become hard, and
deformed.
 The damaged fig ultimately shrivels,
withers and dropped down prematurely.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is small, light brown in colour

with small head and bear two jointed
antennae.
 The female fly lays minute, oval,
pedicellate eggs on one week old fruit.
 The eggs are laid in cluster of 10 eggs.
 The egg period is 3 days.
 The maggot is creamy white in colour.
 The larval period is 3-4 weeks.
 The maggot drop down to the soil for
pupation.
 The pupal period lasts 10-26 days.
Management

 Collect damaged fruits along with maggots

and destroy.
 Rake up soil to expose pupae and apply
lindane 1.3 D at 25kg/ha.
 Spray dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/ litre or
malathion 50 EC 0.1%.
 INSECTS OF STAR GOOSEBERRY
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Aphid

1. Aphid - Setaphis bongainis (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the

leaves causing yellowing symptom.

2. Whitefly

2. Whitefly - Trialeurodes rara Singh. (Aleyrodidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 The colonies of whitefly desap the leaves

from the ventral surface causing yellowing
of leaves in patches on the corresponding
upper surface.

3. Bug

3. Bug - Scutellera nobilis Fab. (Scutelleridae :

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults nymphs and adults

 suck the sap from leaves and cause yellowing
symptoms.

4. Mealy bug

4. Mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Pseudococcidae :

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

causing yellowing.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Leaf roller

1. Leaf roller - Caloptilia (=Gracillaria) acidula

(Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar rolls the leaves and feed on

them causing defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is small brownish in colour.

 The larva is cylindrical yellow with thin
scattered hairs.

INSECTS OF CUSTARD APPLE

I. BORERS

1. Fruit borer
1. Fruit borer - Heterographis (= Anonaepestis)
bengalella Rogonot. (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores into the fruits making

irregular tunnels.
 The development of fruits is arrested and
fruits fall down.
 The bore holes on fruits are plugged with
excreta.
Bionomics

 The female moth lays eggs singly in the

sutures or on the peduncle of immature
fruits.
 The egg period is 4-5 days.
 The larva bores inside the fruits.
 The larval period is 12-19 days.
 It pupates in the tunnels within the fruits.
 The pupal period lasts in 12 days.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

 Spray thiodicarb 2 ml/ litre or malathion
0.1% two times once at flower formation
and second at fruit set.

2. Fruit fly

2. Fruit fly - Dacus zonatus. Saund. (Tephritidae:

Diptera)
Damage

 The maggot destroy and convert the pulp

into a bad smelling, discoloured semi
liquid mass unfit for human consumption.
 The infestation results in fruit drop and
start rotting from inside.
 On complete rotting of the fruits, the
damaged fruit develop yellow spots with
black centers through which liquid oozes
out on pressing.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is brown or dark brown with

hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15
just beneath the skin of the ripening fruits.
 A single female lays up to 200 eggs during
oviposition period of one month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full
grown in about 7 days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.
Management

 Plough the interspaces to expose the

pupae during the off - season.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
 Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol.
Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of
water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take
10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep
them at 25 different places in one ha
 between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy
the adult flies.
 Conserve parasitoids like Optius
compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or
jiggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2
ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50
WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly
intervals before ripening of the fruits.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Striped mealy bug

1. Striped mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Cockerell.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults cover on the fruits and

suck the sap causing shriveling and dropping of
fruits.
Management

 Collect and destroy mealy bug infested leaves,

shoots and fruits.
 Spray dichlorovos 0.05%, two times first at new
flush and shoot formation and second at fruit
set by using fish oil rosin soap 25 ml/litre.
 Release Cryptolaemas montrouzieri @ 10
beetles per tree.

2. Mealy bug
 2. Mealy bug - Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green
(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Pinkish nymphs and adults desap the fruits

causing the shriveling and dropping of fruits.

INSECTS OF WOOD APPLE

I. BORERS

1. Wood apple borer

1. Wood apple borer - Euzophera

plumberijascilla (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar bores into the fruits and feeds

on the pulp causing fruit drop.

2. Fruit borer

2. Fruit borer - Argyroploce illipida Meyr. (Eucosmidae

: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores into the fruits causing fruit

drop.

INSECT OF JAMUN
 I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Psyllid

1. Psyllid - Trioza jambolanae C. (Psyllidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the

leaves causing yellowing and malformation.

2. Whitefly

2. Whitefly - Dialeurodes eugeniae M. (Aleyrodidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 It infests the leaves in seedlings causing

yellowing and malformation

3. Thrips

3. Thrips - Leeuwenia ramakrihmae (=karyani)R.

(Thripidae :Thysanoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaves and

suck the sap causing yellowing with silvery
patches on leaves.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

 1. Leaf miner

1. Leaf miner - Acrocercops telestis Meyr.

(Gracillaridae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar mines into the leaves causing

blister like swelling on upper surface of leaves.

2. Leaf webber

2. Leaf webber - Argyroploce aprobola Meyr.

(Eucosmidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs together the leaves at the

shoot tips and feeds within the web
causing defoliation.

3. Purple winged moth

3. Purple winged moth - Bombotelia delatrix Gr.

(Noctuidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar infests the leaves and

causes defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is brownish black in colour.

  The female lays eggs singly on leaves.
 The incubation period is 3-4 days.
 The larva is green and takes 12-14 days to
become full grown.
 It pupates in a cocoon for 13 days.

4. Looper

4. Looper - Thalassodes flavifusata Wlk.

(Geometridae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on tender foliage

causing defoliation.
Bionomics

 The female moth lays eggs in small groups

on the edges of tender leaves.
 A single female lays 20-30 eggs.
 The egg period is 2-3 days.
 The larva is greenish in colour measuring
3.8 cm long.
 The larval period is 17¬18 days.
 It pupates within rolled up leaves for 7-8
days.
Management

 Collect and destroy damaged leaves.

 Use light trap at 1/ha to attract and kill
adults.
 Spray phaslone 2 ml/1 or malathion 50 EC
2 ml/1.

III. BORERS
 1. Fruit fly

1. Fruit fly - Dacus correctus Bezzi. (Tephritidae:

Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot feeds on pulp of fruit and cause

rotting and dropping of fruits.

2. Bark caterpillar

2. Bark caterpillar - Indarbela tetraonis Moore.

(Metarbelidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar bores inside the stem

making irregular galleries which interfere
the translocation of cell sap.
 The growth of the plant remains stunted
and the fruiting capacity is drastically
reduced.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is stout, pale brown moth

with wavy marking on the wings.
 The female lays eggs in groups in cracks
and crevices on the bark.
 The egg period is 8-10 days.
 The larva is brownish in colour measuring
3.8 mm long.
 Pupation takes place in the galleries for 3-
 4 weeks.
 It has only generation per year.

IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Red spider mite

1. Red spider mite - Oligonychuszus mangiferae Rah

and Sap. (Tetranychidae: Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the leaves of Jamun trees.

INSECTS OF PINEAPPLE
I. BORERS

1. Rhinoceros beetle

1. Rhinoceros beetle - Oryctes rhinoceros Linn.

(Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult beetles bores into the stem

causing wilting of plants.
Management

 Remove and destroy damaged plants.

 Collect and destroy various bio-stages from
manure pits.
 Mix entomogenous fungal culture
of Metarhizium anisopliae in the manure
pits during cooler months to attack grubs.
  Encourage Reduviid bugs, Platymeris
laevicollis to attack adults.
 Hook out and kill adults from the base of
stems.
 Set up light traps following first rains in
summer and monsoon period to attract
adults.
 Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 1 of water in
small mud pots and keep them in the
pineapple garden to attract the adults.
 Use Rhinolure vane trap for attracting
adults.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Thrips

1. Thrips - Thrips tabaci Lind. (Thripidae :

Thysanoptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults which shelter

between the leaf sheaths and stems
lacerate the epidermis and suck the
exuding sap.
 The affected leaves exhibit silvery which
blotches leading to distortion, wilting and
drying from tip down wards.
 The seedlings show retarded growth.
 The bulbs remain undersized and appear
distorted in shape.
Bionomics

 It reproduces parthenogenetically.
  The adult female inserts the eggs into the
tender leaves.
 The egg period is 10-15 days.
 The nymphs and adults are yellow in
colour.
 The nymphal period is 4-6 days.
 It pupates in soil. The pupal period is 3
days.
 The pest undergoes 10 generation per
year.
Management

 Grow resistant varieties viz., White

Persian, Grano, Sweet Spanish, and
Crystal wax.
 Use neem coated urea which reduce the
infestation of pest.
 Set up sky-blue colour sticky traps which
attract more adults than yellow colour
traps.
 Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate at 1
ml/litre or monocrotophos 1 ml/litre with
teepol 0.5 ml/litre of water.

2. Mealybug

2. Mealybug -Dysmicoccus brevipes Cockerell.

(Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

and fruits result yellowing of leaves and
shriveling of fruits.
 Management

 Cultivate resistant varieties like Red

Spanish and Queen.
 Collect planning material from unaffected
plantations.
 Remove basal brownish leaves of cured
planting materials at the time of planting
 Dip basal portion of planting material in
methyl parathion 0.2% solution as a
prophylactic measure.
 Apply phorate 10 G at 17.5 kg/ha at 100-
125 days interval in the affected
plantations.

3. Slug caterpillar

3. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Larva feeds on leaves voraceously leaving

only the midrib and veins results in severe
defoliation.
Bionomics

 Adult moth is green with brown band at

the base of each fore wings.
 Eggs are laid in groups and covered with
hairs on the leaves.
 Egg period is 4-5 days. Larva is stout, slug
like ventrally flat, greenish body with
white lines and four rows of spiny scoli
 tipped red or black. Larval period is 40-45
days.
 It pupates in plant as cocoons covered with
irritating spines and hairs.

INSECT OF PAPAYA
I. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Milk weed grasshopper

1. Milk weed grasshopper - Poecilocerus pictus F.

(Acrididae: Orthoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults feed on leaf

voraciously and cause severe defoliation.
 In the case of severe infestation, it feeds
on the bark of the plant.
Bionomics

 The female thrusts its abdomen deep into

the soil and lay eggs to a depth of 18-20
cm.
 A single female lays about 145-170 eggs.
 The eggs are elongate and orange in
colour.
 The eggs are covered by frothy secretion,
which hardens later on.
 The egg period is 30 days. The nymphal
period is 60 days.
 It becomes adult in another 75 days.

2. Grey weevil
 2. Grey weevil - Myllocerus
subfasciatus G.M., M.discolor Fab and M.viruidu Fab.
(Curulionidae: Coleoptera.)

Damage

 Adult weevil cause notching of leaf

margins. Grub feeds on roots resulting
wilting of plants.
Bionomics

 M.Subfasciatus – Brownish weevil;

 M.discolor – Brown with white spot on
elytra; .
 M.viridanus – Small light green weevil.
Management

 Collect & destruct the adult weevils

 Apply carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/hectare at
15 days after planting.
 Dust lindane 1.3D at 25kg/ha to kill grubs.
 Spray carbaryl 50WP at 2g/1 on plants.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1.Whitefly

1.Whitefly Bemesia tabaci Genu. (Aleyrodidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults feed on cell sap

from leaves causing chlorotic sopts and
 yellowing and drying of leaves.
 Pre-mature defoliation, yellowing and
sooty mould are typical symptoms.
Bionomics

 Adults are minute with yellow body

covered with white waxy bloom.
 Stalked eggs are laid on the undersurface
of leaves.
 EP: 3-5 days; NP: 9-14 days during
summer, EP:5-33 days ; NP:17-33 days
during winter. PP: 2-8 days. LC: 14-107
days.
Management

 Avoid growing of brinjal in summer if the

whitefly is a serious problem in that area.
 Adopt crop rotation using non-host like
cereals which helps to reduce whitefly
population.
 Remove alternative hosts and weed hosts.
 Use nitrogenous fertilizers judiciously to
avoid excessive growth.
 Set up yellow sticky traps @ 12 per
hectare to manage whitefly
 Avoid the usage of resurgence causing
insecticides viz., pyrethriods, dimethoate,
endosulfan, phosalone and monocrotophos.
 Use entomophopathogenic
fungus, Paecilomyces farinosus.
 Spray fish oil rosin soap @ 1 kg in 40 litre
of water + teepol.
 Spray dimethoate @ 1 0:1 or malathion 2
ml or methyl demeton 1 ml or triazophos
1.5 ml / litre of water.
 2. Green peach aphid

2. Green peach aphid - Myzus persicae Sulz.

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves.

 As a result of infestation, leaves get curled
and crinkled, coated with honeydew and
sooty mould.
 It acts as a vector for the disease "Papaya
mosaic virus".
Management

 Remove and destroy damaged plant parts

along with nymphs and adults.
 Encourage parasitoid, Aphelinus mali and
predators, Coccinella septumpunctata and
Ballia eucharis.
 Spray dimethoate 0.03% or methyl
demeton 0.025%.

. Aphid

3. Aphid - Aphis gossypii Glover. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 It is a potential pest on cotton infesting

tender shoots and under surface of the
leaves.
  They occur in large numbers suck the sap
and cause stunted growth, gradual drying
and result in death of the plants.
 Development of black sooty mould due to
the excretion of honey dew giving the plant
a dark appearance.
 Being a polyphagous pest, it is recoreded
in brinjal, bhendi, chillies,guava and
gingelly.
 Curling and crinkling of leaves are typical
symptoms.
Bionomics

 Yellowish or greenish brown nymphs found

on the under surface of leaves.
 They are often attended by ants for the
sweet honey dew secretion.
 Winged forms may be seen under crowded
conditions.

4. Coconut scale

4. Coconut scale - Aspidiotus destructor Sign.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adult desap the leaflets

resulting yellowing, withering and drying
up of leaflets.
Bionomics

 It is circular hard scale occurs as

persistent pest of coconut.
  A female lays up to 90 eggs under its
shield like scale.
 The crawlers move out and distribute
themselves to health leaf lets.
 The life cycles 3.2 days for male and 35
days of female.

III. BORERS

1. Fruit fly

1. Fruit fly - Dacus diversus Coq

and D.cucurbitae (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot tunnel into the fruits and

cause rotting and pre-mature fall of the
developing fruits. The fly seems to prefer
green and tender fruits of pumpkin as it is
not able to pierce the hard rind of some
other fruits.
 The infested fruits can easily be
recognized by the distortion or rotting area
around the site of oviposition.
 Sometimes the young maggot can also be
seen eating on the flowers and rarely they
may feed on the curcurbit veins with
consequent formation of galls.
 It attacks all fruits of cucurbitaceous
besides attacking tomato, chillies, brinjal,
papaya, guava, peach, dates, citrus etc.
Bionomics

 The adult of B.cucurbitae a reddish brown

 fly with lemon yellow curved vertical
markings on the thorax and fuscous
shading on outer margins of wings B.
ciliates smaller than B.cucurbitae.
 It thrusts 5 to 15 cylindrical white eggs
singly or in groups into flowers or tender
fruits.
 The fly makes a number of punctures with
her ovipositor before the eggs are laid. A
resinous secretion ooze out from the
injured fruit to repair the punctures.
 The eggs hatch out in 1 to 9 days
liberating small, dirty white apodous
maggots and become full grown in 3-21
days.
 Pupation takes place in soil.
 Some time it may pupate in the fruit itself.
 Pupal period is 3-9 days in summer and 30
days in winter.
 The adults are free living on flower vector
and can very often be seen congregating
on the undersurface of the leaves during
morning hours.
Management

 Remove and dispose ripe fruits from trees

and ground to suppress fruit fly
population.
 Use methyl eugenol traps to attract and
kill adult flies.
 Cover fruits with a semi-permeable shrink-
wrap film.
 Spray fenthion 1 ml/1 or malathion 2 ml/1
on semi-ripe fruits.
 IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Red spider mite

1. Red spider mite - Tetranychus telarius L.

(Tetranychidae: Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the under surface of leaves and

occasionally on fruits. Both nymphs and
adults remain the protected web and suck
the sap resulting yellowing of leaves.

2. Papaya Mealybug

2. Papaya Mealybug -Paracoccus marginatus

 The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus

marginatus is a small hemipteran that
attacks several genera of host plants,
including economically important tropical
fruits and ornamentals.
 The papaya mealybug was discovered in
Manatee and Palm Beach counties in
Florida in 1998 and subsequently spread
rapidly to several other Florida countries.
 It potentially poses a multi-million dollar
threat to numerous agricultural products
in Florida, as well as other states, if not
controlled.
 Biological control was identified as a key
component in a management strategy for
the papaya mealybug, and a classical
biological control program was initiated as
a joint effort between the US Department
 of Agriculture, Puerto Rico Department of
Agriculture, and Ministry of Agriculture in
the Dominican Republic in 1999.
Distribution

 The papaya mealybug is believed to

be native to Mexico and/or Central
America.
 It has never gained status as a serious
pest there, probably due to the
presence of an endemic natural
enemy complex.
 The first specimens were collected in
Mexico in 1955.
 The papaya mealybug was described
in 1992 from the Neotropical Region
in Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and
Mexico.
 When the papaya mealybug invaded
the Caribbean region, it became a
pest there; since 1994 it has been
recorded in the following 14
Caribbean countries: St.Martin,
Guadeloupe, St. Martin, Guadeloupe,
St.Batthelemy, Antigua, Bahamas,
British Virgin Islands, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto
rico, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitts, and
the U.S. Virgin Islands. More
recently, specimens have turned up in
the Pacific regions of Guam and the
Republic of Palau.
 The papaya mealybug was discovered
in Bradenton, Florida in 1998 on
hibiscus. By January 2002, it had been
 collected 80 times on 18 different
plant species in 30 cities throughout
Alachua, Brevard, Broward, Collier,
Dade, Hillsborough, Manatee, Martin,
Monroe, Palm Beach, Pinellas, Polk,
Sarasota, and Volusia counties.
 Specimens also have been intercepted
in Texas and California, and it is
expected that papaya mealybug could
rapidly establish throughout Florida
and through the Gulf states to
California.
 It is possible that certain greenhouse
crops could be at risk in areas as far
north as Delaward, New Jersey and
Maryland.
 It has already been identified on
papaya plants in the Garfield
Conservatory in Chicago, Illinois in
late August of 2001.
 A biological control program was
implemented in December of 2001
with very successful results.
Description

 Papaya mealybug infestations are

typically observed as clusters of
cotton-like masses on the above-
ground portion of plants.
 The adult female is yellow and is
covered with a white waxy coating.
Adult females are approximately 2.2
mm long (1/16 inch) and 1.4 mm
wide.
 A series of short waxy caudal
 filaments less than ¼ the length of the
body exist around the margin.
 Eggs are greenish yellow and are laid
in an egg sac that is three to four
times the body length and entirely
covered with white wax.
 The ovisac is developed ventrally on
the adult female.
 Adult males tend to be colored pink,
especially during the pre-pupal and
pupal stages, but appear yellow in the
first and second instar.
 Adult males are approximately 1.0
mm long, with an elongate oval body
that is widest at the thorax (0.3 mm),
Adult males have ten-segmented
antennae, a distinct aedeagus, lateral
pore clusters, a heavily sclerotized
thorax and head, and well-developed
wings.
 Two characteristics that are
important in distinguishing
P.marginatus adult females from all
other species of Paracoccus are: the
presence of oral-rim tubular ducts
dorsally restricted to marginal areas
of the body, and the absence of pores
on the hind tibiae.
 Adult males may be distinguished
from other related species by the
presence of stout fleshy setae on the
antennae and the absence of fleshy
setae on the legs.
 The papaya mealybug can easily be
distinguished from Maconellicoccus
 marginatus (Green), the pink hibiscus
mealybug, because papaya mealybug
females have eight antennal
segments, in contrast to nine in the
latter species.
 Specimens of papaya mealybug turn
bluish-black when placed in alcohol,
as is characteristic of other members
of this genus.
Biology

 Details on the biology and life cycle of

the papaya mealybug are lacking.
 In general, mealybugs have piercing-
sucking mouthparts and feed by
inserting their mouthparts into plant
tissue and sucking out sap.
Mealybugs are most active in warm,
dry weather.
 Females have no wings, and move by
crawling short distances or by being
blown in air currents.
 Females usually lay 100 to 600 eggs
in an ovisac, although some species of
mealybugs give birth to live young.
 Egg-laying usually occurs in about 10
days, and nymphs, or crawlers, begin
to actively search for feeding sites.
 Female crawlers have four instars,
with a generation taking
approximately one month to complete,
depending on the temperature.
 Males have five instars, the fourth of
which is produced in a cocoon and
referred to as the pupa.
  The fifth instar of the male is the only
winged form of the species capable of
flight.
 Adult females attract the males with
sex pheromones. Under greenhouse
conditions, reproduction occurs
throughout the year, and in certain
species may occur without
fertilization.

ost Plants

 The papaya mealybug is polyphagous and has been recorded

on > 55 host plants in more than 25 genera. Economically
important host plants of the papaya mealybug include
papaya, hibiscus, avocado, citrus, cotton, tomato, eggplant,
peppers, beans and peas, sweet potato, mango, cherry, and
pomegranate.
Damage

The papaya mealybug feeds on the sap of plants by inserting

its stylets into the epidermis of the leaf, as well as into the
fruit and stem.
 In doing so, it injects a toxic substance into the leaves.
 The result is chlorosis, plant stunting, leaf deformation, early
leaf and fruit drop, a heavy build up of honeydew, and death.
 Heavy infestations are capable of rendering fruit inedible due
to the buildup of thick white wax.
 Papaya mealybug has only been recorded feeding on areas of
the host plant that are above ground, namely the leaves and
fruit.
Management
Chemical control

 A number of chemical controls are available to control

mealybug, although none are currently registered specifically
for control of papaya mealybug. Active ingredients in
registered pesticide formulations include acephate, carbaryl,
clorpyrifos, diazinon, dimethoate, malathion, and white
mineral oils.
 Typically, twice the normal dose is applied when treating for
mealybugs because mealybugs are protected by thick waxy,
cottony sacs, and often are concealed inside damaged leaves
and buds.
  Thus, chemical controls are only partially effective and
require multiple applications. Furthermore, problems with
insecticide resistance and non-target effects on natural
enemies make chemical control a less desirable control
option to combat the papaya mealybug.
Biological control

 Natural enemies of the papaya mealybug include the

commercially available mealybug destroyer (Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri), lady beetles, lacewings, and hover flies, all
which are generalist predators that have a potential impact
on mealybug populations. In addition to predators,
several parasitoids may attack papaya mealybug.
 In 1999, the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (APHIS) and USDA Agricultural Research Station
(ARS) initiated a classical biological control program for the
papaya mealybug.
 Four genera of encyrtid endoparasitoid wasps specific to
mealybugs were collected in Mexico by USDA and ARS
researchers and Mexican cooperators as potential biological
control agents:
 Acerophagus papaya @ 100 numbers / small village as
inculative release, Anagyrus californicus Compere,
and Pseudaphycus sp. A fifth collected species was later
reared and identified as Pseudleptomastix Mexicana.
 All four species were screened in USDA/ARS quarantine
facilities in Newark, Delaware and environmental
assessments were completed. Specimens were then shipped
to Puerto Rico where they were cultured and mass-reared for
experimental release in Puerto Rico and the Dominican
Republic.
 The first releases of these four parasitoids were made in
Florida in October 2000.
 To date, APHIS has found that the release of the four genera
of parasitoid wasps has brought a 99.7% reduction in the
density of mealybug populations at research sites in the
Dominican Republic, and a 97% reduction at research sites in
Puerto Rico, with parasitism levels between 35.5% and
58.3%.
 All four species of parasitoids have been observed attacking
second and third instars of P.marginatus.
However, Acerophagus sp. emerged as the dominant
paraditoid species in both Puerto Rico and the Dominican
Republic.
 The outcome of releases of the four parasitoids in Florida is
yet to be determined as of March 2003.

INSECT OF TAMARIND
 I. BORERS

1.Tamarind fruit borer

1. Tamarind fruit borer - Phycita orthoclina Meyr.

(Phycitidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bore into the tender fruits and

feeds on the pulp. The infestation makes
the fruit unfit for consumption.
Bionomics

 A female moth lays up to 190 eggs in about

3 days on the pulp inside the hard shelled
pods through cracks and crevices found on
them.
 The incubation period is 4 - 5 days.
 The larvae bore into the pulp and remain
in a silken web.
 The larval period is 27 - 40 days.
 It pupates in a silken cocoon inside the
infested pod.
 The adult emerges in about 6-8 days.

Anar butterfly

2. Anar butterfly - Virachola isocrates F. (Lycaenidae :

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar bore into the developing

 fruits and feed on the pulp below the rind
of infested fruits ultimately fall off and
infested fruit which gives an offensive
smell.
Bionoinics

 The adult moth is brown butterfly.

 The female moth has' V ' shaped patch on
fore wings.
 It lays shiny white, oval shaped eggs singly
on developing fruits.
 The egg period is 7 -10 days.
 The larva is dirty dark brown, short and
stoutly build covered with short hairs.
 The larval period is 18 - 47 days. It pupates
insides the fruit.
 The pupal period ranges from 7-34 days.
Management

 Collect and destroy the infested fruits.

 Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as
oviposition deterrent, 2 to 3 times at 15
days interval commencing from flowering
and during butterfly activity.
 Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing
capacity of 60 fruits).
 Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma
chilonis at 1 lakh / acre.
 Spray thiochloprit 2 ml/ litre of water.
 Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days
between the day of insecticide application
and harvesting of fruits in the field.

3. Fruit borer
3. Fruit borer - Argyroploce illipida Meyr. (Eucosmidae
: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores into the fruits causing fruit

drop

4. Castor capsule borer

4. Castor capsule borer - Dichocrosis (= Conogethes)

punctiferalis Guen. (Pyraustidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva borers into the central core of

the pseudostems resulting in the death of
the central spindle causing charactersic
“dead heart” symptom.
 In the case of capsules, the caterpillars
bore into the immature capsules and feed
on the seeds rendering them empty.
 The caterpillars occasionally tunnel into
the panicle also. A characteristic indication
for the presence of the larvae is the oozing
out of excreted frass materials at the
mouth of the bore hole, which are very
conspicuous on the stem or pods.
Bionomics

 The adult is a medium sized brownish

yellow coloured moth with a number of
dark spots on the wings.
  It lays eggs on the top leaf axils of young
pseudostem.
 The larva bore into the tender parts of the
panicle, flower buds and immature
capsules only, the later stage larva bore
into the stem.
 The full grown larva is measuring 15-25
mm long and it pupates within the larval
tunnel inside the pseudostems.
 The life cycle is completed within 25-40
days.
Management

 Collect and destroy the affected plant

parts.
 Destroy the alternate host plants from the
vicinity of the plantation
 Spray phosalone 3 ml/litre or Dimethoate
0.03 % /litre or quinolphos 4 ml/litre or
fenthion 1.25ml / litre of water.

II. INFLORESCENCE FEEDERS

1. Inflorescence caterpillar

1. Inflorescence caterpillar - Laspeyresia palamedes M.

(Eucosmidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs the inflorescence and bores into

the stalks causing shedding of floral parts.

2. Flower webber
 2. Flower webber - Eublemma angulifera Moore.
(Noctuidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar webs the inflorescence and

tunnel into the stalks.

3. Looper

3. Looper - Thalassodes quadraria Guen. (Geometridae

: Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The caterpillar webs the inflorescence and base

into the stalk

III. SAP FEEDERS

1. Hard Scale

1. Hard Scale - Aspidiotus tamarindus Green.

(Diaspididae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 It covers the leaves, fruits, and the twigs and

sucks the sap.

2. Soft scale

2. Soft scale - Saisettia oleae Ber. (Coccidae:

 Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the

developing fruits result the yellowish
encrustation over the infested fruit, ill
filled and hard fruits.

3. Mealy bug

3. Mealy bug - Planococcus lilacillus Ckll.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults cover on the

developing fruits and suck the sap causing
shriveling of fruits.

IV. ROOT FEEDERS

1. White grub

1. White grub - Holotrichia insularis Brensk.

(Melolonthidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub feeds on rootlets causing

withering and drying of young plants.
 In case of severe, attack the entire
seedling is killed.
  The adult beetles feed on leaves causing
severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult beetles are brownish black in

colour.
 The beetles emerge from the soil with the
onset of monsoon during June-July.
 It lays shiny white, oval shaped eggs in the
soil. The egg period is 8-12 days.
 The young grub feeds on roots of host
plants the grown up grub is white, fleshy,
'C' shaped. The grub period is 55-80 days.
 It pupates in earthern for 8-12 days.
 It hibernates in pupal stage from
November-June and later on emerges as
adult.

INSECT OF APPLE
I. BORERS

1. Stem borer

1. Stem borer - Apriona cinerea Chaverlot. (Lamidae:

Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub bores into twigs causing

circuitous galleries.
 The infested branches have small circular
hole and mass of excreta and chewed up
wood particles protruding out.
 The barks of branches are gnawed and
 leaves defoliated.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is ashy grey with

numerous black tubercles at the base of
elytra.
 The female lays eggs inside the cavity,
which is excavated on shoots.
 The incubation period is 7-8 days.
 The grub is creamy yellow with the dark
brownish head.
 The grub undergoes hibernation during
winter and resumes feeding in March,
reaching the tree trunk by autumn
(September-October) again go in
hibernation during winter.
 It pupates inside the tunnel. The pupal
period is 30-35 days.

2. Shot hole borer

2. Shot hole borer - Scolytoplatypul raja Bland.

(Scolytidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub burrows in the trunks of apple.

3. Fruit borer

3. Fruit borer - Xylotrupes gideon Linn. (Dynastidac:

Coleoptera)

Damage
  It bores into the fruits

. Bark borer

4. Bark borer - Aeolesthes holosericea Fab.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub feeds inner layers of bark and

outer layer of sapwood.
 The larval tunnel is plugged with excreta.
Bionomics

 A female beetle lays about 92 eggs in the

injured parts of the incubation period is 7-
12 days.
 The grubs feed on the barks and sap the
larval development is completed in 27-32
months.
 It pupates inside wood for 3-25 days.
 The pupal period lasts for 40-100 days.
 The total cycle is completed in 31-36
months.

5. Fruit fly

5. Fruit fly - Bactrocera zonatus Saund. ( Tephritidae :

Diptera )

Damage
  The maggot feeds on the fruits causing
rotting and dropping of fruits.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is small, reddish brown with

yellowish cross band on the abdomen.
 It inserts white cylindrical eggs on the
fruits in group of 2-9.
 The fecundity of the fly is 137 eggs /
female.
 The eggs are covered by resinous
secretion.
 The egg period is 2-4 days.
 The maggot is dirty white, acephalic and
apodous measuring 1 cm in length.
 The larval period is 4-16 days.
 The maggot crawls out of fruits and
pupates in the soil.
 The pupal stage over winters in cold
months.
 The pupal period last for 7 days.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Apple woolly aphid

1. Apple woolly aphid - Eriosoma lanigarum Hausmn.

(Pemphigidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

 the bark fruit stalk, calyx and roots.
 The affected plants become weak and
cause death of the plants in the nursery.
 It causes gall like swellings on the stem
and roots.
 It crowds together covered with woolly
white patches on the trunk.
Bionomics

 The aphid is purplish aphid covered with

white cottony mats.
 It reproduces both sexually and asexually.
 Generally it develops parthenogenetically.
 Apterous forms are present throughout the
year.
 Each female may produce up to 116 young
ones in her life time.
 The nymph undergoes four instars.
 The nymphal period is 35 - 42 days.
 Alate form disperses by flight and gives
rise to apterous forms by sexual
reproduction.
Management

 Use tolerant or resistant root stocks;

M778, M779, MM 14, MM 110, MM 112,
MM 114 and MM 115.
 Release specific eulophid
parasitoid Aphelinus mali during
December and
 June to obtain maximum parasitization and
predators, Chilomenes
bijugus and Coccinella septumpunctata.
 Spray nicotin sulphate 40EC 500 ml or
malathion 50 EC 750 ml in 500 litres of
 water.
 Apply the fumigant paradichlorobenzene at
30-110 gram / tree in a 15 cm deep trench
around the tree about two metres away
from the base of the affected tree.
 Remove the aphids mechanically by
rubbing with clothes without causing
 any damage to the developing buds.
 Follow nursery bed treatment of
carbofuran 3 G 0.5 g a.i./plant or spray
dimethoate 0.03% or methyl demeton
0.025% in March to April and June to
control aerial forms.

2. San Jose scale

2. San Jose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comst.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the bark

and desap the same.
 The infested region of the bark becomes
reddish pink and purple colouration in
fruits.
Bionomics

 The female scale is round slightly convex

with a black pustule and the male is linear.
 The hibernating nymphs become active in
March and the males emerge in April.
 The females reproduce in mid May
producing 200-400 nymphs within a
 month.
 The nymphal period is 20 days. The total
life cycle is completed in 35-40 days.
Management

 Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl

demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.
 Select nursery stock free from scale
infestation.
 Encourage activity
of parasitoids, Prospaltella
perniciosi and Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or
coccinellid Chilocorus
circumdatus predator.
 Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or
methyl bromide.
 Summer spray with contact or systemic
insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,
fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton
0.025%.
 Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8
to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap 1 kg,
water 54-72 1).

3. Cottony cushion scale

3. Cottony cushion scale - Icerya purchasi Maskell.

(Margarodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the

leaves causing yellowing.
Bionomics
  The female has a cottony ovisac and the pinkish
nymph has long antenna with group of hairs.

4. Thrips

4. Thrips - Taeniothrips rhapalantennalis Shum.

(Thripidae : Thysanoptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults infest the flowers and

causes distortion of the flowers and reduction
of fruit-setting.

5. Pentatomid bug

5. Pentatomid bug - Tessaratoma quadrata Dist.

( Pentatomidae : Hemiptera )

Damage

 The nymphs and adults desap the fruits causing

the dropping of the fruits.

III. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Tent Caterpillar

1. Tent Caterpillar - Malacosoma indica Wlk.

(Lasiocarapidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The caterpillar constructs a tent like
shelters at the forking twigs and hide
within during the day time.
 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves
gregariously during the night hours
causing severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 It is active only from March to May and

passes the remaining
 months of the year during eggs stage.
 The adult female moth is light brown with
a wing expanse of 29-32 mm.
 It lays eggs in masses of 300-400 on
branches of the tree during May-June.
 The eggs are hatched in the following
month.
 The larva has black head and abdomen.
 The larval period is 40-70 days.
 It pupates on stem and on ground in
cocoon during May for 7-21 days.
Management
 Destroy all the egg bands on the branches
during pruning.
 Spray carbaryl 50 WP 4 g / lit of water.

2. Apple codling moth

2. Apple codling moth - Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.

(Tortricidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The caterpillar feeds on the leaves first,
then it borer in to fruits, feeds on the pulp
of fruits.
 The female lays white coloured, flattened
eggs singly on developing fruits, leaves
and the twigs.
 The egg period is 4-12 days. The larva is
pinkish to creamy white in colour with a
brown head.
 The larval period last for 21-30 days.
 The grown up larvae comes out of the fruit
and falls on the ground and then it reach
the bark of the tree for shelter in cracks
and crevices to construct a silken cocoon
for pupation. The pupal period is 8-14
days.
Management

 Collection and destruction of cocoons and

fallen fruits.
 Mass trap males with codling moth lure
traps.
 Spray DDVP 0.04%.
 Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma
embryophagum at 2000/tree.

3. Indian gypsy moth

3. Indian gypsy moth - Lymantria obfuscata Wlk.

( Lymantriidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage
  The larva feeds on the leaves gregariously
which results in failure of fruit formation.
Bionomics

 The adult female is dark grey in colour. It

settles down on the bark of the tree and
days eggs in masses of 200-400 under the
bark which are covered with yellowish
brown hairs.
 The egg stage overwinters during cold
months and hatch in March - April.
 The larvae complete the development in
66-100 days.
 It pupates in the soil among the debris.
The pupal period is 9-21 days.

IV. ROOT FEEDERS

1. Apple root borer

1. Apple root borer - Dorysthenus hiigelii Redt.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub borers into the roots or girdles

around the roots and feed on the internal
tissues.
 It resulted in shaking of plants, withering
and drying of branches.
Bionomics
  The adult beetle is chestnut -red in colour
with head and thorax darker than elytra.
 It lays oval shaped yellow white eggs
below the soil.
 A female can lay up to 200 eggs. The egg
period is 30-40 days.
 The newly hatched out grub goes down to
the soil, 100-250 mm deep and feed on the
roots of the tree.
 The full grown grub is creamy-white with
black head and mandibles measuring 75-
100 mm in length.
 The larval duration extends up to 3 %
years and it can live without food for 24 -
90 days.
 It pupates in earthern cocoon inside the
soil. Its pupal period is about 3 months.
Management

 Avoid dry sandy soils for planting apple

orchards

. White grub

2. White grub - Lachnosterna longipennis Blan.

(Melolonthidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub feeds on the roots while the adult

feeds on leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult female beetle lays the eggs in

 soil, 2.5-5.0 cm a deep near the host roots.
 The incubation period is 13-18days. Grubs
remain in soil, feeding on the organic
matter and roots of apple tree.
 The larval period is 243-277 days. It
pupates in soil for 22-27 days.

IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. European mite

1. European mite - Panonychus ulmi. (Tetranychidae:

Acarina)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults infest the leaves,

which resulted in leaves with white streaks
on the upper surface, the infested leaves
become rolled.

INSECT OF PEAR
I. BORERS

1. Stemborer

1. Stemborer - Sahydrassus (= Phassus)

malabaricus M. (Hepialidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar bores in the stem at the

base of the tree resulting bore hole with
circular particle mat covering on the stem
 and wilting of the tree.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is big brownish white in

colour. The larva is stout caterpillar.
Management

 Remove and destroy damaged branches

and trees along with larvae.
 Use light trap at 1/ha attract and kill
adults.
 Locate live hole and kill caterpillar by
spiking with an iron hook.
 Inject or pour monocrotophos 10 ml+water
10 ml mixture and cover with mud. Follow
stem injection after harvest of fruits and
subsequent harvest should be done 40
days later from first stem injection.

2. Fruit fly

2. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) zonatus Saund.

(Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot feeds on the pulp of fruits

causing rotting and dropping of fruits.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is small, reddish brown in the

yellow cross bands on the abdomen.
 The female lays white cylindrical eggs on
the skin of a fruit in masses of 2-9.
  The fecundity is about 137 eggs per
female.
 The egg period is 2-4 days.
 The maggot is dirty white, apodous and
elongated measuring 1 cm in length.
 The larval period is 4-16 days.
 The maggot come out from the rotting fruit
and pupates in the soil at a depth of 25.4 -
76.2 mm.
 The pupal period last for 7 days. The life
cycle is completed in 13-27 days.

3. Fruit borer

3. Fruit borer - Virachola isocrates F. (Lycaenidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores inside the developing

fruits and feeds on the pulp and seeds.
 The infested fruits are infected by fungi
and bacteria causing fruit rot disease.
 The damaged fruits ultimately fall off and
give an offensive odour.
 It causes 40-90 per cent damage to the
fruits.
Bionomics

 The adult butterfly is medium sized with

wing expanse of 40-50 mm.
 The female moth is glossy brownish violet
while the male is bluish violet in colour.
 The female lays eggs singly on the calyx of
 flowers and on small fruits.
 The egg period is 7-10 days.
 The young larvae bore into the developing
fruits.
 The larval period is completed in 18-47
days.
 It pupates inside the fruits.
 The pupal period last for 7-34 days.
 It completes four generations per year.
Management

 Grow less susceptible varieties.

 Remove calyx from the fruits to prevent
the hatching of eggs and subsequent
damage.
 Collect and destroy the infested fruits.
 Cover the fruits with polythene or muslin
bags during flowering period to prevent
egg laying when fruits are up to 5 cm
diametre
 Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as
oviposition deterrent, 2 to 3 times at 15
days interval commencing from flowering
and during butterfly activity.
 Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing
capacity of 60 fruits).
 Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma
chilonis at 1 lakh / acre.
 Spray thiochlopril 2 ml/ litre of water.
 Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days
between the day of insecticide application
and harvesting of fruits in the field.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Eye spotted bud moth

1. Eye spotted bud moth - Eucosma (= Spilonota)
ocellana Schiff. (Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores into shoots, flowers, and

fruit buds and feeds on them.
Bionomics

 The adult moth emerges during May and

June.
 It lays eggs on the floral parts.
 The incubation period is 8-11 days.
 The caterpillar bores in to the floral parts,
feeds till September and overwinters from
October - March.
 It pupates in April for 9-13 days.

2. Codling moth

2. Codling moth - Carpocapsa potnonella Linn.

(Tortricidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves first,

then it borer in to fruits, feeds on the pulp
of fruits. The female lays white coloured,
flattened eggs singly on developing fruits,
leaves and the twigs. The egg period is 4-
12 days. The larva is pinkish to creamy
white in colour with a brown head. The
larval period last for 21-30 days. The
 grown up larvae comes out of the fruit and
falls on the ground and then it reach the
bark of the tree for shelter in cracks and
crevices to construct a silken cocoon for
pupation. The pupal period is 8-14 days.
Management

 Collection and destruction of cocoons and

fallen fruits.
 Mass trap males with codling moth lure
traps.
 Spray DDVP 0.04%.
 Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma
embryophagum at 2000/tree.

3. Wild silk worm moth

3. Wild silk worm moth - Actias selene Hb.

(Saturnidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 It causes defoliation.

4. Sphinx moth

4. Sphinx moth - Langia zeuzerrides Moore.

( Sphingidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage

 It causes defoliation.

5. Hairy caterpillar
 5. Hairy caterpillar - Euproctis fraterna Moore.
(Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously

causing severe defoliation.

6. Grey weevil

6. Grey weevil - Myllocerus spp (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera)

Damage

 Adult weevil cause notching of leaf margins.

Grub feeds on roots resulting wilting of plants.
Bionomics

 M.Subfasciatus – Brownish weevil;

 M.discolor – Brown with white spot on elytra;
 M.viridanus – Small light green weevil.
Management

 • Collect & destruct the adult weevils

 • Apply carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/hectare at 15
days after planting.

III.SAP FEEDERS

1. San Jose scale

1. San Jose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comst

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the bark

and desap the same.
 The infested region of the bark becomes
reddish pink and purple colouration in
fruits.
Bionomics

 The female scale is round slightly convex

with a black pustule and the male is linear.
 The hibernating nymphs become active in
March and the males emerge in April.
 The females reproduce in mid May
producing 200-400 nymphs within a
month.
 The nymphal period is 20 days. The total
life cycle is completed in 35-40 days.
Management

 Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl

demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.
 Select nursery stock free from scale
infestation.
 Encourage activity
of parasitoids, Prospaltella
perniciosi and Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or
coccinellid Chilocorus
circumdatus predator.
 Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or
methyl bromide.
 Summer spray with contact or systemic
insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,
 fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton
0.025%.
 Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8
to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap 1 kg,
water 54-72 1).

2. Aphid

2. Aphid - Dilachnus krishnii George and Aphis

gossypii Glover. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults feed on leaves and

tender shoots causing yellowing symptom.

3. Psyllid bug

3. Psyllid bug - Cacopsylla mali (Psyllidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 It causes yellowing of shoots

INSECT OF PEACH
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Peach leaf curl aphid

1. Peach leaf curl aphid - Brachycaudus helichrysi Kalt

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage
  Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves,
petioles, blossom and fruits.
 The infested leaf turn pale and curl up,
blossom wither and fruits do not develop
and drops prematurely.
Bionomics

 It appears in cooler regions after the

middle of March and from June to October
it feeds on golden rod a alternative host.
 The egg stage over winters from October-
December.
 During spring the egg hatch and nymphs
moves out on to the primordial leaves and
suck the sap.
 The eggs are produced
parthenogenetically which hatch inside the
body of mother.
 Each viviparous female produces about 50
nymphs in 13 days of life span.
 After completing 3-4 asexual generations,
the aphid migrates to its alternative host to
pass summer.
 They again reproduce asexually and
complete 4-5 generation from June-
October.
 The winged females are again produced in
November.

2. Green peach aphid

2. Green peach aphid Myzus persicae Sulz. (Aphididae:

 Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

the leaves curling and crinkling and sooty
mould development of leaves are the
typical symptoms of damage.
Bionomics

 Adults are both wingless and winged

forms.
 Nymphs are in different colour forms
mostly yellow, green and red. Yellow forms
are more dominant

3. Soft scale

3. Soft scale - Eulecanium tiliae L. (Coccidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adult scale insects infest

leaves and twigs.
Bionomics

 It is a soft, hemispherical dark brown

scale.
 It lays the eggs during March-April and
they hatch in 12-15 days.
 The crawlers settle on leaves and nymphs
migrate to twigs during July-December.
  The adult female emerge in February and
males in March or April.

4. San jose Scale

4. San jose Scale - Quadraspidiotus pernicious Comst.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the bark

and desap the same.
 The infested region of the bark becomes
reddish pink and purple colouration in
fruits.
Bionomics

 The female scale is round slightly convex

with a black pustule and the male is linear.
 The hibernating nymphs become active in
March and the males emerge in April.
 The females reproduce in mid May
producing 200-400 nymphs within a
month.
 The nymphal period is 20 days. The total
life cycle is completed in 35-40 days.
Management

 Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl

demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.
 Select nursery stock free from scale
infestation.
 Encourage activity
of parasitoids, Prospaltella
 perniciosi and Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or
coccinellid Chilocorus
circumdatus predator.
 Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or
methyl bromide.
 Summer spray with contact or systemic
insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,
fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton
0.025%.
 Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8
to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap 1 kg,
water 54-72 1).

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Codling moth

1. Codling moth - Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.

(Tortricidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves first,

then it borer in to fruits, feeds on the pulp
of fruits.
 The female lays white coloured, flattened
eggs singly on developing fruits, leaves
and the twigs.
 The egg period is 4-12 days.
 The larva is pinkish to creamy white in
colour with a brown head.
 The larval period last for 21-30 days.
 The grown up larvae comes out of the fruit
and falls on the ground and then it reach
the bark of the tree for shelter in cracks
 and crevices to construct a silken cocoon
for pupation. The pupal period is 8-14
days.
Management

 Collection and destruction of cocoons and

fallen fruits.
 Mass trap males with codling moth lure
traps.
 Spray DDVP 0.04%.
 Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma
embryophagum at 2000/tree.

2. Peach butterfly

2. Peach butterfly - Kallima inachus Boisd.

( Nymphalidae : Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The adult butterfly, which mimics the dry leaf in

suspended, which desap the peach fruits.

3. Hairy caterpillar

3. Hairy caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb.

(Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on leaves and cause

defoliation.

III. BORERS
 1. Peach Stem borer

1. Peach Stem borer - Sphenoptera lafertei Thomson.

(Buprestidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grubs feed below the bark making

minute irregular galleries causing
loosening and splitting of barks.
 The beetle feeds on leaves, which turn pale
and dry up.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is blackish bronze in

colour measuring 10-13 mm long.
 The female lays small, spherical white eggs
singly on the tree trunk and the main
branches.
 The egg period is 20 days.
 The grub stage is completed in 2 months in
summer and 6 months in winter.
 It pupates in a small chamber in woody
tissues.
 The pupal period lasts for 8-12 days in
summer.
Management
 Collect and destroy damaged shoots and
branches.
 Swab trunk with carbaryl 50 WP at 0.2%.
 Spray malathion 0.1% or acephate 75 SP 2
g/litre

2. Peach fruit fly

 2. Peach fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) zonatus
Saund (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot feeds on the pulp of fruits

causing rotting and dropping of fruits.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is small, reddish brown in the

yellow cross bands on the abdomen.
 The female lays white cylindrical eggs on
the skin of a fruit in masses of 2-9.
 The fecundity is about 137 eggs per
female.
 The egg period is 2-4 days. The maggot is
dirty white, apodous and elongated
measuring 1 cm in length.
 The larval period is 4-16 days. The maggot
come out from the rotting fruit and
pupates in the soil at a depth of 25.4 -76.2
mm.
 The pupal period last for 7 days.
 The life cycle is completed in 13-27 days.

INSECT OF PLUM
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. San Jose scale

1. San Jose scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comst.

 (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the bark

and desap the same. The infested region of
the bark becomes reddish pink and purple
colouration in fruits.
Bionomics

 The female scale is round slightly convex

with a black pustule and the male is linear.
The hibernating nymphs become active in
March and the males emerge in April. The
females reproduce in mid May producing
200-400 nymphs within a month. The
nymphal period is 20 days. The total life
cycle is completed in 35-40 days.
Management

 Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl

demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.
 Select nursery stock free from scale
infestation.
 Encourage activity
of parasitoids, Prospaltella
perniciosi and Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or
coccinellid Chilocorus
circumdatus predator.
 Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or
methyl bromide.
 Summer spray with contact or systemic
insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,
 fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton
0.025%.
 Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8
to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap 1 kg,
water 54-72 1).

2. Peach leaf curl aphid

2. Peach leaf curl aphid - Brachycaudus

helichrysi Kalt. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves,

petioles, blossom and fruits. The infested
leaf turn pale and curl up, blossom wither
and fruits do not develop and drops
prematurely.
Bionomics

 It appears in cooler regions after the

middle of March and from June to October
it feeds on golden rod a alternative host.
The egg stage over winters from October-
December. During spring the egg hatch
and nymphs moves out on to the
primordial leaves and suck the sap.
 The eggs are produced
parthenogenetically which hatch inside the
body of mother. Each viviparous female
produces about 50 nymphs in 13 days of
life span. After completing 3-4 asexual
 generations, the aphid migrates to its
alternative host to pass summer. They
again reproduce asexually and complete 4-
5 generation from June-October. The
winged females are again produced in
November.

II. BORERS

1. Cherry stem borer

1. Cherry stem borer - Aeolesthes holosericca F.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The newly hatched out grub tunnels the

bark and makes zig - zag galleries.
 The grown up grub bores in to the stem
deeply and damages the woody tissues.
 The infested plant withers and gradually
dies. The bore hole is plugged with
excreta.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is dark brown measuring

38-45 mm in length.
 It lays eggs on the dry wood portion or
increases of out on the bark.
 The egg period is 7-12 days.
 The grubs is yellowish in colour and are
covered with fine bristles, measuring 70-80
mm long the larval period is completed in
27-32 months.
 It pupates either in October-November or
 in March -April.
 The pupal period ranges from 40-100 days.
 The total life cycle is completed in 31% -
36 months.

2. Peach stemborer

2. Peach stemborer - Spheroptera lafertei Thomson.

(Buprestidae - Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grubs feed below the bark making

minute irregular galleries causing
loosening and splitting of barks.
 The beetle feeds on leaves, which turn pale
and dry up.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is blackish bronze in

colour measuring 10-13 mm long.
 The female lays small, spherical white eggs
singly on the tree trunk and the main
branches.
 The egg period is 20 days.
 The grub stage is completed in 2 months in
summer and 6 months in winter.
 It pupates in a small chamber in woody
tissues.
 The pupal period lasts for 8-12 days in
summer.
Management
 Collect and destroy damaged shoots and
branches.
  Swab trunk with carbaryl 50 WP at 0.2%.
 Spray malathion 0.1% or acephate 75 SP 2
g/litre

III. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Almond weevil

1. Almond weevil Myllocerus lactivirens Marshl.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult weevil cut the irregular holes

and gradually eat away the entire leaf
lamina from the ventral all surface of
leaves resulting severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is small pale metallic

green in colour measuring 3-4 mm long.
 It lays eggs in soil in batches of 40-50
each.
 The eggs are broadly oval, creamy yellow,
smooth, transparent and shiny.
 The egg period is 4-5 days.
 The grub is creamy white, stout, without
legs but short erect setae which help in
locomotion.
 The full grown grubs come up to the soil
surface to pupate in the upper 25 mm of
the soil.
 The larval and pupal periods last for 300
days and 5 days respectively.
 The pupal stage over winters in cooler
 months.

INSECT OF COCONUT
I. BORERS

1. Rhinoceros beetle

1. Rhinoceros beetle - Oryctes rhinoceros Linn.

(Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult beetles cause severe damage to

young as well as old trees.
 The beetles live in crevices between the
leaf sheaths near the crown and burrow in
to the softer portion feeding on the un
opened fronds and inflorescence.
 The beetles chews the internal tissues and
after injecting the juicy part throws out the
fibrous part which comes out of holes is
the indication for the presence of beetle in
the crown.
 The infested fully opened fronds showing
the characteristic 'v' shaped cuts on leaf
lets.
 The young seedlings are often killed when
the growing points are damaged.
 The repeated attack in old trees causes
stunting of growth and present sickly
appearance to the trees.
 Bore holes with chewed fibre sticking out
at the base of central spindle is the typical
symptom of attack.
Bionomics

The adult beetle is black, stout measures 5 cm long and has a

long horn projecting dorsally from the head.
 The horn is longer in male and shorter in female beetle.
 The female lays globular eggs singly in decaying organic
matter such as manure pits, dead tree trunks compost heaps.
T
 he fecundity of the insect is 140-150 eggs per female.
 The egg period is 8-18 days.
 The newly hatched grub feeds on decaying organic matter.
 The grown up grub is stout, white, 'C shaped, sluggish and
has a pale brown head.
 The larval period is 100-180 days.
 It pupates in earthern cells at a depth of 30-90 cm or more.
 The pupal stage last for 10-25 days.
 The adults make their way out and fly to the trees.
 The adult beetles lives for more than 200 days.
Management

 Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in the garden to

maintain good sanitation.
 Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of beetles from the
manure pit whenever the manure is lifted from pits.
 Incorporate entomopathogenic fungus, Metarrhizium
anisopliae in manure pits.
 Keep the mud pots having soaked castor cake 1 kg in 5 litres
of water to attack and kill the adults.
 Keep the toddy treated longitudinally split tender coconut
stem and green petioles of fronds in the garden to attack and
trap the adult beetles.
 Hook out the beetles using a long iron rod and kill them at
the time of harvest.
 Apply three naphthalene balls /palm (weighing 35 g each) at
base of interspace in leaf sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of
the crown once in 45 days for the seedlings.
 Set up light traps following the first rain in summer and
monsoon period to attract and kill the adult beetles.
 Set up aggregation pheromone (ethyl 4-methyl octonate) trap
(bucket type trap).
 Release Baculovirus inoculated beetles in the garden to
reduce the leaf and crown damage.
 Apply the mixture of neem seed kernel powder + sand (1:2)
@ 150 kg per palm in the base of the 3 inner most leaves in
the crown effectively control the beetle.

2. Red palm weevil

 2. Red palm weevil - Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus Oliver. (Curculionidae: Coleoptera )

Damage

 The grub enters in to the stem and feeds

on the internal tissue of the trunk causing
a small hole on the stem with protruding
chewed fibrous materials and oozing out of
a brown liquid from such holes and
eventually resulting in the toppling of the
crown portion. In the advanced stage of
attack, the central shoot shows sign of
wilting and large mass of grubs, pupae and
adults in fibrous cocoon could be seen
inside the trunk at the damaged portion. In
the grown up trees, the beetle causes
damage by laying the eggs on the crown
region. In such cases the grub easily enter
into the growing point or cabbage of crown
and causing yellowing of inner leaves and
gradual drying of central shoot in the
crown.
Bionomics

 The weevil is reddish brown with 6 dark spots on the thorax a

conspicuous snout with tuft of hairs. The female weevil lays
eggs in small holes scooped out by her on the soft regions of
young palms up to 7 years of age. In the grown up trees the
eggs are laid in the cuts or wounds present on the trunk or
leaf stalk. The plant sap oozing out of wounds and cut attract
the weevil for ovipositon. The eggs are creamy white in
colour. The eggs hatch out in 2-3 days time into soft white
grub. The grub is apodous which tunnel into the trunk and
feeds on the internal succulent tissues. The larval period
ranges between 45 and 75 days. The full-grown grub is stout,
fleshy, and apodous with a conical body bulged in middle and
 tapering towards the ends. It pupates in a fibrous cocoon
made out of fibrous strands.
 The pupal period last for 2-3 weeks. The total life cycle is
completed in about 4 months. The adult weevils are reddish
brown with long curved, pointed snout. The male weevil can
be distinguished from the female by the presence of tuft of
hairs along the dorsal aspect of snout.
Management

 Remove and burn all wilting or damaged palms in the garden.

 Avoid injuries or wound on stems as they serve as oviposition
site for weevil.
 Fill all the holes with cement on the stem or trunk of coconut.
 Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed they should be
cut about 120 cm away from the stem.
 Set up attractant traps (mud pots) containing sugarcane
molasses 2.5 kg + toddy 2.5 litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast
5 g + longitudinally split tender coconut stem/logs of green
petioles of leaves of 30 numbers in one acre to trap weevil.
 Set up male aggregation pheromone, ferruginol (4 methyl 5
nonanol) trap -ferrolure to attract the weevil.
 Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml +
10 ml of water per tree.
 Insert one or two tablets of aluminum phosphide inside the
tunneled trunk and plug all the holes with clay and cement
mixed with copper oxy chloride to kill the insect by the
fumigant action.

3. Shot hole or bark borer

3. Shot hole or bark borer - Xyleborus parvulus E

and X. perforans (Scolytidae : Coleoptera)

Damage

 Both grubs and adults attack the base of

the palm and extend to the upper regions.
Deposits of white powdery materials on the
ground, around the base of the palm and
numerous small strings of frass and white
powdery material hang downwards from
the pin size holes are the symptoms of
 attack. Damaged palms loose their vigour
and are prone to attack by ants. The
infested palms die in six months.
Management

 Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 10 ml + water 10

ml per palm.
 Clean the frass and other materials on the trunk base and
brush with carbaryl 50% WP emulsion (10 gm. in 1 litre of
water) on the trunk base from the ground level up to the
infested region.
 Give stem injection through a stove wick soaked in 0.2%
fenthion or 2% dichlorovos plugging the hole and repeating
the treatment using the same wick and hole a month after.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Black headed caterpillar

1. Black headed caterpillar - Opisina

arenosella Walker. (Cryptophagidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva infests the under surface of

leaves and it construct small galleries with
silk frass and excreta and remain inside
throughout. It feeds on the green
parenchymatous tissues of leaflets from
under surface leaving a thin parchment
like upper epidermis undamaged. The
infested leaflets slowly turn grey to brown
and dry up in patches along the area
where the each larva has been feeding.
When a large number of leaves are
affected the crown presents a scorched
appearance from a distance. The damage
by the caterpillar is severe during summer
 months.
Bionomics

The adult moth is small and greyish white. It lays eggs near
the tip of the leaflets of the older leaves. The eggs are very
small and hatch out in five days. The fecundity of the insect is
60-250 eggs /female. The newly hatched out larva construct
silken tunnel or galleries. On the under surface of leaves
where they live and feed. The larva is light green with a dark
brown head measures 15 mm in length. The larval period is
about 45 days. It pupates inside the galleries for 12 days. The
total life cycle is completed in about two months
Management

 Remove and burn all the affected leaves and leaf lets.
 Release larval parasitoids (Bethylids, Braconids and
Ichneumonids) and pupal parasitoids (Eulopid) and predators
periodically from January to check the build up of pest during
summer.

 Release bethylid, Gbniozus nephantitis @ 3,000 per ha under

the coconut trees when the pest is in the 2nd or 3rd instar
larval stage. The optimum level of release is 1:8 host parasite
ratio. Do not release the parasite in the crown region since
they will be killed by spiders and reduvid bugs.
 Spray malathion 50EC 0.05% to cover the under surface of
leaves thoroughly in case of severe epidemic out break of the
pest in young plants.
 Harvest all mature nuts, and drill a downward slanting hole
and inject 5.0 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC into the stem at
about 1.5 M above the ground level and plug with clay mixed
copper oxy chloride.
 Inject monocrotophos based on age less than 10 years 5ml
and above 10 years 10ml with equal quantity of water (5 ml)
mixed in 20 ml of water into the stem. Plucking tender
 coconuts or harvesting the nuts should be strictly avoided for
45 days after treatment.
 Adopt the root feeding of monocrotophos for the control of
black headed caterpillar.
 Select a fresh and live root, cut sharply at an angle and insert
the root in the insecticidal solution containing monocrotophos
36 WSC 10 ml + water 10 ml in a 7x10 cm polythene bag.
Secure the bag tightly to the root with a cotton thread.
Twenty-four hours later check whether there is
any absorption. If there is no absorption selects another root
and redoes the procedure. Follow the precaution for the
insecticidal treatment.

. Coconut skipper

2. Coconut skipper - Gangara thyrsis Moore.

(Hesperidia: Lepideptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar constructed tubes out of

the leaves and feed from within on the leaf
blade leaving behind only the ribs.
Bionomics

 The adult butterfly is brownish, 80 mm in

wing expanse with brownish wings bearing
6 yellow spots on fore wings.
 It lays eggs in irregular masses.
 The incubation period is 7 days.
 The caterpillar is pale green with reddish
markings but the body is concealed in a
covering of white waxy filaments.
 The larval period is 35 days.
 It pupates in the leaf tube for a period of
about 10 days.

3. Slug caterpillar
3. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cram. (Coehlididae:
Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves

gregariously in the beginning,
subsequently they disperse.
 It causes severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is stout with wing expanse

of 4.0 cm and having green wings fringed
with brown patches.
 The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on
the under surface of leaves.
 The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.
 The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs /
female. The egg period is 7 days.
 The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with
yellowish green body bearing a greenish
blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green
stripes laterally.
 The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes
seven instars.
 It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish
cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5 weeks.

4. Slug caterpillar

4. Slug caterpillar - Conthyla rotunda H. (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)
 Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on leaves causing

severe defoliation.
 Besides it also feeds and damages spathes,
flowering shoots and rind of young fruits.
Bionomics

 The moth is greyish brown to dark grey in

colour.
 It lays the eggs on the under surface of
leaves.
 Fecundity is about 215 eggs / female.
 The egg period last for 3-6 days.
 The slug like caterpillar is spiny with two
grey stripes dorsally.
 The larval period is 27-48 days.
 It pupates in shell like cocoon of brown silk
for 10-14 days
Management

 Set up light traps to monitor and kill the adult moths.

 Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or) dichlorovos 0.02 %
or malathion 0.05 % solution.
 In severe cases, root feeding of monocrotophos as explained
earlier under leaf eating caterpillar may be taken up with
safety precautions.
 Collect all the stages of pests viz. eggs on tree trunks, leaves,
larvae during migration stage, pupae in soil and leaf sheath
and adult moth during emergence and destruction.
 Organise mass collection campaign involving farmers, school
children and college students.
 Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using specially designed
tractor mounted tall tree sprayer.
 Dust methyl parathion or endosulfan dust @ 1 kg / tree using
power operated bellowed crane duster to reach tall trees.
 Encourage the predatory birds to pick up the larval stages.

. Bagworm
 5. Bagworm - Manatha albipes Moore. ( Psychidae :
Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The larva feeds on leaves causing small

irregular holes on the leaves.

6. Leaf caterpillar

6. Leaf caterpillar - Turnaca acuta W. (Notodontidae :

Lepideptera)

Damage

 The larva feeds on the leaflets leaving the stick

alone.

III. SAP FEEDERS

1. Lace wing bug

1. Lace wing bug - Stephanitis typicus Dist. (Tingidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

the under surface leaves causing white
spots on the upper surface of leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult is white coloured with netted

 venation on the wings.
 The female lays on an average of 30 eggs,
which hatch in 12 days.
 The nymphal period is 13 days.
 The nymphs are gregarious in nature.

2. Scale insect

2. Scale insect - Aspidiotus destructor Sign.

(Biaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adult desap the leaflets

resulting yellowing, withering and drying
up of leaflets.
Bionomics

 It is circular hard scale occurs as

persistent pest of coconut.
 A female lays up to 90 eggs under its
shield like scale.
 The crawlers move out and distribute
themselves to healthy leaflets.
 The life cycle is 32 days for male and 35
days for female.

3. Mealy bug

3. Mealy bug - Pseudococcus longispinus Targ.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage
  It infests the tender unopened fronds,
which fail to grow resulting stunted,
deformed and suppressed.
 It also infests the inflorescence and nuts
causing button shedding.
 The mealy bug colonies remain inside the
perianth and suck the sap leading to the
drying of nuts.
 When the nuts are completely dried the
bugs are distributed by ants to the newly
formed inflorescence.
 In bearing trees the damage is caused both
to the spindle leaf and to the buttons.
Bionomics

 It is a tiny insect covered with white mealy

coating.
 The mealy bug is attended by several
species of ants, which feeds on the honey
dew secretions of the bugs.
Management

 Spread open two or three leaf axils

surrounding the spindle leaf.
 Clean the crown of all the dried bunches to
prevent the spread of the-bugs to the
newly formed bunches.
 Spray quinalphos or dimethoate or
Dimethoate at 0.03 % covering the spindle
leaf, leaf axis and young bunches.

IV. SUB – TERRANEAN PEST

1. Termites
1. Termites - Odontotermes obesus Ramb. (Termitidae:
Isoptera)

Damage

 The termite damages the seedlings in the

nursery and also transplanted seedlings.

 The infested seedlings wilt and die.

 The base of the trunk is plastered with
runways made of soil and fibers.
Bionomics

 Green coloured tiny insects resembling

ants with dark coloured head.
Management

 Apply soil insecticides on transplantation

of the seedlings.
 Locate the termite mount in the coconut
gardens and destroy it.
 Locate and kill the queen termite to
provide good solution.
 Give adequate irrigation to the seedlings to
minimize the problem.
 Soil drench with 0.1 % carbaryl in the
standing crop.

2. White grub

2. White grub - Leucophollis coneophora Burm.

(Mesolonthidae: Coleoptera )
Damage

 The grub feeds on roots causing yellowing

of leaves, shedding of immature nuts and
delayed flowering.
Bionomics

 The adult is cheshut coloured beetle.

 It lays eggs in soil a depths of 7.5-15 cm
and they hatch in 20 days. The younger
stage of grub feeds on grass roots and
organic matter, the later stages feeding on
coconut roots. The grub is white, fleshy,
stout and 'C shaped. It pupates in the soil
for about 25 days. The insect has an
annual life cycle.

Management

 Collect and destroy the adults beetles

attracted to trees like neem, Ailanthus and
Acacia near coconut field on receipt of
monsoon showers.
 Plant neem twigs with leaves in coconut
gardens after first rain to attract and kill
adults.
 Set up light trap or bonfire to attract the
adults.
 Apply malathion 5% D 25 kg or endosulfan
4D 25 kg / hectare to the soil at the time of
sowing.

3. Red ant
3. Red ant - Oecophylla smaragdina F. (Formicidae:
Hymenoptera)

Damage

 The worker ants stitch together the

terminal leaves with silk threads in the
form of nests which remain green.
 They move about in long train all over the
trunks and they are attracted to mealy
bugs.
 They also cause annoyance to the climbers.

V. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Mite

1. Mite - Raoiella indica Hirst. (Tenuipalpidae:

Acarina)

Damage

 It sucks the sap from the leaves causing

yellowing of the same.

2. Rats

2. Rats - Rattus rattus wroughtoni (Muridae:

Rodentia)

Damage

 They rest on leaves on the crown of trees,

 cut holes in tender nuts, drink the sweet
liquid and eat away the pulp, resulting the
dropping of nuts.

3. Flying fox

3. Flying fox - Pteropus edwardsii (Chiropterae:

Mammalia)

Damage

 They feed on tender nuts during night

times and affected nuts drop off
Management of Vertebrates

 Cover the trunk with tin.

 Use poison baits and trap for rats.
 Provide bird nests to encourage predation.
 Remove dry leaves, spathes and matrix
regularly from the crown to expose to the
nesting places of rat to predators.
 Place 10 gram of bromodialone 0.005 %
cake on the crown of one palm out of every
five palms twice on an interval of 12 days.

. Eriophyid mite

4. Eriophyid mite - Aceria gurreronis Keifer.

(Eriophyidae: Acarina)

Damage

 The mite infests and develops on the

 meristematic tissues of the growing nuts
under the perianth by desapping the soft
tissues of the buttons.
 In the damaged buttons / nuts, an initial
symptom will be exhibited in the form of
triangular pale white or yellow patches
close to each perianth.
 Different stages of mite live in white,
tender portion covered by the inner tracts
of the perianth and suck the sap
continuously when the feeding activity is
enhanced due to the increased population
build up it results in physical damage to
newly formed tissues which become
necrotic.
 Intensive damage leads to the formation of
brown coloured patches later on.
 In addition as the nut grows in size,
longitudinal fissures and splits occur on
the outer surface of the husk.
 Occasionally brownish gummy exudates
are seen oozing out from the affected
surface.
 Severe infestation results in poor growth
reduced size and copra content and
malformed nuts with cracks and hardened
husk.
Bionomics

It is found under the tracts of fertilized female flowers.

It is very minute in size measuring 200-250 micron in length
and 36-52 micron in width with two pairs of legs.
 It is pale in colour with elongate body and worm like in
appearance.
 The life cycle of this mite consist of egg, two larval instars
and one adult stage is completed in 10-12
Management
  Apply urea 1.3 kg, super phosphate 2.0 and muriate of potash
3.5 kg/palm/year (Increased quantity of potash is
recommended to increase the plan! resistant to the mite).
 Apply neem cake @ 5 kg and organic manure @ 50 kg /
palm / year.
 Apply borax 50 g + gypsum 1.0 kg + manganese sulphate 0.5
kg / palm

Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Coconut and Cashew

Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of

Coconut and Cashew

Common
Scientific name Distribution Hosts Natural enemies
name

Rhinoceros Oryotes India, Pakistan, Coconut, Parasitoids

rhinoceros Linn. South East Asia, talipot Sarcophaga
Hainam, Taiwan, palm, date fuscicauda
Philippines, palm, Pheropsophus
Southern African oil hilaris var
China, Australia palm, sobrinus Daj.
Indonesia, fiji palmyrah, Predators
and sugarcane, Agryphus sp
Somoa. pine apple, Ctivina
banana and memnonia
papaya Omphra
atrata Klug
Oxyiobus spp.
Pathogens
Metarrhizium
anisopliae
Beauveria
hassiana Bals.

Red palm Rhynchophorus India, Srilanka, Coconut, Egg larval

ferrugineus F. Pakistan, oil palm, parasitoid
Bangladesh date palm, Chelisoches
Malaysia, sago and moris F,
Philippines, other predatory mite
New Guinea, species of Pyemotes
China palmae. ventricosus
and Taiwan.
 Opisina India (South Coconut, Larval parasitoid
arenosella Walker India) pal my rah, s
caterpillar Orissa & Bengal) talipot palm, Apanteles
Burma, Srilanka fish tail palm taragamaeWm
and Bracon
Phoenix hrevicornis
sylvestris Perisierola
nephantidis
Elasmus
nephantidis
Pupal parasitoid
Trichospilus
pupivora Ferr.
Stomatocera
sulcatisscvtelluer
Gir.
Brachymeria
nephantidis
Xanthopimpla
punctata F
Pathogens
Fungus Aspergillu
s flavus
Bacteria Serratia
marcescens

Cashew

Cashew tree Plocoderus South India Cashewnut

ferrugineus Linn.

Shoot & Macalla India Cashewnut

blossom monocusalis Wlk.

Leaf miner Acrocercops India Cashewnut

syngramma M.

Re&banded Selenothrips India, Cashewnut

rubrocinctits G. Philippines

INSECT OF OILPALM
I. SAP FEEDERS
 . Spindle bug

1. Spindle bug - Carvalhoia areacae Mill & China.

( Miridae : Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults feed on the

spindle and unfolding leaves causing
spindle necrosis.
Bionomics

 Eggs are laid within tender spindle.

 Egg and nymphal periods last for 9 to 10
and 15 to 20 days respectively.
 Nymphs are deep greenish to violet brown
in colour with thorax and border of
abdomen light violet brown and head is
light yellow with red eyes.
 Adult bug is hairy dark violet brown with
black tipped abdomen.
Management

 • Place one or two phorate sachets (0.2g

a.i) in the axils of the new leaves when
infestation is very high.
 • Spray the spindles with lindane 20 EC 2
ml / 1 or carbaryl 50% wP 2.5 g/l.

2. Scale

2. Scale - Pinnapsis aspidistrae S. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)
 Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the unripe fruits.

3. Mealy bug

3. Mealy bug - Palmiculator sp (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the spear and

unfolding leaves.

1. Hairy caterpillar

1. Hairy caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb.

(Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously and

cause defoliation.

2. Leaf eating caterpillar

2. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Hairy caterpillar
 1. Hairy caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb.
(Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously and

cause defoliation.

2. Leaf eating caterpillar

2. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar causes defoliation.

3. Bagworm

3. Bagworm -Manatha albipes Moore., Metisa

plana Wlk. and ( Psychidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage

 The bag worm feeds on the leaf cause

defoliation in nursery.
 The damage is noticed in outer whorl of fronds
and occasionally in the middle whorl of fronds.

4. Smug caterpillar

4. Smug caterpillar - Darna jasea and Thosea

 andamanica (Limacodidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The slug caterpillar feeds on the leaf

voraciously and causes defoliation in the
nursery.

III. BORERS

1. Rhinoceros beetle

1. Rhinoceros beetle - Oryctes rhinoceros Linn.

(Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult beetles cause severe damage to

young as well as old trees. The beetles live
in crevices between the leaf sheaths near
the crown and burrow in to the softer
portion feeding on the un opened fronds
and inflorescence. The beetles chews the
internal tissues and after injecting the
juicy part throws out the fibrous part
which comes out of holes is the indication
for the presence of beetle in the crown.
The infested fully opened fronds showing
the characteristic 'v' shaped cuts on leaf
lets. The young seedlings are often killed
when the growing points are damaged.
The repeated attack in old trees causes
stunting of growth and present sickly
 appearance to the trees. Bore holes with
chewed fibre sticking out at the base of
central spindle is the typical symptom of
attack.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is black, stout measures 5

cm long and has a long horn projecting
dorsally from the head. The horn is longer
in male and shorter in female beetle. The
female lays globular eggs singly in
decaying organic matter such as manure
pits, dead tree trunks compost heaps. The
fecundity of the insect is 140-150 eggs per
female. The egg period is 8-18 days. The
newly hatched grub feeds on decaying
organic matter. The grown up grub is
stout, white, 'C shaped, sluggish and has a
pale brown head. The larval period is 100-
180 days. It pupates in earthern cells at a
depth of 30-90 cm or more. The pupal
stage last for 10-25 days. The adults make
their way out and fly to the trees. The
adult beetles lives for more than 200 days.

Management

 Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in the garden to

maintain good sanitation.
 Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of beetles from the
manure pit whenever the manure is lifted from pits.
 Incorporate entomopathogenic fungus, Metarrhizium
anisopliae in manure pits.
 Keep the mud pots having soaked castor cake 1 kg in 5 litres
of water to attack and kill the adults.
 Keep the toddy treated longitudinally split tender coconut
stem and green petioles of fronds in the garden to attack and
trap the adult beetles.
 Hook out the beetles using a long iron rod and kill them at
the time of harvest.
 Apply three naphthalene balls /palm (weighing 35 g each) at
base of interspace in leaf sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of
the crown once in 45 days for the seedlings.
 Set up light traps following the first rain in summer and
monsoon period to attract and kill the adult beetles.
 Set up aggregation pheromone (ethyl 4-methyl octonate) trap
(bucket type trap).
 Release Baculovirus inoculated beetles in the garden to
reduce the leaf and crown damage.
 Apply the mixture of neem seed kernel powder + sand (1:2)
@ 150 kg per palm in the base of the 3 inner most leaves in
the crown effectively control the beetle.

2. Red palm weevil

2. Red palm weevil - Rhyhchophorus

ferrugineus Oliver. (Curculionideae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub enters in to the stem and feeds

on the internal tissue of the trunk causing
a small hole on the stem with protruding
chewed fibrous materials and oozing out of
a brown liquid from such holes and
eventually resulting in the toppling of the
crown portion. In the advanced stage of
attack, the central shoot shows sign of
wilting and large mass of grubs, pupae and
adults in fibrous cocoon could be seen
inside the trunk at the damaged portion. In
the grown up trees, the beetle causes
damage by laying the eggs on the crown
region. In such cases the grub easily enter
into the growing point or cabbage of crown
and causing yellowing of inner leaves and
gradual drying of central shoot in the
 crown.
Bionomics

 The weevil is reddish brown with 6 dark

spots on the thorax a conspicuous snout
with tuft of hairs. The female weevil lays
eggs in small holes scooped out by her on
the soft regions of young palms up to 7
years of age. In the grown up trees the
eggs are laid in the cuts or wounds present
on the trunk or leaf stalk. The plant sap
oozing out of wounds and cut attract the
weevil for ovipositon. The eggs are creamy
white in colour. The eggs hatch out in 2-3
days time into soft white grub. The grub is
apodous which tunnel into the trunk and
feeds on the internal succulent tissues. The
larval period ranges between 45 and 75
days. The full-grown grub is stout, fleshy,
and apodous with a conical body bulged in
middle and tapering towards the ends. It
pupates in a fibrous cocoon made out of
fibrous strands.
 The pupal period last for 2-3 weeks. The
total life cycle is completed in about 4
months. The adult weevils are reddish
brown with long curved, pointed snout.
The male weevil can be distinguished from
the female by the presence of tuft of hairs
along the dorsal aspect of snout.
Management

 Remove and burn all wilting or damaged palms in the garden.

 Avoid injuries or wound on stems as they serve as oviposition
site for weevil.
 Fill all the holes with cement on the stem or trunk of coconut.
  Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed they should be
cut about 120 cm away from the stem.
 Set up attractant traps (mud pots) containing sugarcane
molasses 2.5 kg + toddy 2.5 litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast
5 g + longitudinally split tender coconut stem/logs of green
petioles of leaves of 30 numbers in one acre to trap weevil.
 Set up male aggregation pheromone, ferruginol (4 methyl 5
nonanol) trap -ferrolure to attract the weevil.
 Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml +
10 ml of water per tree.
 Insert one or two tablets of aluminum phosphide inside the
tunneled trunk and plug all the holes with clay and cement
mixed with copper oxy chloride to kill the insect by the
fumigant action.

IV. ROOT FEEDERS

1. Termite

1. Termite - Odontotermes obesus Ramb. (Termitidae:

Isoptera)

Damage

 The termite damages the seedlings in the

nursery and also transplanted seedlings.
 The infested seedlings wilt and die.
 The base of the trunk is plastered with
runways made of soil and fibers.
 It feeds on roots, inflorescence and fruit
bunches.
Bionomics

 Green coloured tiny insects resembling

ants with dark coloured head.
Management

 Apply soil insecticides on transplantation

of the seedlings.
  Locate the termite mount in the coconut
gardens and destroy it.
 Locate and kill the queen termite to
provide good solution.
 Give adequate irrigation to the seedlings to
minimize the problem.
 Soil drench with 0.1 % carbaryl in the
standing crop.

2. White grub

2. White grub - Apogonia sp and Adoretus

sp (Melolonthidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub feeds on the roots of seedlings

causing death of the plants.

Management of oil palm pests

Management of oil palm pests

Cultural Methods

 Remove dead palm trunks and empty

bunch heaps from the field and maintain
good field sanitation.
 Hand picks the adults of rhinoceros beetle
using iron hook.
 Collect and destroy all the various bio
stages of the rhinoceros beetle from the
manure pits.
  Set up light trap following the first rains in
summer and monsoon period to attract the
rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil.
 Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 litres of
water in small mud pots and keep them in
the oil palm garden to attract and kill the
adults of rhinoceros beetle.
 Keep the mud pots containing toddy, acetic
acid, oil palm petioles and yeast to attract
and kill the adult red palm weevil.
 Do not cut the green leaves of oil palm and
cut them at 120 cm away from the base if
it is needed.
 Avoid cuts and injuries on oil palm.
Biological Methods

 Release exotic predator reduvid

bug, Platymeris laevicollis at 6 bugs per
palm at regular intervals to reduce the
population of rhinoceros beetle.
 Apply entomopathogenic
fungus Metarrhiziwn anisopliae @ 5 x 10
spores 3 / m at the breeding site of the
rhinocerous beetle.
 Release Oryctes baculovirus inoculated
beetles in the oil palm plantation to
minimize the pest incidence.
Chemical Methods

 Place 3-4 naphthalene balls in the

youngest spear axils at weekly intervals to
deter the rhinoceros beetle.
 Fill the crown and top most three-leaf axils
with a mixture of carbaryl 10 D and fine
sand (1:2 by volume) once in 3 months.
  Drench the manure pit with carbaryl 0.1 %
solution once in three months.
 Follow root feeding of monocrotophos at
10ml + 10 ml water for 3 times at 3 weeks
interval of time to control red palm weevil.
 Place 1 -2 phorate sachets (0.2g ai) in the
axils of the new leaves to minimize the
infestation of spindle bug.

INSECT OF ARECANUT
Introduction

Introduction

 Arecanut is an integral part of pan-

chewing in India.
 It is also a commodity of export earning
sizable foreign exchange.
 Follwing are the details on important pests
of arecanut.
 Inflorescence caterpillar
 Spindle bug
 Inflorescence aphid
 Scale
 Scarlet mite
 White grub
 Black headed caterpillar
 Leaf caterpillar

1. Inflorescence caterpillar

1. Inflorescence caterpillar-Tirathaba mundella Wlk.

(Pyraustidae: Lpidoptera)
Damage

 Tender branches of inflorescence are

webbed together with silken threads of
caterpillar.
 Wet mass of excreta protrudes out of the
web.
 Bore holes are seen at the base of
unopened spathes and buttons, which are
plugged with excreta.
Bionomics

 Larva is dirty yellow or white with brown

head.
 Adult moth is small with ashy wings.
 Eggs are laid on tender spathes.
 Egg, larval and pupal periods last for 5, 25
and 10 days respectively.
 Pupation occurs within galleries.

2. Spindle bug

2. Spindle bug- Carvalhoia arecae (Miridae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Nymphs and adult suck sap, which results

in linear black necrotic streaks on the
central shoot, stunted and twisted growth.
 Affected central shoots do not open fully
and leaves become dry and shed off.
Bionomics
  Eggs are laid within tender spindle.
 Egg and nymphal periods last for 9 to 10
and 15 to 20 days respectively.
 Nymphs are deep greenish to violet brown
in colour with thorax and border of
abdomen light violet brown and head is
light yellow with red eyes.
 Adult bug is hairy dark violet brown with
black tipped abdomen.
Management

 Spray the spindles with lindane 20 EC 2 ml

/ 1 or carbaryl 50% wP 2.5 g/l.

3. Inflorescence aphid

3. Inflorescence aphid - Cerataphis lataniae Boisd.

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Nymphs and adults suck sap from the

inflorescence and young nuts, which
results in sooty mould development and
premature shedding of nuts.

4. Scale- Icerya aegyptica Dough

(Margarodidae:Hemiptera)

Damage

 White mealy scale insects cover the stalks

 and base of ripe nuts and suck sap.
 Affected region becomes soft with black
necrotic patches and watery exudation.

5. Scarlet mite

5. Scarlet mite - Raoiella indica Hirst.

(Phytoaptipallidae: Acarina)

Damage

 White nymphs and light brownish yellow

adults suck sap from the leaves, which
result in yellow patches on the lower
surface of leaves.

6. White grub

6. White grub - Leucopholis

coneophora (Melolonthidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 White, flesy and ‘C’ shaped grubs feed on

the roots, which results in yellowing of
leaves, tapering stem, stunted growth and
shedding of nuts.

7. Black headed caterpillar

7. Black headed caterpillar - Opisina

arenosella (Cryptophasidae: Lepidoptera)
 Damage

 Caterpillars feed on under surface of leaves and

form galleries with silken thread and frass.

8. Leaf caterpillar

8. Leaf caterpillar - Elymnias caudate Butl. (Satyridae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Irregularly clipped leaf blades are

observed.
Bionomics

 Larva is green with deep grey head having

a pair of black horns, rough body with
dorsal yellow stripe.
 Adult is a medium sized butterfly with
deep brown wings mingled with white and
violet colour.

INSECT OF COFFEE
Introduction

Introduction

 Though over a hundred species of insects,

a few invertebrates and mammals have
been recorded as pests on coffee in India,
only a few of them are economically
 important. Among coffee pests, insects
form the major group. Coffee is a perennial
plant and is subjected to attack by passing
as well as sedentary insects. Almost all
portions of coffee plants are susceptible to
one pest or the other.
 In India, coffee is cultivated under shade
trees, which greatly influences the
microclimate in the coffee ecosystem.
Coffee pests could be kept below economic
injury level by adopting integrated
management strategies such as
anticipation and continuous monitoring of
pest outbreaks, maintenance of optimum
over-head shade for judicious management
of ecological factors, handling and pruning
of coffee bush, conservation and
augmentation of indigenous natural
enemies, introduction of exotic natural
enemies and timely use of need based
biopesticides / insecticides.
Bioecology and management of the important
coffee pests are briefed below.

 Major pests of coffee are the white stem

borer (Xylotrechus quadripes), Coffee
berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei),
Short-hole borer (Xylosndrus compactus),
Mealybugs (Planococcus
citir & P.lilacinus), Green scale (Coccus
viridis) and root lesion nematode
(Pratylencbus coffeae).
 Apart from the above mentioned manor
pests a few other pests are also considered
as minor pests occasionally found on
 coffee. They are brown scale (Saissitia
coffeae), cockchafers or white grubs
(Holotricbia spp.), coffee bean beetle
(Araecerus fasciculaturs), hairy
caterpillars (Eupterote spp.), read borer
(Zeuzera coffeae), snail (Ariophanta
solata), Tailed mealybug (Ferrisia
virgata),Termites or white ants and Thrips
(Heliobtips baemorrboidalis, Retithrips
syriacus, Scirtothrips bispinosus, Thrips
nilgiriensis)

I. BORERS

1. White stem borer

1. White stem borer - Xylotrechus

quadripes (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

 White stem borer is a very serious pest of

Arabica coffee in India.
Life history and damage

 Adult is a slender beetle, 1 to 2 cm long.

 The forewings are black with white bands.
 Adults are active in bright day light.
 Female beetles deposit eggs in the cracks
and crevices and under the loose clay bark
of the main stem and thick primaries
preferring plants exposed to sun light.
 Young grubs feed in the corky portion just under the bark for
about two months.
 Consequentially, the bark splits and appears as a ridge on the
stem.
 Later the larvae enter the hardwood and make the tunnels in
all directions.
 In some cases the tunnels may extend even into the roots.
 The tunnels are tightly packed with excreta of the grubs.
 The grub stage lasts for about 9 to 10 months.
Larva pupates in a chamber close to the periphery of the
stem.
 The pupal stage lasts for 3 to 4 weeks after which it
transforms into an adult.
 The adult remains in the tunnel for 3 to 7 days and emerges
out by cutting an exit hole in the bark.
 The borer completes its life cycle in about a year.
Symptoms of attacks

 Infested plants show external ridges around the stem.

 Such plants may also exhibit signs like yellowing and wilting
of leaves which will be distinct after the onset of monsoon
when the healthy plants starts putting new growth.
 The young plants (7 to 8 year old) attacked by the borer may
die in a year white older plants withstand the attack for a few
seasons, yielding more of floats.
Flight periods

 There are two flight (emergence) periods from April to May

and October to December.
Control measures

 Maintain optimum shade

 Trace the infested plants prior to flight periods (i.e.,in March
and September) every year by looking for ridges on the main
stem and thick primaries. Collar prune the infested plants,
uproot if the borer has entered the root and burn the affected
parts. Storing of infested stems on the estate will result in
continuous infestation.
 Proper agronomic practices to retain plant vigour
 Remove loose scaly bark to discourage egg laying
 10% lime application on main stem and thick primaries
during flight periods
 Repeated application of neem oil on the stem
 Use of pheromone traps to monitor incidence
 Judicious and timely application of pesticides on the stem
during flight period

2. Red borer

2. Red borer-Zeuzera coffeae Nietn. (Cossidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The red caterpillar bores into the stem and
branches causing wilting of branches.
 Presence of bore, holes plugged with
excreta at the base of the plant is the
typical symptom of attack.
Bionomics

 The adult is white moth with black or steel

blue spots in the wings. The larva is
orange red and smooth

3. Coffee bean beetle

3. Coffee bean beetle Araecerus fasciculatus D.

(Anthribidae : Coleoptera )

Damage

 The grub bores in to the ripening berries.

 The infested berries have small holes on
them and become blackened and shrunk.
 The berries in store are more seriously
attacked than those in field.
Bionomics

 Adult is pale grey, elongate, oval and

slightly flattened tapering anteriorly entire
body clothed with hairs.
 Grub is white, soft and apodous.

4. Coffee berry borer

 4. Coffee berry borer - Hypothenemus
hampei (Coleoptera:Scolytidae)

 The coffee berry borer is the most serious

pest of all coffee cultivars the world over.
 The pest was first noticed in India on a few
plantations in Nilgiris in early 1990.
Life history

 The adult berry borer is a small black

beetle with a sub-cylindrical body covered
with thick hairs.
 Females are approximately 2.5 mm long.
Males are smaller.
 The female beetle bores into the berry
through the navel region.
 Though berries in various stages of
development are attacked, tunneling an
ovipositon occur only in hard beans.
 The mother beetle lays about 15 eggs in
the tunnel.
 Eggs hatch in about 10 days.
 The larvae feed on the beans making small
tunnels.
 Larval period lasts for about 20 days and
the pupal period for a week.
 Development from egg to adult takes just over a month.
 The ratio of male to male is approximately 10:1.
 Mating takes place inside the berries.
 The short life cycle enables the pest to complete several
generations in a year, in quick succession, under favorable
conditions.
 The beetle in the berries either on the plant or on the ground
can survive for more than five months.
 This enables the pest to carry over from one seasons crop to
the next.
 The pest usually comes out and infests fresh berries in the
evening hours.
  The pest usually comes out and infests fresh berries in the
evening hours.
 The borer incidence could be pronounced at an altitude range
of 500 m to 1000 m above sea level.
Damage

 A typical pin hole at the tip of the berries indicates the

presence of the pest.
 In case of a severe infestation, two or more holes may be
seen, either in the navel or on the sides.
 A powdery substance pushed out through the holes reveals
the active tunneling and feeding within the beans.
 The pest damages young as well as ripe berries.

 Infested tender berries may fall due to injury or secondary

infection by fungi.
 Breeding occurs in developed berries from the time the bean
becomes hard and continues in the ripe and over-ripe berries
either on the plant or on the ground.
 Generally only one of the beans in a berry is affected.
 Damage to both the beans could be noticed occasionally,
especially during the fag end of the cropping season.
 In case of severe infestation 30 to 80% of the berries may be
attacked, resulting in heavy crop loss.
Control measures

 Timely harvest – Reduces carry over inoculums and thorough

harvest – breaks the life cycle.
 Removal of off-season berries to break the continuity of the
breeding
 Spread gunny/plastic sheets (picking mats) below the plants
minimizes the gleaning.
 If gleanings could not be collected they may be swept along
with the mulch and buried below a depth of 0.75 m in the
soil.
 Avoid excess shade. Train bushes properly.
 Avoid planting tree coffee
 Dry coffee to the prescribed specification:
 Arabica/robusta parchment – 10.0% (15.5 kg/for
lit)
 Arabica cherry - 10.5% (16.0 kg/for lit)
 Robusta cherry - 11.0% (18.0 kg/for lit)
 Do not transport infested crop to other areas.
 Dipping infested berries in boiling water for 2-3 minutes kills
all the stages inside.
 Use only fumigated gunny bags to avoid cross infestation.
 Spray a suspension of the fungus Beauveris bassiana when
the beetles are in the pulp.
 Use of parasitoids – Cephalanomia stephanoderis

5. Shot-hole borer

5. Shot-hole borer: Xylosandrus

compactus (Coleoptera : Scolytidae)

 The short hole borer is a major pest of

robusta coffee.
Life history

 The adult beetle is brown to black with a

short, sub-cylindrical body.
 The pest usually infests the green
succulent branches of old plants.
 In young plants, the main stem also may be
attacked.
 After entering into the twig through the
shot hole made on the underside, normally
between the nodes, the female makes a
longitudinal tunnel.
 The beetle then lines the wall of the gallery
with an ‘ambrosia’ fungus.
 After growing the fungus, the female lays
about 50 eggs in batches.
 The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, the milky
white larvae feed on the ambrosia.
 The larval stage lasts for 13 to 21 days,
and the pupal stage for about 11 days. Egg
to adult emergence takes four to five
weeks.
 Matting occurs inside the gallery.
 Unmated females give birth to male
progeny. Males have no functional wings.
  The short life cycle enables the pest to
complete several generations, in quick
succession, under favourable conditions.
 The incidence is generally low before the
onset of the southwest monsoon, reaches a
peak from September to January, and
gradually declines during the dry period.
Damage

 Withered or dried branches with shot holes

indicate the presence of the pest.
 The attacked branches dry up fast. Leaves
distal to the point of attack fall
prematurely.
 The terminal leaves wilt, droop and dry up.
Control measures

 Prune the affected twigs 5 cm to 7.5 cm

beyond the shot hole and burn.
 This operation should be commenced from
September onwards and continued as a
routine measure at regular intervals.
 Remove and destroy all the
unwanted/infested suckers during summer.
 Maintain thin shade and good drainage.

6. Mealy bugs

6. Mealy bugs -Planococcus

citri and P.lilacinus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

 Mealybugs are important sucking pests of

coffee. They attack
both robusta and Arabica but prefer the
former.
Life history

 Adult females are small oval, elongate, soft

bodied and wingless, covered with
mealywax.
 Of the two common species, Planococcus
citri is oval, elongate and lays eggs in a
fluffy ovisac, while P.lilacinus is globose
and the eggs are not laid in ovisac.
 The mealy bug lays 100-1000 eggs. The
females attain maturity in about a month.
Damage

 Mealy bug attack nodes, spikes, berries,

tender branches, leaves and roots leading
to debilitation of the plant and crop loss.
 In some cases, the mealy bugs infest the
roots.

Influence of weather

 Mealy bug population increases if warm

and humid conditions prevail. Continuous
monsoon, high humidity and low
temperatures are detrimental to mealy bug
 development.
 The migration of mealybugs starts in
September/October from the ground to the
aerial parts of the coffee plant through the
main stem.
 The attack of mealybugs becomes severe
during summer and with intermittent
showers/irrigation.
Ant association

 Mealybugs produce honeydew and ants

are attracted to it. Ants provide sanitation
and protection from natural enemies. In
the absence of ants the nymphs get
trapped in honeydew and the natural
enemies activity also increases.
Control measures

 Maintain optimum shade.

 Control ants by dusting Quinalphos 1.5%
or methyl parathion 2% or Malathion 5%
dust around the base of the bush and
shade trees and destroy ant nests.
 Remove and destroy weeds, as many of
them harbor the pests.
 Spray the affected patches with
Quinalphos 25 EC or Fenitrothion 50 EC @
300 ml or Fenthion 1000 @ 150 ml or 4
liters of kerosene in 200 litres of water
along with 200 ml of an agricultural
wetting agent.
 While spraying kerosene.
 The spray solution should be stirred
frequently to avoid setting of kerosene.
 If the root zone is affected, drench it with
 any one of the above insecticide solutions,
except kerosene emulsion.
 Release the parasitoid, Leptomastix
dactylopii against P. citri or the
preadtor, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri irrespective of the species of
mealybugs.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Leaf miner

1. Leaf miner Melanagromyza coffeae H.

(Agromyzidae: Diptera)

Damage

 The maggot mines into leaves.

2. Hairy caterpillar

2. Hairy caterpillar Eupterote canaraica M-, E.fabia

Cram. (Bombycidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 It causes defoliation
Bionomics

 See under cardamom.

Management

 Collect and destroy the caterpillars and pupae

from January - March. Set up
  light traps in June - July to attract and kill the
moths.
 Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % or fenitrothion 50 EC
240 ml along with one litre of emulsified oil of 1
kg of fish oil rosin soap in 200 litres of water.

3. Leaf caterpillar

3. Leaf caterpillar Agrotis segetum Dams. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the seedlings of coffee

plant and destroys nurseries.

4. Coffee grasshopper

4. Coffee grasshopper Autarches miliaris D.

(Acrididae: Orthoptera)

Damage

 It causes severe defoliation.

5. Wooly bears

5. Wooly bears Pericallia ricini Fab. (Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera)

III. SAP FEEDERS

 1. Green Scale

1. Green Scale - Coccus viridis (Coccidae: Homoptera)

 Green scale is an important sucking pest

of Arabica, but attacks robusta also.
Life history

 The adult scale is flat, oval, light green

with an irregular dark distinct loop on the
middle of the dorsum.
 The adult is sedentary and spends its
whole life in one place, it lays 50-60 eggs.
 The duration of the life cycle is 4-6 weeks.
 Adult lives up to 2-5 months.
Damage

 The scale attacks tender parts, setting

down on the underside of the leaves close
to midrib, veins, and tips of green shoots.
 The continuous sucking results in excess
loss of sap from the plant which leads to
debilitation of the older plants and death
of nursery plants.
 The honey dew secreted by the scale forms
a film on the leaves and a black fungus
(sooty mould) grows on it, which hinders
photosynthesis.
Ant association

 Association of ants with green scale is

similar to that explained for mealybugs.
Control measures

 Maintain optimum shade

 Control ants by dusting quinalphos 1.5% or
methyl parathion 2% or malathion 5% dust
around the base of the bush and shade
trees. Destroy ant nests.
 Remove and destroy weeds, as many of
them harbor the pest.
 Use recommended dose of insecticide
when the attack is above ETL.

2. Root lesion nematode

2. Root lesion nematode

 Plant parasitic nematodes are microscopic

‘round worms’ attacking almost every
crop.
 The root lesion nematode is highly
distractive to Arabica coffee.
 Robusta is tolerant to Arabica coffee.
Robusta is tolerant to nematodes.
Life History

 The nematode lays eggs in the root-lesions.

Development from egg to adult takes about
a month.
 All stages of the nematodes are attracted
to the young and vigorously growing roots
but only the second stage juveniles enter
 the roots at the piliferous zone.
 Robusta exhibits tolerance to the
nematodes at all stages, and the nematode
takes more time to complete its life cycle
in robusta than in Arabica.
 The nematode spreads to other areas
through estate implements, rain water,
plants taken from the infested nurseries
and soils taken from infested blocks.
 The pest is persistent in the soil and roots
all round the year. Higher population is
noticed during the months of July, August
and September when there is heavy
rainfall and increased root activity.
 The population declines from December to
March.
 Damage and symptoms of attack
 Nematodes feed and destroy the tap root,
secondary roots and feeder roots.
 Affected plants put forth adventitious roots
at the collar region during rainy season.
 Such plants have loose anchorage and
could be easily dislodged.
 Affected old plants lack secondary and
tertiary roots.
 Affected young plants become unhealthy
with lean and lanky stem.
 Older leaves become yellow and drop,
leaving very few undersized, chlorite and
crinkled leaves at the tip of the main stem
giving a ‘tufted’ appearance.
 Affected bearing plants show thinner main
stem and have inadequate foliage to
support the crop.
 Fresh leaves produced during pre-
 monsoon period are smaller, crinkled,
chlorotic and leathery, but the leaves
produced during monsoon are normal and
healthy.
 Death of leaves will continue till
December, leaving one or two pairs of
leaves at the tip during next summer or
producing a ‘goose-neck’ after the receipt
of rains.
Control Measures

 In The Nursery
 Dig up the nursery site and expose the soil
to the sun during summer.
 Sieve and dry jungle soil and farmyard
manure thoroughly before use.
 Avoid obtaining nursery plants from
infested areas.
 In The Filed
 Uproot and burn the affected plants.
 Dig up pits and expose the soil to the sun
for at least one summer
 Take care to keep the pits free from
weeds.
 Plant the area with Robusta (if suitable) or
Arabica – Robusta grafted plants (Arabica
scion grafted on to Robusta root stock at
‘topee’ stage)

3. Brown scale

3. Brown scale - Saisettia coffeae Wlk. (Coccidae

Hemiptera)

Damage
  Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves and
tender shoots causing yellowing and drying of
leaves.

Bionomics

 Adult is hemispherical and the body covered by

a snuff coloured hard shield.
 Nymph is yellow or greenish brown in colour.

4. Aphid

4. Aphid Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

the leaves resulting stunting, curling of
leaves and falling of flower buds and
developing fruits.
 The infested leaf attracts sooty mould due
to honeydew secretion of the insect.
Bionomics

 The adult fly is dark orange with smoky

wings and fore wings having four whitish
areas of the irregular shape.
 The female fly lays yellowish brown, oval
eggs arranged in spiral on broad leaves.
 The egg period is 7-14 days. The nymphal
 period is 38-60 days with four nymphal
instars.
 It pupates on leaf surface. The pupal
period last for 100-131 days.
 There are two generations in a year.
Management

 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1.5

ml/litre of water.

. Thrips

5. Thrips Scirtothrips bispinosus Bagn. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck

the tender leaves.
 Due to the punctures caused by stylets the
feeding site appear as brown spots or as
continuos lines called "sand paper lines" In
severe cases of infestation leaf growth is
arrested, leaves become brittle, crinckled
and corky and fall prematurely.
Bionomics

 S. dorsalis - This is known as Assam thrips,

causes severe damage to tea bushes in
North India.
 Its life cycle is completed in 13-17 days but
the duration may vary in the different
seasons. S. bispinosus -
 This is yellowish brown in colour which is
found in large numbers in most tea
 growing areas of south India.
 The peak period for the population build
up is between May and December.
 This life cycle is completed in 19 days.

IV. ROOT FEEDERS

1. White grub

1. White grub Holotrichia conferta S. (Melolonthidae :

Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub feeds on roots of the young seedlings.

Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Coffee

Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of

Coffee

Commo Scientific Distributi Hosts Natural

n name name on enemies

White Xylotrechits South Coffee, Parasitoid

stem quadripes Chevr India, Ixora Metapdma sp.
borer olat Assam, Olea
Burma, dioica
Srilanka,
Thailand,
Philippines
and
Indonesia.

Red Zeuzera India, Cocoa,

borer cqffeae Nietn Malaysia coffee

Shot- Xylosandms India, coffee,

hole compactus Eich Papua, tea,
borer hoff Madagasca citrus,
 r, South- avocado,
East Asia castor,
and New rubber,
Guinea cinchona
etc.

Coffee Hypothenemus Tropical Coffee, Predators

berry hampei Ferr. Africa hibiscus, Uganda Wasp
borer India, Rubiacea - Prorps
Srilanka, e nasuta
South East Legumino Waterston
Asia us
Indonesia, plants
Brazil
New
Guinea,
Colombia,
Surinam.

Coffee Coccus India, Coffee,

green viridis Green. Ceylon, citrus
scale Burma, guava,
Bangladesh mango
, and tea.
Thailand,
Malayia.

Brown Saisettia coffeae Cosmopolit Coffee, Parasitoids

scale Wlk. an citrus, Aneristrus
ea, guava ceroplastae H
and ow.
mango Coccophagus
flavescens Ho
w.
Coccophagus
cowperi Gir.

Striped Ferrisia Pan Coffee,

mealy Virgata Ckll. tropical, cocoa,
bug India, cotton,
Srilanka, jute,
Pakistan, citrus,
Burma, beans,
Bangladesh groundnu
and t,
Malaysia. cassava,
sugarcan
e, sweet
 potato,
guava,
cashew
and
tomato

INSECT OF TEA
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Tea mosquito bug

1. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis

theivora Waterhouse. H .antonii (Miridae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

young leaves, buds and tender shoots
resulting dry spots on leaves and brownish
patches in the tender shoots, buds and
stem.
 In severe cases, the leaves curl up and
shoot dry up.
 The attacked shoot may present die - back
symptoms.
Bionomics

 The adult is a small, active elongated bug

with black or olive green head.
 It has yellow and black thorax and yellow
and greenish black abdomen.
 It thrusts the eggs in to the surface tissues
of tender shoots, buds, mid ribs and
petioles Eggs are elongated sausage
 shaped with two minute hairs on its
operculum which project out of the eggs.
 The egg period is 5-7 days.
 The nymph is dirty yellow with long legs
and antennae which resemble ants.
 They become full grown in 3 weeks under
going five instars.
 Both nymphs and adults are active moving
about on the bushes, flying swiftly in the
early hours of the day.
Management

 Collect nymphs and adults with hand nets

early in the morning or in the evening and
destroy them.
 Spray the bushes with malathion 50 EC at
2 ml / litre of water.

2. Leaf hopper

2. Leaf hopper - Empoasca flavescens Fab.

(Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves

resulting curling and crinkling of leaves.
 The margins of the leaves turn brownish
and dry up causing the symptom "rim
blight."
Bionomics

 It is a small yellowish green jassid.

 It lays eggs singly on the veins and midribs
of leaves and on young stems.
  The egg period is 6-13 days.
 The nymphal period ranges from 8-12 days
with five instars.
 The insect is found on the plants
throughout the year.

3. Tea Aphid

3. Tea Aphid -Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Colonies of dark brown to black aphid

desap the tender stem, underside of young
leaves and buds.
 The infested leaves curl and crinckle.
 Sooty mould develops on the leaves due to
honeydew secretion of the aphid.

4. Tea thrips

4. Tea thrips -Scirtothrips

bispinosus Bagn., S.dorsalis Hood and Taeniothrips
setiventris Bagn. (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck

the tender leaves.
 Due to the punctures caused by stylets the
feeding site appear as brown spots or as
continuos lines called "sand paper lines" In
severe cases of infestation leaf growth is
 arrested, leaves become brittle, crinckled
and corky and fall prematurely.
Bionomics

 S. dorsalis - This is known as Assam

thrips, causes severe damage to tea
bushes in North India. Its life cycle is
completed in 13-17 days but the duration
may vary in the different seasons.
 S. bispinosus -This is yellowish brown in
colour which is found in large numbers in
most tea growing areas of south India. The
peak period for the population build up is
between May and December. This life
cycle is completed in 19 days.

. Brown scale

5. Brown scale - Saisettia coffeae Wlk. (Coccidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves and

tender shoots causing yellowing and drying of
leaves.
Bionomics

 Adult is hemispherical and the body covered by

a snuff coloured hard shield.
 Nymph is yellow or greenish brown in colour.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Looper
1. Looper - Biston suppressaria Guen. (Geometridae:
Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The looper caterpillar causes severe

defoliation
Bionomics

 The adult moth is greyish finely specked

with black and yellow bands and spots
along the other margins of wings.
 It lays eggs in groups of 200-600 on the
trunk of shade trees and covered with buff
coloured hairs.
 The egg period is 8-9 days.
 The larva is greyish brown resembling
closely as that of tea twigs which become
full grown in 24-36 days.
 It pupates in soil for 20-22 days.

2. Leaf roller

2. Leaf roller - Gracillaria theivora Wism.

(Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The second instar larva mines the tender leaf

making serpentine tunnels for few days after
which it reaches leaf margin.
 The fourth instar larva rolls the leaves from tip
downwards.
 Bionomics

 The purplish brown tiny moth lays eggs singly

on the underside of leaves.
 The egg period is 2-3 days.
 The larva is yellowish.
 It pupates in a silken cocoon on the underside
of the leaf for 9-13 days.

3. Bunch caterpillar

3. Bunch caterpillar - Andraca bipunctata Wlk.

(Bombycidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the surface tissues

and later on leaf blades causing
defoliation.
 It remain clustered in characteristic
bunches on branches hence the name
bunch caterpillar.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is brownish with dark wavy

lines on the wings and two white spots
distally on fore wings.
 It lays eggs in clusters of up to 120 eggs
on the undersurface of leaves.
 Fecundity is about 500 eggs/female. The
egg period is 10-11 days.
 The larva is smooth, greyish in colour with
brown patches.
  It pupates on the ground among dried up
leaves. The pupal period is about 16-29
days.
Management

 Collect and kill the caterpillar

 Spray malathion 50 EC at 2ml/lit of water.

4. Lobster caterpillar

4. Lobster caterpillar - Neostauropus (= Stauropus)

alternus Wlk. (Notodontidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The adult is brownish grey moth.

 The female moth lays eggs in small
clusters on the undersurface of the leaves
and hatch in 4-20 days.
 The grown up larva is about 40-45 mm,
long with varying coloration of brown to
black and is speckled, mottled or
pubescent.
 The thoracic leg and abdominal claspers
are elongated giving the larva the
appearance of lobster when disturbed.
 It pupates between webbed up leaves in a
cocoon.
 The pupal period is 10-23 days.

5. Flush worm

5. Flush worm - Cydia (= Laspeyresia)

leucostoma Meyr. (Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)
 Damage

 The larva webs together the bud and feeds

from inside on the surface tissues resulting
the leaves become rough and discoloured.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is brownish with yellow

and white streaks in fore wings.
 It lays eggs singly on under surface of
leaves.
 The larva is green or brown in colour.
 The pupation takes place inside the leaf
fold.

. Tea tortrix

6. Tea tortrix - Homona coffearia Nietn. (Tortricidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar makes leaf nests by

webbing the leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is brownish yellow in

colour.
 The fore wing has an oblique band and a
few transverse wavy lines.
 It lays scale like eggs in clusters of 100-
150 on the upper surface of leaves.
 The egg period is 6-8 days. The larva is
 greenish with black pro-thorax.
 The larval period is 3-4 weeks. It pupates
within the leaf fold for 6-8 days.

III. BORERS

1. Shot-hole borer

1. Shot-hole borer - Euvallacea forhicatus Eichh.

(Scolytidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The grub tunnel in to the stem which

interferes the flow of sap, weakening the
stems.
 Presence of round shot holes in primary
branches, mortality of buds, dieback in
branches and circular or longitudinal
tunnels inside the stem are the symptoms
of attack.
Bionomics

 The adult xyleborus beetle is minute

measuring 3-4 mm in length.
 It lays eggs at junction and opening of side
branch and covers with a wad of damp saw
dust.

2. Red borer

2. Red borer - Zeuzera coffeae Nietn. (Cossidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The red caterpillar bores into the stem and
branches causing wilting of branches.
 Presence of bore, holes plugged with
excreta at the base of the plant is the
typical symptom of attack.
Bionomics

 The adult is white moth with black or steel

blue spots in the wings.
 The larva is orange red and smooth.

IV. SUB- TERRANEAN PESTS

1. White grub

1. White grub- Holotrichia impressa Burm.

(Melolonthidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub feeds on roots causing drying of

young plants.
 It also eats away the bark of stem below
the soil surface.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is redddish brown in

colour.
 It lays eggs in soil. The grub is white,
fleshy, 'C shaped. It pupates in an earthern
cell.
 The life cycle occupies a year in the plains
while at higher altitudes it may takes up to
two years.
 V. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Red spider mite

1. Red spider mite - Oligonychus coffeae Nietn.

(Tetranyehidae: Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the upper surface of the older

leaves making webbing on the leaf surface
for shelter.
 When the infestation is higher the young
leaves may also get attacked which turn
brownish, dry up and fall
Bionomics

 The adult mite is rounded and brick red in

colour.
 It lays eggs singly on the surface of leaves
mostly along the midrib and veins.
 Fecundity is about 137 eggs / female.
 The egg period is 4-6 days.
 The larval stage is followed by two
nymphal stages.
 The larval nymphal period occupies 6-8
days.

2. Scarlet mite

2. Scarlet mite - Brevipalpus californicus Geij.

(Tenuipalpidae : Acarina)

Damage
  The mite infest on the lower surface of the
leaves causing yellowing of leaves.
 The bark on the leaf petiole of the affected
shoot split, turn brown and dry up.
Bionomics

 The mite is flat, elongated and oval and

scarlet in colour with black marks dorsally.
 It lays bright red eggs on the under
surface of leaves.
 Female lays about 47 eggs during
ovipositon period of 40 days.
 The egg period is 6-13 days.
 The life cycle is completed in 21-28 days.

3. Purple mite

3. Purple mite - Calacarus carinatus Green.

(Eriophyidae: Acarina)

Damage

 The mite infests both sides of the leaves

causing coppery brown or smoky
discoloration of the leaves.
Bionomics

 The mite has a spindle shaped purple body

with 5 longitudinal white waxy ridges
dorsally.
 The life cycle is completed in 7-15 days.
 4. Pink mite or orange mite

4. Pink mite or orange mite - Acaphytta theae Keifer.

(Eriophyidae: Acarina)

Damage

 It infests the both sides of leaves, petioles

and tender stems.
 The affected leaf becomes discoloured and
leathery, the veins showing a pink
discoloration the bushes in general present
a sickly appearance.
Management

 Spray methyl demeton 25 EC @ 1250 ml or

dimethoate 30 EC @ 1500ml. / hectare.

Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Tea

Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Tea

Commo Scientific name Distributi Hosts Natural

n name on enemies

Tea Helopeltis India, Tea, guava,

mosquit iheivora Water Srilanka, grapevine,
o bug house Vietnam, cashew,
Indonesia mahogany
neem5 cacao,
cinchona,
pepper,
tamarind and
cinnamon apple

Tea Brevipalpus India, Tea, citrus, Predatory

mite phoenicis Geij Srilanka, coffee, mite
 Malaysia. rubber, Phoeni Typhlodro
x spp mus pyri
Parthenium

Yellow Polyphagotarsone Cosmopolit Tea, cotton,

tea mite mus latus Banks an, jute, coffee,
Europe, tomato, potato,
U.S.A. chillies,
Central rubber, mango,
America, sesame, caster,
Banglades bean, peppers,
h, India, avacado and
Malaysia, citrus
Srilanka,
Philippines

INSECT OF COCOA
I. BORERS

1. Red borer

1. Red borer - Zeuzera caffeae Nietn. (Cossidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar bores in to the stem of 3-4

year old plants resulting in wilting and
drying of entire plants.
 The affected plants show bore holes on the
stem and accumulating chewed fiber at the
base of the plant.
Bionomics

 Adult moth has dirty white bands and

black or steel blue spots on the wings.
  The larva is orange red in colour.
 The full-grown larva is about 42 mm long.
Management

 Prune and destroy the affected branches.

 Spray carbaryl 50 WP 2 g / litre of water.

2. Fruit borer

2. Fruit
borer - Dichocrocis (=Conogethus) punctiferalis Guen.
(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva borers into the central core of

the pseudostems resulting in the death of
the central spindle causing charactersic
“dead heart” symptom.
 In the case of capsules, the caterpillars
bore into the immature capsules and feed
on the seeds rendering them empty.
 The caterpillars occasionally tunnel into
the panicle also.
 A characteristic indication for the presence
of the larvae is the oozing out of excreted
frass materials at the mouth of the bore
hole, which are very conspicuous on the
stem or pods.
Bionomics

 The adult is a medium sized brownish

yellow coloured moth with a number of
dark spots on the wings.
  It lays eggs on the top leaf axils of young
pseudostem.
 The larva bore into the tender parts of the
panicle, flower buds and immature
capsules only, the later stage larva bore
into the stem.
 The full grown larva is measuring 15-25
mm long and it pupates within the larval
tunnel inside the pseudostems.
 The life cycle is completed within 25-40
days.
Management

 Collect and destroy the affected plant

parts.
 Destroy the alternate host plants from the
vicinity of the plantation
 Spray phosalone 3 ml/litre or Dimethoate
0.03 % /litre or quinolphos 4 ml/litre or
fenthion 1.25ml / litre of water.

3. Stem girdler

3. Stem girdler - Sthenias grisator Fab.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grub bores into the bark and tunnels

into the dry wood.
 The infestation resulted in wilting of
branches and then the entire vine.
 The beetles have the habit of ringing the
vines resulting in drying up of the regions
 beyond the cut.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is greyish brown with

white and brown irregular marking
resembling the bark colour, elytra have an
elliptical greyish median spot and an eye
shaped patch measuring 24 mm long.
 The eggs are thrust in between barks and
sapwood in clusters of 2-4 eggs by female
beetle, which cuts branches slits under the
bark of girdled branch.
 The egg period is 8 days. The hatched out
grub feed inside the stem and completes
its larval stage by 7-8 months.
 The total life cycle occupies more than a
year.
Management

 Cut and burn the infested branches below

the girdling point.
 Hand picks the beetles and destroys them
which may help in migrating this longing
horn beetle.
 Swab the trunk with carbaryl 50 WP 4 g /
litre of water.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Brown looper

1. Brown looper - Hyposidra talaca Walk.

(Geometridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  It is a looper caterpillar causing extensive
defoliation.
Bionomics

 Adult moth is pink in colour.

 The eggs are laid in the leaves.
 Fecundity is about 250 eggs / female. EP: 4
days and LP: 19-24 days.
 The full grown larva is brown with orange
coloured dots laterally.
 It pupates in fallen leaves.
 The life cycle is completed in 30-35 days.

2. Hairy caterpillar

2. Hairy caterpillar - Argina syringa Cl and A.

cribraria (Hypsidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 They cause defoliation in early stages and

bore in to capsules in the later stages
Bionomics

 A. cribraria - Adult is yellowish brown with

black spots.
 Larva is hairy caterpillar with black
transverse markings and white spots.
 A. syringa - Adult has reddish brown
forewings with black spots.
 Larva is similar to that of A. cribraria but
has reddish markings laterally.
 3. Wooly bear

3. Wooly bear - Pericallia ricini Fab. (Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 It causes defoliation
Bionomics

 See under brinjal and sweet potato.

. Hairy caterpillar

4. Hairy caterpillar - Diacrisa obliqua Wlk. (Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 It causes defoliation
Bionomics

 See under brinjal and sweet potato.

5. Hairy caterpillar

5. Hairy caterpillar - Metanastria hyrtaca Cram.

(Lasiocampidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves

causing defoliation.
 Bionomics

 The adult is stout grayish brown moth

exhibiting sexual dimorphism.
 Male moth has pectinate antenna and
chocolate brown patch in the middle of
fore wings.
 Female moth is bigger in size with longer
and broader wings having wavy transverse
bands.
 The larva is nocturnal, cylindrical grayish
brown, stout and hairy.
Management

 Kill the aggregating larvae on the bark

using a torch of fire or with a bucketful of
cowdung slurry during the day time in
households.
 Spray fish oil rosin soap to kill the larva
because of asphyxiation.
 Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % or carbaryl 0.1
% or malathion 0.1%.

6. Grey weevil

6. Grey weevil - Myllocerus

subfasciatus G.M., M.discolor Fab and M.viruidu Fab.
(Curulionidae: Coleoptera.)

Damage

 Adult weevil cause notching of leaf

margins.
 Grub feeds on roots resulting wilting of
 plants.
Bionomics

 M. Subfasciatus – Brownish weevil;

 M. discolor – Brown with white spot on
elytra;
 M.viridanus – Small light green weevil.
Management

 Collect & destruct the adult weevils

 Apply carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/hectare at
15 days after planting.

III. SAP FEEDERS

1. Mango hopper

1. Mango hopper - Idioscopus clypealis (Cicadellidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

tender shoots and inflorescence resulting
in withering and shedding of flower buds
and flowers leads to wilting and drying of
shoots and leaves. The flower stalks and
leaves of infested trees become sticky due
to the deposition of honey-dew secreted by
the hoppers that encourages the growth of
black sooty mould on foliage and other
plant parts.
 The peak activity is confined during
blossom and the loss ranges from 25 to 60
%. During the off - season, the hoppers
 congregate on newly developed shoots and
suck the sap, results in malformation the
leaves feeding on them. As a consequence,
leaves become malformed and undersized.
The hoppers take shelter in cracks and
crevices on the barks during non-flowering
season.
Bionomics

 Of these three species, A. atkinsoni is the

largest one occurring right through the
year and other two species have been
observed to be mostly present during the
blooming of the tree. The largest A.
atkinsoni has two spots on scutellum while
the smalll. clypealis has two spots on
scutellum and dark spot on the vertex,
while the least sized 1 . niveosparsus has
three spots on scutellum.
The adult hopper is light greenish-brown with black and
yellow markings, wedge shaped with broad head measures 3-
4 mm in length. It inserts the eggs singly into the plant
tissues of young leaves, shoots, flower stalks and unopened
flowers. A female lays about 200 eggs. The eggs hatch in 4-7
days. The nymph with red eyes appeared while yellowish
green to greenish brown during the 5 instar occupying 8-13
days. The total life cycle from egg to adult takes 2-3 weeks
for completion.
Management

 Grow less susceptible varieties viz., Banganapalli,

Chinnarasam and Alphonsa.
 Avoid close planting, as the incidence is very severe in
overcrowded and neglected orchards.
 Spray two rounds, of acephate 75 SP at 1 g /litre or
phoasalone 35 EC at 1.5 ml / litre or carbaryl 50 WP at 42 g /
litre of water, first round at the time of new flesh panicle
emergence and 2nd at two weeks after the first spray.
 Spray wettable sulphur at 2 g / litre of water after spraying
carbaryl to avoid mite resurgence
  Collect and destroy affected inflorescence or sticky
inflorescence to minimize population build-up.

2. Scale

2. Scale - Drosicha mangiferae Gr. (Margarodidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults are found in clusters

on tender shoots and desap the tissues
resulting in drying of the shoots.

3. Aphid

3. Aphid - Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest flower

stalks, tender leaves, buds and tender pods
the infested flowers wilt and the leaves
crinckle and fall.

4. Tea mosquito bug

4. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis theivora Sign.

(Miridae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults feed on the young

 leaves, buds and tender shoots the tissues
around the feeding punctures die and dry
up due to toxic action of saliva injected.
 It results the water soaked lesions followed
by brownish spots at the feeding site.
Resin exudes from the feeding puncture.
Blossom or inflorescence blight and die
back symptoms appear.
 The terminal shoots are also dried.
 Shedding of flowers and nut also takes
place.
Bionomics

 The adult is a reddish brown bug with red

thorax and black and white abdomen.
 The eggs are inserted into the epidermis of
tender shoots, axis of inflorescence, the
buds and midribs.
 The eggs are sausage shaped, 2 mm long,
slightly covered with a pair of breathing
filaments which project out its operculum.
 The egg period is 5 to 7 days. Nymphal
period is 15 days.
 The reddish brown and ant like nymphs
undergoes five instars.
 The life cycle is completed in 22 days.
 This pest attacks guava, cocoa, pepper,
cinchona, tamarind, mango, neem, cotton
and avocado.
Management

 Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % /litre + urea 3%

thrice. The first at the time of emergence
of new flushes the second at floral
formation and the third at fruit set.
  Remove dead wood and criss cross
branches in cashew plantations atleast
once in two to three years will help in
effective spraying of insecticides against
the pest.

INSECTS OF RUBBER AND CINCHONA

I. BORERS

1. Bark caterpillar

1. Bark caterpillar-Aehterastic circulata Meyr.

(Hyponomeutidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar usually feeds on the dead

bark.
 It becomes troublesome when it happens
to feed on the renewing bark.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is small white and black

spotted.
 It lays the eggs on the barks.
 The larva is small, bright red and flat.
 The larva feeds under a web on the bark.
 The larval duration is about 3 weeks.
 It pupates under a piece of bark in web for
about 10 days.

2. Bark caterpillar

2. Bark caterpillar- Comocritis plena Meyr.

 (Hyponomeutidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar constructs galleries on the bark

and feeds on the bark surface.

3. Stem borer

3. Stem borer- Batocera rufomaculata Dejean.

(Cerambycidae:Coleoptera )

Damage

 The grubs bore in to the branches causing

drying of the branches.
Damage

 The grubs feed by tunneling through the

bark of branches and main stem.
 The damage may also show itself by the
shedding of leaves and drying of terminal
shoots in early stage of attack.
 When the damage occurs at the main stem,
the whole tree succumbs.
Bionomics

 The adult is a large longicorn beetle about

5 cm long and 1.6 cm broad and yellowish
brown in colour.
 It has two pink dots and lateral spines on
thorax.
 It lays eggs singly on the bark, or cracks
 and crevices on the tree trunk or branches
hatch in about 1-2 weeks.
 The grub is stout with well-defined
segmentation and yellow in colour.
 The grub makes zig - zag burrow beneath
the bark.
 The grub feeds on the internal tissues and
become full fed in about six months.
 It pupates inside the tunnel itself.
 The pupal period is. 19-36 days.

Management

 Remove and destroy the dead trees and

affected branches from the garden.
 Swab trunk with carbaryl 20 g/1.
 Use light trap 1 / ha to attract adult moths
or beetles.
 Locate bore holes, spike out grubs using a
needle or iron wire.
 Exclude the alternative host, silk cotton
from mango orchards.
 Grow less susceptible varieties viz.,
Neelam, Humayudin, and Panchavarnam.
 Swab coal tar + Kerosene (1 :2) on the
basal part of the trunk up to 3 feet high
after scraping the loose bark to prevent
the female from egg laying.
 Spike out the grub if the bore holes are
located, and add insecticide emulsion
(monocrotophos 0.1 % at 20 ml / hole) a
fumigant tablets (3 g aluminium
 phosphide) or petrol and seal the holes
with the mud.
 Follow padding with monocrotophos 36
WSC 10 ml per tree soaked in absorbent
cotton when the trees are not in bearing
stage.
 Apply carbofurean 3 - 5 g per hole and
plug with mud after removing the grub by
using needle.
 Apply carbofuran granules in the soil at 75
g / tree basin.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Scale

1. Scale -Aspidiotus destructor Sign and Saisettia

nigra NMetn.(Coccidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 The scales infest the twigs and leaves causing

dropping of leaves.

III. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Basket worm

1. Basket worm -Acanthopsyche snelleri Heye.

(Psychidae ; Lepsdoptera)

Damage

 The larva attacks newly tapped surface making

small wound from which latex flows out freely.
 . Weevil

2. Weevil- Apoderus chrysochlorus Wied.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The reddish brown adult weevil twists the leaf

tips.

INSECT OF CASHWNUT
I. BORERS

. Cashew tree borer

1. Cashew tree borer Plocaederus ferrugineus Linn.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The grubs tunnel and feed inside the tree

trunks and branches and damage cambial
tissues and stop the flow of sap.
 It results in weakening and death of the
plant.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is reddish brown measuring 25-40 mm in

length.
 It lays eggs in the cracks and crevices of the loose bark on
the trunk.
 The eggs are ovoid or elliptical and dirty white in colour
hatch in 4-6 days.
 The newly hatched grubs start feeding on soft tissues and
bore in to the bark and make tunnels.
 The grub is off-white colour and the grown up grub measures
60-75 mm in length.
 The fully grown grub decends to root zone through tunnels.
The grub stage last for 6-7 months.
The pupal period last 60 days inside the cocoon.
Management

 Uproot and remove the dead trees from the plantation as they
serve as source for multiplication of the borer.
 Avoid any injury or damage to the stem and exposed portion
of the root.
 Apply coal tar and kerosene (1:2) on the trunk up to 1 metre
height which prevent the beetles from egg laying.
 Detect the infestation in the early stage and swab the tree
trunk with carbaryl 50 WP 0.1% suspension to save the tree.
 Adopt stem padding with cotton wool soaked in
monocrotophos at 30 ml /tree gives good recovery.
 Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml +10
ml of water kept in a polythene bag in two places (20 ml /
tree) gives good protection to the trees.

2. Bark caterpillar

2. Bark caterpillar-Indarbela tetraonis M.

(Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva chews out the bark resulting zig-

zag galleries and silken webbed masses
comprising of chewed materials and
excreta.
Bionomics

 Adult moth is pale brown with fore wings

having brown spots and streaks and white
hind wings. The larva is 40-45 mm long,
stout and dirty brown in colour.

3. Apple borer

3. Apple borer- Nephopteryx sp (Phycitidae:

 Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva bores into the tender cashew

apple and feeds on the internal tissues of
false fruit.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is medium sized with dark

fore wings and pale hind wings.

4. Apple and nut borer

4. Apple and nut borer -Thylocoptila

paurosema (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar borers into the tender apple and

nut and feeds on them.

II. INFLORESCENCE FEEDERS

1. Shoot and blossom webber

1. Shoot and blossom webber- Macalia

monocusalis Wlk. (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva webs together the tender leaves and

inflorescence and feeds on the same.
 2. Shoot tip and inflorescence caterpillar

2. Shoot tip and inflorescence

caterpillar- Hypatima (= Chelaria) haligramma M.
(Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar webs together the terminal

leaves and inflorescence and bores into the
shoot tips.

3. Tea mosquito bug

3. Tea mosquito bug-Helopeltis antonni Sign.

(Miridae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults feed on the young

leaves, buds and tender shoots the tissues
around the feeding punctures die and dry
up due to toxic action of saliva injected.
 It results the water soaked lesions followed
by brownish spots at the feeding site.
 Resin exudes from the feeding puncture.
 Blossom or inflorescence blight and die
back symptoms appear.
 The terminal shoots are also dried.
 Shedding of flowers and nut also takes
place.
Bionomics

 The adult is a reddish brown bug with red

 thorax and black and white abdomen.
 The eggs are inserted into the epidermis of
tender shoots, axis of inflorescence, the
buds and midribs.
 The eggs are sausage shaped, 2 mm long,
slightly covered with a pair of breathing
filaments which project out its operculum.
 The egg period is 5 to 7 days. Nymphal
period is 15 days.
 The reddish brown and ant like nymphs
undergoes five instars.
 The life cycle is completed in 22 days.
 This pest attacks guava, cocoa, pepper,
cinchona, tamarind, mango, neem, cotton
and avocado.
Management

 Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % /litre + urea 3% thrice. The first at

the time of emergence of new flushes the second at floral
formation and the third at fruit set.
 Remove dead wood and criss cross branches in cashew
plantations atleast once in two to three years will help in
effective spraying of insecticides against the pest.

III. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Leaf miner

1. Leaf miner- Acrocercops syngramma M.

(Gracillaridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva mines into the tender leaves

causing whitish blotches.
Bionomics
  The adult is silvery greyish moth with
fringes of hairs on the wing margins.
 The larva is reddish brown in colour.

2. Wild silk moth

2. Wild silk moth- Cricula trifenestrata H. (Saturnidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 It causes defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is reddish brown in colour,

female moth has 3 clear hyaline spots, in
fore wings and a smaller one in the center
of hind wings. The caterpillar is stout, dark
brown in colour. They pupate in golden
yellow silken cocoon. The pupae are also
reddish brown in colour and about 40mm
long.
Management

 Spray quinolphos 25 EC 2 ml/litre of water.

3. Hairy caterpillar

3. Hairy caterpillar - Metanastna hyrtaca C,

(Lasiocampidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage
  The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves
causing defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult is stout grayish brown moth

exhibiting sexual dimorphism. Male moth
has pectinate antenna and chocolate
brown patch in the middle of fore wings.
Female moth is bigger in size with longer
and broader wings having wavy transverse
bands. The larva is nocturnal, cylindrical
grayish brown, stout and hairy.
Management

 Kill the aggregating larvae on the bark

using a torch of fire or with a bucketful of
cow dung slurry during the day time in
households.
 Spray fish oil rosin soap to kill the larva
because of asphyxiation.
 Spray dimethoate 0.03% or carbaryl 0.1 %
or malathion 0.1%.

4. Slug caterpillar

4. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cramer.

(Cochlididae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on the leaves

gregariously in the beginning,
subsequently they disperse.
 It causes severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult moth is stout with wing expanse

of 4.0 cm and having green wings fringed
with brown patches.
 The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on
the under surface of leaves.
 The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.
 The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs /
female. The egg period is 7 days.
 The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with
yellowish green body bearing a greenish
blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green
stripes laterally.
 The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes
seven instars.
 It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish
cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5 weeks.
Management

 Set up light traps to monitor and kill the

adult moths.
 Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or)
dichlorovos 0.02 % or malathion 0.05 %
solution.
 In severe cases, root feeding of
monocrotophos as explained earlier under
leaf eating caterpillar may be taken up
with safety precautions.
 Collect all the stages of pests viz. eggs on
tree trunks, leaves, larvae during
migration stage, pupae in soil and leaf
sheath and adult moth during emergence
and destruction.
 Organise mass collection campaign
 involving farmers, school children and
college students.
 Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using
specially designed tractor mounted tall
tree sprayer.
 Dust methyl parathion or endosulfan dust
@ 1 kg / tree using power operated
bellowed crane duster to reach tall trees.
 Encourage the predatory birds to pick up
the larval stages.

. Leaf twisting weevil

5. Leaf twisting weevil - Apoderus tranquebaricus Fab.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 The adult weevil has the habit of cutting

and twisting the mango leaves into shapely
thimble like rolls which remain attached to
the parent leaves.
 The grub feeds on the leaf tissue within
the leaf roll.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is medium sized, reddish

brown with a long snout.
 Eggs are laid in each leaf roll.
 The grub pupates within the leaf roll.
Management

 Spray insecticides like monocrotophos at

1.25 ml or Dimethoate 0.03 % / litre of
 water to check the spread of infestation.

6. Looper

6. Looper - Oenospila flavifuscata W, (Geometridae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The larva infests the leaf margins cause

defoliation.

IV. SAP FEEDERS

1. Red banded thrips

1. Red banded thrips - Solenothrips rubocinctus G.

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves and

cause crinkling discolouration and leaf drop.

. Thrips

2. Thrips - Rhipiphorothrips crueniatus Hood.

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate the

leaves and suck the sap.
  The infested leaves shows silvery white
patches on leaves with excreta.

3. Flower thrips

3. Flower thrips - Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults lacerate the

tender tissues and suck the exuding sap.
 The infested leaves begin to curl
downwards from the margin towards the
mid rib.
 Heavily infested trees exhibits sickly and
faded appearance, which can be
recognized even from distance.
Bionomics

 The adult is minute measuring 1 mm in

length.
 It is yellowish brown insect, with fringed
wings. It reproduces parthenogenetically.
 The fecundity is 30-50 eggs per female.
 It lays eggs on the lower surface of leaves
by inserting them singly in the tissues
along the mid rib of tender leaves.
 The eggs are reniform and hyaline when
laid but turn pale yellow just before
hatching.
 The egg period is about 4-6 days.
 The nymphs are pale yellow and wingless.
 They moult 2-3 times passing through 3-4
 instars in 12-18 days according to the
prevailing temperature.
 Full grown nymphs undergo two resting
stages called pre-pupa and pupa.
 The pupal period lasts for 6-10 days.
Management

 Sprays water twice or thrice during thrips

out break helps to reduce its population
load appreciably.
 Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 ml or
endsulfan 35 EC 2ml/ml or quinalphos 25
EC 2.0 ml / litre of water.

INSECT OF MINT
I. SAP FEEDERS

1. Lace wing bug

1. Lace wing bug - Cochlochila bullita (Tingidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 The nymphs and adults desap from the

under surface of leaves.
 The infested leaves turn brown and
gradually dry up.
 The stunted plant growth and presence of
chlorotic spot on the leaf surface are the
symptom of attack.
Bionomics

 The adult bug is yellow in colour.

  The nymph is small, long flat and black in
colour.

II. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Cut worm

1. Cut worm - Agrotis segetum Dams and Schifffer

Muller. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar cuts the seedling at the

ground level and eats tender parts.
Bionomics

 The adult noctuid moth is pale whitish

brown in colour.
 The fore wings are yellowish brown with
waxy lines and marginal series of specks.

2. Semilooper

2. Semilooper - Plusia orichalcea Fab. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar cuts the edges of lamina,

folds it over the leaf and feed from within
the leaf roll causing defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult is stout dark brown with shiny

 fore wings.
 The larva is green the body having black
warts and hump on its anal segment.

INSECT OF BETEL VINE

I.SAP FEEDERS

1. Aphid

1. Aphid - Aphis gossypii Glover. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults desap the tender

shoot and leaves causing yellowing curling
and crinkling of leaves.
Bionomics

 Two forms of females are valuable in an

aphid colony.
 The alate (winged) and apterous (wingless)
forms which can reproduce
parthenogenetically and viviparously,
giving birth to 10-20 nymphs per day.
 The nymphs become adults in another
weeks time.
Management

 Spray chlorpyriphos at 2 ml/litre on agathi

leaves, clip off excess infested agathi
leaves.

2. Whitefly
 2. Whitefly - Aleurocanthus nubilans Buckt
and Dialeurodes pallida Lamba. (Aleyrodidae:
Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

the leaves causing yellowing chlorotic
spots, sooty mould development on leaves.
Bionomics

 The adult is a minute insect covered with

white waxy bloom.

3. Mealy bug

3. Mealy bug - Geococcus citrinus Kuw.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults found on root regions

and desap the root portions.
Management

 Spray chlorpyriphos at 2 ml/litre or Dimethoate

2 ml/litre. Concentrate the spray towards the
collar region.

4. Shoot bug

4. Shoot bug - Pachypeltis politus W.

 and P.measarum Kerk. (Miridae: Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from

tender leaves causing leaf blotches leading
to ultimate drying.
Bionomics

 The Adult is reddish brown bug.

 It thrusts its eggs singly within the tender
plant parts.
 Egg period is 8-16 days. Fecundity is 72
eggs / female.
 Nymphal period lasts for 12-18 days.
 The incidence of this pest is severe in June-
October.

5. Scales

5. Scales - Lepidosaphes cornutus Ramk. (Coccidae:

Hemiptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves,

petiole and main veins.
 The scale infested leaves loose their colour
exhibit warty appearance, crinkle and dry
up ultimately.
 The affected vines present a sickly
appearance and wilt in due course.
Management
  Select scale free seed vines.
 Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 ml/litre when
one or two scales are noticed.
 Spray NSKE 5% @ 50 g/litre or malathion
50 EC 1 ml/litre of water.

II.LEAF FEEDERS

. Green looper

1. Green looper - Synegia sp (Geometridae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 The caterpillar feeds on leaves causing

severe defoliation.
Bionomics

 The adult is yellow and orange spotted

moth.
 It lays eggs singly on leaves.
 The larva is dark green grows to a length
of 25 mm.
 It pupates in leaf fold. Life cycle is
completed in 25-30 days.

2. Defoliator

2. Defoliator - Popillia chlorion N. (Rutelinae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage
  It causes defoliation.

3. Leaf eating caterpillar

3. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Young caterpillars of both the insects bore

into the grape fruits while they mature.
The Spodoptera caterpillar can be seen
remaining wholly inside the fruit. The bore
holes are generally plugged with excreta.
Bionomics

 S.litura – The adult moths are stout with

grayish brown alternated with white
markings on the fore wing while the hind
wings are radiantly white with a brown
border.
 The eggs are laid in masses and covered
with brown hairs on the surface of the
affected leaves.
 The young caterpillars are voracious and
may start feeding on young foliage and
finally they migrate to young fruits.
 Laval period is 2-3 weeks.
 Pupation takes place in an earthern cocoon
in soil.
Management
  Collect and destroy the infested fruits from
the field.
 Collect the egg masses of S.litura and
destroy them.
 Collect and destroy the larvae of
the S.litura.
 Set up light traps to attract and kill the
moths of both pests.
 Set up pheromone traps @ 12 / hectare to
attract the male moths S.litura.
 Release an egg parasitoid Trichogramma
chilonis for 6 times @ 50,000 / hectare /
week, first release coinciding with
flowering time and based on ETL of 4-6
moths / six pheromone traps.
 Spray NPV of S.litura at 250 LE per
hectare in the evening hours.
 Prepare poison bait (Rice bran 12
kg/Jaggery 2.5 kg + carbaryl 50 WP 1.25
kg and water 7.5 litres / hectare) and keep
the bait in the evening hours to attract the
cater pillars of S.litura.
 Grow simultaneously 40 days old America
tall marigold and 25 days old tomato
seedlings at 1.16 rows.
 Spray thiodicarb 2 ml / litre or carbaryl 50
WP 2 g/litre or Bacillus thuringiensis @ 2
g. / litre or quinolphos 2.5 ml / litre of
water.

III. SUB TERRANEAN PEST

1. Termite

1. Termite - Odontotermes obesus Ramb. (Termitidae:

 Isoptera)

Damage

 It feeds on roots of chilli plants causing wilting

of plants.

IV. NON -INSECT PESTS

1. Giant African snail Achatina fulica

1. Giant African snail - Achatina fulica

Damage

 The snails are found in betelvine gardens

by clinging to the lower and protected
surface of the leaves of supporting plants.
 They feed on sprouted buds, leaves, outer
layers of the stem of betelvine and
supporting trees.
 The supporting plants are also damaged.
 They also feed upon bodies of dead snails
of their own species.
Bionomics

 The snails are large in size, bisexual with

shell and weigh about 110-150 gm.
 The shell is about 7-15 cm long and brown
in colour.
 Its infestation is high during rainy and
winter season.
 It lays eggs during the rainy season, 2 to 4
 weeks after mating in the soil surface or
just below, it is batches of up to 200 at a
time.
 They hatch after about a week and young
ones take about nine months to mature.
 The adult live for three or four years and
each can lay about 1000 eggs during its
life time.
Management

 Search the hiding places of snails, collect

and destroy.
 Heap the gunnybags near the fences of the
cropped areas to attract the snails, collect
and kill them.
 Spread metaldyhide pellets 5% over the
field to attract and kill the snails.

INSECT OF SENNA

1. White butterfly or mottled emigrant

1. White butterfly or mottled emigrant - Catopsilia

pyranthe Cramer (Pieridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Greenish caterpillars feed on young leaves.

Bionomics
 Adult is a snow white butterfly.

2. Pod borer
2. Pod borer - Etiella zinckenella (Phycitidae:
Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Caterpillars make minute holes on the

pods and attack seeds.
Bionomics

 Adults are brownish grey moths with

orange thorax and white stripe along the
anterior margin of fore wings.
 Small, elliptical and glistening white
coloured eggs are laid singly at the
junction of calyx and pod.
 Caterpillars are reddish-pink dorsally and
pale greenish ventrally.
 They bore inside green pods and feed
within.
 Generally one caterpillar is found in one
pod.

INSECT OF NEEM
Introduction

Introduction

 Neem is high – valued pesticidal plant

exploited worldwide for pest management.
But, it is also attached by a group of insect
pests in field and storage.

I. BORERS
 1. Stem Borer

1. Stem Borer -Plocaederus ferrugineus Linn.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

Bionomics

 It is a major pest of neem is South India.

 Cashew, moringa, silk cotton and citrus
trees are alternate host plants.
 Adult is a medium – sized and dark brown
longicorn beetle.
 Eggs are laid under loose bark of the stem
and roots.
 They hatch in 4 to 6 days.
 Grubs bore into the bark in the early instar
stages and into the wood in the late instar
stages and make extensive tunnels within.
 Chewed up wood and excreta extrude out
of the bore holes.
 Grub stage lasts for 6 to 7 months and
grown up grub measures up to 7.5 cm.
 It bores down to the root, makes a
calcareous pupal chamber and pupates for
two months.
 Insect completes life cycle in a year.
Management

 Locate loose bark and bore holes, spike out

grubs and kill.
 Cut and destroy infested branches along
with eggs and grubs.
 After cleaning and pruning infested
branches, swab the trunk with carbary 150
WP 4g/1 to avoid the oviposition of adults
 or swab and drench with chlorpyriphos 20
EC at 4.5 ml/1. Swab nearby alternate host
trees also.
 Use light trap at 1 / ha to attract adult
insects.

2. Anthribid fruit borer

2. Anthribid fruit borer - Araecerus fasciculatus D.

(Anthribidae:Coleoptera)

Bionomics

 Both adults and grubs bore the seeds and

damage them completely.
 Adult is a dark or grey brown beetle
clothed with hairs.
 Grub is white, soft and legless with a
distinct head and wrinkled body.

II. SAP FEEDERS

1. Tea mosquito bug

1. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis antonii Sign.

(Miridae: Hemiotera)

 It is a serious pest of neem and is widely

distributed in Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra and TamilNadu. Tea, cahew,
moringa and guava are other host plants.
Adult is reddish brown bug with black
head, red thorax, and black and white
abdomen. A knobbed process is
characteristic on mid-dorsal thorax.
  Eggs are inserted into epidermis of tender
shoot and axis of inflorescence. Eggs are
elongated and slightly curved with a pair
of filaments. Egg period lasts for 7 to 8
days . Nymphal duration is 14 to 16 days.
Life cycle is completed in 22 to 25 days.
 Adults and nymphs desap on petioles,
tender shoots, and leaf veins causing
necrotic lesions. On foliage, brownish-
black necrotic patches appear and on
shoots, elongate streaks and patches.
Resin exudes from the feeding punctures.
Blossom – blight and die-back symptoms
appear. Widespreading drying of shoots,
inflorescence and flowers and shedding of
drupes or fruits are common.
Management

 Collect and destroy the damaged plant

parts.
 Spary dimethoate 0.03 % /1.2ml

2. Mealy Scale

2. Mealy Scale - Pulvinaria maxima Green (Coccidae:

Hemiptera)

 White coloured convex scales infest shoots

and stems.
 Nymphs and adults suck sap and infested
trees are pale and weak in appearance.
 Collect and destroy damaged plant parts
and spray dimethoate 30 EC at 1.5 ml/l.

3. Thrips
3. Thrips -Taeniothrips chalcogastra (Thripidae.
Thysanoptera)

 Nymphs and adults lacerate tissues of

flowers and leaves and such ozzing fluid.
 Silvery patches are seen on the flowers
and leaves.
 Adults are minute and yellowish with
fringed wings.
 Collect and destroy damaged plant parts
and spray dimethoate 30 EC at 1.5 ml/l.

III. LEAF FEEDERS

1. Slug caterpillar

1. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cramer

(Cochildiidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Caterpillars feed on leaves and cause

complete defoliation in the case of severe
infestation.
Bionomics

 Adult is a medium sized moth having green

wings with prominent dark patch at the
base of each fore wing.
 Larva is greenish body with white lines
and four rows of urticating spiny scoli
tipped red or black.
 Ventrally it is flat and moves like a slug.
Management
  Hand pick damaged leaves along with
larvae and destroy them.
 Collect and destroy the adults using light
traps.
 Spray dimethoate 0.03 % /l.

IV. SUB TERRANEAN PEST

1. Termite

1. Termite - Odontotermes obseus Ramb, (Termitidae:

Isoptera)

Damage

 Termites infest stems and feed internal

tissues of trunks and fill with sand and
excreta.
 Affected young plants show drying of
shoots and wilting of plants.
Management

 Locate termite colony and destroy queen

by physical or chemical means.
 Spray neem oil 5% once at the base up to 2
m height of the trunk for effective control.
 Destroy mound building, termites by
treating with aluminnium phosphide or
sulfex tablets @ 2 tablets / meter diameter
of mound. Close all openings of the mound
after inserting tablets.
 Mix 60 ml of chlropyriphos 20 EC in 18 I of
water and pour into the mound through a
hole made in the centre, or through open
chimneys in case of open mounds.
INSECT PEST OF INDIAN BELLADONA
1. Cut worm

1. Cut worm - Agrotis flammatra (Schiffer) (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Larva infests tender seedlings during early

summer months.
Management

 Apply lindane 1.3 D 25g/sq.m of nursery beds

before sowing.
 Plough field after harvesting crop to expose
hibernating pupae.

. Leaf feeder

2. Leaf feeder - Archips micaceana (Tortricidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Larvae completely defoliate plants.

Management

 Spray dimethoate 0.03 % /1.

INSECT OF OPIUM POPPY

1. Root weevil
 1. Root weevil - Sternocarus
fuliginosus (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 Grubs feed on roots.

Management

 Apply lindane 1.3 D 25 kg/ha on soil at

planting is it available in market.

2. Cutworm

2. Cutworm-Agrotis suffusa (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Larva cuts younger plants at the base

above ground level. Larva remains
concealed in cracks in the ground and
become active at night.
Bionomics

 Larva is dark with red coloured head.

3. Green peach aphid

3. Green peach aphid - Myzus persicae (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

 Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves.

Body colour of apterous form is yellowish green
and rarely reddish.
 4. Gram pod borer

4.Gram pod borer - Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

 Larva feeds on flower heads and seeds.

Adult is a medium sized mom with 'V'
shaped speck and dull black border on
hind wing.
 Full-grown larva is greenish with dark
brown grey lines along sides of body.
 Spherical, yellowish white eggs are laid
singly on buds and flowers.
Bionomics

 Larval period lasts for 15 to 20 days. It

pupates in the soil and pupal period is 10
to 15 days.
Management

 Hand pick and destroy larvae.

 Use pheromone traps to attract and kill
adult moths.
 Spray dimethoate 0.03 % /l.

INSECT OF LONG PEPPER

1. Mealy bug

1. Mealy bug - Dysmicoccus sp. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)

 Mealy bug infests healthy roots and

 underground vines.
 Affected plant shows yellowing and
stunted growth.
 Severity is more during summer months.
 Follow soil drenching of the root zone with
dimethoate 30 EC at 3 ml/1lit or
chloropyriphos 4ml /lit.

2. Tea mosquito bug

2. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis theivora (Miridae:

Hemiptera)

 Nymphs and adults severely infest plants

by feeding on tender foliage.
 Necrotic lesions develop around feeding
punctures leaving shot holes on lamina.
 Adults are black and red, elongated insects
with long legs and antennae and a dorsal
process on the scutellum.
 Apply NSKE 5% or malathion 50 EC.

INSECT OF MEDICINAL YAM

1. Aphids

1. Aphids - Aphis gossypii and Pentalonia

nigronervosa (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

 In Dioseorea floribunda, aphids cause

damage to young seedlings as well as
leaves and stems of young vines.
 As a result, new growth is adversely
affected.

2. Red spider mite

2. Red spider mite - Tetranychus sp (Tetranychidae:
Acarina)

 They infest laminary base adjoining petiole

resulting in development of necrotic areas,
which become sites for fungal infection
in D. floribunda and D. composita.

INSECT OF ASHWAGANDHA
1. Cut worm

1. Cut worm - Agrotis sp (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

 Larva attacks tender seedlings at collar region.

 Apply Lindane 1.3 D at 25 kg/ha and fork the
soil.

2. Epilachna beetle

2. Epilachna beetle - Epilachna

vigintioctopimctata (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera)

 Both grubs and adults feed by scrapping

chlorophyll from epidermal layers of
leaves, which get skeletonized and
gradually dry away. Grub is yellowish and
stout with spines all over the body.
 Adult is spherical pale brown and mottled
with black spots.
 Collect and destroy eggs, grubs and adults.
 Spray NSKE 5% or carbaryl 50 WP or
malathion 50 EC or dimethoate 0.03 % /1.

3. Grasshopper
 3. Grasshopper -Trilophida annulata (Acrididae:
Orthoptera)

 Nymphs and adults feed on leaves from

the margins.
 Adult is brown with black spots and
tegmina with darker band.

4. Ash weevil

4. Ash weevil - Myllocerus viridanus Fab.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

 Adult causes irregular notching of leaf

margins.
 Adult is small and light green in colour.
 Eggs are laid in soil and grubs feed on
roots, causing wilting and drying of plants.

5. Weevil

5. Weevil - Blosyrus maegualis Boh. (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera)

 Adult weevil makes perforations on leaves and

inverted “v” zig-zag markings.

6. Cow bug

6. Cow bug - Gargara mixta Buekt. (Membracidae:

Hemiptera)

 Cow bugs suck sap from tender shoots.

  Adult is brownish with white smoky patches.

7. Mealy bug

7. Mealy bug - Coccidohystrix insolita Green.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

 Mealy bugs suck sap from leaves.

 Mealy bugs are small, oval, soft-bodied and
covered with white mealy wax.

8. Leaf hopper

8. Leaf hopper - Penthina sp. (Cicadellidae:

Hemiptera)

 Nymphs and adults suck sap and cause hopper

burn, bronzing and drying of leaves.

INSECT OF SARPAGANDHA
1. Leaf caterpillar

1. Leaf caterpillar - Glyphodes vertumnalis Guen.

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

 Greenish caterpillar defoliates the plant.

2. Sphingid

2. Sphingid - Deilephila nerii (Sphingidae:

Lepidoptera)

 Larva is green and stout with a horn at the

anal region.
 Adult is a robust green moth with yellow
marking.
  Larvae completely defoliate plants.

3. White grub

3. White grub - Anomala polita Blanchard. (Rutelidae:

Coleoptera)

 Grubs cause root damage and adults feed

on foliage. Eggs are laid in the soil near
host plants. On hatching, grubs feed on
developing roots and tubers as well as
other grasses growing around. When full-
fed, grubs over winter deep down in the
soil. Grubs are fleshy and C shaped with
orange head.
 Adults emerge as soon as temperature
starts rising, but continue to remain in the
soil till the onset of monsoon. Adults feed
on foliage during night and damage is
more during autumn. Anomala adults are
smaller and pale-yellowish beetles. Egg,
grub and pupal stages are completed in 8
to 10 months.

INSECT OF GERANIUM
1. Termite

1. Termite - Odontotermes sp. (Termitidae: Isoptera)

 Crop is prone to termite attack occasionally,

which can be easily controlled by mixing
lindane 1.3 D 25 kg/ ha in to soil.
INSECTS ATTACKING STORED FRUITS
AND PLANTATIONS
I. INTERNAL FEEDERS

1. Rice weevil

1. Rice weevil - Sitophilus oyzae Linn. S. zeamais, S.

granarius (Curculionidae : Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Both grubs and adults cause damage to grains.

 Adult weevil cuts circular holes of 1.5 mm. dia
on grains.
 During heavy infestation heating takes place
which is known as dry heating.
 The grub feeds internal content of the grain.
 It attacks the grains of rice, wheat, sorghum,
barley, maize before harvest and in store.
Bionomics

 The adult weevil is small in size of 3 mm

reddish brown or chocolate to almost black
colour having characteristic beak or snout.
 The antenna is elbowed and slightly clubbed.
 The elytra have 4 yellow spots. The female
makes a cavity on the grain and deposits white
translucent eggs singly and covers it with
gelatinous fluid.
 The fecundity of weevil is 150-250 eggs per
female.
 The grub is white, apodous with yellowish
brown head, which feeds inside the grain.
 The larval duration is about 20 days.
  It pupates inside grain itself for 3-6 days.
 The adult longevity is 3-5 months.
 The life cycle occupies 26 days at 30°C and
75% relative humidity.

2. Lesser grain borer

2. Lesser grain borer - Rhyzopertha dominica Fab.

(Bostrychidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Both grubs and adults make irregular holes of 1

mm diameter on the grain and feeds on the
internal content of it.
 The grain or kernels are reduced to mere
powder. It attacks paddy, rice, wheat and
maize.
Bionomics

 The adult beetle is dark brown measuring about

3 mm in length.
 The head is deflexed downwards with a pair of
antenna having serrated and three segmented
club.
 There is a prominent constriction between
prothorax and elytra.
 .It lays eggs singly or in clusters on the surface
of cereal grains. A single female lays eggs up to
550.
 The grub is white, apodous with brown head.
 It develops within the grain or kernel and feeds
on starchy material.
 It pupates inside the grain after 3rd instar.
  The total life cycle is completed in 25 days
under optimum conditions.
Last modified: Thursday, 2 February 2012, 4:59 PM

3. Cigarette or tobacco beetle

3. Cigarette or tobacco beetle -Lasioderma

serricorne Fb.(Anobiidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Both grubs and adults bore into tobacco

products viz., cigarettes, cheroots and chewing
tobacco.
 Presence of circular pin head sized bore holes
on processed tobacco is the typical symptom of
attack.
 It also attacks the grain of wheat, peanut,
cocoa, bean, cotton seed etc.
Bionomics

 Adult light brown round beetle with its thorax

and head bent downwards and this presents a
strongly humped appearance to the insect.
 The elytra have minute hairs on them.
 Antenna is of uniform thickness.
 The creamy white oval eggs are laid on the
surface of stored material and the incubation
period is 9 - 14 days.
 The larval and pupal periods range respectively
from 17 - 29 days and 2-8 days.
 Grub whitish hairy grub feed on stored tobacco,
ginger, turmeric and chillies.

4. Drug store beetle

4. Drug store beetle - Stegobium paniceum Linn.
(Anobiidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Circular pinhead
sized bore hole
on turmeric,
coriander,
ginger, dry vegetable and animal matter.
Bionomics

 Adult reddish brown small beetle has striated

elytra and measures 3mm long.
 Antenna is clubbed.
 It lays the eggs in batches of 10 - 40.
 Grub is not hairy but is pale white, fleshy with
the abdomen terminating in two dark horny
points.
 LP: 10 - 20 and PPL 8-12 days.

5. Pulse beetle

5. Pulse beetle - Callosobruchus theobromae Linn.

(Bruchidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Grub alone eats away the entire seed content

make a cavity.
 Adult beetles are harmless and do not feed on
stored produce at all.
 The infestation starts in the field itself from
 where the infestation is carried over to godown
and pulse seed with round exit holes and cigar
like eggs consented of them.
 It attacks all whole pulses, bean and gram.
Bionomics

 Adult is brownish grey coloured with

characteristic elevated ivory like spots near the
middle of the dorsal side.
 Elytra do not cover the abdomen fully.
 It lays 80 - 100 eggs singly and glued on the
surface of pod in the field or on grain in stores.
 The egg period is about 5 days.
 The grub is fleshy, white, creamy in colour
which moulds four times.
 Grub bores into the pod or grain.
 The larval period lasts for 30-50 days.
 It pupates in a pupal cell prepared beneath the
seed coat.
 Pupal period last for 4 days in summer and two
weeks in winter. The life cycle is completed in
23 days at 30oC and 70% relative humidity.

6. Tamarind beetle

6. Tamarind beetle - Pachymeres gonagra Fb.

(Bruchidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Circular holes on fruits of tamarind both in

tree and storage.
Bionomics
  Adult small grey coloured beetle.

7. Angoumois grain moth

7. Angoumois grain moth - Sitotroga cerealella Olivier

(Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)

Nature of damage

 The larva bores into the grain and feeds on the

internal content of it.
 Exit holes of 1 mm diameter with or without a
trap door on the damaged grain are typical
symptoms of attack.
 It attacks paddy, maize, sorghum, barley and
wheat before harvest and in store.
Bionomics

 The adult moth has pale fore wings and

uniformly grey pointed wings with fringe of
hairs.
 It lays about 100 white eggs singly in stores or
fields on the surface of damp grains.
 The egg period is 4-30 days.
 The larva is white in colour with yellow head
measuring 5 mm in length.
 It undergoes four instars.
 It feeds in side and remain in a single grain
only.
 It over winters in pupal stage.
 It spins a cocoon and pupates for 7 days.

II. EXTERNAL FEEDERS

1. Red flour beetle

 1. Red flour beetle - Tribolium castaneum Herbst.
(Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

Both grubs and adults feed on milled products.

Adult beetles are readily observed even in moderately
infested stored foods.
 They construct tunnels as they move through flour and other
granular food products.
 In addition they release gaseous quinones to the medium
which may produce a readily identifiable acid odor in heavy
infestations.
 It attacks broken grains or mechanically damaged grains and
milled products.
Bionomics

 The beetle is small, oblong, flat, brown in colour measuring 3-

4mm in length.
 In T. confusium the compound eyes are completely notched
and antennae are not gradualy thickened in the latter where
as in T. castaneum not notch is not complete and antennae
have a clear 3 segmented club.
 It lays 400-500 eggs in stored grain at random for several
months.
 The eggs are white and cylindrical.
 The egg period is 5-12 days.
 The grub is white worm like having two spine like
appendages at the last abdominal segment.
 The larval period is 3-12 weeks.
 The pupal stage lasts for 5-9 days.
 The life cycle is completed in 3-4 weeks at 35-57°C at 70%
relative humidity.

2. Indian meal moth

2. Indian meal moth - Plodia interpunctella Huebn

(Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

Nature of damage

 The larvae feed on the grain and

contaminate with excrement, webbing,
 dead individuals and cocoons.
 It attacks maize cereals, dry fruits
groundnuts and cereal products.
Bionomics

 The adult moth has brown fore wins with

white band.
 It lays greyish white coloured eggs on the
surface of grain.
 The fecundity of this insect is 39-275 eggs
per female.
 The egg period is 2-17 days.
 The larva is dirty white in colour.
 The larval period is 30-35 days.
 It pupates in silken cocoons for 10 days.
 The life cycle is completed in about 5-6
weeks.

3. Fig moth

3. Fig moth - Ephestia cautella Walk. (Phycitidae:

Lepidoptera)

Nature of damage

 The larva mainly feeds on germ portion

leaving the rest of the kernel undamaged.
 It forms webs on the surface of commodity
or on the bags by silk and silk strands.
 It attacks wheat, rice, maize, sorghum,
groundnut and spices.
Bionomics

 The small moth has dirty white to grayish

 wings with indistinct black bands about 4
mm from the head.
 It lays 200 - 250 eggs on grains exposed at
the sampling tube spots in jute bags.
 The caterpillar is grayish white, hairy with
dark brown head with 2 dark areas on the
first segment behind the head.
 It pupates in a silken cocoon at the
junction of two overlapping edges of
stalked bags.
 The adult longevity is 14 days.
 The entire cycle is completed in 25 days.

4. Rice moth

4. Rice moth - Corcyra cephalonica Staint.

(Galleriidae: Lepidoptera)

Nature of damage:

 The larva feeds on the grains and pollutes them with frass,
moult and dense webbings.
 It attacks rice, sorghum, other millets whole cereals, deals,
processed products of cereals, pulses oilseeds, nuts, dry
fruits and milled spices.
Bionomics:

 Adult moth has pale yellowish green fore wings and grey
white hind wings.
 It lays small, oval, elliptical eggs on walls, bags or on grain.
 The egg period is 3-5 days.
 The larva is creamy with prothoracic shield.
 The grown up larva is fleshy, 12 mm in size.
 It pupates in a silken cocoon sticking on to gunny bags.
 The pupal period is 10 days.

5. Khapra beetle

5. Khapra beetle - Trogoderma granarium Everts.

(Dermestidae: Coleoptera)
 Nature of damage

 It chews up the seed coat in an irregular

manner on all cereals and reduces the
grain into frass.
 It attacks wheat, maize sorghum, rice,
pulses, oilseeds and their cakes.
Bionomics

 Adult beetle is reddish brown measuring 4-

6 mm in length.
 The male beetles are smaller than females
in size.
 It lays about 80-125 eggs.
 The yellowish brown grubs are clothed
with long hairs.
 The grubs are active, move and feed freely.
 It pupates on the surface of the grain in
bulk and overlapping edges of bags.
 The pupal period last for 5-8 days.

SECONDARY PESTS AND SCAVENGER

OF STORED PRODUCTS
1. Saw toothed grain beetle

1. Saw toothed grain beetle - Oryzaephilus

surinamensis Linn.(Cucujidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 It feeds on grains, dried fruits etc. by scarving of grain

surface or burrowing holes in them.
 It attacks rice, wheat, maize, cereal products, oil seeds and
dry fruits.
Bionomics

 It is slender, dark brown, narrow, flattened beetle having a

row of saw like sharp teeth on each side of the prothorax.
 The antenna is clubbed and elytra cover abdomen completely.
 It lays 300 whitish eggs loosely in cracks of storage
receptacles of godown.
 The eggs period is 3-17 days.
 The larva is sender, pale cream in colour with no slightly
darken patches on each segment.
 The larval period is 14-20 days.
 It pupates in a protective cocoon like covering with sticky
secretion.
 The pupal period is 7-21 days.

2. Long headed flour beetle

2. Long headed flour beetle - Latheticus oryzae Water

house.(Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

 Both grubs and adults beetles feed on the

milled products.
 It occurs as secondary infestation in stored
grain.
 It attacks cereal flour, packaged food, rice
and rice products.
Bionomics

 The beetle is light brown in colour with

elongated body, measuring 2-3 mm in
length and resembles Tribolium
castaneum.
 It lays 400 white eggs singly on grain and
seams of the bags.
 The incubation period is 7-12 days.
 The grub is small, white active which feeds
voraciously.
  The larval period is 15-80 days.
 It pupates for 5-10 days.
 Life cycle is completed in 25 days at 35° C
and 70% relative humidity.

3. Flat grain beetle

3. Flat grain beetle - Cryptolestes minutus Olivier.

(Cucujidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

 Both grubs and adults feed on broken

grains or on milled products.
 In case of heavy infestation it cause
heating in grain and flour.
 It attacks rice, maize, wheat with excessive
broken, different flours, groundnut
particularly with high moistures and
mouldy grain.
Bionomics

 It is smallest amount the stored grain

insect pests.
 It is light to dark reddish brown beetle
measuring 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm.
 It lays white eggs loosely in flour, grain or
crevices.
 The egg period is 5 days.
 The larva is cigar like, yellowish white with
two reddish brown spots at anal segment.
 The larval period is 21 days.
 It pupates in a gelatinous cocoon.
 The life cycle is completed in 42 days.
 4. Grain lice

4. Grain lice - Liposcelis divinitorius Muli.

(Psocoptera)

Damage

 They are scavengers affecting only germ

portion in heavy infestation.
 .It thrives on insect fragments and broken
grains.
 It attacks all starchy material.
Bionomics

 It is pale grey or yellowish white coloured,

small, pin head sized louse with filiform
antenna.
 It lays about 7-60 eggs.
 The metamorphosis is incomplete.

5. Grain mite

5. Grain mite - Acarus siro Linn. (Acarina)

Damage

 It feeds on the surface of the grains.

 It attacks cereal grains, flour and other
eatables.
Bionomics

 It is pale straw to dark reddish brown

mite.
  It lays about 100 eggs.
 The eggs are hatched into 6 legged larvae
which mould into nymphs.
 There are 1-3 instars.
 The life cycle is completed in 9-12 days at
23°C and 70% relative humidity.

Control methods

Control methods

 The control methods of stored produce

pests can be categorized into preventive
and curative measures.
A. Preventive measures

 Brush the cracks, crevices and corners to

remove all debris in the godown.
 Clean and maintain the threshing floor /
yard free from insect infection and away
from the vicinity of villages.
 Clean the machines like harvester and
thresher before their use.
 Made the trucks, trolleys or bullock carts
free from infestation.
 Clean the godowns/storage structures
before storing the newly harvested crop to
eliminate various bio stages of pest hiding.
 Provide a metal sheet upto a height of 25
cm at the bottom of the wood in doors to
arrest the entry of rats.
 Fix up wire meshes to windows,
ventilators, gutters, drains etc. to prevent
entry of rats, birds and squirrels.
 Remove and destroy dirt, rubbish,
 sweepings and webbings etc. from the
stores.
 Close all the rat burrows found in godown
with a mixture of broken glass pieces and
mud and plastered with mud / cement.
 Plaster the cracks, crevices, holes found on
walls, and floors with mud or cement and
white wash the stores before storing of
grains.
 Provide dunnage leaving gangway or
alleyway of 0.75 to 1 m all around to
maintain good storage condition.
 Store the food grains in rat and moisture
proof storage structures.
 Disinfest the storage structures
receptacles by spraying malathion 50 EC
@ 3 lit 100 m before their use.
B. Curative measures
i. Ecological methods

 Manipulate the ecological factors like

temperature, moisture content, and oxygen
through design and construction of storage
structures/godown and storage to create
ecological conditions unfavorable for
attack by insects.
 Temperature above 42oC and below 15oC
retards reproduction and development of
insect while prolonged temperature above
45oC and below 10oC may kill the insects.
 Dry the produce to have moisture content
below 10% to prevent the buildup of pests.
 Kill the pests bio stages horboured in the
storage bags, bins etc. by drying in the sun
light.
  Store the grains at around 10% moisture
content to escape from the insects attack.
 Manipulate and reduce oxygen level by 1%
to increase the CO2 level automatically,
which will be lethal to all the stages of
insects.
ii. Physical methods

 Provide a super heating system by infrared

heaters in the floor mills and food
processing plant to obtain effective control
of pests since mostly the stored produce
insects' die at 55-60oC in 10-20 minutes.
 Modify the storage atmosphere to
generate low oxygen (2.4% and to develop
high carbon dioxide (9.0 - 9.5) by adding
CO2 to controls the insects.
Seed purpose

 Mix 1 kg of activated kaolin (or) lindane

1.3 D (or) Malathion 5 D for every 100 kg
of seed and store / pack in gunny or
polythene lined bags.
Grain purpose

 Mix 1 kg activated kaolin for every 100 kg

of grain and store. To protect the pulse
grains, mix activated kaolin at the above
dosage or any one of the edible oils at 1 kg
for every 100 kg of grin or mix 1 kg of
neem seed kernel for every 100 kg of
cereal or pulse and store.
 Do not mix synthetic insecticides with
grains meant for consumption.
iii. Cultural methods
  Split and store pulses to escape from the
attack by pulse beetle since it prefers to
attack whole pulses and not split ones.
 Store the food grains in airtight sealed
structures to prevent the infestation by
insects.
iv. Mechanical methods

 Sieve and remove all broken grains to

eliminate the condition which favour
storage pests.
 Stitch all torn out bags before filling the
grains.
v. Chemical methods

 Treat the walls, dunnage materials and

ceilings of empty godown with Malathion
50 EC 10 ml / 1 (or) DDVP 76 WSC 7 ml / 1
at 31 spray solution / 10 sq.m.
 Treat the alleways and gangways with
Malathion 50 EC 10 ml / 1 or DDVP 76
WSC 7 ml / 1 (1 litre of spray fluid / 270
M3).
 Spray Malathion 50 EC 10 ml / 1 @ 3 1 of
spray fluid / 100 M2 over the bags.
 Do not spray the insecticides directly on
food grains.
 Use knock down chemicals like lindane
smoke generator or fumigant strips
pyrethrum spray to kill the flying insects
and insects on surfaces, cracks and
crevices.
 Use seed protectants like pyrethrum dust,
carbaryl dust to mix with grains meant for
 seed purpose only.
 Decide the need for shed fumigation based
on the intensity of infestation.
 Check the black polythene sheets or
rubberized aluminum covers for holes and
get them ready for fumigation.
 Use EDB ampoules (available in different
sizes of 3 ml, 6 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml and 30 ml)
at 3 ml / quintal. At for wheat the pulses
and 5 ml / quintal for rice and paddy (Do
not recommend EDB for fumigation of
flour oil seeds and moist grains).
 Use EDCT (available in tin containers of
500 ml, 1 liter and 5 litres) at 30-40 litres /
100 cubic meter in large-scale storage and
55 ml/quintal in small-scale storage.
 Use fumigants like Ethylene dibromide
(EDB), Ethylene dichloride carbon tetra
chloride (EDCT), Aluminium phosphide
(ALP) to control stored produce pests
effectively.
 Apply Aluminium phosphide (available in
0.6 g and 3 gram tablets) @ 2 tablets (3
gram each) per tonne of food grains lot
with help of an applicator.
 Choose the fumigant and work out the
requirement based on the following
guidelines.
 3 tablets of aluminum phosphide 3 g each
per tonne of grain (For cover fumigation)
 21 tablets of aluminium phosphide 3 g
each for 28 cubic meters (For shed
fumigation)
 Period of fumigation is 5 days.
 Mixclay or red earth with water and make
 it into a paste form and keep it ready for
plastering all round the fumigation cover
or keep ready sand snakes (For cover
fumigation).
 Place the required number of aluminium
phosphide tablets in between the bags in
different layer.
 Cover the bags immediately with
fumigation cover.
 Plaster the edges of cover all round with
wet red earth or clay plaster or weigh
down with sand sankes to make leak proof.
 Keep the bags for a period of 5 - 7 days
under fumigation based on fumigant
chosen.
 Remove the mud plaster after specified
fumigation periods and lift cover in the
corner to allow the residual gas to escape.
 Lift the cover after few hours to allow
aeration.

General precautions

General precautions

 Read the label carefully and follow the

instructions given by manufactures
 Keep the pesticides in labelled containers
only
 Store pesticides under lock and key
beyond the reach of children
 Do not store insecticides near food stuff
and store them in cool places
 Never use empty containers for any other
purposes except for insecticides
 Destroy and dump the waste containers
 Wash hands with soap and water after
using pesticides
 Do not use moth for cleaning nozzles etc.
of sprayers.
 Avoid swallowing, inhalation, or contact
with skin as far as possible.
 Keep first air box ready along with
universal antidote.
 Activated charcoal 2 parts + tannic acid 1
part + magnesium oxide 1 part (Dose: 15
grams in half tumblers of water).
 Consult a doctor in case of signs of illness
eg. giddiness, nausea, head ache, blurred
vision, vomiting, depression, respiratory
problem and inform about the pesticide
the patient had handled.

Introduction

Introduction

 Integrated pest management is a system

which in the context of the associated
environment and the population dynamics
of the pest species, utilize all suitable
techniques and methods in a compatible
way and maintains pest populations at
levels below the economics injury level.
Rodent control is a problem of applied
ecology factors into management polity.
The primary aim is to reduce damage,
rather than to kill the pest. However, most
often this is achieved by use of a lethal
chemical. However, if lethal control is
 followed by rapid immigration then the
damage reduction may be short lived. Thus
it is important to take account of spatial
dynamics of the pest. Simple ecological
theory treats a population as a group of
organisms in one place at one time, the
number of which change through time
according to the number of births, deaths,
immigrants and emigrants.
 Although rodents have potentiality for fast
breeding, the geometrical progression is
countered by various limiting factors
operated by nature. Implantation failure,
intra uterine mortality, maternal
cannibalism and postnatal mortality due to
social strife etc. limit their number.
However, the higher carrying capacity of
crop fields result in maintaining more
number of rodents resulting in significant
crop losses.
 A number of vegetables, groundnut,
pulses, sugarcane, cotton boll finger millet,
sesame and tender coconuts in the field
and also stored grains in ware house and
store rooms are damaged by rats and nice.
Rats are among the most destructive pests
of paddy in field causing about 5 - 10%
damage.
 It has been estimated that there are about
2500 million rats in our country. Five
species of rats and three species of mice
are important pests of cultivated crops in
the field in Tamil Nadu.
 They are as follows.
 Mole rat or lesser bandicoot or field rat
 - Bandicota bengalensis
 Bandicoot rat - Bandicota indica
 Grass rat - Millardia meltada
 Gerbil rat - Tatera indica
 Common house rat - Rattus rattus
rufescens
 Indian field mouse - Mus booduga
 Brown ring mouse - Mus platythrix
 House mouse - Mus musculus

1. Mole rat

1. Mole rat - Bandicota bengalensis Gray. (Muridae:

Rodentia)

Nature of damage

 The rat enters the paddy nursery and

nibbles the seeds.
 After transplantation the seedlings are cut.
 In short stage it cuts the tillers and the
affected area is seen as circular patches in
a field.
 The rat revisits the same area next night
and spread the damage.
 It cuts ear heads and carries to its burrow
and in a burrow up to 2 kg of hoarded
grain can be noticed.
 It also feeds on pulses, grasses and grains.
Bionomics

 The rat lives in burrows made in the sides

of bunds channel bunds and in waste lands
adjoining the fields.
  Mole rat is robust, dark brown to black
with a short, stumpy truncated and pig like
face.
 Tail has scaly rings, normally smaller but
sometimes equal to head and body.
 The adults weigh 300 grams.
 It breeds round the year with 5-8 litters
year. Life span is approximately 7-8
months.
 It is expert in digging burrows, excellent
swimmer and aggressive fighter.

2. Bandicoot rat

2. Bandicoot rat - Bandicota indica Bechstein.

(Muridae: Rodentia)

Nature of damage

 It weakens the foundation of walls, river

bunds, railway tracts by making bug
burrows.
 It cuts the tillers / leaves in the rice field
and reduce the yield drastically.
 It hoards grain in burrows. It feeds on
grain in burrows.
 It feeds on grain, animal products, meat
etc. in stores.
Bionomics

 It is the largest rat in size with a ferocious

look and brownish to black in colour head
is broad, truncated, pointed with long
black whiskers.
  Eyes are small with white eye borrows and
ears are short, rounded opaque and nude.
 Fur is thick coarse with spines.
 It weighs about 800 - 1000 grams.
 The tail is equal to the length of body but
not uniformly tapering Droppings are
scattered and spindle shaped.

3. Grass rat

3. Grass rat - Millardia meltada Gray. (Muridae:

Rodentia)

 Body small and slender, dark brownish

grey above and pale grey below with soft
fur.
 Head and body is about 13 cm long and
tail 10 cm long.
 The burrows of the grass rat are similar to
that of the mole rat excepting that they are
smaller in length and diameter and that
usually more than one adult rat occupies a
single burrow.
 It attacks rice in all stages and feeds upon
young germinating grains.
 It damages green cotton bolls in black
cotton soils.

4. Gerbil rat

4. Gerbil rat - Tatera indica Hrdwicke. (Muridae:

Rodentia)

 It is reddish grey in colour with white

under side and it equals the common
house rat in size with about 18 cm long
 head and body and a hairy tail little longer
than the head and body.
 It generally feeds on grams, grass, roots
and fruits.

5. Common house rat

5. Common house rat- Rattus rattus rufescens Linn.

(Muridae: Rodentia)

Nature of damage

 It feeds upon all kinds of vegetable and

animal food.
 Its damage is great in ware house and
storage godowns on vegetable grains and
preserved food materials.
 It is responsible for plague.
Bionomics

 It is brownish grey with dark under

surface.
 It has small eyes, large sparsely hairy ears
and pointed snout.
 The tail is uniformly dark coloured and is
equal to the size of body plus head.
 It weighs about 150-200 gram.
 The droppings are banana shaped and
found scattered.
 It has 5-7 litters per year, each having 6-14
young ones after gestation period of about
25 days.
 The life span is 1 year in field and 2 years
in laboratory condition.
  It lives in roots of houses and underground
burrows.

6. Indian field mouse

6. Indian field mouse - Mus booduga Gray. (Muridae:

Rodentia)

 It is about 5 to 8 cm long with 5 cm long

tail.
 It is brown in colour with a white belly.
 It burrows in field bunds causing extensive
damage to bunds and wastage of water.
 It produces 3 to 9 young ones per litter.
 It cuts and removes grains from rice crop.
 It feeds on gram and grain.

7. Brown ring mouse

7. Brown ring mouse - Mus platythrix (Muridae:

Rodentia)

 Body-small, fur crisp and tends to be spiny

grayer basally, browner terminally, above
dark brown to pale brown, under part with
a clear line of demarcation along the sides.
 Tail stout averaging below 90% of the
length of the body.

8. House mouse

8. House mouse - Mus musculus Linn. (Muridae:

Rodentia)

Nature of damage
  It feeds on cereals, cereal products,
vegetables, meat, fat, carbohydrates etc.
 It also damage wooden furnitures, paper
clothes, rubber and leather goods etc.
 It consumes 3-4 grams per day.
Bionomics

 Adult is dark brown to sandy brown rat

with short hairs, undersurface light grey.
 It weighs about 23-35 grams.
 Tail is longer than head and body and
dropping are scattered and spindle
shaped.
 There are 8 litters per year with
gestation period of 19 days.

 It feeds on grains and grasses.

9. Brown rat of ship rat

9. Brown rat of ship rat - Rattus norvegius Birken

(Muridae : Rodentia)

Nature of damage

 It feeds on gains damages bags, cartons

and pollutes gain with excreta, dropping
and hairs.
Bionomics

 Adult is soft skinned brownish grey rat

with whitish belly.
  It weighs about 200-300 grams.
 The snout is wide and blunt.
 The tail is shorter than head and body.
 There are 6-14 liters per year with a litter
size of 5-7 young ones.
 The gestation period is 4 weeks.
 The life span is one year.

Integrated Rodent Management

Integrated Rodent Management

 The following integrated approaches can

be adopted for the management of rodents
both in field and storage.
1) Cultural methods
2) mechanical methods
3) biological methods and
4) chemical methods.
I. Field
1. Cultural methods

 Dig burrows and kill rats at the beginning

of crop season while rectifying bunds for
cultivation and plan to have narrow bunds
in the field, which are adequate for the
rats to construct furrows.
 Avoid keeping hay stakes near the fields as
they provide excellent harborage for rats.
 Plough the field deeply up to 18" to
unearth rat burrows and to expose the rats
to enemies like cats and kites before the
sowing operation.
 Flood the field with water to suffocate and
kill the rats.
  Organise campaigns to dig out rat burrows
and kill them soon after the harvest.
2. Mechanical methods

 Kill the solitary rats by sticks and brooms

 Set up indigenous local trap like bow traps
at 20-25 per acre.
3. Biological methods

 Keep up the trained dogs to prey upon rats

or even dig out rats from burrows by
smelling.
 Conserve snakes and mangooses to reduce
the rat populations.
 Set up owl perches in the paddy field to
reduce rate damage.
4. Chemical Methods
a. Single dose poison

 Use acute or single dose poision bait at 1

part Zinc phosphide with 49 parts popped
corn / rich / dry fish.
b. Multi dose poison

 Use ready to feed anticoagulant like

warfarin 0.5% cakes to cause blood
haemorrhage in rats.
 Prepare dry bait by mixing flour (ie.
cereals or millets) 450 g (4 tea cupful) any
edible oil 10 g (2 teaspoonful) sugar or
jaggery 15 g (3 teaspoonful) and
anticoagulant, warfarin 0.5% 25 g (5
teaspoonful) for effective rat control.
 Prepare water-soluble bait by mixing 1
part anticoagulant and 19 parts of water
 (2.5 grams of anticoagulant dissolved in
475 ml of water).
 Use ready to use second generation
anticoagulant namely bromodiolone at 125
grams (1 teacupful).
 Before providing poison bait keep the plain
or non poisoned bait for 2-3 days as a pre
bait to make the rats used to the food
provided.
c. Fumigation

 Control the rats by fumigating the burrows

with aluminium phosphide tablets during
the process of baiting with rodenticides.
 Plug the entry holes of all rat burrows and
locate the burrows which have the
entrance opened by the rats and inset two
tablets each of 0.5 or 0.6 g aluminium
phosphide per burrow.
II. Storage

 Construct the pucca masonry cement

concrete storage structures on plinth of 75
cm high without steps or ladder.
 Plaster the walls and floors of godowns
with cement.
 Provide a metal sheet up to height of 25
cm at the bottom of the wooden doors and
fit the wire meshes to windows,
ventilators, gutters, and drains to prevent
the entry of rats, birds and squirrels.
 Plug the rat holes and plaster with glass
pieces and cement.
 Provide automatic door closures in houses
to prevent the entry of rat.
  Prepare and keep dry bait and water bait
with rodenticide as detailed above.
 Keep the bait with multi dose or chronic
anticoagulant in small cups on the rat
runs, dark places etc. where rat frequently
move.
 Replace consumed bait daily, collect the
rats which begin dying after 5 or 6 days
and bury them.
 Use also water soluble bait by mixing 25 g
water soluble coagulant in 475 ml of water
and keep them in shallow cups or plates in
a number of places inside the godown for
the rats to drink the poisoned liquid and
get killed.
 Discontinue the baiting or remove all the
baited food and destroy as soon as the rat
population is controlled.
Last modified: Thursday, 2 February 2012, 9:58 PM

1.1. Factors for rodent incidence

1.1. Factors for rodent incidence

 Climate affects the food supply in nature.

Based on this the rodents exhibit unimodal
or bimodal peaks in breeding activity often
coinciding with the crop maturity periods.
Bimodal pattern of breeding is observed
in Bandicota bengalensis, Millardia
meltada, Funambulus pennant, Tatera
indica and Meriones hurrianae. However,
wherever single cropping is practiced
unimodal pattern is reported for these
species in the country.
 Harbourage or cover is an important
 parameter that limits the rodent
infestation. Weeds afford both shelter and
food to the rodents. Bunds with more
volume have more weeds, thereby more
rodent infestation. Similarly, denser fields
with more tiller density afford cover and
energy, which enhance reproductive
activity of rodents. Wider spacing and even
maintenance of alleys in rice fields prevent
rodent damage. Cover / shelter in storage
of commodities is one of the major factors
influencing the rodent population.
 Rodents are highly mobile and form limited
social structures based on a hierarchy.
These home ranges depend on food
reserves, cover, and presence of other
individuals of it or other species. Home
ranges change with altered resources.
Rodents emigrate from their ecosystems
once the food source is removed/shifted.
This is particularly important since rat
control is done in some places at harvest
time. They also immigrate very fast.
Sustained trapping and poisoning which
may reduce 80-90% of rodent infestation
often fail to prevent the damage because
of constant immigration from untrapped
and unpoisoned areas nearby. In cereal
crops booting stage attracts rodents,
which on arrival settle in the field and start
breeding due to abundant availability of
quality food. This is one of the factors to
planning timing the rodent control
operations. Pre seasonal rat control
operations are vogue in some of the States.
 Such control may have limited result due
to this dispersal behavior. Further the
compensatory capacity of the cereal crops
before booting stage also makes it
imperative to take up rat control
operations at late tillering stage.

1.2. Monitoring rodent incidence

1.2. Monitoring rodent incidence

 Since the aim is primarily for damage

reduction, but not individual rat killing,
there is a necessity of monitoring the
situation in different ecosystems through
either their damage or through their levels
of infestation. The control decision may be
taken depending on the monitoring
surveys. Limited work undertaken on
monitoring indicated that damage index of
15% of rodent affected hills or 2% tiller
damage may be taken as threshold value.
 Looking at National perspective it is
recommended that efforts for periodic
monitoring of rodent infestation in crop
fields at tehsil levels be made based on the
number of active burrows per hectare (25
burrows per hectare: low intensity, 25 to
50 burrows/ha: medium intensity and more
than 50 burrows/ha : severe intensity).

1.3. Rodent management measures

1.3. Rodent management measures

 Different methods exist in controlling
rodents. However, each method has its
own limitation. The methods that are in
vogue and limiting factors are given below.
 Role of predators/Biological control
 Snake and owls have been the natural
predators for field rodents. Bird perches
are used for attracting owl perching in the
nights to facilitate hunting the colonizing
rats. The perches should be used at
tillering stage of the crops to tackling
immigrating rodents. However, if these
perches are continued in later stages,
granivorous birds may cause damage to
the panicles. Since most of the predators
of rodents are general feeders, they often
tend to feed on food other than rodents.
Cats in residential premises are one of the
examples. Declined rodent population after
harvest of the crops also makes the
predators to leave the area. There is also
sometimes a possibility of predation
triggering increase in rodent populations
after partial removal of the rodents.
 Attempts were also made with parasites
and pathogens to bring successful rodent
control. However, the efforts are so far not
fruitful since they also equally affect
human populations. Attempts are in
progress to use immuno contraception
through viral vectors (VVIC) among
rodents. This combination of induction of
sterility by activating body immune
response through a viral vector appears to
be promising in modern rodent
 management. Laboratory results are quite
promising. However, the trials are at
infancy stage only.
Physical methods

 Trap Barrier System (TBS) is being tried in

different countries employing fences to the
rice farming and fixing traps at different
intervals. Trap crop is also is added to
attract rats to immigrate by growing a
small patch of the crop on the periphery.
However, looking at the cost of fencing
and land holdings, it may not be
appropriate in Indian conditions to use this
method, although the preliminary studies
yielded significant results. However, in
North-eastern States this method can be
followed in jhum cultivation. Non lethal
electric fencing as a barrier method were
found to be cost effective and has limited
extension value.
Ultrasound and electromagnetic devices

 The sense of hearing among rodents is

above 20kHz thus extending well into
ultrasonic range. Ultrasound devices are
being used as deterrents to rodent
immigration. However no convincing
evidence was found them as effective
against rodents. Similarly little scientific
support was found for use of
electromagnetic devices.
Chemical repellents

 There is no effective chemical repellent

 available that is not also toxic. Although
pheromones appear to be promising, lot of
scientific work is required to identify,
isolate and bring out the pheromones for
extension purpose.
Trapping

 Trapping is one of the oldest methods of

animal control. A variety of traps can be
used against rodents-live or snap. The
efficacy of trapping, whether live or snap
trap, depends on operational conditions of
the trap, number of traps set, type of bait,
place and time of placement. Scientific
literature has seldom proved trapping as
effective method against rodents as a
measure of reducing their numbers.
However, they can be employed in
controlling localized infestations
effectively. Tanjor kitties, bamboo Palmyra
traps are highly effective for localized
infestations. They help in maintaining
rodent numbers at a low level once they
have been reduced by other methods.
Use of rodenticides

 Generally rodenticides are used for mass

scale rodent control campaigns.
Application of rodenticides and
environmental manipulation should be
considered as complimentary to each other
rather than alternative approaches.
Amalgamating various methods as above
results in reduction in rodent damage in
different situations.
 1.4. Suggested control measures

1.4. Suggested control measures

 The suggested control practices under

different situations for rodents for large
scale treatments are given below:
1.4.1. In field conditions
Day 1

 Make a survey in the area to locate rodent

burrows on the bunds and no mans lands
around the fields. Identify the live rodent
burrows, through the presence of soil
plugs and faecal pellets.
 Prepare poison bait of Bromadiolone at
0.005% a.i. in cereal base. Keep the bait
approximately 15 g. wrapped in paper
packet inside the burrows. No pre baiting
is required while using this anticoagulant.
[or]
 Acute rodenticide like zinc phosphide may
be used when infestations are high.Keep
pre bait of approximately 20 g. broken
grain of staple food with little amount of
vegetable oil.
Day 4

 Prepare zinc phosphide poison bait at 2.5%

using broken grain of staple food with
vegetable oil as binding medium.
 Keep bait deep inside burrows.
Day 5

 Close all rodent burrows.

  Locate dead rodents and bury them.
Normally most of the rodents die inside the
burrows. Hence, mostly dead rodents
cannot be seen. Dear rats may not be
taken as a criterion to evaluate success of
any rodenticide.
Day 6:

 Treat the residual burrows with

bromadiolone based on the situation.
 Place 1 piece of Bromadiolone wax block
(16.6 g.) or 15-20 g. of loose Bromadiolone
bait (0.005% a.i. Bromadiolone mixed in
bait material) in packets in all the
reopened burrows. With Bromadiolone,
rodents die between 3-10 days after the
placement of bait material.
In rodent endemic areas or when the rodent problem
is quite serious, fumigant like aluminium phosphide
may be used to treat all the residual rodent burrows in
the field conditions. At each time of fumigation
enblock treatment should be followed. Fumigation by
individual farmers at different times should not be
encouraged. Residual burrows are the reopened
burrows after closure of the burrow entrances with
mud one day prior to the observations. The following
procedure may be followed while using aluminium
phosphide fumigation.
 Cover the nose and mouth with a cotton
cloth.
 Cover hands with gloves / polythene
cover.
 Take a tube/pipe
 Take two Aluminium phosphide pellets.
 Insert the tube deep inside the rodent
 burrow.
 Leave the Aluminium phosphide pellets
inside the tube.
 Remove the tube/pipe and close the
burrow.
 Fumigation should be done under the
technical guidance and strict supervision
of officials from the State Department of
Agriculture.
1.4.2. In Residential Premises / storage situations

 Inspection of the residential premises for

rodent infestation is to be performed as a
first step. The procedure of the inspection
is as follows.
1. Observe the following around the premises and
mark them on the layout of the area.

 Rodent burrows
 Drainage canals
 Holes at the base of compound wall
 Garbage dumps
2. Observe the following on the building / premises
and mark them.

 Branches of trees overhung on the

premises
 Wires from poles to the premises
 Holes in the walls
 Drainage pipes
3. Observe for rodent “signs” inside the premises,
room wise and mark them.

 Faecal pellets adjoining walls or corners

 Rat holes, if any, active/inactive
  Rat/mouse paw markings
 Rat runways
 Rat smears on beams, wiring etc.
 Base of the doors for space
 Windows/ventilators connecting any wiring
or on roof
 Drainage
Special care should be taken while inspecting storage
areas. Based on the layout marked the following
actions may be initiated based on the severity/intensity
of the problem;
Hygiene and Sanitation

 Proper cleanliness of the premises.

 Left over foods and empty food tins should
be kept in dustbin with tightly fitted lids.
 Remove piles of rubbish, timber and bricks
near the godowns/houses.
Rodent proofing

 Use modern rodent proof storage structure

or improve the existing ones.
 Fix wire meshes (24 gauge) to all windows,
ventilators, gutters and drains
 Fix 25 cm. metal sheet lining or rubber
sheet at the bottom of the doors
 Close the rodent burrows with concrete
and cement.
 Remove the branches of the trees over
hung on the godowns.
Poison baiting

 Step 1. Select the rooms where infestation

is reported
 Step 2. Fix 10 tracking points using fine
 powder at 10 x 10 cm.on the runway of
rodents or at the areas frequented by
them.
 Step 3. Observe the 10 tracks next day for
rodent activity.
 Step 4. Coumatetralyl which is available
as 0.75% Concentrate Powder may be used
at 0.0375% in cereal baits in houses and in
storage by mixing 1 part of the poison with
19 parts of the bait. Vegetable oil should
be used as binding medium. Bromadiolone
baiting can also be used at 0.005% in the
baits. The poison bait (about 100g) should
be placed in suitable bait stations
(discarded tins, earthen pots etc.) @ 2-5
bait stations in the premises based on level
of infestation. The poison bait should be
maintained for 5-7 days with
replenishment if required. Bromadiolone
may also be used at 0.005% a.i. in baits
distributed at number of places preferably
in bait containers/stations.
 Step 5. Repeat step 2 on 15th day
 Step 6. Observe the tracking points for
rodent activity
 Step 7. Calculate the control success
A-B
Control Success = ——————x 100
A
Where
‘A’ is pre-control infestation (per cent tracks
touched) level and ‘B’ is post-control infestation
level.
Note: Keep vitamin K1 as stand by for meeting any
exigency of accidental poisoning.
 2. Application Techniques

2. Application Techniques

The chemical control of rodent infestation is most

commonly accomplished by the use of poisoned baits.
Hence, selection of acceptable baits and their
placement is an important element in a successful
rodent control.

 Bait materials most commonly used for the

control of rodents are crushed cereals
followed by nuts, fruits or vegetables.
Cereal-type baits have found the widest
use because rodents generally prefer
them; they are most easily mixed with
poisons; and because of their low moisture
content they also tend to keep well, both in
the store and in the field.
 The baits should be laid in the late
evening, since rodents are mostly
nocturnal.
 Open baiting i.e. placing the baits in open
places should not be resorted. In
houses/godowns, the baits should be
exposed in protected bait containers as far
as possible on the runways of rodents.
 Baits should be exposed in protected bait
containers, which provide a secure place
where rodents can become accustomed to
feed; their use also helps to prevent other
animals from gaining access to poison bait.
 The position of bait containers should not
be changed
 While using bromadiolone small quantities
of the poison bait (10-20 g.) should be laid
at all the places frequented by the rodents.
The application may be repeated on 8th
day to tackle residual population.
 While using coumatetralyl poison, bait of
approximately 100 g. be kept at 2 or 3
places frequented by the rodents in the
residential premises. The poison bait
should be maintained for 5-7 days with
replenishment, if required.
 Precaution while using rodenticide baits:
 Know-how of the operation should be told
to the public always in local language
followed by demonstrations by
departments concerned.
 Baits should always be placed late in the
evening, as most of the rodents are active
during night.
 Keep poisons away from the reach of
children, pet animals, drugs and food.
 Smoking, eating and drinking should be
totally avoided while handling the poison.
 Containers of the poisons should be
opened in a well-ventilated room.
Unused baits, containers and dead
rodents should be buried deep.
 Ensure that the antidotes of poisons are
available with the doctor for use in
case of any accidental ingestion of poison.
 Acute poison bait is generally better
accepted and an improved kill obtained
by laying prebait for a few days before
hand. The bait laid should be the same
as that used later in the poison treatment.
  Acute poison baits should be exposed for
more than one day.

3. Prevent Rodent Management

3. Prevent Rodent Management

 Rodents require food and shelter for their

survival in crop fields or in storage.
 If any of these two factors are altered or
eliminated, they will leave the place.

.1. Crop fields

3.1. Crop fields

 Hygiene practices in the fields are often

referred to a habitat manipulation. It
simply means that the habitat the living
area of rodents is managed or altered so
that it is less acceptable rodents. The main
principal in habitat manipulation is to
reduce the shelter to the rodents to the
maximum extent possible. Following
measures may be followed.
 Weed removal
 Maintenance of small bunds
 Rouging planting etc.

TOXICOLOGY
Insecticide residues

Insecticide residues

 Pesticides are normally applied at only

 very low rates typically 1-2 kg ha-1. Even so
small amounts may be found on or in the
treated crop on harvest. These traces,
expressed as parts per million (ppm) of
active ingredients and, breakdown
products are generally known as
‘residues’. Residues are the left out
chemical and their metabolite present in
the environment or treated surface plant,
grain, animal, over a period of time after
the application of insecticides. The
footstuff may get contaminated by
pesticides in the following ways.

1. Through deliberate application

of pesticide on plants.
2. Through drift during
application of pesticide on
plant.
3. Pesticide residues may occur
on crops gown in soil to which
the pesticides were previously
applied.
4. Pesticide residue may occur on
animal products (milk, egg,
meat) as result of
contamination of animal feed
with pesticide.
 Compatibility of pesticides: For higher
crop production, simultaneous application
of insecticides, fungicides, fertilizer etc is
made in a single cropping season. There
are often advantages of spraying two or
more pesticides simultaneously. The main
reason for combination of pesticides is
 saving time, equipments wear and cost of
application. But there are also problems
associated with this practice like physical
incompatibility (agglomeration, phase
separation etc) chemical incompatibility
(degradation of native ingredient, change
in PH) and biological incompatibility
(reduction in bio-efficacy of one by other,
phytotoxcityy.) Hence it is advised to
consider the following before combination
of pesticide is restore. Do not mix two
insecticides, as they will hasten the
development of resistant in pests. Do not
mix incompatible pesticides. Do not mix
the pesticides as a matter of routine.
Impact of pesticides on agroecosystem

 I. Abiotic environment: Include soil, air

and water. 1) Soil: Source of
contamination. Direct application; Fall out
from plants, Rain. 2) Air: Source of
contamination; Drift during conventional
and aerial application; Volatilization;
Thermal decomposition; Evaporation with
water vapour. 3) Water: Source of
contamination; Direct treatment; Surface
run off; Aerial spraying; Precipitation
Effect: biomagnifications, reduction of
o2content, toxic to fishes.
 II.Plants:1) Presence of residual amount –
health hazard 2) Damage because of
phytotoxicity 3) Changes in the vegetative
development – Etiolation by heribicide
 III. Animals: 1) Domestic animals:
Source, Forage treatment; Direct
 application Effect; Chronic poisoning;
storage in fat reserves. 2) Wild life:
Trophic transfer of pesticides through food
chain kill wild life (eg) Egg shell thinning
led non vitality of bird eggs through D.D.T.
poisoning. 3) Natural enemies: Elimination
of parasitoid and predators upset the biotic
balance. Effect: I) Pest resurgence:
Recovery of pest population following the
application of insecticides to levels higher
than before treatment. (eg) BPH
resurgence after quinalphos application.
II)Secondary pest outbreak; increase in the
population of non-target insect to
damaging levels followed by the
application of pesticides due to the
elimination of natural enemies of minor
pests or potential pests (eg) Red spider
mite outbreak in apple followed by the
application of organo chlorines. III)
Pollinators: Pesticide applications during
blooming kill honey bees and other
pollinators.
 IV. Man: a)Operational hazards:
Manufacture – Distribution – Application –
Post – application, b)Accidental and
intentional poisoning, c)Indirect hazards
through food chain – Handigodu syndrome,
d) Disease: carcinogenic, Mutagenic and
Teratogenic effects.
 V. Food: Residues in human food –
Reason; Use of persistent chemicals;
spraying crops nearing harvest; Excessive
and improper use of pesticides.
 VI. Target insect: Development of
 resistance to insecticides in insects.
Excessive use exerts a high selection
pressure in selecting resistant strains; (eg)
Mosquito resistance in DDT; Synthetic
pyrethroid resistance in cotton bollworms
and diamond black moth.
Insecticide resistance insect: The
resistance is the development of an ability
in a strain of insects to tolerate doses of
insecticides which prove lethal to the
majority of individuals in a normal
population of the same species.
Resurgence of insect pests: The
tremendous increase in the pest population
brought about by the insecticides, in spite
of a good initial at the time of treatment is
called as “resurgence” or “flare black’.
Impact of global warming on pests

What is global worming?

 Sun Earth reflects some solar energy as

infrared radiation.
Green house gases.
Infra red radiation from earth reflected
back to earth by green house gases. This
increases the temperature of earth and
lower atmosphere. This is called global
warming or greenhouse effect
Solar radiation falls on earth surface. Earth
absorbs and gets heated up. EARTH

 Warmth from sun heats the surface of the

earth
 Earth absorbs most of the energy but
reflects back some energy in the form of
 infra red radiation.
 Greenhouse gases (e.g.CO2,Methane, CFC
(Chloro Fluoro Carbon), Nitrous oxide)
present in atmosphere traps the infrared
radiation and reflects back to earth.
 This reflected energy falls on earth and
also lower atmosphere and keeps it
warmer (Heats the earth’s surface).
 This is called global warming or green
house effect.
Effect of global warming on world and
agriculture

 Increase in overall temperature on

earth (e.g.) Earth’s surface temperature
has increased 1.4°F in Ist one century
(Forecast:5°F rise in next century).
 Change in climate tremendously.
 Melting of ice in Polar region.
 Increase in sea level and submerging of
coastal areas.
 Flooding and intense down pours.
 Drought in warmer regions.
Impact of global warming on pest status

 Due to change in climate, temperature and

water availability, the farmers may change
the type of crops grown.
 Due to increase in temperature, there can
be outbreak of certain insect pests and
diseases.
 In forest areas there will be a shift in tree
species and also pest species.
 In agriculture lands since cropping pattern
is changed, new crops to suit the climate is
 introduced and new pest are also
introduced.
 When water to availability is less, crops
will be raised as rainfed. It will be difficult
to take up control measures without water.
Sources of green house gases

Developed : Emission from Automobiles and

countries factories contain CFCs

Developing : Deforestation causes rise

countries in CO2 level Methane gas from
paddy fields and livestock.
Nitrous oxide from ‘N’ based
fertilizer.
 The rapid growth of chemical industry in
India, while helped in the progress due to
increased production, also contributed to
the pollution of the environment, following
their extensive use.

 Agriculture and horticulture sector uses

two main groups of chemicals viz.,
fertilizers and pesticides to combat the
increasing demand of foodgrains, fruits
and vegetables by increasing the
production and preventing the losses.
 Pesticide chemicals have decidedly been
proved to control the heavy losses of crops
in field and during storage due to various
pests to the extent of Rs.140000 crores
annually.
 However, pesticide consumption in India is
still insignificant as compared to developed
countries It is because the importance of
 their use has not reached to the common
fanner.
 Further, these chemicals are costly too.
Therefore, only progressive farmers are
currently using under irrigated conditions
of crop production. Apart from agriculture
use, the pesticide use in health programme
for control of vectors of various diseases
has also achieved significance. Among the
various pesticides, used in the country,
insecticides constitute 75%, fungicides
15%, weedicides 6% and others 4%.
 To date, 144 chemicals are registered with
Govt. of India that come under the
category of pesticides possessing
insecticidal, fungicidal, nematicidal,
weedicidal and molluscicidal properties.
The major classes of synthetic pesticides
employed today include: organochlorines,
organophosphates, organocarbamates,
synthetic pyrethroids, thiocarbamate,
nitrochloroalkyl thiocyclohexane
dithiocarboxymide substitutes, alkyl
halides, hydroxy coumarine derivatives,
metal phosphides, phenoxy acetic acid
derivatives, bipyridium derivatives,
triazine derivatives, substituted anihilides,
dinitroalkyl tolydines, antibiotics and
gibberallins.
 The use pattern of various pesticides
increasing sharply year by year with the
growing awareness among farmers about
the utility of pesticides in maximising their
benefits.
 Their bad effects become more relevant as
 the hazards caused by them start from
manufacturing state itself and continue
upto the post application stage. The
harmful effects of pesticides are well
known. Human-beings are exposed to
pesticides by following ways:—
 Intentional : Suicide
 Accidental : Careless handling
 Occupational : In production plants,
application in agriculture and public
health
 Contaminated food, : Residues resulting
at post application stage air and water
 The post-application stage hazards
concern the common man, as they come
from pesticide residues persisting on food
following their use in plant protection
resulting in the contamination of food
chain.
 Pesticide residues are essentially the
ramanents of a pesticide as any substance
or mixture of substances that can be found
in or on crop, food, soil, water, etc.,
resulting from the use of pesticide
chemicals for the control of pest
infestation and includes metabolic and
degradation products along.

Contamination and persistence of pesticide residues in fruits

Contamination and persistence of pesticide residues in

fruits

 Application of pesticides is associated with

fruit cultivation so intensely that today it
 has become impossible to get economic
yield without their use. At times, their use
close to harvest as well as post-harvest
applications result in the build-up of
pesticide residues in bioconcentrations
which on consumption may cause toxic
hazards. Among the common fruits being
consumed, mango, grape, guava, banana,
citrus, apple, plum and sapota were
monitored across the country for the
extent of contamination and persistence of
pesticide residues with various pesticides.
It is surprising to find that majority of the
market basket fruit samples were found
contaminated with the residues of toxic
and hard to degrade chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides like DDT and
BHC
 Mango fruits from Parbhani markets
recorded 24.1% contamination with DDT
at average residues of 0.045 ppm ranging
between traces -0.09 ppm and HCH at
1.145 ranging between 0.04 and 2.25 ppm.
Over 95.6% mango fruits from Delhi-
Ghaziabad markets were found
contaminated with 0.74 ppm DDT (traces -
1.48 ppm) and 0.95 ppm BHC (0.02 -1.05
ppm) residues while monitoring of mango
fruits in Kanpur, Lucknow and Allahabad
markets showed no detectable
contamination with pesticide residues.
 Periodic monitoring of grape berries from
the markets of Hyderabad during 1972 and
1975 recorded 81.8% samples
contaminated with 1.2 ppm malathion
 (0.40 -2.00 ppm) residues, 100% with 3.00
ppm BHC (tr - 6.00 ppm) residues, and
49% with 0.125 ppm DDT. 0.04 ppm
endrin and traces of Lindane. It was
recorded 23.3% berry samples at Ludhiana
market contaminated with 1.00 ppm
methyl parathion (traces.-2.00 ppm), 0.75
ppm DDT (0.50 - 1.00 ppm), traces of
lindane and 0.75 ppm malathion (0.50 -
1.00 ppm) levels. Over 56.6% samples of
grape berries at Parbhani market were
found contaminated by Jadhav, (1986) with
1.815 ppm DDT (0.08 - 3.67 ppm) and
0.640 ppm BHC (0.05-1.23 ppm) while
100% samples were reported
contaminated from the markets of
Lucknow, Kanpur and Allahabad with DDT
and HCH residues at 0.004 ppm (0.001-
0.006 ppm DDT) and 0.004 ppm (0.002-
0.006 BHC) levels.
 Similarly, guava fruits from Parbhani
recorded 21.6% samples contaminated
with 0.08 ppm DDT (0.05 - 0.11 ppm) and
0.53 ppm BHC (0.04 -1.02 ppm) residues
whereas, 84.6% samples from Delhi-
Ghaziabad markets were found
contaminated with 1.58 ppm DDT (0.04-
3.13 ppm) and 0.68 ppm BHC (0.01—1.36
ppm) levels. A high level of contamination
to the tune of 70% samples of guava fruits
from Lucknow, Kanpur and Allahabad was
detected by with 0.003 ppm DDT (0.001-
0.005 ppm) and 0.003 ppm BHC (0.001-
0.005 ppm) residues Banana fingers at
Delhi were found to be 85.6%
 contaminated with residues of 0.095 ppm
DDT (traces-1.10 ppm) and 1.62 ppm BHC
(0.02-1.05 ppm).
 Over 90.9% sweet lemon fruits in Delhi-
Ghaziabad markets were found containing
DDT residues at 0.02 ppm level (traces -
0.04 ppm) and BHC at 0.15 ppm level
(0.01-0.30 ppm).
 A moderate contamination of
23.8% sapota samples from Parbhani
market were found contaminated with 0.55
ppm DDT (traces-1.10 ppm) and 0.075 ppm
BHC (0.05-0.10 ppm) whereas 100% plum
samples from Delhi-Ghaziabad markets
were found contaminated (Anon, 1987)
with 0.82 ppm DDT (0.01-1.63 ppm) and
0.61 ppm BHC (0.02-1.20 ppm).
 Apple fruit samples from Delhi Ghaziabad
markets (Anon; 1987) were found to be
90% contaminated with 0.92 ppm DDT
(0.01-1.80) and 1.62 ppm BHC (traces -
3.24 ppm). Equally contaminated apple
fruits to the extent of 100% were detected
in with 0.004 ppm DDT (0.001-0.007 ppm)
and 0.002 ppm BHC (0.001-0.004 ppm).
Dube and Nath (1991) reported 85% apple
fruit samples of Solan markets
contaminated with residues of thio-
carbamate fungicide at an average of 4.50
ppm residues (1.00 -8.00 ppm).
 The screening of various fruit samples
from the markets of different cities in India
for the contamination and persistence of
pesticide residues works out an average of
59.4% ranging between 23.5-100%
 contaminated samples containing residues
of persistent and toxic insecticides like
DDT and BHC in most of the cases.
 There was wide variation in the
contamination of different fruits like 41.8%
mango, 57.6% grape, 47.6% guava, 85.6%
banana, 90.9% sweet lemon, 23.5% sapota,
100% plum and 87.6% apple samples were
found contaminated across the country.
 The detection of residues of DDT and BHC
in most of the fruit samples appears to be
the result of post-harvest application
during storage or transport as they are not
being recommended for pest control in
fruit crops any more.

Contamination and persistence of pesticide residues in vegetables

Contamination and persistence of pesticide residues in

vegetables

 Pesticide residues in vegetables result

mainly due to frequent and repeated
applications necessitated because of heavy
pest infestation all through the crop
growth stages to fruiting due to intensive
crop cultivation cutting across the
cropping seasons. The persistence of
pesticide residues in vegetables is more
important and of great concern because
they are consumed afresh and directly
without much processing or storage and
consumption of such vegetables loaded
with excess toxic residues can cause both
acute and chronic toxicity effects as the
 build-up of residues is not even subjected
to degradation and aging. The analysis of
market samples of various vegetables viz.,
okra, cabbage, cauliflower, potato, tomato,
brinjal, chillies, beans, gourds, onion,
carrot and leafy vegetables across the
country showed wide spread
contamination with the residues of various
insecticides sometimes in excess of
prescribed maximum residue limits, that
may danger the consumer's health
 Over 20% vegetable samples comprising of
various vegetables from Pantnagar market
were reported contaminated with average
residues of 0.72 ppm DDT. Higher
contamination to the extent of 44.6% of
vegetable samples from Hyderabad was
recorded with 0.25 ppm DDT and 0.25 ppm
BHC while Verma (1989) reported the
contamination of vegetable samples from
Hissar to the extent of 33.7% with 0.76
ppm DDT, 3.45 ppm BHC and 0.81 ppm
endosulfan residues.
 Potato and Starchy Vegetables —DDT,
aldrin, endrin and chlordane residues were
detected in 60% of potato samples to the
extent of 3.25, traces and 3.00 ppm,
respectively, however, in 1972 the
contamination level being only 10% with
0.15 ppm DDT and 0.15 ppm BHC
residues. Periodical monitoring in 1975
detected DDT, BHC, aldrin, dieldrin,
endrin, heptachlor and lindane residues at
trace levels only in 60% potato samples
from the same markets reported 100 %
 samples of potato contaminated with DDT
at residue range of 0.1-169.0 ppm and
0.12-8.00 ppm, respectively. The
qualitative contamination analysis of
potato showed 48 samples contaminated
with DDT, BHC, endrin,endosulfan and
lindane residues. Noronha (1978) reported
43.4% potato samples from Bombay
markets contaminated with DDT
(3.67ppm), lindane (3.90 ppm), dieldrin
(0.80 ppm) and endrin (1.80 ppm)
residues. All the potato samples of
Ludhiana markets were found containing
DDT, BHC and aldrin residues at'the
concentration levels of 0.008, 0.006 and
0.001 ppm respecitvely. About 50%
samples from Parbhani markets were
found loaded with 1.92 ppm DDT and 1.06
ppm BHC residues. The contamination
level of 0.685 ppm DDT, 0.004 ppm BHC,
0.010 ppm heptachlor and 0.012 ppm
aldrin residues in 100% potato samples of
Delhi markets. Similarly, 100% samples
from Kanpur, Lucknow and Allahabad were
found contaminated with 0.001 ppm BHC
residues.
 Tomato—Contamination level of 60%
samples of tomato from Hyderabad and
Ludhiana markets with DDT residues at
0.05 and 0.08 ppm residues was reported.
Contamination of 40% tomato samples
with 2.16 ppm DDT and 1.65 ppm lindane
from markets. Cent per cent contamination
in tomato fruits with 0.195 ppm DDT, 2.55
ppm BHC and 0.75 ppm endosulfan
 residues A lower level of 22%
contamination with malathion and
organophosphate insecticides in the range
of 2.64-5.88 ppm was detected and 10%
with BHC (0.002-0.007 ppm). Recently,
carbon disulphide residues resulting from
thiocarbamate treatments were detected
on tomato fruits marketed at Solan in the
range of 1-8 ppm contaminating 85%
tomato fruits.
 Brinjal—the contamination of 71.4%
brinjal samples was detected. with 0.2 ppm
DDT, 1.1 ppm heptachlor and traces of
endrin residues, 40% brinjal samples in
markets were found to possess 100%
contaminated brinjal fruits with DDT (0.01-
1.00 ppm) and BHC (0.10-56.0 ppm).
Persistence of DDT, BHC, endrin and
endosulfan residues in 38.5% samples
were found.BHC residues in the range of
4.3-4.4 ppm were found in 100% samples
of brinjal.
 Chilli—wide spread contamination of 0.6
ppm endosulfan in 100% chilli samples was
recorded. However, only 23% samples in
markets were found containing 2.48 ppm
carbaryl and 5.04 ppm organophosphate
residues.
 Cabbage—Cabbage samples from
Hyderabad (Lakshminarayana and Menon,
1969) were cent per cent contaminated
with DDT (tr-0.20 ppm) and endrin (tr-0.10
ppm) residues. Samples from Delhi market
(Agnihotri et al., 1974) showed wide
variation in residue build-up of tr - 5.00
 ppm DDT and tr - 56.2 ppm BHC. It was
recorded contamination in 50% samples
with 0.04 ppm DDT and 0.005 ppm BHC.
Delhi markets possessed contamination of
low magnitude with 0.070 ppm DDT, 0.004
ppm HCH, 0.004 ppm heptachlor and
0.024 ppm aldrin residues. Similarly,
samples from Kanpur, Lucknow and
Allahabad contained only 0.025 ppm DDT
and 0.012 ppm BHC though contamination
was in 100% samples.
Organophosphate insecticide
residues were detected only in 6% samples
from to the extent of 3.60 ppm.
 Cauliflower—A wide variation in the
magnitude of contamination of 100%
cauliflower samples from Delhi markets
was recorded. Residues of a number of
insecticides 0.06 ppm BHC, 0.89 ppm
lindane, 0.52 ppm aldrin, 1.75 ppm
dieldrin and 0.45 ppm heptachlor were
detected. Ludhiana markets recorded as
high as 100% contamination with 0.013
ppm DDT and 0.007 ppm BHC, while, it
was detected 0.017 ppm DDT, 0.001 ppm
BHC and 0.002 ppm heptachlor residues in
cauliflower samples.
 Knol-khol samples of Hissar markets
were found contaminated with 1.80 - 1.90
ppm residues.
 Bhendi—DDT and endrin residues to the
extent of 0.60 and 0.20 ppm, respectively
were detected on 50% bhindi fruit
samples. Insecticides like DDT, BHC,
endrin, endosulfan and lindane were
 detected in 42.6% samples of Hyderabad-
Secunderabad. BHC residues in the range
of 2.10-6.00 ppm and 0.20-0.50 ppm DDT
were detected from Hissar markets in most
of the bhindi fruit samples. 100%
contamination in samples from Ludhiana
with 0.050 ppm DDT and 0.007 ppm BHC.
Contamination level of 64.5% was
reported.. About 50% samples were found
contaminated with 5.52 ppm malathion,
0.70 ppm carbaryl and 5.10 ppm residues
of different organophosphate insecticides.
 Root vegetables—Contamination level of
over 87.5% in carrot samples was detected
by with 0.35 ppm DDT, 1.05 ppm lindane,
0.50 ppm aldrin and traces of dieldrin.
Dahia and The persistence of 0.90 ppm
BHC residues from Hissar. Ludhiana
markets were found to contain 0.015
ppm /DDT, 0.005 ppm HCH and 0.070 ppm
aldrin residues in 100% carrot samples.
 Radish sample from Ludhiana markets
were found to possess 0.05 ppm DDT
residues in 80% samples while sample
from Delhi contained 0.092 ppm DDT,
0.009 ppm HCH, 0.020 ppm heptachlor
and 0.006 ppm aldrin residues
Onion—Residue persistence of 0.040 ppm
DDT, 0.260 ppm HCH, 0.015 ppm
heptachlor and 0.015 ppm aldrin on 100%
onion samples of Delhi market was
detected.
 Beans and greenpea—Wide spread
contamination of bean samples was
detected with 0.40 ppm DDT. Residues of
 malathion (5.50 - 6.00 ppm) and other
organophosphate insecticides (2.76 - 3.24
ppm) were found in 50% bean samples
 Gourds—Bittergourd samples recorded
about 70% samples contaminated with
0.65 ppm endodulfan and 1.25 ppm BHC
residues. Delhi market samples contained
0.01 ppm DDT, 0.001 ppm BHC, 0.002
ppm heptachlor and 0.001 ppm aldrin
residues. Bottlegourd samples from Hissar
markets were found to contain 4.35 ppm
endosulfan residues.
Smooth gourd samples of Delhi markets
were found to contain 0.093 ppm DDT,
0.045 ppm HCH, 0.002 ppm heptachlor
and 0.008 ppm aldrin residues.
 Leafy vegetables—DDT residues in 41.2%
leafy vegetables of Hyderabad were found
to contain 0.15 ppm residues.
Mustard leaf samples were 100%
contaminated with tr -2.50 ppm DDT and
0.20 - 0.25 ppm BHC residues
Radish tops were also found equally
contaminated with 0.05 -1.00 ppm DDT
and 0.30 - 50.0 ppm BHC in the samples
from Delhi markets.
 Coriander leaves were reported to be
contaminated with 0.008 ppm DDT, 0.007
ppm HCH, 0.001 ppm heptachlor and
0.016 ppm aldrin residues.
 Coccinia samples of Hyderabad-
Secunderabad markets were found to
possess traces of DDT and BHC residues.
Colocasia samples of Delhi were found
possess 0.024 ppm DDT, 0.002 ppm HCH,
 0.001 ppm heptachlor and 0.004 pm aldrin
residues.
 The pesticide residue contamination in
vegetable produce after harvest and ready
to consume, ranged between 33.3 to 100%
in market samples across the country. On
an average, potato samples registered
contamination to the extent of 45.6%;
tomato 49.5%; brinjal 47.3%; chilli 61.6%;
cabbage 42.0%; cauliflower 61.8%; Knol-
Khol; 100% Bhindi 58.0%; root vegetables
97%; onion 33.3%; beans and green peas
71.9%; gourds 91.8% and leafy vegetables
86.6% with residues of various pesticides,
mainly being from chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticides like DDT, BHC,
aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and endosulfan.
 Among other groups of insecticides only
carbaryl, malathion and other
organophosphates were detected.
The prevalence of the residues of various
hard to degrade insecticides like DDT and
HCH in samples monitored in recent years
reflect the source of residues from post-
harvest use by dipping the vegetables in
pesticide solutions presumably to keep
vegetable fresh looking and during
transport. These practices are
unauthorised and injudicious use of toxic
pesticides.

Pesticide residue studies in fruits and vegetables for safety constants

Pesticide residue studies in fruits and vegetables for

 safety constants

 Extensive studies have been carried out

under different agroclimatic conditions of
India over a period of time on the
persistence and dissipation of pesticide
residues mainly from insecticide group on
various fruit and vegetable crops following
the supervised field trials based on
recommended plant protection schedules
involving the applications of emulsifiable
concentrates, water dispersible powders,
dust and granular formulations of various
pesticides.
 While foliar applications effected surface
residues, the soil granular applications
resulted in plant uptake by fruit and
vegetable crops. The periodic analysis of
residues brought about the rate of residue
decay (half life) as an index of persistence
pattern, that is governed by various factors
and hence required to study across the
climatic zones of the country.
 This data in turn helped in working out
safe waiting periods (Tol), the period in
days required for residues to reduce to
safe levels, based on prescribed maximum
residue limits. The waiting period
requirements varied from pesticide to
pesticide and crop to crop, being
dependent on persistence of pesticide
residues as the degradation of residues is
governed by chemical nature of pesticide,
type of formulation, type of crop, ,
application rates and frequency, cropping
 season and climatic conditions.
 The studies revealed the variable pattern
of residues of various insecticides and
accordingly required waiting periods of 15-
21 days on citrus fruits, as against 7-10
days on mango, grape, guava, papaya, ber
and banana from foliar applications of
insecticides. While waiting periods of 2-3
days for endosulfan, malathion, carbaryl,
3-7 days for dichlorvos, phosalone,
dimethoate, fenthion, methyl parathion,
monocrotophos, phosphamidon and 7-10
days for fenitrothion, quinalphos,
chlorpyriphos and synthetic pyrethroids
insecticides have been recommended on
variety of vegetables belonging to
malvaceae, solanaceae, cucurbitaceae,
cruciferae, leguminaceae, root, bulb and
leafy groups.
 The soil granular applications of
insecticides, like phorate, aldicarb and
carbofuran, etc., required 50-60 days time
for degradation of their residues
translocated into plant system to safe
limits.