31

F.Y.B.A.
PSYCHOLOGY PAPER - I
FUNDAMENTALS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
 © UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

Dr. Suhas Pednekar

Vice-Chancellor
Universityof Mumbai,
Mumbai

Dr. Madhura Kulkarni Anil R Bankar

Director Incharge, Associate Prof. of History & Asst. Director &
Institure of Distance & Open Learning, Incharge Study Material Section,
Universityof Mumbai, Mumbai IDOL, University of Mumbai

Program Co-ordinator : Dr. Naresh Tambe

Assistant Prof. of Psychology,
IDOL, University of Mumbai.
Editor : Dr.Anita Kumar
Acharya and Marathe College,
Chembur, Mumbai

Course Writers : Mrs. Vimal Ambre

St. Gonsalo Garcia College of
Arts and Commerce, Vasai

: Mr. Raosaheb Raut

Siddharth College,
Churchgate, Mumbai

: Dr.Anita Kumar
Acharya and Marathe College,
Chembur, Mumbai

June, 2018 F.Y.B.A Psychology Paper- I, Fundamentals of Psychology

Published by : Director Incharge

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 CONTENTS
Unit No. Title Page No.

Module 1 The story of Psychology and thinking critically with

Psychological science
1 The story of Psychology and thinking critically with 1
psychological science - I
2 The story of Psychology and thinking critically with 18
psychological science – II

Module 2 The Biology of Mind

3 The Biology of Mind - I 41
4 The Biology of Mind – II 54

Module 3 Learning
5 Learning - I 77
6 Learning - II 93

Module 4 Memory
7 Memory - I 104
8 Memory - II 122

Module 5 Thinking, Language and Intelligence

9 Thinking, Language and Intelligence - I 149
10 Thinking, Language and Intelligence - II 164
11 Thinking, Language and Intelligence - III 179

Module 6 Motivation and Emotion

12 Motivation and Emotion - I 200
13 Motivation and Emotion - II 221

Module 7 Personality
14 Personality - I 245
15 Personality - II 266

Module 8 Statistics in Psychology: Understanding Data

16 Statistics in Psychology: Understanding Data 288


 I

Revised Syllabus for Psychology at the

F.Y.B.A. brought in to force with effect from the academic year
2018-2019

Objectives: -
1. To impart knowledge of the basic concepts and modern trends
in Psychology
2. To foster interest in the subject of Psychology and to create a
foundation for further studies in Psychology
3. To make the students aware of the applications of Psychological
concepts in various fields so that they understand the relevance
of Psychology in different areas of life.

Semester I: Fundamentals of Psychology

Module 1 : The story of Psychology and thinking critically with
psychological science
a) What is psychology?
b) The need for psychological science
c) How do psychologists ask and answer questions
d) Frequently asked questions about Psychology

Module 2 : The Biology of Mind

a) Biology, Behaviour and Mind
b) Neural Communication
c) The Nervous System
d) The Endocrine System
e) The Brain

Module 3 : Learning
a) How do we learn?
b) Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
c) Biology, Cognition, and Learning
d) Learning by Observation

Module 4 : Memory
a) Studying Memory
b) Building Memories
c) Memory Storage
d) Retrieval
e) Forgetting
f) Memory construction errors
g) Improving memory
 II

Semester II: Fundamentals of Psychology

Module 5: Thinking, Language and Intelligence

a) Thinking
b) Language
c) Thinking and Language
d) What is Intelligence?
e) Assessing Intelligence

Module 6: Motivation and Emotion

a) Motivational Concepts
b) Hunger
c) The Need to Belong
d) Cognition and Emotion
e) Embodied Emotion

Module 7: Personality
a) Psychodynamic Theories
b) Humanistic theories
c) Trait Theories
d) Social cognitive theories
e) Exploring the self

Module 8: Statistics in Psychology: Understanding Data

a) The tables are turned: a psychologist becomes a research
subject
b) Descriptive statistics: frequency distribution
c) Measures of central tendency
d) Measures of variability
e) Z-scores and the normal curve
f) Correlation
g) Inferential Statistics
 III

Book for Study

th
Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10 edition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
Book for Study for Unit 4. Statistics in Psychology
Hockenbury, D.H., & Hockenbury, S.E. (2013).Discovering
th
Psychology.6 edition. New York: Worth publishers
Books for Reference:
1) Baron, R. A., & Kalsher, M. J. (2008). Psychology: From
Science to Practice. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education inc., Allyn
and Bacon
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology.(Indian
sub-continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley
(India) pvt ltd.
rd
3) Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2012). Psychology.3 edi. New
Jersey: Pearson education
4) Feist, G.J, & Rosenberg, E.L. (2010). publications Psychology:
Making connections. New York: McGraw Hill
nd
5) Feldman, R.S. (2013). Psychology and your life. publications
2edi. New York: McGraw Hill
6) Feldman, R.S. (2013). Understanding
th
Psychology. publications 11edi. New York: McGraw Hill
nd
7) King, L.A. (2013). Experience Psychology. publications 2edi.
New York: McGraw Hill
8) Lahey, B. B. (2012). Psychology: An Introduction. 11th edi.
New York: McGraw-Hill Publications
9) Schachter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wegner, D. M. (2011).
Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.
10) Wade, C. &Tavris, C. (2006). Psychology. (8th ed.). Pearson
Education inc., Indian reprint by Dorling Kindersley, New Delhi
 1

1
THE STORY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE - I
Unit Structure :

1.0 Objective
1.1 What is psychology?
1.1.1 Roots of psychology: Psychological science is born
1.1.2 Psychological Science Develops
1.1.3 Contemporary psychology
1.1.4 Psychology’s biggest question: Nature v/s Nurture
controversy
1.1.5 The three main levels of analysis
1.1.6 Subfields of psychology
1.2 Summary
1.3 Improve your retention and grades
1.4 References

1.0 OBJECTIVES

The chapter here explains what psychology is all about.

It explains the milestones in psychology’s early development.
Understanding how a behaviour is explained or analysed at
three different levels.
Understanding subfields of psychology.

1.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental

processes. Behaviour includes all of our external or overt actions
and reactions such as talking, walking, facial expressions, etc.
Mental processes refer to all the internal or overt actions of our
mind such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.

Psychology is considered to be scientific because it studies

people and their behaviour in a systematic manner through careful
and controlled observations. The findings of psychology can be
verified and re-verified. Existing theories of psychology are modified
in the light of new findings. However, psychology is not as exact
 2

science as pure sciences such as physics and chemistry. In pure

sciences such as physics, chemistry, etc. it is possible to make
absolutely accurate predictions, but the subject of psychology is
human behaviour. Each human being is unique and different from
the other and therefore one cannot predict with hundred percent
accuracy, how a person will behave in a given situation. Yet
Psychology is a science since it rigorously follows scientific
methods.

Psychology has four goals –

• It describes what is happening,
• Explains why it is happening,
• Predicts when will it happen again and through this prediction
tries
• To control human behaviour, i.e., it determines how human
behaviour can be changed.

1.1.1 Roots of psychology: Psychological science is born:

Psychology as a subject started when human beings asked
questions like who we are? how our thoughts, feelings and actions
are produced and how do we understand and manage our
environment and people around us. Psychological science is born.
It is human nature to be curious about ourselves and the world
around us. Before 300 B.C.E the Greek naturalist and philosopher
Aristotle spoke about learning memory, motivation, emotion
perception and personality. Some of the ideas put forward by him
were like heavy meal produces gases and it makes us sleepy.
Heavy meal also collects heat and surrounds heart. He believed
that heart is source of our personality. Though, in modern times, we
laugh at Aristotle’s guesses but we have to acknowledge that at
least he was asking right questions.

Philosophers kept pondering over the questions of how

thinking process functions in humans, till another form of
psychology that we are presently familiar with emerged in
December 1879. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt started a laboratory at
university of Leipzig in Germany. He developed experimental
apparatus to measure reaction time. He observed that people take
longer time to be aware of their awareness, e.g., his machine
measured the time lag between people’s hearing a ball hit a
platform and their pressing a telegraph key. People responded in
about one tenth of a second when they were asked to press the key
as soon as the sound occurred and in about two tenth of a second
when they were asked to press the key as soon as they were
consciously aware of perceiving the sound. Wundt was trying to
measure “atoms of mind” - the fastest and simple mental
processes. Thus, the first psychological laboratory was started by
Wundt and his graduate students. Soon the new science of
 3

psychology became organised into two different branches or

schools of thought. These two early schools were structuralism and
functionalism.

Structuralism:
Edward Bradford Titchener was a student of Wilhelm Wundt
and he was interested in discovering structure of mind. He involved
people in self-reflective introspection (looking inwards) and trained
them to report elements of experiences as they looked at a rose or
listened to a metronome or smelled a scent or tasted a substance.
He asked them to report their immediate sensations, their images
and feelings while going through these experiences. He further
asked them to relate these sensations to one another. But
unfortunately, it was noticed that the introspection method was
unreliable for two reasons –

a) It required smart and verbal people – a person with poor

vocabulary and without presentation skill will not be able to
express his sensations and their interrelationships accurately.
b) Its results differed from person to person and from experience to
experience.

Structuralism’s attempt to understand and explain mind’s

structure from simple elements was as absurd as trying to
understand a car by examining its disconnected parts. Resultantly,
the method of introspection was rejected due to its subjective
nature and with that structuralism too ceased to exist.

Functionalism:
There was another philosopher-psychologist William James.
He was influenced by evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and
thought it would be more useful to consider the more developed
functions of our thoughts and feelings. For example, thinking is
done by brain but the question arises why does brain think? James
assumed that thinking is developed because of its adaptive nature;
it helped our ancestors to survive. Similarly, consciousness serves
the function of helping us to remember past, adjust to present and
plan for our future. William James, a functionalist, engage into the
explorations of down - to - earth emotions, memories, will power,
habits and moment to moment streams of consciousness.

William James is known more for his writing and mentoring

in 1890 he admitted Mary Whiton Calkins a lady student to his
graduate seminar in spite of the objections of Harvard’s President.
These were the years when women did not have a right to vote.
When Calkins joined all other male students dropped out. So,
James tutored her alone. Later on, she completed all of Harvard’s
Ph.D. requirements, by scoring more then all male students but still
she was denied a degree that she earned from Harvard university.
 4

Instead she was offered a degree from Radcliffe College, that was
Harvard’s undergraduate sister school for women. Calkins resisted
the unequal treatment and refused the degree. Later on, she
became a distinguished memory researcher and the American
Psychological Association’s (APA) first female President in 1905.

Later on, Margaret Floy Washburn was the first female

psychologist having Ph.D. degree. She wrote an influential book
titled as “The Animal Mind” and became second female APA
President in 1921. But Washburn’s gender closed doors for her
also. Her thesis was the first foreign study Wundt published in his
journal but she could not join all male organisation of experimental
psychologist founded by Titchener. This is in stark contrast to
recent past from 1996 to 2012, when out of 16 elected presidents of
APA,8 were women. In United States, Canada, Europe now, most
psychology doctorates are earned by women.

Publisher Henry Holt was impressed by writings of William

James and he offered him a contract to write a textbook of the new
science of psychology. James agreed and began his work in 1878
with the view of completing it in two years but actually it took him 12
years to complete “Principles of psychology”. This is a book that
introduced psychology to educated public. More than a century
later, people are still astonished at the brilliance and elegance of
this book.

1.1.2 Psychological Science develops

Let us see how psychology continued to develop from 1920s
to till today. In the initial phase, many psychologists believed that
compared to everything else in our entire universe, if there is one
thing about which we have maximum knowledge then that is about
himself / herself. We have maximum knowledge about ourselves
because of inside information. In conformity to this idea, Wundt and
Titchener also focused on inner sensations, images and feelings.
William James too used introspective examination to study the
stream of consciousness and emotions. We can say that early
psychologist defined psychology as a science of mental life.

Behaviourism:
Later on in 1920s, two American psychologists, John B.
Watson and B. F. Skinner rejected the method of introspection and
redefined psychology as scientific study of observable behaviour.
They argued that science is based on observation. We cannot
observe sensations, feelings or thoughts and therefore they cannot
be studied. However, people’s behaviour as they respond to
different situations can be observed and recorded, so only
observable behaviour should be considered in scientific study of
psychology. Many psychologists agreed that behaviourism was one
of the major force in psychology right into 1960s.
 5

Freudian Psychology:
In meantime, another major force that gained prominence
was Freudian Psychology. In 1940, Sigmund Freud spoke about
the ways our unconscious processes thought and emotional
responses to childhood experiences influence our behaviour. Just
as in 1900s, the behaviourists had rejected prevailing definition of
psychology at that time, similarly, two other groups of psychologists
rejected the definition of psychology that was prevailing in 1960s.
These two groups came to be known as the Humanistic
psychologists and the Cognitive psychologists.

Humanistic Psychology:
Humanistic psychologist like Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow found that Freudian perspective and behaviourism were
very limited in their approaches to understand human behaviour.
They pointed out that instead of focusing our attention on the
meaning of early childhood memories (as propagated by Freud) or
learning of conditioned responses (as propagated by
behaviourists), it is important to pay attention to the ways that
current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth
potential and satisfy our need for love and acceptance. More than
early childhood experiences and learning of conditioned response,
humanist felt that the current environmental conditions influence the
potential of growth.

Cognitive Psychology:
The rebellion of the second group of psychologists who
rebelled during 1960s is known as Cognitive Revolution. This
revolution once again believed that it is important to see how mind
processes and retains information. Cognitive psychology
scientifically explores the way we perceive process and remember
information. Cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary study,
has enriched our knowledge about brain activity underlying mental
activity. It has given us new ways to understand ourselves and to
treat disorders such as depression.

In the light of this historical background, we can summarize

psychology’s concern about observable behaviour and inner
thoughts and feelings by defining psychology as the science of
behaviour and mental processes. Let us analyse the definition

Behaviour: It is anything that organism does. It is any action that

can be observed and recorded, e.g., smiling, yelling, studying,
talking, running etc.

Mental processes: These are internal subjective experiences on

the basis of which inferences can be drawn about the behaviour
like sensations perception, dreams, thoughts, beliefs and feelings.
 6

Science: Psychology is not just reporting a set of findings; it is a

way of asking and answering questions.

1.1.3 Contemporary Psychology:

Psychology as science emerged from the field of biology and
philosophy. Wilhelm Wundt was a philosopher and psychologist,
William James was an American Philosopher. Freud was an
Austrian physician; Ivan Pavlov was a Russian Physiologist. The
most influential observer of children, Jean Piaget was a Swiss
biologist. Morton Hunt(1993)called them as “Magellans of the
Mind”.

Just as in the past, psychology originated from several fields

and from many countries, similarly, even today's psychologist are
the citizens of many different countries. The international Union of
Psychological Science has members from 71 nations, right from
Albania to Zimbabwe. In China, the first department of Psychology
at university level was opened in 1978 and in 2008 there were
nearly 200 Departments of Psychology at university level. Apart
from that, due to international publications, joined meetings, advent
of internet, collaboration across the borders, Psychology is growing
rapidly and globalizing. Today Psychology is not only developing at
various places but the topics of interest also vary from the study of
nerve cell to the study of international conflicts.

1.1.4 Psychology’s Biggest Question: Nature v/s Nurture:

The biggest and most persistent question faced by
psychologists has been whether human traits develop at birth or
evolve later on through experience. Plato (428-348 B.C.E.),
assumed that character and intelligence and certain ideas are
inherited. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) on the other hand, argued that
everything that is there in our mind has come through external
world through our senses. In other words, he said that whatever
information, sensation, feelings are stored in our mind have come
through our experiences of external world.

In the 1600s, John Locke also argued that mind is a blank

sheet on which experiences write. René Descartes did not agree
with this suggestion and believed that some ideas are innate. Two
centuries later, Descartes’ ideas got support from a naturalist,
Charles Darwin. At the age of 22, he set out on the historic round
the world journey and keenly observed the incredible species
variation from one place to another place, e.g., he observed that
tortoises on one island were different from the tortoises of another
nearby islands.

Later on, he explained these variations by proposing the

concept of evolutionary process of natural selection. He explained
the diversity in different organisms of the same species as
 7

stemming from the process of natural selection. He believed that

nature selects those traits that best enable organism to survive and
reproduce in a particular environment. Darwin believed that this
principle explained not only animal’s body structure (such as polar
bear’s white coat) but also animal’s behaviour (such as the
emotional expressions linked to lust and rage). This theory of
evolution as proposed by Charles Darwin has become an important
principle of psychology in 21stcentury.

The nature and nurture issue has continued to remain a

major concern of psychologist today. More and more psychologists
are exploring relative contributions of biology and experience and
exploring questions such as:

1. How and why we human beings are alike? Is it because of our

common biology and evolutionary history?
2. How and why we human beings are diverse? Is it because of
our differing environments?
3. Diversities or variations found in body structure and behaviour
are due to genetic factors or variation in the environmental
conditions?
4. Are gender differences caused by biological conditions or are
they created by existing social environment?
5. Is children’s grammar mostly innate or formed by experience?
6. Are personality and intelligence differences caused by
hereditary conditions or by environmental conditions?
7. Are sexual behaviours more ‘pushed’ by inner biology or ‘pulled’
by external incentives?
8. Psychological disorders such as depression should be treated
as disorders of brain or disorders of thoughts?

Contemporary science resolves this Nature and Nurture

controversy by saying “Nurture works on what nature endows”. In
other word’s nature biologically endows us with enormous capacity
to learn and adapt and nurture as environment decides how this
endowment will flourish or will develop. Moreover, every
psychological event (every thought, every emotion) is
simultaneously biological event. For example, depression can be
both – a brain disorder and a thought disorder.

1.1.5Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis:

Biopsychosocial Approach:
Contemporary psychologists believe each one of us is a
complex system that is part of a larger social system. At micro
level, we are made up of smaller systems such as nervous system
and body organs, which is made up of still smaller systems such as
 8

cells, molecules and atoms. These tiered systems suggest that

different levels of analysis and are complementary, because
everything is related to everything else. All these levels put together
are called biopsychosocial approach. This approach takes into
account the influences of biological, psychological and social-
cultural factors.

Biological influences include influences such as natural

selection of adaptive traits, genetic predisposition of responding to
environment, brain mechanism and hormonal influences.

Psychological influences include learned fears and

expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing and
perceptual interpretations. These two contribute to behaviour or
mental processes that are expressed in socio cultural conditions
like presence of others, expectations of family, society and culture,
influence of friends, other groups and compelling models such as
media. Understanding at each level gives a perspective to human
behaviour.

Table 1.1 Psychology's Current Perspectives: - (Adopted from

David Myers)

Perspectives Focus Sample Questions Example of

Subfields Using this
Perspectives

Neuroscience How the body and How is blood chemistry Biological;

brain enable linked with moods and Cognitive;
emotions, motives? How do pain Clinical
memories, and messages travel from
sensory the hand to the brain?
experiences.

Evolutionary How the natural How does evolution Biological;

selections of traits influence behavioural Developmental;
have promoted the tendencies? Social
survival of genes

Behaviour How our genes and To what extent are Personality;

genetics our environment psychological traits Developmental
influence our such as intelligence,
individual personality, sexual
differences orientation, vulnerability
to depression products
of genes? Of our
environment?

Psychodynamic How behaviour How can someone’s Clinical;

springs from personality traits and Counselling;
unconscious drives disorders be explained Personality
 9

and conflicts by unfulfilled wishes

and childhood traumas?

Behavioural How we learn How do we learn to fear Clinical;

observable particular objects or Counselling;
response situations? What is the Industrial-
most effective way to organizational
change our behaviour,
say to lose weight or
stop smoking?

Cognitive How we encode, How do we use Cognitive;

process, store, and information in Clinical;
retrieve information remembering? Counselling;
Reasoning? industrial-
Solving problems? organizational

Social-cultural How behaviour and How are we alike as Developmental;

thinking vary across members of one human social;
situations and family? How do we Clinical; counselling
cultures differ as products of our
environment?

Each of these levels give a unique advantage to look at

behaviour or mental processes. Yet each by itself is incomplete.
Psychologists have variety of perspectives and ask different
questions and have their own limits. For example, let us see how
different perspectives understand anger.

• Person studying from neuroscience perspective will focus on

brain circuits that cause anger.
• Evolutionary perspective will focus on how anger has helped
the survival of the organism.
• Behaviour genetics perspective may study how heredity
and experience influence an individual differences in
temperament.
• Psychodynamic perspective may say that it is an expression
of unconscious hostility.
• Behavioural perspective may try to see which external stimuli
triggers anger.
• Cognitive perspective will explain how given situation affects
our anger and how anger affects our Thinking.
• Socio cultural perspective will concern itself with how
expression of anger may vary in different socio-cultural
conditions.

All these perspectives do not still give a complete picture of

human behaviour. The table 1.1 summarises key perspectives and
their areas of concern and subfields of psychology, and
perspectives.
 10

1.1.6 Subfields of Psychology:

Some psychologists conduct basic research that builds
psychology’s knowledge base, for example, Biological psychologist
will explore the link between brain and mind, Developmental
psychologists will study behaviour and abilities from womb to tomb,
Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive, think and solve
problems, Personality psychologists investigate our relatively
permanent traits, Social psychologist studies how we get impacted
by others’ social behaviour and how do we impact their behaviour,
Counselling psychologists listen carefully to a client’s troubled
thoughts and emotions and a Social - cultural psychologists will be
studying the variations in human values and behaviour in different
cultures.

These as well as other psychologists engage in applied

research where they tackle practical problems. For example,
industrial psychologist help companies to select employees or
develop training programs etc. Thus, psychology is a host to
various disciplines. However, all subfields of psychology have one
common goal – to describe and explain behaviour and the mind
underlying it.

The specific branches of psychology are given below.

Biological psychology : This branch of psychology tries to
understand the relationship between functioning of brain and
behaviour.Biopsychology studies how emotions, thoughts and
behavior are affected by the brain, the nervous system and
neurotransmitters in humans and animals. The field can be viewed
as a combination of neuroscience and basic psychology. It focuses
on how damage to specific areas of the brain affects neural function
and behavior, as well as the influence of drugs and other mind-
altering substances on the brain and body.

Developmental psychology: It studies how behaviour and abilities

change throughout our entire life span.It is the scientific study of
growth, change and stability in behavior that occurs throughout
lifespan. It looks into the physical, cognitive, personality and social
development. It studies the impact of heredity and environment on
development, e.g. age construct, cohorts.

Cognitive psychology: It is concerned with how we perceive, think

and solve problems. It is a study of mental processes such as
"attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving,
creativity, and thinking.The term Cognition refers to the mental
processes. The mental processes involve gaining knowledge and
comprehension. These processes include thinking, knowing,
remembering, judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level
functions of the brain and cover language, imagination, perception,
and planning.
 11

Personality psychology: It investigates how traits influence

behaviour. Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that
studies personality and its variation among individuals. It is a
scientific study which aims to show how people are individually
different due to psychological forces.

Social psychology: It is a study of how individual behaviour is

influenced by people around him.It is a scientific study of how
people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the
actual, imagined or implied presence of others.

Socio-cultural psychology: It suggests that human behavior is

influenced by social and cultural forces outside the individual. This
perspective involves ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion,
social class, family traditions, culture, nationality, etc.

Industrial and organisational psychology: It is a study of

behavior in work settings and the application of psychological
principles to change work behavior. It covers topics such as
selection, training programs, performance evaluation, leadership,
motivation and job satisfaction, reducing stress, consumer
behavior, cultural diversity, globalization, technology, etc. It uses
psychological concepts and methods to help organizations and
companies to boost their morale and productivity, design products
and implement systems.

Engineering psychology: It is the science of human behaviour

and capability, applied to the design and operation of machines,
systems and technology. It is concerned with the adaptation of the
equipment and environment to people, based upon their
psychological capacities and limitations. Its objective is improving
overall system performance and comfort.

Clinical Psychology: It is concerned with understanding,

evaluating, predicting, alleviating and preventing intellectual,
emotional, biological, psychological, social and behavioural
maladjustments, disability and discomfort. It is applied to a wide
range of client population, across the life span, in varying cultures
and at all socioeconomic levels. It aims to promote human
adaptation, adjustment, and personal effectiveness and
satisfaction.

Psychology and helping professions: Psychology also deals

with practical problems like how to have a happy marriage, how to
overcome anxiety and depression or how to bring up healthy
children.

Counselling psychology: Counselling psychologist help people to

cope-up with challenges and crisis in academic, vocational and
 12

marital life. They help to improve personal and social functioning.

The counseling psychologists deal with less serious problems
compared to clinical psychologists.

Psychiatry: Psychiatrist are medical personnel, who provide

medication for psychological issues like depression, anxiety.

Positive Psychology: Martin Seligman and others have focused

research on human strengths and human potentialities. Positive
psychology explores positive emotions, positive character traits and
enabling institutions. They are more concerned with, whether
psychology can contribute to “good life” that engages a person’s
skills, and also help a person to lead a meaningful life. It is a
science of positive aspects of human life, such as happiness,
optimism, social connectedness, well-being and flourishing.It
believes thatpeople want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives, to
cultivate what is best within themselves, to enhance their
experiences of love, work, and play.

Community psychology: Community psychologists work to create

social and physical environments that are healthy for all. For
example, if there is a problem of bullying in school, they will try to
change that by studying how the school and neighbourhood give
birth and encouragement to bullying, and how it can be eradicated.
Some psychologists may train students to cope with stress of
transition from elementary school to middle school.

Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychologists apply psychology’s

principles and methods to the criminal justice system. They may
assess witness credibility, offenders’ state of mind at the time of
offense (Sanity evaluations), assess competency of individuals to
stand trial (Competency evaluations), assess risk of re-offending
(future risk), assess malingering and deception , evaluate child
custody in divorce, prepare for and provide testimony in court,
assess consistency of factual information across multiple sources,
advise police on mental illness and criminal psychology, consult
with attorneys on mental health issues in the court system, work
with at-risk populations such as trauma survivors, design
correctional programs, etc.

In summary, we can say psychology is a subject that relates

to many fields. Psychologists teach in medical schools, law
schools, theological seminaries, they work in hospitals, factories
and corporate houses. They engage in interdisciplinary studies
such as psychohistory (psychological analysis of historical
character), psycholinguistics (the study of language and thinking)
and psycho ceramics (the study of crackpots).
 13

Psychologist have gained insight into brain, mind dreams,

memories and depression and joy. Psychology helps us to
understand and appreciate how we perceive, think, feel and act.

Strengths & Weaknesses of Psychology:

Psychology also influences modern culture. Learning about
psychology’s findings changes people. They do not judge
psychological disorders as moral failings. They no longer believe
that psychological disorders should be treated with punishment and
ostracism. Similarly, now they do not regard women mentally
inferior to men. They no longer view and rear children as ignorant,
wilful beast that need taming. Morton Hunt rightly pointed out that
knowledge has modified attitudes and through them behaviour.
Once we are aware of how our body is connected to our mind, how
a child’s mind grows, how our perceptions are formed and how our
memory works, how people differ across the world, our way of
thinking changes forever.

However, psychology has certain limitations. It can’t answer

questions such as –
Why should I live?
Why should I do anything?
Is there any purpose in life that even death cannot destroy?

Yet psychology deepens our appreciation for how we

humans perceive, think and feel and act. It enriches our lives and
broadens our vision.

Before closing this chapter, let me talk about one of the most
important concerns among students and that is how to improve
their memory power and grades in the exam.

1.1.7 Close -up: Improve your Retention and Grades:

Very often students are under the impression that to
memorize their new learning properly, they need to keep revising
the new lesson, i.e., to keep rereading it again and again. But
memory researcher Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke (2006)
believe that apart from rehearsal of the material you need to
repeatedly self- test yourselves. They called it testing effect or
retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. They
demonstrated in one of their studies in 2008 that students could
recall the meaning of 40 previously learned Swahili words much
better if they repeatedly tested themselves, rather than if they spent
the same time restudying the words.

The key is that to master new information, you must actively

process that information. Our brain is like a muscle that grows
stronger with exercise. Many studies have shown that people can
 14

learn and remember better when they put material to be learnt in

their own words, rehearse it and then retrieve and review it again.

These principles are included in a method called SQ3R

study method. SQ3R is an acronym for 5 steps – Survey,
Question, Read, Retrieve and Review.

Survey refers to taking a bird’s eye view of the material that

needs to be learnt. You should scan the headlines and notice how
the material is organized.

Secondly, you need to try and answer its learning objective

questions. Roediger and Bridgid Finn (2009) believe that if you try
and fail to retrieve the answer, that actually helps you to learn. The
reason is that those who test their understanding before reading
and find out what is it that they don’t know yet, will learn and
remember better.

The third activity is read actively, i.e., search for the

answers to the questions. At each sitting, read only that much of a
chapter that you can absorb without getting tired. Read actively and
critically. Ask questions, take notes, make the ideas as your own.

The fourth activity is retrieve. Retrieve the main ideas of the

chapter. Test yourself. This will help you to realize what and how
much you know and what you still need to master. The testing itself
will help you to learn and retain information more effectively. For
effective learning, test yourself repeatedly.

The fifth and final step is to review. Read over any notes
that you have taken and quickly review the whole chapter. Write
down what a concept is before rereading to check your
understanding.

Apart from SQ3R method, some of the other techniques that

may also help in improving your learning are –
Distribute Your Study Time - Spaced practice helps in better
retention than massed practice. It means that you will remember
material better when you space your time over many study
sessions rather than trying to mug up in one session. Many
students make that mistake. They try to mug up entire study
material just in one day before exam and they miserably fail to
retain that information. It should be memorized over several days in
small portions at a time. Instead of trying to learn the entire chapter
in one sitting, read just one section and then turn to something else.
Interleaving your study of one subject with study of other subjects
will boost long term retention and will protect you from false
overconfidence that you have memorized the whole chapter.
 15

Learn to Think Critically - Whether you are reading at home or

you are learning in a class, note people’s assumptions and values.
Pay attention to what perspectives or biases underlies an argument
and evaluate the evidence or proof given for those assumptions.
Find out whether these assumptions are based on informative
evidences or are they just anecdotes. Evaluate their conclusions
and judge whether there are alternative explanations.

Process Class Information Actively –Listen for the main ideas

and sub-ideas of a lecture. Write them down. Ask questions during
and after class. In class, process the information actively, that will
help you to understand and retain it better. Make the information as
your own by taking notes in your own words. Relate what you read
to what you already know. Tell someone about it.

Over learn –Very often people suggest that over learning improves
retention. But there are pitfalls to that. We tend to overestimate how
much we know. The feeling of familiarity can be deceptively
comforting. For optimum effectiveness, one should use retrieval
practice more and should spend extra study time on testing his
knowledge.

Memory expert Elizabeth Bjork and Robert Bjork (2011)

gave following advice to improve your retention and grades:

“Spend less time on the input side and more time on the
output side, such as summarizing what you have read from
memory or getting together with friends and asking each other
questions. Any activities that involve testing yourself- that is,
activities that require you to retrieve or generate information, rather
than just representing information to yourself – will make your
learning both more durable and flexible”.

1.2 SUMMARY

Aristotle before 300 B.C theorised about learning memory,

motivation, emotion, perception and personality. Psychology as a
science was born at university of Leipzig in 1879.

The first two schools of thought that emerged were

structuralism and functionalism. William Wundt sought to measure
“atoms of mind” that he considered as the fastest and simplest
mental processes. Wundt’s student Edward Titchener used
method of introspection to study elements of mind but the
subjective nature of the method was not accepted by thinkers.

Philosopher- psychologist William James was more concerned

with studying the functions of thoughts and feelings and this gave
rise to functionalism. He was influenced by the work of evolutionary
 16

theorist Charles Darwin who had spoken about adaptive functions

of various human behaviours. For example, just as Charles Darwin
thought that the function of smelling contributes to human being’s
survival; James also thought that thinking contributes to our
survival.

In 1890 James mentored first lady student Mary Whiton

Calkins who became a memory researcher and the first woman to
be the President of American Psychological Association. Margaret
Floy Washburn was the first woman to receive psychology Ph.D.
degree. She was the second woman to become the President of
American Psychological Association in 1921. She also wrote an
influential book titled “Animal Mind”.

Henry Holt offered a contract to William James for writing a

textbook of new science of psychology. It was to be completed in 2
years’ time, but it took 12 years for William James to complete it. It
is known as ‘Principles of psychology’ and even today it has
retained people’s interest in it.

Early pioneers defined psychology as a science of mental

life. However, after 1920, two American psychologists, John B.
Watson and B. F. Skinner rejected the method of introspection and
redefined psychology as scientific study of observable behaviour.
They came to be known as behaviourists and were one of the
major forces into the 1960s.

Another major force has been Freudian Psychology.

Sigmund Freud in 1940’s spoke about unconscious thought
processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences.

After 1960s, Humanistic psychology emerged, led by Carl

Rogers and Abraham Maslow. They rejected both Freudian
psychology and Behaviourism and focused on how current
environmental influences can help or hinder our growth.

The rebellion of second group of psychologists during the

1960s is called “the cognitive revolution”. This group emphasised
on mental processes. Cognitive neuroscience, an interdisciplinary
study, is concerned with brain activity and underlying mental
activities. Today we define psychology as science of behaviour and
mental processes.

Contemporary psychology has evolved from philosophy and

biology. Wundt was philosopher and physiologist James was an
American philosopher. Freud was a physician; Ivan Pavlov was
a Russian physiologist and Jean Piaget was a biologist. Just like
before, today’s psychologist are also citizens of many countries.
International union of psychology has 71 nations as its members.
 17

The biggest question faced by psychology today is nature or

nurture controversy. Psychologists are exploring relative
contributions of biology and experiences. Biologists and
psychologists are still influenced by Charles Darwin’s principle of
natural selection - nature selects the traits that best enable
organism to survive and reproduce in the given environment.

Psychology understands behaviour at three main levels; it is

a bio psychosocial approach.
• Biological influences like Genetic predispositions, brain
mechanism etc.
• Psychological influences like learned fears, expectations,
emotions etc., and
• Social influences such as influences of family, society, religion
on the whole.

The subfields of psychology are connected with the current

perspectives (Please refer to the table given above for the subfields
and the related current perspectives). Like any other field
psychology also has certain strengths and weaknesses. At the end,
tips are given on how to retain information in your memory and
improve your grades.

1.3 QUESTIONS-IMPROVE YOUR GRADE

1. Write a note on roots of psychology.

2. Explain the nature and origin of psychology.
3. What is the historic or biggest question of psychology?
4. Explain the different levels of analysis of human behaviour.
5. Explain different sub fields of psychology and their relation to
different perspectives.

1.4 REFERENCES

1) Myers, D. G. (2013), Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013.
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008), Psychology (Indian sub-
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd.
 18

2
THE STORY OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE - II
Unit Structure :

2.0 Objective
2.1 The Need for Psychological Science
2.1.1 The Hindsight Bias: I knew it all along Phenomenon
2.1.2 Overconfidence
2.1.3 Perceiving Order in Random Events
2.1.4 The Scientific Attitude: Curiosity, Skepticism and
Humble
2.1.5 Critical Thinking
2.2 How Do Psychologist Ask and Answer Questions
2.2.1 Scientific Method
2.2.2 Description
2.2.3 Correlation
2.2.4 Experimentation
2.2.5 Statistical Reasoning in everyday life: Describing Data
2.2.6 Significant differences
2.3 Frequently asked Questions about psychology
2.4 Summery
2.5 Questions
2.6 References

2.0 OBJECTIVE

After reading this unit, you will be able to understand:

Why psychology is required as a science?
What are the errors that we make while understanding human
behavior?
What are the different scientific method and how statistical
reasoning is used

2.1 THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

There is common feeling that psychology just explains or

informs what everyone is aware of. Some put their faith in human
 19
intuitions. For example prince Charles (2000) said that “buried deep
within each and every one of us there is an instinctive heartfelt
awareness that provides- if we allow it to –the most reliable guide ”.
Former president of America explained his decision to launch the
Iraq War by saying that he is a gut player and he depends on
instincts. Today’s scientific psychology does study intuition, but at
the same time, it emphasizes that our thinking, memory and
attitudes work at two levels - conscious and unconscious, and a
major part of it operates automatically, at unconscious level. But
still our intuitions are more likely to go wrong. The three
phenomena - hindsight bias, judgmental overconfidence and even
tendency to perceive patterns in random events, illustrate why we
cannot solely depend on intuition.

2.1.1 The Hindsight Bias: I knew it all along Phenomenon:

Hindsight bias is defined as the tendency to believe after
learning an outcome that one knew it all along and such an
outcome was sure to happen. It is also known as (I - knew –it – all -
along) phenomenon. After a cricket match, war or election, its
outcome usually seems to be inevitable and then we say after the
outcome, see, this is what I was saying or I knew this would
happen’.

People have tremendous ability and willingness to justify

contradictory findings based on common sense. For example, an
experiment was conducted in which half the members of a group
were told that psychologist have found that separation weakens
romantic attraction, as the saying goes “out of site out of mind”,
then they were asked to think of the reasons for why this might be
true. Most people could find reasons for such findings and nearly all
reported these finding (which they believed were true) as not very
surprising.

Members of the other half group were told that separation

strengthens romantic attractions, as the saying goes “absence
makes the heart grow fonder”. They were also asked to think of
reasons for why this might be true. In this group also participants
could rationalize this untrue result and believed that the findings
(which they believed were true) were not surprising.

When two such opposite findings look like common sense, it

becomes a problem and a matter of investigation for psychologists.
Such errors in explanations of the events necessitate psychological
research. This is not because common sense is usually wrong, but
because common sense describes what has happened and does
not tell what will happen.

At least in 100 studies done among children and adults in

different countries, hindsight bias was observed. It is observed that
 20
our intuitions are sometimes right and sometimes wrong. So many
of the findings in psychology research seems to be seen before.
For example, many people believe that love leads to happiness and
they seem to be right as we have a deep need to belong. But our
intuitions cannot be always correct. For example, the famous
saying like familiarity breeds contempt or dreams predict future may
not be always true as the outcome of an event always depends on
number of environmental factors and also on factors such as brain
chemical messages( brain chemical messages control our moods
and memories), effect of stress on a capacity to fight disease and
so on.

2.1.2 Overconfidence:
We generally have a tendency to think that we know more
than what we actually know. If someone asks us question about the
certainty of our answer we tend to be more confident than correct.
The best example is following anagram given by Richard Goranson
(1978). He asked people to unscramble the alphabets:

WREAT – WATER
ETRYN – ENTRY
GRABE – BARGE

Now see how many seconds would you require to

unscramble each of these alphabets. Knowing the answers make
us overconfident. The solution would take only 10 seconds for us to
answer this anagram, while in reality, problem solver requires 3
minutes, if similar anagram is given without solution.

The question arises, are we better at predicting social

behaviors? Students show that this may not always be the case.
For instance, Philip Turlock (1998, 2005) collected more than
27000 expert predictions on world events such as future of South
Africa or the possibility of Quebec separating from Canada. He
repeatedly found that experts made predictions about such events
with 80% confidence on an average, but these predictions were
right for less than 40% of the time. Even those who made wrong
predictions maintained their confidence by saying that they were
almost right.

2.1.3 Perceiving Order in Random Events:

Human beings have a natural eagerness to make sense of
the world and to see patterns. Wallace Stevens called it as our
“rage for order”. For example, people tend to see a face or the
divine images on the trees or vegetables or moon, e.g., sometimes
people see Ganesh in tomato or the trunk of a tree. We find order
even in random data because random sequences often don’t look
random (FALK et al, 2009 Nickerson 2002, 2005). In actual random
sequences, patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur
 21
more often than people expect. Looking over the sequence,
patterns jump out and they don’t look random and people tend to
over interpret them.

If we take enough random events, we can see weird looking

streaks will occur. For example, during 2010 World Cup, German
Octopus named Paul was offered two boxes each with mussels and
with a national flag on one side. Paul selected the right box eight
out of eight times in predicting the outcome of Germany’s 7
matches and Spain’s victory in finals. Since such happenings
appear to be extraordinary, we struggle to give ordinary chance
related explanations to such events.

The main thing to note is that hindsight bias, overconfidence

and our tendency to perceive order in random events leads us to
overestimate our intuition. But scientific enquiry helps us to
differentiate reality from illusion.

2.1.4 Scientific Attitude: Curiosity, Skepticism and Humble:

Scientific attitude is marked by curiosity, skepticism and
humbleness. Every science is guided by curiosity, a passion to
explore and understand without misleading or without being misled.
Scientific attitude is required to come close to real answers of the
questions rather than the fantasy based answers. For this purpose
being skepticism is more important.

Being skeptical does not only mean being cynical and

gullible but open to unexpected answers. Very aptly a polish
proverb says, “To believe with certainty, we must begin by
doubting”. So, just like other scientists, psychologists also approach
the world of behaviour with curious skepticism by asking questions
like “what do you mean?’’ “How do you know?” The skeptical
thinking allows a psychologist to select best suitable answers for
explanation of human behavior. For Example, can astrologers
predict anyone's future based on position of the planet on the birth
chart? Is electroconvulsive therapy an effective treatment for
severe depression? Such questions are put to test by psychologist.
On the basis of such skeptical thinking the answer for the first
question is NO and YES for the second question.

Putting a scientific attitude into practice not only requires

curiosity and skepticism but also humility. Humility refers to an
awareness of one's own vulnerability to errors and openness to
surprises and new perspectives. If people or other animals don’t
behave as our ideas predicted, we should be humble enough to
accept that our ideas were not correct. Psychology’s early motto:
“The rat is always right” is an indication of such humbleness among
psychologists of that time.
 22
Historians of science tell us that these three attitudes,
curiosity, skepticism and humbleness have made modern sciences
possible. Some deeply religious people may consider science as a
threat, but the leaders of scientific revolution, scientist like Isaac
Newton and Copernicus were deeply religious, they were acting on
the idea that "in order to love and honor God it is necessary to fully
appreciate the wonders of his handiwork (Stark 2003). However
some scientists, like anyone else, may be egoistic and may cling to
their preconceptions, but the ideals of curiosity, skepticism and
humble scrutiny of competing ideas unifies psychologists as a
community.

2.1.5 Critical Thinking:

Critical thinking is defined as a thinking that does not blindly
accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines
assumptions, finds out hidden values, evaluates evidence and
assess conclusions. Whether reading a news report or listening to
conversation, critical thinkers always ask questions.

Like scientist, critical thinkers always ask questions like how

do they know that? What is this person’s personal agenda? Is the
conclusion based on gut feeling or is there some kind of evidence?
Does the evidence justify a cause-effect conclusion? Or is there
any cause and effect relationship? Are there any alternative
explanations?

Critical thinking helps scientists to remain away from the

biases. A single occurrence is understood from multiple
perspectives. The preconceived notions or popular assumptions
are challenged. For example, in 2010 environmentalist proposed
that bitter cold in North America and East Coast snow storms are
caused by global warming. Critical thinkers do not get swayed by
these weather reports or by their political views; rather they ask
questions like “show me where the evidence is”. When pondering
over issues like “Is earth actually warming?” “Are polar ice caps
melting?” “Are vegetation patterns changing?” they will always look
at the evidence or the facts that support such inferences and
contradict their preconceived ideas, as well as they will also look at
the sources of such information.

Psychology too, as a practitioner of critical inquiry has been

open to surprising findings, such as, now we know that sleep
walkers do not act out their dreams, that past experiences are not
all recorded verbatim in our brains, that people generally do not
suffer from unrealistically low self-esteem and having very high self-
esteem is not always good, etc.
 23

2.2 HOW DO PSYCHOLOGIST ASK AND ANSWER

QUESTIONS

The scientific attitude of psychologist is supported by

scientific method. Scientific method is a self-correcting process for
evaluating ideas with observations and analysis. Hunches, the
plausible sounding explanation of human behavior are tested with
scientific method. This ideas or theories are tested against
evidence. If evidence supports them then the idea or theory is
accepted, otherwise theory is revised or rejected.

2.2.1 Scientific Method:

Theory:
Before beginning with scientific method, it is necessary to
understand concept of Theory. In science, a theory explains with
principles that organize observations and predict behaviour or
events. A theory simplifies by organizing isolated facts. A theory
offers a summary by connecting facts with deeper principles. For
example, Effects of sleep deprivation on memory. Now there are
number of observations related to sleep deprivation. For example,
people with poor sleeping habits cannot answer questions in the
class, they tend to do badly on test. It can be theorized that good
sleep improves memory. So, sleep retention principle summaries
the facts related to effects of sleep loss.

However, no matter how reasonable our theory appears, it

needs to be tested to be scientific. A good theory produces testable
predictions called as hypothesis. Hypothesis enables us to revise
and predict theory. Hypothesis is a testable prediction. The finding
may either confirm or reject the prediction. For example, to test our
theory about the effect of sleep on memory, people's retention of
the course material after good night's sleep and after shortened
sleep is tested.

There is a possibility that our theories may bias our

observations. All of us have a strong desire to see what we expect
to see. As a control on such biases psychologist report their
research with accurate operational definitions of procedures and
concepts, for example, hunger might be defined as hours without
eating, generosity as money contributed. These operational
definitions help others in replicating or repeating the original
observations with different participants, materials and under
different circumstances. If they get similar results, the confidence in
the reliability of findings grows. Definitions are carefully worded
statements, so that it becomes possible for others to repeat original
observations with different participants.

Finally, it can be said that theory is useful -

1) To organize range of self-reports and observations,
 24
2) It implies predictions that anyone can use to check theory or
derive practical application (for example, if people study longer
hours, will their performance in exam improve?)

Finally, a research may lead to a revised theory that better

organizes and predicts what we know. Our research may be
replicated and supported by similar findings.

In psychology hypothesis can be tested and theories can be

revised by using –
• Descriptive methods (such as case study method, naturalistic
observation method, survey method) that just describe behavior,
• Correlation methods (these methods associate different factors),
• Experimental methods, which manipulate factors to discover
their effects.

2.2.2 Description:
Psychologist use case studies, naturalistic observations,
surveys to observe and describebehaviour. Professional
psychologist describe behavior objectively and systematically by
using methods said above.

a) The Case Study Method:

It is one of the oldest methods. It examines one individual in
depth in the hope that individual will reveal true things about
himself. For example, the early knowledge about brain came from
in depth case studies of individuals who suffered damage to certain
parts of the brain.

Similarly studies of only few chimpanzees have shown their

capacity for understanding and language. Jean Piaget's theory of
Cognitive development is based on careful observation and
questioning of his own children. In depth case studies show what
can happen and they give direction for further study.

However, case study method has limitations. For example,

individual cases may mislead us and we may draw false
conclusions, if the individual is atypical. Dramatic stories and
personal experiences attract our attention. But stories can mislead.
A case study cannot be used for drawing any general inference or
general principle that apply to all. Individual cases can suggest
fruitful ideas, but to find the general truth that covers individual
cases, we must answer questions with other research methods.

b) Naturalistic Observations:
It is observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring
situations without trying to manipulate, and control the situations.
Naturalistic Observations does not explain behavior. It only
 25
describes behavior. Such description of behavior can be more
revealing and interesting. For example, it was believed that only
human beings use tools but it is observed that even chimpanzees
sometimes insert stick in termite mound and withdraw it, eating
loads of termites of the stick. This is unobtrusive naturalistic
observation. This was the observation without any interference or
intervention. Such unobtrusive naturalistic observations have led to
later studies of animal thinking, language and emotion. It was due
to such observation studies, we now know that chimpanzees and
baboons use deception. For example, Whiten and Richard Byrne
(1988) reported from their repeated observation of one young
baboon, who pretended to be attacked by another as a tactic to get
its mother to drive the other baboons away from its food. Byrne &
Corp(2004) held that the more developed a primate species’ brain,
the more likely it is that the animal will display deceptive behavior.

Similarly, there are some interesting findings based on

naturalistic observations about human beings too. For example –

A funny finding:
It has been observed that human beings laugh 30 times
more often in social situation then in a solitary situation and as we
laugh 17 muscles contort our mouth and squeeze our eyes and we
emit series of 75milliseconds vowel like sounds spaced about 1/5th
of a second (Provine,2001).

Sounding out students:

Another interesting example was a study done by Matthias
Mehl and James Pennebaker (2003). They studied 52 students
from university of Texas to find out what this introductory
psychology students say and do in their everyday life. They were
made to wear a belt which had electronically activated recorder.
They wore it for 4 days. This recorder captured 30seconds of
students’ waking hours every 12.5minutes .Thus they had
information of more than 10000 half minute life slices by the end of
the study. The result showed that the 28% of students’ waking
hours were spent on talking to someone and 9% of their waking
time was spent on keyboard of the computer.

What’s on your mind?

Another study was done at university of Nevada, Las Vegas
to find out what was there on the minds of the students. This was
done by giving them beepers. A beeper interrupted their daily
activities, signaling them to record their inner experiences at that
moment in a notebook. The result showed that there were five
types of inner experiences such as inner speech, inner seeing,
unsymbolized thinking, feeling and sensory awareness.
 26
Culture, climate and the pace of life:
Naturalistic observation enabled Robert Levin and Ara
Norenzayan (1999) to compare pace of life in 31 countries. Pace of
life included walking speed, accuracy of public clock, and speed
with which postal clerk completed a request. It was observed that
life is fastest in Japan and western Europe whereas life is slower in
economically less developed countries. People in colder climates
also tend to live at a faster pace and are more prone to die from
heart disease. However, naturalistic observation merely describes
the events but does not tell us why they take place.

C) The Survey Method:

Compared to case history method and naturalistic
observation method, the survey method looks at many cases but in
less depth. A survey asks people to report their behaviors and
opinions. Questions about everything from sexual practices to
political opinion are asked in survey. Some of the recent surveys
are-

• Half of all Americans reported experiencing more happiness and

enjoyment than worry and stress on the previous day (Gallop,
2010).
• Online Canadians reported using new forms of electronic
communication and thus receiving 35% fewer emails in 2010
than 2008 (Ipsos, 2010a).
• One in 5 people across 22 countries believe that aliens beings
have come to earth and now walk among us as disguise
humans (Ipsos, 2010b).
• 68% of all humans say that religion is important in their daily
lives (Diener et.al., 2011).

But asking questions in survey is very tricky and answers

always depend on the way questions are worded and the type of
respondents selected.

Wording Effect:
Even subtle changes in order of wording of questions can
have major effects. For example, people are more approving if
instead of using the word "taxes" we use the word ‘revenue
enhancers’, instead of using the word "welfare" we use the word
“aid to the needy”, “affirmative action” instead of “preferential
treatment”, etc. Such wording can change the opinion of the
respondents.

For example, in 2009three in four Americans in one national

survey approved of giving people “a choice” of public or private
health insurance. Yet in another survey most Americans were not in
favour of creating a public health care plan administered by federal
government that would compete directly with private health
 27
insurance companies (Stein, 2009). It is here the wording brings
about the total change of opinions.

Random Sampling:
In sampling, there is always a temptation to ignore sampling
bias and draw conclusion on the basis of vivid but unrepresentative
cases. Survey method requires a sample that fairly represents
populations under study. It is not always possible to survey
everyone in the group. In such scenario, it is better to take
representative sampling.

Representative sampling can be achieved with the help of

random sampling where every member of the population must get
an equal and fair chance of being selected as a part of sample.
This is called as random sampling. Random sampling represents
the total student population. Large representative samples are
better than small ones.

The point to remember is that while considering the finding

of the survey, think critically and look at the size of the sample. For
survey method, it is always good to have larger representative
sample than larger sample that is not representative.

2.2.3 Correlation:
Very often naturalistic observation shows that one behavior
is related to other. We say that they correlate. A statistical measure
(correlation coefficient) helps us to understand how two variables
are closely related. For example, intelligence and school grades are
closely related.

The correlation coefficient can be graphically represented in

the form of scatter diagram. The following are scatter diagram
representing different correlation. Each dot is the scatter plot
represents the values of two variables.

Fig. 2.1 Positive, Negative and Zero Correlation

Perfect positive correlation : Perfect positive correlation is a rare

phenomenon. It indicates increase or decrease in one variable is
accompanied by simultaneous increase or decrease in another
 28
variable, in the same proportion. For example, generally, height and
weight are positively correlated.

Perfect negative correlation: Increase in one variable is

accompanied by simultaneous decrease in another variable in the
same proportion. For example, intelligence and failures in the
school.

Zero correlations: Zero correlations are found between the two

variables when they are not related. For example, height and
intelligence.

However, just reporting positive or negative correlation does

not indicate the strength of relationship. It only indicates the
direction of relationship between two variables. Statistics can help
us to see what the naked eye sometimes misses. Very often, we
fail to see what is right in front of us, unless and until it is
highlighted by statistics. For example, Twiss et.al. (1989) stated
that when statistical data is presented to us in summarized form,
about job level, seniority, performance, gender and salary, we can
easily see the gender discrimination, but we fail to notice this
gender discrimination when information is presented case by case.

Correlation & Causation:

Correlations explain the nature of relationship and that is
why it might be possible to predict one variable on the basis of
information about another variable. But the major limitation of
method of correlation is they do not explain or specify whether one
is the cause of other.

For example, high self-esteem is negatively correlated with

depression but it cannot be said that it is the exact cause of
depression. People with lower self-esteem are at the high risk of
depression. But irrespective of whatever may be the strength of the
relationship it cannot be said that one is the cause of other. Take
another example, let us say length of marriage correlates with hair
loss in men. But it does not mean that marriage causes men to lose
their hair or balding men become better husbands. To summarize
association does not prove causation.

2.2.4 Experimentation:
Experimental method helps us to establish cause-and-effect
relationship between variables and thus we can be more accurate
in our predictions. For example, many studies in England have
found that children who are breast fed as infants have somewhat
higher intelligent scores then children who are bottle fed with cow’s
milk. The question arises whether nutrients in mother’s milk
contribute to brain development. It has also been reported that the
difference in the intelligence level of breast-fed and bottle-fed
 29
babies becomes insignificant if they are from the same families. In
that case, can we say that smarter mothers have smarter babies
and type of milk has no role to play in their intelligence? To find
answers for such questions and to establish cause-and-effect
relationship, experimental method enables a researcher to isolate
the effect of one or more variables by -

1. Manipulating the factors of interest and

2. Holding constant (controlling the other factors).

To isolate the effect of one or more variables experimenters

often create two groups - experimental group in which people
receive treatment and control group that does not receive
treatment. To minimize any preexisting differences between the two
groups, researchers randomly assign people to two conditions.
Random assignment equalizes two groups so age, attitude,
characteristics, etc. and their effects can be minimized. For
example, in a study on effects of feeding, one bottle fed group was
compared with the breast-fed group children by effectively
controlling all other factors except nutrition. This supported
conclusion that breast feed is best for development of intelligence.

Experimental method is different than survey method. In

surveys naturally occurring relationships are uncovered whereas in
experiments we manipulate the factors to determine the effects of
the variables.

Experimenters often use blind (uninformed) technique about

what treatment each group is receiving. The study uses double
blind procedure where neither participants nor researchers are
aware of which group is experimental group and which one is
control group. This is done to avoid placebo effect where results
are caused by the expectations alone.
Independent Variable:
The variable that is isolated or manipulated by the
experimenter in an experiment is called independent variable. It is
called independent because experimenter can vary it independently
of other factors such as age, weight or personality of the group
members. It is a variable as it is increased or decreased by the
experimenter. For example, an experimenter wants to test the
impact of drug to reduce depression among males suffering from
severe depression. Patients suffering from depression were
randomly divided into two groups. One group was given depression
reducing drugs while the other group was given plain sugar tablets
that looked like drug tablets. The double blind technique was used
where neither the experimenter nor the participants were aware
which pill is given to which group. After one month, both groups
were tested for depression level. Now in this simple experiment, the
depression reducing drug is an independent variable.
 30
Dependent Variable:
Dependent variable is a consequence of an independent
variable. Dependent variable can be discussed as an effect of an
independent variable. For example, in above mentioned
experiment, the depression level is the dependent variable.

Both variables, independent and dependent, are given

precise operational definitions which specify the procedures that
manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent
variable. These definitions answer the question, “what do you
mean?” The answer to this question with a level of precision
enables others to replicate the study.

Confounding Variables:
The other factors which can potentially influence the results
of the independent variable are called as confounding variables.
The random assignment of the group can control the potential
influence of confounding variables.

In short, we can say a variable is anything that can vary

(infant’s nutrition, intelligence or anything- anything within the limits
of what is possible and ethical). Experiments aim to manipulate an
independent variable, measure the dependent variable and allow
random assignment to control all other confounding variables.
Experiments can be helpful in the evaluation of social programs,
e.g., through experimental method we can answer questions like
can early childhood education programmed help in boosting
impoverished children’s chances of academic success, what are
the effects of different anti-smoking program?

2.2.5 Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life:

Statistics are the tools that help us to see and interpret what
unaided eye might miss. For example, researchers Michel Norton
and Dan Ariely invited 5522 Americans to estimate what
percentage of wealth was possessed by the richest 20 % in
America. Their average person’s guess was 58% (dramatically
underestimated) than actual wealth inequality. In reality, wealthiest
20% possessed 84% wealth of the nation. One need not be
deceived by such offhand estimates. Statistics helps everyone to
get accurate results.

Describing Data:
Once the researchers collect the data, they need to organize
and summarize it in some measurable way to make that data more
meaningful.

Measures of Central Tendency:

One of the simplest way is to convert it into bar graphs. The
other method is to summaries data by using measures of central
 31
tendency. They give you single score that represents a set of
scores. Measures of central tendency can be given as follows.

1. Mean: An arithmetic average. It is a total sum of scores divided

by total number of scores.
2. Median: median is a midpoint, 5oth percentile. if all scores are
arranged from highest to lowest, half scores will be above the
median and half scores will be below the median.
3. Mode: It is the most frequently occurring score in the
distribution. It shows the trends.

Measures of central tendency summaries the data but if

distribution is lopsided or skewed by a few way-out or extreme
scores, where scores are either more on the higher side or lower
side then the measures of central tendency do not give you real
picture, because mean is influenced by extreme scores. For
example, if you are looking for the mean of the marks scored by 50
students in class and in this group if there are 5 students scoring
100 on 100 it will change sum total of score and it may inflate the
average score obtained by the students. So, in this case a few
atypical cases will distort the average.

Median also does not give you complete picture, e.g., it is

said that 78% of the people in India live below poverty line. If we
use median here can we say anything conclusive about the
people’s income in the 50% above and 50% below range in reality.
Top 22% of the people have maximum share in the income of the
nation. Once again, few atypical cases distort this score.

Measures of variation
As shown above, though measure of central tendency can
give lot of information, yet a single number leaves out lot of
information. So it helps to know how much variation is there in the
data. That tell you how similar or diverse scores are. Averages
derived from scores with low variability are more reliable than
averages derived from scores with high variability.

The measures of variability are:

1. Range – It is the gap between the lowest score and the highest
score. It provides crude estimate of variation. Couple of extreme
scores in an otherwise uniform group can deceptively show a
large range.

2. Standard deviation: it is another measure of finding out how

scores deviate from one another. This measure tells you
whether scores are packed together or dispersed. The
computation tells you how much each scores differs from the
mean.
 32
Fig. 2.2 Standard deviation

The meaning of standard deviation can be understood better

if you know how much scores differ or tend to be away from
average. For example, large number of people shows variations in
height weight intelligence scores, grades. These scores form a
symmetrical bell-shaped distribution where most cases fall near the
mean and few fall near the either extremes of the curve. This
curve is also known as bell shaped curve.

The above figure 2.2 shows that nearly 68% of the cases fall
within one standard deviation on either side of the mean. It means
68% of the people taking intelligence test will score plus or minus
15 points from 100 (100-15=85, i.e., one standard deviation on
minus side, 100+15=115, i.e., one standard deviation, on plus side)
About 96% will score within plus or minus 30 points (100 -30=70,
i.e., two standard deviation on minus side, and 100+30=130, i.e.,
two standard deviation on plus side).

2.2.6 Significant differences

How do we know that whether observed differences can be
generalized to other population? The average score in one group
(e.g., breast-fed babies) could be considerably different from the
average score in another group (bottle fed babies) not because of
real differences but because of chance fluctuations in the people
selected as a sample. The question is how confidently we can say
that observed differences are not cause by chance factors. To
determine that we can ask how reliable and significant differences
are. When is the observed difference reliable? It is when we have
to decide that whether it is safe to generalize from a sample under
study. At this time, the following three principles should be kept in
mind.

a. Representative samples are better than bias samples.

Generalizations can be based on representative samples
rather than on exceptional cases. It is always not possible to have
random sample of whole population under study, so it is important
to keep in mind what population a study has sampled.
 33
b. Less variable observations are more reliable than those
that are more variable observations.
Observations with less variability can be more dependable
as more variability means possibility of other factors interfering with
the results.

c. More number of case are better than fewer number of

cases.
Averages based on many cases are more reliable than less
number of cases. To summarize generalizations based on few
unrepresentative cases are unreliable.

When the Difference Is Significant?

If there are two samples – one sample of men and another
sample of women- and if within each group there is very small
variation in the scores of the participants and the sample size is
large, then the mean of each of these two groups will be considered
as reliable measure of their respective population and the
difference in their means will also be considered as reliable. For
example, in a study of gender differences and aggression, we
select two homogeneous groups of men and women (that is,
groups with less variability in their aggression score) and then if
there is a large difference in sample average score, then we can
have confidence that there is a real difference between the two
groups. Thus when sample averages are reliable and the difference
between them is large then we say difference is statistically
significant; means observed difference is not caused by chance
factors.

In judging significance level of the observed difference

psychologist are very conservative. The conclusions cannot be
stretched beyond what observation suggest. Statistical significance
only says that there is a likelihood that results occur not by chance
factors but it does not say anything about importance of the results.

2.3 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT

PSYCHOLOGY

The frequently asked questions about psychology are as

follows:
Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
The objective of experiments in laboratory is to see whether
the people’s behavior shown in lab will predict their behavior in real
life? The experimenter intends to turn laboratory environment to be
a simplified reality, one that simulates and controls important
features of everyday life. Here experimenter recreates
psychological forces under controlled conditions.
 34
The purpose of experimenter is not to create exact behaviors
of daily real life situations but to test only theoretical principles
(Mook 1983). For example, in aggression studies, deciding
whether to push a button that delivers a shock may not be same as
slapping someone but the underlying principle is the same. It is the
resulting principle and not the specific finding that help to explain
every day behavior.

When psychologists apply laboratory research on

aggression to actual violence, they apply theoretical principles of
aggressive behavior. These are the principles refined on the basis
of laboratory research. Many such findings are based on laboratory
research. It has to be remembered that psychological science
focuses less on particular behavior but more on seeking general
principles that help to explain many behaviors.

Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

Joseph Henrich Steven Heine, and Ara Norenzayan (2010)
studied Western Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic
cultures (WEIRD cultures). They contribute most of the participants
in the studies but form only 12% of humanity. The question arises
can these studies be generalized?

Culture refers to shared ideas and behaviors that one

generation passes onto the next generation. It influences our
standards of promptness and frankness, our attitudes towards
premarital sex and varying body shapes, tendency to be formal or
informal, willingness to maintain eye contact, distance maintained
in conversation and so on.

With these differences in mind is it possible to say what is

true for one group or community is true for others also. Being aware
of cultural differences, researchers can restrain themselves from
assuming that others will act or think like them. Our biological
heritage says that we all are human beings and are one but we
grow up in a different social cultural environmental setup. Some
findings are common but not all, e.g., people diagnosed with
dyslexia, a reading disorder, exhibit same malfunction of brain
irrespective of culture they belong to. Variation in language
interferes with communication across the cultures. Yet all
languages share deep principles of grammar.

People in different cultures vary in feelings of loneliness. The

underlying point is we all are alike in certain aspects but we are
different in many other aspects.

Why do psychologists study animals and what ethical

guideline safeguard human and animal research participants?
 35
Psychologists study animals for many reasons. Some of them are
as follows:

a. They find animals fascinating. They want to find out how

different species learn, think and behave.
b. It is said that human beings are also animals. We share
common biology with animals. It can be used for understanding
treatment for human diseases.
c. The processes by which learning takes place are similar in
human beings and in animals, especially in rats and monkeys.
The neural mechanism of learning can be understood by
performing experiments on animals.

However, many animal protection groups believe that it is

morally not right for us to use animals for our scientific studies.
Roger Ulrich (1991) said that “we cannot defend our scientific work
with animals on the basis of similarities between animals and
ourselves and then defend it morally on the basis of differences”.

Is it right to place wellbeing of human being above that of

animals?
Animal activists raise questions such as ‘Is it right to expose
monkeys to HIV like virus in search of treatment of AIDS? ‘Is our
use of animals as natural as the behavior of carnivorous animals?’
The answers for these questions depends on culture? For instance,
in Gallup surveys in Canada and America, approximately 60% of
adults think medical testing on animals is morally acceptable, while
37% in Britain considered it to be morally acceptable.

If human life is given first priority what safe guards should

protect wellbeing of animals? Different governments have given
different guidelines. British psychological society guidelines call for
housing of animals under reasonably natural living conditions, with
companions for social animals (Lea 2000).

American Psychological Association guidelines state that

researchers must ensure the “comfort, health and humane
treatment” of animals and minimize “infections, illness, and pain
(APA 2002).

European parliament also has now mandated standards for

animal’s care and housing (Vogel 2000). However, animal studies
have benefited animals too. Ohio teams of researchers have
measured stress hormone levels in millions of dogs. They have
devised handling and stroking methods to reduce stress in dogs.
Other studies have helped in improving care and management of
animals’ natural habitats. Animal studies have revealed our
behavioral kinship with animals and the remarkable intelligence of
 36
chimpanzees, gorillas and other animals, and such experiments
have led to increased empathy and protection for them.

The Guidelines for Performing Experiments on Human Beings:

The American Psychological Association’s Ethics code urges
researchers to obtain
1. Informed consent of potential participants,
2. Protect them from harm and discomfort ,
3. Keep information confidential about each participant ,
4. Use of deception or stressing the participants temporarily should
be done, only when it is absolutely necessary and justifiable,
e.g., some experiments won’t work if participants know
everything beforehand and participants might try to confirm the
researcher’s predictions.
5. Fully debrief people or explain the research afterwards to the
participants.
6. Most universities now have their own committees for ethics.
These committees screen all research proposals and safeguard
participants’ well-being.

Is Psychology free of value judgments?

Psychology is not free of value judgments. Values do
influence what we study and how we interpret the results.
Researchers’ values definitely influence the choice of their topics.
For example, depending on their background researchers wonder
whether they should study topics like productivity or work morale, or
should they study gender differences or sex discrimination, or
should they study conformity or independence? Similarly, it has
been observed that researchers’ values and preconceived
assumptions can bias our observations and interpretation.

Even the words used for describing something reflect

researchers’ values. For example, one person may describe a
behavior as rigid while another may call it consistent. One person
may speak about faith other may term it as fanaticism. Professional
judgments of how to raise children, how to live life, how to have
self-fulfillment in life are based on the value laden advices.
Psychology can help us reach our goals but it cannot decide what
those goals can be.

Psychology cannot address all questions, but it studies how

learning can be enhanced. It looks into how problems like war,
overpopulation crime and family crisis can be dealt with. It also
addresses the areas of our deepest longings such as need for
nourishment, for love and for happiness. All of this involves
attitudes and behaviors. Psychology cannot speak about all of life’s
great questions, but it addresses important questions.
 37

2.4 SUMMARY

We often feel that our gut feeling is more important than

anything else. It is the intuition that we use for understanding
human behavior. Intuition has its own limitations. Three phenomena
like hindsight bias, over confidence and tendency to perceive an
order in random events suggest that we cannot solely depend on
intuition.

Hindsight bias refers to “l knew of it all along” phenomena. It

is an error in recollection. Overconfidence is thinking that we know
more than what we actually know, we tend to be more confident
than correct.

Perceiving order in random events is our natural tendency to

make sense of our world. The events are perceived to be together
giving same kind of meaning.

The scientific attitude includes curiosity, skepticism and

humbleness. These are the three main components of scientific
attitude - curiosity is asking questions, it is a passion to explore and
understand whether misleading or being misled. Being skeptical
refers to doubt everything, asking whether it is the most plausible
explanation that makes the facts, before accepting the results of
any study. It is a pure pursuit of truth with humbleness.
Humbleness refers to accepting alternative explanations or facts
that a study may throw up and that may be contrary to researcher’s
assumptions. It is an awareness of one’s own vulnerability to errors
and openness to surprises. Scientific attitude prepares a person to
think smarter.

In critical thinking assumptions are examined, hidden values

are judged and evidences are evaluated. Psychologists ask and
answer questions by scientific method. It is a self-correcting
process of evaluating ideas with observations and analysis.

Scientific Method has three important components: Theory,

hypothesis and Operational definitions of words. Theory explains
principles that organize observations and behaviors. Theory
simplifies by organizing isolated facts. A good theory produces
testable predictions called as hypothesis. They enable us to reject
or revise a theory. They specify what results would support a theory
and what results would disconfirm our theories and what can bias
our observations. To keep a check on their biases psychologists,
report their research with precise operational definitions so that
some studies can be replicated.

A theory is useful if it organizes range of self-reported

observations, implies predictions that anyone can use to check
 38
theory or derive practical application. Theories and hypothesis can
be refined by using description method. Psychologist use
description for explaining behavior and observation.

The case study examines an individual in depth with the

hope of revealing things true of himself. Intensive case studies are
sometimes revealing but no generalization can be made on the
basis of observation of one person.

Naturalistic observations is a method that records behavior

in natural settings. Naturalistic observation does not explain
behavior. It may provide snapshots of everyday life. Researcher
does not have control over condition.

Survey method looks at many cases but in less depth. A

survey asks people to report their behaviors or opinions. The
answers obtained for questions depend upon the wordings. Even
subtle changes in the order of wording questions can have major
effects.

It has to be remembered that the objective of doing research

is to be able to generalize the results of our study. The best cases
for generalization come from a representative sample. It is not
possible to study everyone in the population under study, therefore
random sampling method is used to get representative sample.

Correlation is a statistical measure showing how variables

are associated with each other. It shows that two variables vary
together and thus it is possible to predict one variable from the
movement of another variable. The correlation coefficient can be
graphically represented by drawing scatter plots. They are used for
depicting nature of correlation. There can be three types of
relationships that exist between two variables: Perfect positive
correlation, Zero correlation and Perfect negative correlation. A
correlation is positive if two sets of scores rise and fall together.
Correlation is negative if sets of scores relate inversely, that is,
when one set of scores goes up, the other goes down. A correlation
coefficient helps us to see world more clearly by revealing the
extent to which two things correlate.

Correlation and causation helps us to make predictions. It

just tells us how two variables are associated. It has to be
remembered that association does not prove causation. Correlation
indicates the possibility of cause and effect relationship but does
not prove the cause and effect relationship.

In an experiment, researcher isolates cause and effect

relationship. They isolate cause and effect relationship by
manipulating factors of interest and by holding other factors
 39
constant. This is often done by creating experimental and control
groups. Experimental group that receives the treatment and control
group is a group that is tested under normal circumstances. An
experiment is not complete without independent and dependent
variable. Independent variable is one that varies independent of
other factors Dependent variable is the one that varies depending
on the variations in independent variables. Confounding variables
are variable that can potentially influence the results of the
experiment.

Statistical reasoning is used for describing the date. Data

can be discussed by using measures of central tendency and
measures of variability.

Measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode.

Mean is an average score of the data. It is influenced by
exceptional scores. Median is 50% percentile, a point where 50%
cases are above and below the median. Mode refers to the most
occurring score in the data.

The measures of variation is the measure that tells you

about the amount of variation in the data. How similar or diverse the
scores are. Averages derived from the scores of low variability are
more reliable than averages derived from the scores of high
variability.

Range is the gap between lowest and highest score.

Standard variation is more useful measure for understanding how
scores deviate from one another. It tells you whether scores are
packed or dispersed. The meaning of standard deviation can be
understood with the help of normal deviation curve. It is a graphic
representation of normal distribution curve. Traits like height weight
and intelligence fall in normal distribution curve. The observed
differences are considered as reliable when selected sample is
representative in nature, observation are less variable and when
there are more number of cases. The difference is considered
significant if it is not because of chance factors. The frequently
asked questions about psychology are - can laboratory experiment
illustrate everyday life, secondly does behavior depends on one’s
culture or gender? The answer to first question is that laboratory
experiments do illustrate our real life but only to a limited extent.
The answer to second question is a definite affirmation.

Another question that is often raised is why do psychologist

use animals in their studies? Are there ethical guidelines for
conducting research on animals as well as on humans? The
answers for these questions are explained at the length in the
lesson. It is suffice to say here that there are guidelines given for
protecting the welfare of animals as well as human participants.
 40

2.5 QUESTIONS

1. What is intuition? Explain the errors that we make while going

by gut feeling.
2. Explain what is meant by scientific attitude.
3. What are the characteristics of experimental method?
4. Why statistical reasoning is required in everyday life?
5. Write notes on
a. Scientific method
b. Case study method
c. Survey method
d. Method of correlation
e. Measures of central tendency
f. Measures of variability
g. Behavior culture and gender
h. Ethical guidelines for conducting research on humans and
animals.

2.6 REFERENCES

1) Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd.
 41

3
THE BIOLOGY OF MIND - I
Unit Structure :

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Neural Communication
3.2.1 Neuron
3.2.2 Action Potential
3.2.3 How Neurons Communicate
3.2.4 How Neurotransmitters influence us
3.2.5 Impact of Drugs and Other Chemicals on Neurotransmitters
3.3 The Nervous System
3.3.1 The Central Nervous System (CNS)
3.3.2 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
3.4 Check your progress
3.5 Summary
3.6 Questions
3.7 References

3.0 OBJECTIVES:

After reading this unit, you will be able to understand –

¾ Why it is important to understand the biological functioning of
our body
¾ The structure and functions of neurons
¾ The Central and Peripheral Nervous System

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

There is a famous saying by Descartes, a French

philosopher, that “I think, therefore I am”. But, the fact remains that
we cannot claim to exist, think or behave without our bodies. Our
entire behavior, thinking, emotion and even urges are biological
functions. We cannot laugh, love, study, aggress, compete, study,
explore without our bodies. Without our genes, our brain, our
appearance, reflexes, we are nobody.

Many ancient philosophers tried to identify where exactly our

mind in our body is. Pluto rightfully mentioned mind is in the head
that means in brain. Aristotle on the other hand believed the mind
was in the heart and it was the source of warmth and vitality.
 42
However, later on science has proved that it is our brain and not
our heart that falls in love.

In early 1800s, Franz Gall gave the concept of phrenology,

that is, the study of bumps on the skull. He believed that bumps on
the skull can indicate the mental abilities and character traits of a
person. However, research proved phrenology is nothing but a
gimmick and one cannot judge abilities or personality of a person
from the bumps on the skull. But it can’t be denied that brain does
have control over different aspects of behavior. Phrenology was
beneficial because it did bring researchers’ attention to the fact that
different brain regions are responsible for particular functions. This
triggered the research to find the link between biology and
psychological events and have discovered a strong interplay
between our biology and our behavior and mind. For instance, it
has been discovered that we are each a system composed of
subsystems that are in turn made up of even smaller subsystems.
Tiny cells get organized to form body organs. These organs form
large system for digestion, circulation and information processing.
These systems are part of larger system- the individual who in turn
is part of family and society. So, we are bio-psychosocial systems.
To understand our behavior, we need to study how these biological,
social and psychological systems work and interact.

3.2 NEURAL COMMUNICATION:

Neural communication is any type of signaling that takes

place between neurons throughout the nervous system. So, let us
first see what are neurons and how do they transmit the
information.

3.2.1 Neuron:
Fig.3.1
 43
The neuron (nerve cell) is the fundamental unit of the
nervous system. Neurons have many different shapes and sizes.
However, a typical neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, an
axon and synaptic terminals. As you can see in figure 3.1 dendrites
are like fibers branching out from cell body. Dendrites are thin
structures that arise from the cell body, often extending for
hundreds of micrometers and branching multiple times, giving rise
to a complex "dendritic tree”. The dendrites receive information and
pass it on to cell body. On the other side of cell body, an axon
arises from the cell body at a site called the axon hillock and travels
for a long distance. See Fig.3.2.

Fig.3.2

Compare to dendrites, axons may be very long projecting

several feet from the cell body. Axons are covered in a myelin
sheath, a layer of fatty tissues that insulates axons and that
increases the speed of impulses passed through those axons. This
is similar to electric wires used at home. They are insulated with
plastic cover so that electric impulse passing through wire does not
get lost and speed does not come down. The myelin sheath is laid
down up to the age of 25 approximately. As myelin sheath keeps
covering neurons, our neural efficiency, judgment and self-control
grows. If the myelin sheath degenerates, multiple sclerosis takes
place and the communication to muscles slows down and
eventually loss of muscle control takes place.

Fig.3.3
 44
Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon undergoes
extensive branching, enabling communication with many target
cells. Axon passes the message through axon terminal branches to
other neurons or to muscles or glands. Axon terminal transmit
signals to other neuron dendrites or tissues (like a radio transmitter)
So, we can say dendrites listen and axons speak. See Fig.3.3.

When neuron’s dendrites receive information from our

senses or from neighboring neurons, in the form of electrical or
chemical signals, they transmit these signals through an impulse
called the action potential, which is a brief electrical charge that
travels down its axon. Researchers measure brain activities in
milliseconds and computer activities in nanoseconds. So, even
though our brain is much more complex than a computer, it is
slower than computer in executing simple responses.

A neuron that is at rest, that is not currently firing a neural

impulse is actually electrically charged. The inside of the cell is
actually a semi liquid solution in which there are electrically charged
particles called ions. There is semi liquid solution surrounding the
outside of the cell also. This outside semi liquid also contains
sodium ions. The ions inside the cell are negatively charged while
the ions outside the cell are positively charged. This difference in
charges is an electrical potential. The cell wall itself is permeable
(porous), so, some substance that is outside the cell can enter
through this porous cell wall and some substance within the cell
can come out of the cell through this porous wall. Positively
charged sodium ions are too big to enter the cell membrane when
the cell is at rest because even though the cell membrane is
permeable, the openings are too small at resting state. When the
cell is resting, that state is called resting potential. As the outside
ions are positively charged and ions inside the cell are negatively
charged, these opposite electrical charges attract each other. The
sodium ions cluster around the cell wall.

3.2.2 Action Potential:

When the cell receives a strong enough stimulation from
another cell (that is when dendrites of the cell get activated), the
cell membrane opens up special gates, one after the other, all
down its surface that allows the sodium ions to rush into the cell.
This causes the inside of the cell to become positive and outside of
the cell becomes negative. This electrical charge reversal starts at
the axon hillock where axon is closest to cell body, where the first
gate opens and then proceeds down the axon in a kind of chain
reaction. This electrical charge reversal is known as action
potential because the electrical potential is now in action rather
than at rest. In other words, action potential means that the cell is
now positive inside and negative outside at the point where the
gate opened. Each action potential sequence takes about one-
 45
thousandth of a second. Depending upon the type of fiber in a
neuron, some neural impulse travels at speeds ranging from 2
miles per hour (slowest) to 270 miles per hour (fastest). After the
action potential passes, the cell membrane pumps the positive
sodium ions back outside the cell and shuts the gates one by one
until the next action potential opens the gates again. The cell
becomes negative inside and positive outside once again, restoring
the cell to its resting potential. Resting pause is also known as
refractory period. In short, we can say that when the cell is
stimulated, the first gate opens and the electrical charge at that
gate only is reversed. Then the next gate opens and charge at that
gate only is reversed. In the meantime, the first gate closes and the
charge returns to its original state, i.e., negative inside and positive
outside the cell. The action potential is the sequence of gates
opening all the way down to the length of the cell.

Fig.3.4

Each neuron is itself a miniature decision making device

performing complex calculations as it receives signals from
hundreds or even thousands of other neurons. Most signals are
excitatory that is like pushing a neuron’s accelerator, some are
inhibitory, that is like pressing the break. If excitatory signals minus
the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity or threshold, the
combined signals trigger an action potential. It is similar to saying,
majority wins. If excitatory signals are more than inhibitory signals
then action potential takes place. When a neuron does fire, it fires
in an all-or-none fashion. Neurons are either firing at full strength or
not firing at all. Increasing the level of stimulation above the
threshold does not increase the neural impulse’s intensity.
However, a strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire and to
 46
fire more often and more quickly. But it does not affect the action
potential’s strength or speed. See Fig. 3.4.

3.2.3 How Neurons Communicate:

Now let us see how do neurons communicate with each
other and with the body. If you see fig. 3.1, you will see that at the
end point, axon has many branches that are called axon terminals.
Dendrites of receiving neuron and axon terminals of message
sending neuron don’t touch each other. The axon terminal of one
neuron is separated from the receiving neuron by a synaptic gap
/synaptic cleft which is less than a millionth of an inch wide. So how
do the neurons send message across the tiny synaptic gap.

Fig. 3.5

The answer is that the tip of each axon terminal has a little
knob on it. These knobs are called synaptic knob or terminal
buttons. The synaptic knob has a number of little saclike structures
in it that are called synaptic vesicles. These synaptic vesicles are
filled with fluid and a chemical substance called neurotransmitters.
When an action potential reaches the synaptic knob/terminal button
at the axon’s end, it triggers release of chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters. Within 1/10,000th of a second, the
neurotransmitter molecules cross the synaptic gap and get
attached to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron. The
dendrites of a receiving neuron contain special little locks called
receptor sites. These locks have a special shape that allows only a
particular molecule of neurotransmitter to fit into it, just as a key fit
into a lock. The neurotransmitter unlocks tiny channels at the
receiving site and electrically charged atoms flow in, exciting or
inhibiting the receiving neuron’s readiness to fire. Then in a process
called reuptake, the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess
neurotransmitters. See Fig 3.5.
 47
3.2.4 How Neurotransmitters influence us:
Research studies have shown that neurotransmitters
influence our hunger, thinking, depression and euphoria, addiction
and therapy and many other functions. However, right now we will
see the influence of neurotransmitters on our motions and
emotions. Particular neurotransmitters affect specific behaviors and
emotions. However, neurotransmitter systems don’t operate in
isolation, they interact and their effects vary with the receptors that
they stimulate. For example, a neurotransmitter called
Acetylcholine plays a role in learning and memory. It is also the
messenger at every junction between motor neurons (which carry
information from the brain and spinal cord to the body) and skeletal
muscles. When ACh is released to our muscle cell receptors, the
muscle contracts. If ACh transmission is blocked as happens during
some kinds of anesthesia, the muscle cannot contract and we are
paralyzed.

Our body releases several types of neurotransmitter

molecules similar to morphine in response to pain and vigorous
exercise. These endorphins explain why people have good feeling
as “runner’s high”, the painkilling effect of acupuncture, and the
indifference to pain in some severely injured people. So,
endorphins lessen pain and boosts good mood.

3.2.5 Impact of Drugs and Other Chemicals on

Neurotransmitters:
When the brain is flooded with opiate drugs such as heroin
and morphine, the brain may stop producing its own natural
opiates. When the drug is withdrawn, the brain may then be
deprived of any form of opiate, causing intense discomfort. For
suppressing the body’s own neurotransmitter production, nature
charges a price. Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry
at synapses, often by either exciting or inhibiting neuron’s firing.

Agonist molecules may be similar enough to a

neurotransmitter to bind its receptor and mimic its effects. Some
opiate drugs are agonists and produce a temporary “High” by
amplifying normal sensation of arousal and pleasure.

Antagonists also bind to receptors but their effect is instead

to block a neurotransmitter’s functioning. Botulin, a poison that can
form in improperly tinned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh
release. Small injections of botulin- Botox- smooth wrinkles by
paralyzing the underlying facial muscles. These antagonists are
enough like the natural neurotransmitters to occupy its receptor
sites and block its effects. But they are not similar enough to
stimulate the receptor. It is like having a foreign coin which is
identical to size and shape of Indian coin that fits into wending
machine slot but won’t operate the machine. Curare, a poison that
 48
hunters apply to arrow’s tips occupies and blocks ACh receptor
sites on muscles, so that animal struck with arrow gets paralyzed.

3.3 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The essence of living is to take in information from the world

and the body’s tissues, to make decisions and to send back
information and orders to the body’s tissues. All this happens due
to our body’s nervous system. So, let us see how our nervous
system works. The nervous system is the body’s speedy,
electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve
cells of the peripheral and central nervous system. Nerves are like
electric wires. These nerves are formed by bundles of axons and
link the CNS with the body’s sensory receptors, muscles and
glands. Our nervous system is broadly divided into two parts- (see
Fig.3.6& Fig.3.7)

Fig. 3.6

3.3.1 The Central Nervous System (CNS)

It consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is the body’s
decision maker. Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of
neurons that control the life sustaining functions as well as all
thoughts, emotions and behavior.

The Brain: The brain enables our humanity – our thinking, feeling
and acting. It consists of approximately 40 billion neurons, each
connecting with roughly 10,000 other neurons. The brain’s neurons
cluster into work groups called neural networks. Just as people
tend to network with their neighbors, similarly, neurons network with
nearby neurons with which they can have short, fast connections.
Neurons that fire together wire together. For instance, learning to
play violin, speaking a foreign language, solving a math problem
takes place as feedback strengthens connections.
 49
Fig.3.7

The Spinal Cord: It is a two-way information highway connecting

the peripheral nervous system and the brain. The inner part of
spinal cord appears to be grey while outer part appears to be white.
The inner part of spinal cord is mainly composed of cell bodies of
neuron and outer part of spinal cord consists of axons and nerves.
The outer section of spinal cord is merely a message pipeline,
bringing messages from the body up to the brain and messages or
decisions from the brain down to the body.

There are three types of neurons- sensory neurons that carry

messages from the senses to spinal cord, motor neurons that carry
messages from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands and inter
neurons that connect the sensory neurons to the motor neurons
and make up the inside of the spinal cord and the brain itself.

The Reflex: Our reflexes are our automatic responses to stimuli

and are an example of how our spinal cord works. The inner part of
spinal cord which is made up of cell bodies is actually a primitive
sort of brain. This part of the spinal cord is responsible for certain
reflexes which are very fast, lifesaving reflexes. A simple spinal
reflex pathway is composed of a single sensory neuron and a
single motor neuron and these often communicate through
interneuron. For example, knee-jerk response, even a headless
warm body can do it.

Another such pathway enables the pain reflex. When our

finger touches a flame, neural activity (excited by the heat) travels
via sensory neuron to inter neurons in our spinal cord. These inter
neurons respond by activating motor neurons leading to the
muscles in our arm. Since the simple pain reflex pathway runs
through the spinal cord and right back out, our hand jerks away
from the flame before the brain receives and responds to the
information that caused us to feel the pain. This is the reason why it
appears that our hand jerks away not by our choice but on its own.
 50
The question comes to mind that if information travels to and
from the brain through the spinal cord, what will happen if the top of
spinal cord is severely damaged. Then there will be no connection
between brain and spinal cord. Logically then, with your brain
literally out of touch with your body, you would lose all sensation
and voluntary movement in body regions with sensory and motor
connections to the spinal cord below its point of injury. The
research shows that we are capable of giving a response even
when certain brain centers are damaged. For instance,
Goldstein(2000) reported that when the brain center controlling the
erection is damaged, men paralyzed below the waist were capable
of having an erection( a simple reflex) when their genitals were
stimulated.

3.3.2 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

It is responsible for collecting information and for transmitting
central nervous system’s decisions to other parts of the body. The
peripheral nervous system has two parts – Somatic and autonomic
nervous system.

Somatic nervous system:

It enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles. It is
made up of all the nerves carrying messages from the senses to
the CNS (central nervous system) and all of the nerves carrying
messages from the CNS to the muscles of the body- especially the
skeletal muscles, that is, muscles connected to the bones of our
body. This allows people to move their bodies. For example, when
people are walking, raising their hands in class, smelling a flower or
seeing a pretty picture, they are using somatic nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system:

While the somatic part of the peripheral nervous system
controls the senses and voluntary muscles, the autonomic part of
the peripheral nervous system controls everything else in the body
such as organs, the glands and the involuntary muscles of our
internal organs and influences activities such as heartbeat,
digestion and glandular activity. Usually this system operates on its
own that is why it is called autonomic nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system also consists of two parts-

¾ The sympathetic nervous system and
¾ Parasympathetic nervous system.

The sympathetic nervous system:

It is located in the middle of the spinal cord column, running
from near the top of the ribcage to the waist area. It arouses and
expends energy. If something alarms or challenges us (e.g. coming
across a snake) our sympathetic nervous system will increase the
heartbeat, raise our blood pressure, slow our digestion, raise blood
 51
sugar and cool us with perspiration. This makes us alert and ready
for action. The heart draws blood away from nonessential organs
such as skin (so at first the person may appear pale), and
sometimes draws blood from even the brain itself (so the person
might actually faint). Blood needs lot of oxygen before it goes to the
muscles, so the lungs work overtime too (the person may begin to
breath faster). While dealing with a stressful situation, digestion of
food and elimination of waste are not necessary functions, so these
systems tend to be shut down. Saliva dries up, the urge to go to the
bathroom will be suppressed but if the person is really scared, the
bladder or bowls may actually empty.

In fact, the sympathetic nervous system is known as “fight-

or-flight system” because it allows people and animals to deal with
all kinds of stressful events. The sympathetic division’s job is to get
the body ready to deal with the stress. It is also said that the
sympathetic division is in sympathy with one’s emotions. These
emotions may be anger, extreme joy, or extreme excitement. Even
extreme emotions can be stressful and it deals with them.

The parasympathetic nervous system:

It gets activated once the danger is over and it will produce
opposite effects. It will conserve our energy by decreasing our heart
beat, lowering blood sugar, constricts the pupils, reactivates
digestion and excretion, etc.

In everyday situations, the sympathetic and parasympathetic

nervous systems work together to keep us in a steady internal
state. In other words, its job is to restore the body to normal
functioning after a stressful situation ends.

If the sympathetic division can be called the fight-or-flight

system, the parasympathetic division can be called “the-eat-drink-
and-rest system”. The neurons of this division are located at the
top and bottom of the spinal column or either side of the
sympathetic division of neurons. The parasympathetic division does
more than just react to the activity of the sympathetic division. It is
responsible for most of the ordinary, day to day bodily functioning. It
keeps the heart beating regularly, breathing normal, and digestion
going on. People spend most part of the day in eating, sleeping,
digesting and excreting. So, it is the parasympathetic division that is
normally active.
 52
Fig 3.8

See Fig 3.8 to see the summary of difference between

sympathetic and parasympathetic division.

3.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:

Write short notes on

a) Importance of studying human biology
b) Structure of neuron
c) Action potential
d) Influence of neurotransmitters
e) Impact of drugs and other chemicals on neurotransmitters
f) The peripheral nervous system
g) The central nervous system
h) Sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
i) Parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
 53

3.5 SUMMARY:

In this unit, we began with why it is necessary for us to

understand the biological part of human body. We said our
cognitive part is intertwined with our biological part. While talking
about the biological part we have concentrated on nervous system.
The smallest unit of nervous system is neuron. So, we discussed
the structure and functioning of neuron. We also discussed how
communication takes place among neurons, how neurotransmitters
influence our actions, motions and emotions, and how
neurotransmitters get influenced by certain drugs and chemicals.
Then we discussed the nervous system in broader terms, where we
said that nervous system is divided into two parts- central nervous
system (that consists of brain and spinal cord) and peripheral
nervous system (that consists of nerves reaching out to each and
every part of the body. The peripheral nervous system can be
further divided into somatic and autonomic nervous system and
autonomic nervous system can be further divided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. The
sympathetic nervous system gets activated when we are faced with
extremely stressful situation and it readies body to face that
challenging situation. On the other hand, the parasympathetic
division of autonomic nervous system helps us to cool down after
the stressful situation is over and it is involved in our daily activities.

3.6 QUESTIONS:

1. With the help of a diagram, explain the structure and functioning

of a neuron.
2. Write a detailed note on neural communication.
3. How neurons communicate and how neurotransmitters
influence us?
4. Explain in detail action potential and how neurons communicate.
5. What are the functions of the nervous system’s main divisions?

3.7 REFERENCE:

1) Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
ltd.

™™™™
 54

4
THE BIOLOGY OF MIND - II
Unit Structure :
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Endocrine System
4.3 The Brain - The Tools of Discovery
4.3.1 Older brain structures
4.3. 2 The cerebral cortex
4.3.3 Our divided brain; right-left differences in the intact
brain
4.4 Close-up - Handedness
4.5 Check your progress
4.6 Summary
4.7 Questions
4.8 References

4.0 OBJECTIVES:

After reading this unit you will be able–

To understand the role of various glands in influencing our
body’s functions and behavior
Understand the structure of brain and functions of various parts
of brain

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

In previous unit, we studied about the neurons. In present

unit, we will look at endocrine system –a set of glands that are
interconnected with our nervous system and play a significant role
in the growth and functioning of the body. We had also mentioned
before, a famous saying by Descartes, a French philosopher, that “I
think, therefore I am”. We exist as vibrant, full of life human beings,
because we have a very complex organ in our body called brain.
Our brain differentiates us from other species of animal kingdom
and frees us from instincts. It is because of our brain that we are
not merely responding to the environment and merely surviving, we
are also thinking, storing memories, knowledge and we are
creating. Our brain enables us to have foresight, imagine and plan
and it is due to our brain that we have been able to develop
technology that has helped us to conquer not only the other species
 55
who are physically much stronger to us, but also to travel beyond
our planet. So, let us see, how our endocrine system and brain
functions.

4.2 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:

The endocrine system is a second communication system

interconnected with our nervous system. The endocrine system is
the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.

The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland,

thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal gland,
pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males). The
endocrine system affects almost every organ and cell in the body.
The glands secrete a form of chemical messengers that is called
hormones. These hormones travel through the blood stream and
affect other tissues, including the brain. When hormones act on the
brain, they influence our interest in sex, food and aggression. Some
hormones are chemically identical to neurotransmitters. So we can
say that endocrine system and nervous system are close relatives.
Like relatives, they are similar to each other yet there are subtle
differences between them. For instance, in nervous system the
message travels at a fraction of a second while in endocrine
message travels through bloodstream and takes several seconds
or more to travel from gland to the target issue. It is similar to
saying that nervous system messages are like text messages while
endocrine messages are like posting a letter.

However, endocrine messages have long lasting effects than

neural messages. That is why, when we get upset, it takes time for
us to cool down. When we face any danger, the adrenal gland
which is situated on top of the kidney releases epinephrine and nor
epinephrine (or what we call adrenaline and nor adrenaline). These
hormones increase heart rates, blood pressure and blood sugar,
enabling us to have a surge of energy to deal with the emergency.
But when the emergency passes away, the hormones and the
feelings of excitement lingers for some time before fading.

Another endocrine gland that is most influential is pituitary

gland. It is a pea sized gland situated in the core of the brain, where
it is controlled by an adjacent brain area- the hypothalamus. The
pituitary gland releases certain hormones such as growth hormone
that stimulates physical development and oxytocin hormone.
Oxytocin hormone enables uterine contractions associated with
birthing, milk flow during nursing and organism. Oxytocin also
promotes pair bonding, group cohesion and social trust. In an
experiment, it was found that those who were given a nasal spray
 56
of oxytocin were more likely to trust strangers with their money than
those who were not given spray of this hormone (Kosfeld et.al.,
2005)
Pituitary secretions also influence the release of hormones
by other endocrine glands. Thus, we can say, pituitary gland is like
a master gland which is controlled by hypothalamus. For example,
a stressful event triggers hypothalamus; hypothalamus instructs
pituitary gland to release a hormone that causes adrenal glands to
release cortisol, a stress hormone that increases blood sugar.

Fig.4.1

Figure 4.1 reveals the intimate connection of the nervous

and endocrine systems.

The Pineal gland: The Pineal gland is also located in the brain,
nearer to the back. It secretes melatonin hormone that controls
circadian rhythm, induction of drowsiness and lowering of the core
body temperature. In other words, it regulates the sleep-wake
cycle.

The Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland

located at the base of the neck. It releases hormones to regulate
metabolic rate of our body by stimulating body oxygen and energy
consumption. It also plays a role in bone growth and development
of the brain and nervous system in children. Thyroid hormones also
help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, digestion, muscle
tone, and reproductive functions.

Parathyroid Gland: It regulates calcium levels in the blood and

bone metabolism.

Pancreas: The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions.

One part of the pancreas, the exocrine pancreas, secretes
digestive enzymes. The other part of the pancreas, the endocrine
pancreas, secretes hormones called insulin and glucagon. These
hormones regulate the level of glucose in the blood.

4.3 THE BRAIN - THE TOOLS OF DISCOVERY:

In ancient times, scientists had no tools to study a living

human brain. They used to dissect the brains of dead humans and
animals to understand how brain worked. But it was impossible to
tell the functioning of various parts of brain from the dead brain.
 57
Early clinical observations by doctors and psychologists
revealed that there is some connection between brain and mind.
For example, it was found that damage to one side of the brain
often caused numbness or paralysis on the body’s opposite side.
This suggested that body’s right side is wired to the left side of the
brain and left side of the body is wired to right side of the brain. It
was also observed that our vision or ability to see clearly was
impacted with the damage to the back portion of the brain and a
person will have speech difficulties if the left-front part of the brain
is damaged.

However, now many new techniques have been developed

to study living brain. Some of them are –

Deep Lesioning and Electrical Stimulation:

One way to study the functioning of various areas of the
brain is by damaging those areas selectively and deliberately, and
then studying its impact on animals or humans’ abilities. Another
way is that instead of destroying the part of brain, scientists may
just stimulate electrically some particular area of the brain and
watch the results. Both selectively destroying (lesion) and
stimulation of specific areas of brain is done by same method. A
thin wire insulated everywhere except the very tip is surgically
inserted into the brain of the test animal. If brain tissue is to be
destroyed then a strong electric current is passed through the tip of
the wire to destroy the neurons. This is called deep lesioning. We
obviously need to do studies using this method only with animals
for ethical reasons.

In the laboratory, studies have shown that damage to one

area of hypothalamus in a rat’s brain reduces eating to the point of
starvation, whereas damage to another area of brain produces
overeating.

If researchers want to only stimulate a particular area of the

brain, then a mild current is passed through the tip of the wire,
causing the neuron to react as if they have received a message.
This is called electrical stimulation of the brain. Now days,
neuroscientists can also chemically or magnetically stimulate parts
of brain.

Laboratory studies using this stimulation method have

shown that depending on the stimulated part of the brain people
may giggle, hear voices, turn their head, feel themselves falling or
they may have out – of - body experience.

Scientists, now days can also study the messages of

individual neurons. For example, modern microelectrodes (very
small tip of the wire) can detect, exactly where the information goes
 58
in a cat’s brain when someone strokes its whiskers. Researchers
can also listen the chatter of billions of neurons and can see color
representations of the brain’s energy consuming activity.

The EEG:
Our mental activities emit electrical, metabolic and magnetic
signals that help scientists to study the brain at work. This is a very
safe way to study the activity of the living brain. Electrical activity in
the brain’s billions of neurons creates regular waves across its
surface. Scientists study these electrical activities by using a
method called electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG is an amplified
read-out of these electrical waves. Researchers record the brain
waves through a shower cap like hat that is filled with electrodes
that are covered with a conducting gel. Electrodes are small metal
disks that are placed directly on the skin of the skull. These
microelectrodes are attached to wires and the wires are attached to
pens that rest on the moving graph paper. These microelectrodes
can detect electrical activity which causes pens to move and create
short irregular curvy lines or waves that indicate many things, such
as stages of sleep, seizures, presence of tumors, etc. The EEG can
also be used to identify which areas of the brain are active during
tasks such as reading, writing, and speaking.

PET (Positron emission tomography):

PET is a neuroimaging technique that allows us to see inside
the living brain. It shows the picture of brain activity by showing
each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel, the glucose.
The person, whose brain the scientist wants to study, is injected
with a radioactive glucose. The computer detects the activity of the
brain cells by looking at which cells are using up the radioactive
glucose and projecting the image of that activity onto a monitor.
Active neurons are glucose hogs. When after a person receives
temporarily radioactive glucose, the PET scan can track the gamma
rays released by this “food for thought” as the person performs the
given task. The computer uses colors to indicate different levels of
activity. Areas that are very active usually show up as white or very
light and the areas that are inactive show up as dark blue. With this
method, researchers can actually have the person perform different
tasks while the computer shows what his brain is doing during the
task. PET scan can show which brain areas are most active when
the person is doing mathematics calculations, looks at images of
faces, or daydreams.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):

The person’s head is put in a strong magnetic field, which
aligns the spinning atoms of brain molecules. Then a radio wave
pulse momentarily disorients the atoms. When the atoms return to
their normal spin, they give out signals that provide a detailed
picture of soft tissues, including the brain.
 59
Since many images are taken milliseconds apart, it shows
how the brain responds to different stimuli, enabling researchers to
study both the functional and structural brain abnormalities in
psychological disorders. MRI scans have revealed a larger than
average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who
display perfect pitch. MRI scans have also revealed enlarged
ventricles, that is fluid filled areas, in some patients of
schizophrenia.

fMRI (Functional MRI):

fMRI can reveal the brain’s functioning and its structure.
Blood goes to the parts of brain that are active. By comparing MRI
scans taken less than a second apart, researchers can watch which
specific brain areas are activated and where oxygen-laden blood
flow increases. For example, when a person looks at a picture, the
fMRI machine detects blood rushing to the back of the brain
because that area processes visual information. Such pictures of
the brain’s changing activity give us a new insight into how brain
divides its work. For instance, a fMRI study suggested which part of
the brain is most active when people feel pain or rejection, listen to
angry voices, think about scary things, feel happy or become
sexually excited. In another study, 129 people were given eight
different tasks to perform such as reading, gambling or rhyming and
their brains were studied through fMRI. It was found that
neuroscientists were able to predict with 80% accuracy what mental
activity was being done by the participant.

All these techniques to study brain have helped

psychologists in the same way as microscope helped the biology
and telescope helped in astronomy.

4.3.1 Older Brain Structures:

The capacities of human beings and animals come from
their brain structures. In primitive animals, brain structure is very
simple and regulates basic survival functions. In lower mammals, a
more complex brain structure enables emotions and greater
memory, apart from survival functions. In advanced mammals such
as human beings, a more advanced brain structure processes more
information and enables increased foresight apart from all other
functions performed by less advanced brain structures.

The increased complexity of human’s brain comes from new

brain system that is built on top of the old brain system. Just as in
case of earth, if we dig deeper, we can see the original rocks on
which new landscapes have come up, similarly, if we dig deep
down, we can see the fossil remnants of the past that is brainstem
components performing the same tasks that they did for our
ancestors.
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So, let us start with the base of the brain and then study the
top portion of the brain or the newer systems of the brain.

The Brainstem:
The brain stem is the oldest and innermost part of the brain.
The brainstem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and
midbrain.

The medulla oblongata: The medulla oblongata is the lower half of

the brainstem continuous with the spinal cord. Its upper part is
continuous with the pons. It begins where the spinal cord swells
slightly after entering the skull. This slight swelling is called
medulla. (See Fig. 4.2) The medulla contains the cardiac,
respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centres dealing with heart rate,
breathing and blood pressure. We don’t need higher brain or
conscious mind to regulate our heart’s rate and breathing. The
brainstem takes care of those tasks. It is in the medulla that the
nerves coming from and going to the left and right side of the body
cross over, so that the left side of the brain controls the right side of
the body and vice versa.

Fig.4.2

The Pons: The Pons lies between the medulla oblongata and the
midbrain. The pons is the larger swelling just above the medulla.
The term pons in Latin means bridge and the pons is actually a
bridge between the lower and upper part of the brain. It influences
sleep and dreaming, helps in coordinating the movements of right
and left sides of the body and arousal.

The midbrain: The midbrain is a small region of the brain that

serves as a relay center for visual, auditory, and motor system
information. It is front part of the brainstem, and any disruption to
this area can cause irreversible damage and impairment. Illnesses
most commonly associated with this region of the brain are stroke,
schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease.

The Thalamus: Just above the brain stem is the thalamus. It is a

pair of egg shaped structures. The thalamus receives information
from all the senses except smell and relays this information to the
higher brain regions which deal with seeing, hearing, tasting and
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touching, where it can be processed. If this part of the brain is
damaged, all sensory information would not be processed and
sensory confusion will take place.

The Reticular Formation: Inside the brainstem, between your

ears, the reticular formation extends through the central core of the
medulla, pons, and stops in the midbrain. It is an intricate system
composed of finger shaped network of neurons that extends from
the spinal cord through thalamus. (See Fig. 4.3) It regulates
arousal, attention, sleep and awaking cycle. It filters incoming
stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background stimuli. Basically, it
allows people to ignore constant unchanging information (such as
the noise of a fan) and become alert to changes in the information
(for example, if the noise of the fan stops).

Fig.4.3

It is essential for governing some of the basic functions of

higher organisms and is one of the oldest part of the brain. Damage
to the reticular formation can lead to coma or death. In less severe
cases, a damaged reticular formation can cause fatigue, changes in
sexual arousal and disrupted sleep patterns.

The cerebellum:
Cerebellum is placed at the base of the skull just behind the
pons and below the main part of the brain. It looks like a small
brain. Cerebellum means little brain. The cerebellum is part of the
lower brain. The cerebellum is not unique to humans. Evolutionarily
speaking, it is an older portion of the brain. It is present in animals
that scientists believe existed before humans. The cerebellum
makes up approximately 10% of the brain’s total size but it
accounts for more than 50% of the total number of neurons located
in the entire brain. In adults, it weighs around 150 gm.
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Fig.4.4

Functions of Cerebellum: It helps -

• to judge time, modulate our emotions and
• to discriminate sounds and textures.
• to coordinates voluntary movements (especially those
movements that have to happen in rapid succession such as
walking, diving, skating, dancing, typing, playing musical
instrument and even the movement of speech) – It controls the
timing and pattern of muscle activation during movement.
• To maintain balance and equilibrium- people can sit upright
because the cerebellum controls all the little muscles needed to
keep them from falling out of their chair. Because of cerebellum,
people don’t have to consciously think about their posture,
muscle tone and balance.
• It enables nonverbal learning and memory.
• Learned reflexes, skills and habits are also stored here which
allows them to become more or less automatic.
• It also contributes to emotional responses.

If a person’s cerebellum is damaged, he will have difficulty in

walking, standing, keeping his balance or shaking hands. He can’t
even get a spoon to his mouth. The movements will be jerky and
exaggerated. He won’t be able to dance or play any musical
instruments such as guitar. Alcohol influences cerebellum and that
is why a drunk person cannot walk properly, or drive properly.
People with damaged cerebellum may also suffer from tremors,
cannot judge distance and when to stop, are unable to perform
rapid alternating movements. They have slurred speech and
abnormal eye movements.

The Limbic System:

Brain stem is the oldest part of the brain and the cerebral
hemisphere is the highest and newest region of the brain. Between
the oldest and newest brain areas lies the limbic system. It derives
 63
its name from a Latin word Limbus which means border. In this
case, forming a border around the brain stem. The Limbic system
contains three parts – the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the
hippocampus. (See Fig.4.4)

The Amygdala:
Amygdale is almond shaped mass of nuclei located near the
hippocampus. It is involved in emotional responses, hormonal
secretions, and episodic-autobiographical memory. Research has
linked amygdala to aggression and fear. Information from the
senses goes to the amygdala before the upper part of the brain is
even involved, so that people can respond to danger quickly,
sometimes before they are consciously aware of what is
happening.

Research has shown that damage to amygdala causes loss

of the aggressive behavior, and fear (Kluver & Bucy 1939). Another
research showed that electrical stimulation of one part of an
amygdala makes a docile pet cat aggressive while electrical
stimulation of another part of amygdala makes it fearful.

The Hypothalamus:
The hypothalamus is a very small (size of an almond) but
very powerful part of the brain that is located just below the
thalamus and is part of the limbic system. ‘Hypo’ means ‘just
below’, since it is just below the thalamus, it is called hypothalamus.
It links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary
gland. It sits right above the pituitary gland and controls the pituitary
gland by either stimulating or inhibiting the secretion of pituitary
hormones. Pituitary gland is called ‘master gland’ because it
controls the functions of all other endocrine glands, so the ultimate
regulation of hormones lies with the hypothalamus.

Functions of the hypothalamus: It regulates –

• Body temperature,
• Thirst,
• Hunger and weight control,
• Fatigue,
• Sleep cycles
• Sexual activity,
• Emotions,
• Important aspects of parenting and attachment behaviors.
• Childbirth
• Blood pressure and heart rate
• Production of digestive juices
• Balancing bodily fluids
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As signals are sent to the brain from different areas of the
body, they let the hypothalamus know if balance is not being
achieved. The hypothalamus then responds by releasing the right
hormones into the bloodstream to balance the body back out.

One example of this is the body's ability to maintain an

internal temperature of 98.6°F. If the hypothalamus receives the
signal that the body's internal temperature is too hot, it will tell the
body to sweat. If it receives the signal that the temperature is too
cold, the body will create its own heat by shivering.
Olds and Milner (1954) accidently made a remarkable
discovery about the hypothalamus. They were trying to implant an
electrode in a rat’s reticular formation but inadvertently placed it in
hypothalamus. They observed that the rat kept returning to the
location where it had been stimulated by this misplaced electrode.
Thus, they discovered a brain center that gives pleasure rewards.
In a series of experiments later on, they went on to discover other
‘pleasure centers’ in hypothalamus. Other scientists called these
pleasure centers as reward centers. It was observed that when rats
with implanted electrodes were allowed to press pedals to trigger
their own stimulation in these areas, rats kept pressing the pedals
at a very high speed – sometimes up to 7000 times an hour – till
they dropped from fatigue. Not only that, to get this stimulation, they
would even cross an electrified floor that normally a starving rat
would not do to reach food.
In fact, research with animals have shown that both a
general dopamine related reward system and specific centers
associated with pleasures of eating, drinking and sex are activated
by the stimulation of different parts of hypothalamus. The question
arises can we generalize this research to human beings also? The
answer is yes. Research has shown that human beings also have
limbic centers for pleasure. In one study, a neurosurgeon implanted
an electrode in such areas to calm a violent patient. Stimulated
patient reported mild pleasure, though he did not show the same
intensity as the stimulated rat showed in Old’s experiment. Other
experiments have shown the effects of a dopamine related reward
system also.
Researchers believe that addictive disorders such as
alcoholism, drug abuse, binge eating may be originating from
malfunctioning in natural brain systems for pleasure and wellbeing.
People who are genetically predisposed to reward deficiency
syndrome may crave for whatever gives that missing pleasure or
relieves negative feelings.

The Hippocampus:
The hippocampus is the Greek word for “seashore”. The
hippocampus looks like seashore. The hippocampus plays an
 65
important role in the consolidation of information from short term
memory to long term memory and in spatial memory that enables
navigation. It processes conscious memories and converts them in
long term memory. Animals or humans, who lose their
hippocampus due to surgery or injury, lose their ability to form new
memories (recent memory) of facts or events. Elderly people who
develop memory problems associated with deterioration of the
hippocampus tend to forget where they live, where they kept their
keys, and similar location problems.

4.3.2 The cerebral cortex:

If we open up the skull of a human being and look inside, the
brain looks like a wrinkled organ, almost resembling the meat of an
oversized walnut. This wrinkled portion that you are seeing is
cerebral cortex. Underneath cerebral cortex is the cerebrum. The
cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, forming 85% of its weight.
The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres joined by a
curved thick band of nerve fibers called corpus callosum. The
cerebral cortex is a thin surface layer that covers two hemispheres
of cerebrum just like the bark covers a tree trunk. This thin layer is
made up of interconnected neural cells. It is formed of grey and
white matter. The two hemispheres are filled with axons connecting
the cortex to the brain’s other regions. The cerebral cortex – the
thin layer contains 20 to 23 billion nerve cells and 300 trillion
synaptic connections.

These billions of nerve cells are supported by glial cells (glue

cells). Glial cells are the non-excitable supporting cells of the
nervous system. These glial cells are nine times more than neurons
and look like spiders. They support the neurons and are involved in
the nutrition and maintenance of nerve cells. One can say, neurons
are like queen bee while glial cells are like worker bees. (See Fig.
4.5)

Fig.4.5

Apart from providing nutrition, they give insulating myelin,

guide neural connections and mop up ions and neurotransmitters.
Because of their non-conducting nature, the glial cells act as
 66
insulators between the neurons and prevent neuronal impulses
from spreading in unwanted directions. They also play a part in our
learning and thinking. By “chatting” with neurons, they participate in
information transmission and memory. Although glia cells DO NOT
carry nerve impulses (action potentials) they do have many
important functions. In fact, without glia, the neurons would not
work properly.

In complex animal brains, the number of glia cells compared

to neurons increases. After Einstein’s death, scientists carried out a
postmortem of his brain and found that though he did not have
more or larger than usual neurons but he had more than average
concentration of glial cells.

The cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes

the brain more efficient, because it can increase the surface area of
the brain and the number of neurons within it. Animals like frog that
have small cortex do not have too many wrinkles in their cerebral
cortex. As we move up the ladder of animal life, the cerebral cortex
expands and becomes more wrinkled. As the cerebral cortex
expands, an organisms’ adaptability increases and genetic control
loosens. Since human beings and other mammals have larger
cortex, their capacity for learning, thinking adaptability is higher. It is
the complex functioning of our cerebral cortex that makes us
distinctly human. Over time, the human cortex undergoes a process
of corticalization, or wrinkling of the cortex. This process is due to
the vast knowledge that the human brain accumulates over time.
Therefore, the more wrinkly your brain, the smarter and more
intelligent you are.

Fig.4.6 Fig.4.7

Each hemisphere’s cortex is subdivided into four lobes

separated by prominent fissures or folds (see Fig. 4.6). These lobes
 67
are frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal lobes. The frontal lobes
start from the front of the brain and moves upto the top of the brain.
Frontal lobes are behind the forehead. The parietal lobes are at the
middle section of the brain. The occipital lobes are at the back of
the head and temporal lobes are just above the ears. (see
approximate locations of lobes in Fig. 4.7) Each of the four lobes
carry out many functions and many functions require interplay of
several lobes. For instance, the frontal lobe is associated with
reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive
language. The parietal lobe is associated with processing tactile
sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain. Damage to
the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, speech
perception, and language skills. The occipital lobe is associated
with interpreting visual stimuli and information. Damage to this lobe
can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an
inability to identify colors, and trouble recognizing words.

Motor Cortex:
Motor Functions: In 1870 physicians Gustav The odor
Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig, using awake dogs as their subjects,
electrically stimulated the area of the brain we now know as the
motor cortex and found that the stimulation caused the dogs to
move involuntarily. Additionally, they found that stimulating the
motor cortex in different locations caused different muscles to
move. This experiment led to the identification of the motor cortex
as the primary area of our brain involved with planning, controlling
and executing voluntary movements. Signals sent to your muscles
all originate in the motor cortex region. The motor cortex region is
responsible for all voluntary muscle movements, like drinking of
water or getting yourself out of bed in the morning. Scientists found
that body areas that require precise control such as fingers and
mouth occupy the greatest amount of cortical space. A Spanish
neuroscientist Jose Delgado stimulated a spot on a patient’s left
motor cortex, triggering the right hand to make a fist. When he
asked the patient to keep his fingers open during the next
stimulation, the patient’s fingers closed despite his best efforts. This
indicated that motor cortex has control over involuntary movements
also. In another experiment Gibbs (1996) could predict a monkey’s
arm motion a 10th of a second before it moved, by repeatedly
measuring motor cortex activity before specific arm movement. This
indicated that motor cortex is also involved in intention and planning
the movements. Such types of research studies have compelled
scientists to look at brain computer interface. Initial studies done
with monkeys on brain controlled computers have been successful.
Brain controlled computers can be a boon for people who have
suffered paralysis or amputation and cannot speak or move. In one
of such research study, a paralyzed young man could mentally
control a TV, draw shapes on a computer screen and play video
games (Hochberg et. al. 2006).
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Sensory Funtion:
The cortical area at the front of the parietal lobes, parallel to
and just behind the motor cortex is called the sensory cortex. If we
stimulate a point on the top of this band of tissue, the person may
report being touched on the shoulder and if you stimulate some
point on the side of this band of tissue, the person may feel
something on the face. Visual information from eyes is received in
the visual cortexin occipital lobes, at the back of the brain. If you
are hit hard at the back of your head, you may go blind. If that area
is stimulated, you may see flashes of light or dashes of color. (See
Fig.4.8 & 4.9)The auditory cortex is situated in temporal lobes just
above the ears and receives information from the ears. Most of this
auditory information travels a circuitous route from one ear to the
auditory receiving area above opposite ear.

Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9

The amount of cortex devoted to a particular body part is

directly proportional to that part’s sensitivity. For instance, our
supersensitive lips project to a larger cortex area than do our toes.

Association Areas:
Association areas are made up of neurons in the cortex that
are devoted to making connections between the sensory
information received in the brain and stored memories, images and
knowledge. Association areas give meaning to sensory information
coming in the brain. It means that these areas interpret, integrate
and act on sensory information and link it to stored memories – a
significant part of thinking. Unlike the sensory and motor areas,
association area functions cannot be neatly mapped.Association
areas take up an increasingly larger percentage of the cerebral
cortex as brain size increases among different species.

Association areas are found in all four lobes. In the frontal

lobes, they enable judgment, planning, and processing of new
memories. Higher order association cortex carries out complex
mental processes not associated with any particular sense. These
highest mental processes, like language, thinking, and planning, do
not depend on specific sensory information. Memory, language,
attention and religious experience result from the synchronized
 69
activity among distinct brain areas. More than 40 distinct brain
regions become active in different religious states, such as praying
and meditating. So our mental experiences arise from coordinated
brain activity.

People with damaged frontal lobes may have intact

memories, high score on intelligence tests and good skills,but they
would not be able to plan ahead to begin the skilled task.

Damage to frontal lobe can also change the personality of a

person and remove his inhibitions. For example, the case of a
railroad worker Phineas Gage. In 1848, he met with an accident,
where an iron rod went through his left cheek and came out of the
top of his skull. This severely damaged his frontal lobes. He was
immediately able to sit and speak and later on return to his work.
But he was no more friendly, soft spoken person. After this
accident, he became irritable, disrespectful and dishonest person.
His mental abilities and memories were intact but his personality
had changed.

Similar results have been reported by other studies of

damaged frontal lobes. People with damaged frontal lobes become
less inhibited, impulsive and their moral judgments are not
restrained by normal emotions. Their moral compass gets
disconnected from their behavior.

Parts of association areas in the parietal lobes in Einstein’s

brain were large and unusally shaped.They are responsible for
mathematical and spatial reasoning. Another association area, on
the underside of the right temporal lobe, enables us to recognize
faces. If this area is destroyed due to injury or stroke, a person
would be able to describe facial features and recognize gender and
age of the other person but will be unable to identify the person.
The Brain’s Plasticity:
The brain plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to CHANGE
throughout life. In addition to genetic factors, the environment in
which a person lives, as well as the actions of that person, play a
significant role in plasticity.

Brain plasticity occurs in the brain:

1- At the beginning of life: when the immature brain organizes
itself.
2- In case of brain injury: to compensate for lost functions or
maximize remaining functions.
3- Through adulthood: whenever something new is learned and
memorized
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Plasticity and brain injury:
When brain gets damaged, two things happen –
1. Damaged neurons usually do not regerate. If you get a cut on
your skin, your skin cells regenerate and your wound gets
healed, but that does not happen with neurons. If your spinal
cord is severed, you would be paralyzed permanently.
2. Since brain functions seem to be preassigned to specific areas,
if a newborn suffers damage to temporal lobe facial recognition
areas, later on he will be unable to recognize faces.

However, there is a silver lining to this gloomy picture. Some

neural tissues can reogarnize in response to damage. As
mentioned above, the brain is constantly changing, building new
pathways as it adjusts to minor mishaps and new experiences. In
young children, palsticity can occur even after serious damage. But
in order to reconnect, the neurons need to be stimulated through
activity.

Constraint-Induced Therapy:
This therapy can be used to rewire the brain and improve the
dexterity of a brain damaged child or adult stroke victim. In this
therapy, therapists force patients to not to use their fully functioning
limb and to use “bad” hand or leg. This gradually reprograms the
brain. For example, a 50 year old surgeon had suffered a stroke.
His left arm was paralyzed. During his rehabilitation, his good arm
and hand were immobilized and he was asked to clean tables. At
first, the task appeared to be impossible. Then slowly the bad arm
remembered how to move. He learnt to write again, to play tennis
again. The functions of the brain areas killed in the stroke were
transferred themselves to healthy regions. (Doidge,2007).

Research has shown that blindness and deafness makes

unused brain areas available for other uses. If a blind person uses
one finger to read Braille, the brain area dedicated to that finger
expands as the sense of touch invades the visual cortex that
normally helps people to see. Plasticity also explains why deaf
people have enhanced peripheral vision. In those people whose
native language is sign language only, the temporal area which is
normally dedicated to hearing does not get any stimulation and
finally it looks for other signals to process and starts processing
signals from visual system.

Similarly, if a tumor in left hemisphere disrupts language, the

right side hemisphere compensates. If a finger is amputated,the
sensory cortex that was receiving input from this finger will start
receiving input from the adjacent fingers, which then become more
sensitive.
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Neurogenesis:
Though brain tries to repair itself by reorganizing existing
tissues, sometimes it tries to repair itself by generating new brain
cells. This process is known as neurogenesis. It was long
considered that the number of neurons was fixed and they did not
replicate after maturity of the brain. But in 1990s, scientists
discovered the process of neurogenesis in the brains of humans
and some other animals such as rats, birds, monkeys. These baby
neurons originate deep in the brain and then migrate to other parts
of the brain to form connections with neighboring neurons. Master
stem cells that can develop into any type of brain cell have been
found in the human embryo. When stem cells from the brain are
isolated and grown in a dish, they continuously divide and create
large spherical masses of cells. If these cells are injected into a
damaged brain, neural stem cells turn themselves into replacement
for lost brain cells. This research gives hope for brain damaged
people. However, there are number of behavioral, environmental,
pharmacological and biochemical factors that affect this process.
For example, exercise, sleep, nonstressful but stimulating
environments, diet, etc. are natural promoters of neurogenesis.
Studies have shown that Cardiovascular exercise such as running,
interval training, cross fit and yoga are the single most effective
ways of boosting neurogenesis. Diet plays an important role in
brain health and neurogenesis. Excess refined sugar, refined and
processed foods have a detrimental effect on the brain and should
be avoided. Blueberries, green tea, spices and turmeric are
supportive of neurogenesis. Meditation has been found to increase
grey matter density in a number of different brain regions, including
the hippocampus and is beneficial for neurogenesis.

4.3.3 Our divided brain; right-left differences in the intact brain

Split Brain:
As we have seen in above discussion, our brain has two
same looking hemispheres – left and right hemisphere that serve
different functions. These two hemispheres are joined together by a
large band of neural fibers called corpus callosum. The corpus
callosum carries the messages between the two hemispheres. In
one research case, doctors removed this corpus callosum of a
patient suffering from major epileptic seizures. The result of this
operation was that seizures stopped and in spite of having split
brain, there was no change in the personality or intellect of the
person with split brain.
Many more experiments were conducted to see the effect of
cutting corpus callous. For instance, it has been found that -
a) When split-brain patients are shown an image only in their left
visual field (the left half of what both eyes take in, they cannot
vocally name what they have seen. This can be explained in
three steps: (1) The image seen in the left visual field is sent
only to the right side of the brain; (2) For most people, the
 72
speech-control center is on the left side of the brain; and (3)
Communication between the two sides of the brain is inhibited.
Thus, the patient cannot say out loud the name of that which the
right side of the brain is seeing.
b) If a split-brain patient is touching a mysterious object with only
the left hand, while also receiving no visual cues in the right
visual field, the patient cannot say out loud the name of that
which the right side of the brain is perceiving. This can be
explained in three steps: (1) Each cerebral hemisphere contains
only a tactile (connected with the sense of touch) representation
of the opposite side of the body; (2) For most humans, the
speech-control center is on the left side of the brain; and (3)
Communication between the two sides of the brain is inhibited.
In the case that the speech-control center is on the right side of
the brain, the object must now be touched only with the right
hand to achieve the same effect.
c) Gazzaniga and Sperry's split-brain research is now legendary.
They reported that in patients with split-brain syndrome the right
hemisphere, which controls the left hand and foot, acts
independently of the left hemisphere and the person’s ability to
make rational decisions. This can give rise to a kind of split
personality, in which the left hemisphere give orders that reflect
the person’s rational goals, whereas the right hemisphere
issues conflicting demands that reveal hidden desires. A few
people who had undergone split-brain surgery experienced the
unruly independence of their left and right hemisphere. So,
while a patient’s left hand unbuttoned his shirt, his right hand
buttoned it. In another case, a patient’s right hand picked up an
item from the shelf and put it in the shopping basket while his
left hand put that item back on the shelf. Sperry (1964) said,
split brain surgery leaves people with two separate minds. Both
hemispheres can understand and follow an instruction
simultaneously to copy different figures with the left and right
hand.
d) Gazzaniga’s research found that the right hemisphere of the
brain is poor at making inferences. On the other side, the
developed human left hemisphere excels at inferences,
constantly searching for patterns that can “make sense” of what
is going on, bringing order out of chaos, and giving us answers
to “why?” questions by discovering causes behind phenomena.
Gazzaniga (1988) reported that when two minds are in conflict,
the left hemisphere does mental gymnastics to rationalize
reactions that it does not understand. For instance, if a patient
follows an order sent to the right hemisphere (“walk”). Unaware
of the order, the left hemisphere does not know why the patient
began walking. Yet, when asked why was he walking, instead of
saying “I don’t know”, due to interpretive left hemisphere, the
 73
patient improvised and said, “I am going into the house to get a
Coke”. This indicates that conscious left hemisphere is an
interpreter that instantly constructs theories to explain our
behavior.
Right-Left Differences in the Intact Brain:
Myers points out that research with people with split brains
and people with intact brains shows that we have unified brains
with specialized parts. Thus, if we observe the two hemispheres
without optical aids (with the naked eye), they may seem to be the
same; however, their differential functioning combines to produce
an integrated unit (the harmony of the whole).People with intact
brain also show left-right hemisphere differences in mental abilities.
The left hemisphere: It is more responsible for language than the
right hemisphere. If you inject a sedative into the left hemisphere,
you will lose the ability to speak. This is also the case for those who
rely on sign language. Just as hearing people use the left
hemisphere to process speech; deaf people use the left
hemisphere to process sign language. If left hemisphere is
damaged, it will disrupt a deaf person’s signing just as it would
disrupt a hearing person’s speaking.

The left hemisphere is better with literal interpretations of

language, e.g., when primed with the word foot, the left hemisphere
is more likely to recognize the connected word, heel.

The right hemisphere: It is better at making inferences, for

example, when primed with the words foot, cry and glass, the right
hemisphere is more likely to recognize "cut" as the associated
word. Rights hemisphere helps -
a) Create our sense of self
b) Helps us to modulate our speech to make meaning clear
People with damage to this region might:
a.) Insist they can move a limb that is paralyzed
b.) Have a hard time determining someone’s relationship to
themselves, e.g., A man who thought medical professionals
were his family members
c.) Might not recognize themselves in mirror
d.) Might assign ownership of a limb to someone else, e.g., “That’s
my husband’s arm”
In short, we can compare left hemisphere with right
hemisphere by saying that in a normal individual

Left Brain people:

1. Right brain is engaged while completing a perceptual task and
left brain is involved when carrying out a linguistic task.
 74
2. Left brain individuals are rational, respond to verbal instructions,
process information in a controlled, systematic, linear manner.
They solve problem logically and sequentially looking at the
parts of things, makes objective judgments.
3. Left brain persons are list makers. They enjoy making a master
schedule and doing daily planning. They have no trouble
processing symbols, memorizing vocabulary words and math
formulas.
4. Analytic reader
5. Primary reliance on language in thinking and remembering
6. Prefers talking and writing
7. Prefers multiple choice test
8. Controls feelings
9. Prefers hierarchical authority structures
10. Talks, and talks, and talks
11. Sees cause and effect
12. Draws on previously accumulated, organized information
Right Brain People:
1. Right brain people process from a whole to a part, holistically.
They have difficulty in following a lecture unless they are given
the big picture first.
2. They are color sensitive. They try using colors to establish
sequences.
3. They are concrete. They want to see, feel, or touch the real
object. Right brain individuals need to back up everything
visually. They Responds to demonstrated instructions.
4. They may have trouble learning to read using phonics. They
may know what they mean but often have trouble finding the
right words.
5. They prefer to see words in context and to see how formulas
work. They learn better with hands on activities.
6. They are intuitive. They may know the right answer to a
problem, but are not sure how they got it. On a quiz, they have a
gut feeling as to which answers are correct, and they are usually
right. They solve problems with hunches, looking for patterns
and they make subjective judgments.
7. The right side of the brain pays attention to coherence and
meaning, tells you if it “feels” right.
8. When giving directions, they use their hands and give names of
places along the way.

4.4 CLOSE-UP - HANDEDNESS

Handedness refers to individual preference for use of a
hand, known as dominant hand. An individual gives better
performance with his dominant hand. The less preferred or less
capable hand is called the nondominant hand. There are three
types of handedness - right handedness, left handedness and
 75
mixed handedness. It is well known fact that almost 90% of human
beings are primarily right-handed and only 10% of us (more among
males and less among females) are primarily left handed. There
are few who use both their hands for different activities, e.g., they
may write with right hand and eat with left hand. It has been found
that almost all right handers process speech in the left hemisphere
and their left hemisphere is slightly larger than their right
hemisphere. Left handers are more diverse. Most of them process
speech in the left hemisphere only, but some process language in
right hemisphere or use both hemispheres.
It has been observed that right-handedness is common in all
human cultures and even in monkeys and apes. In fact, right-
handedness appears before the influence of culture takes place,
e.g., 9 out of 10 fetuses suck the right hand’s thumb. This universal
prevalence of right-handedness in humans and other primates
suggests that either genes or some prenatal factors are responsible
for right-handedness.
In general, people think that it is not right to be left-handed.
Studies have shown mixed results for deciding whether being right
handed is better or left handed. It has been found that people with
reading disabilities, allergies and migraine headaches are mostly
left-handed. On the other hand, studies have also reported that left
handedness is more common among musicians, mathematicians,
professional baseball and cricket players, artists and architects. In
Iran, left handed students taking university entrance exam
outperformed righties in all subjects (Noroozian et.al., 2003). So, it
is difficult to say being right handed is better than being left-handed.

4.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:

Write short notes on

a.) The Brainstem
b.) Pituitary gland
c.) The Hypothalamus
d.) MRI & fMRI
e.) Importance of association cortex
f.) Brain Plasticity
g.) Handedness
h.) The cerebral cortex
i.) Split brain
j.) Right brain people and left brain people.

4.6 SUMMARY:

In this unit, we have seen that everything psychological is

simultaneously biological. We began with looking at the impact of
endocrine system. It influences our bodily growth, helps in facing
 76
challenges and influences our emotions. We also looked at brain
and its complexities. To understand brain, we used techniques like
EEG, MRI, PET.

We have old brain consisting of brain stem, the thalamus,

the reticular formation and the cerebellum. Between new brain
parts and old brain parts lies limbic system. The limbic system
contains the amygdala, the hypothalamus and the hippocampus.
The new brain is the highest part of our brain and consists of
cerebral cortex. The cortex has two hemispheres and four lobes.
These two hemispheres are connected with each other with corpus
callosum. Even though both hemispheres have different distinct
functions, they work in tandem and if one part is damaged, the
other part takes over its functions. So, we have brain plasticity. We
also read about how our personality changes if our frontal lobes are
damaged, that epileptic seizures can be stopped by splitting brain.
We studied what kind of difficulties are faced by split brain
individuals and what is the difference between right and left
hemisphere. Finally, we also looked at how handedness influences
our behavior. That means how left-handed people are different from
right handed people. I hope you enjoyed knowing about the marvel
called brain.

4.7 QUESTIONS:

1. How does the endocrine system transmit information and

interact with the nervous system?
2. What structures make up the brainstem, and what are the
functions of the brainstem, thalamus, and cerebellum?
3. What are the limbic system’s structure and functions?
4. What are the functions of the various cerebral cortex regions?
5. Write a detailed note on brain plasticity.
6. What do split brains reveal about the functions of our two brain
hemispheres?

4.8 REFERENCE:

1) Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013

2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd.
 77

5
LEARNING-I
Unit Structure :

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction: How Do We Learn?
5.1.1 Learning
5.1.2 Characteristics of Learning
5.1.3 Types of Learning:
5.2 Classical Conditioning
5.2.1. Pavlov’s Experiment:
5.2.2. Pavlov’s Legacy:
5.3 Operant Conditioning
5.3.1 Skinner’s Experiment
5.3.2 Skinner’s Legacy
5.4. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning
5.5. Summary
5.6. Questions
5.7. References

5.0 OBJECTIVES:

After studying the unit, you must be able

Define learning and understand its characteristics.
Highlight the main aspects in Classical Conditioning theory.
Highlight the main aspects in Operant Conditioning theory.
Compare the Classical Conditioning theory and Operant
Conditioning theory of learning.

5.1 INTRODUCTION: HOW DO WE LEARN?

Learning is perhaps one of the most important human

abilities. You might think of learning in terms of what you need to do
before an upcoming exam, the knowledge that you take away from
your classes, or new skills that you acquire through practice, but
these changes represent only one component of learning. In fact,
learning is a very broad topic that is used to explain not only how
we acquire new knowledge and behavior but also a wide variety of
other psychological processes including the development of both
appropriate and inappropriate social behaviors. Learning allows us
to create effective lives by being able to respond to changes. We
 78

learn to avoid touching hot stoves, to find our way home from
school, and to remember which people have helped us in the past
and which people have been unkind. Without the ability to learn
from our experiences, our lives would be remarkably dangerous
and inefficient. The principles of learning can also be used to
explain a wide variety of social interactions, including social
dilemmas in which people make important, and often selfish,
decisions about how to behave by calculating the costs and
benefits of different outcomes. Learning encompasses everything
we do and think. It plays a central role in the language we speak,
our thoughts, our attitudes, our beliefs, our goals and our
personality traits which could be adaptive or maladaptive. After
reading this chapter you will be in position to understand how
learning plays an important role in many of the psychological
processes.

5.1.1 Learning:
Kimble defined learning as a “more or less permanent
change in behaviour potentiality, which occurs as a result of
repeated practice.”

Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change

in knowledge or behaviour that occurs as result of practice or
experience. This definition has some important components.

1) Learning is a change in behavior for better or worse.

2) It is a change that takes place through practice or experience.
3) Changes due to growth or maturation are not learning.
4) Before it can be called learning, the change must be relatively
permanent and it must last a fairly long time.
5) This change may not be evident until a situation arises in which
the new behavior can occur.

5.1.2 Characteristics of learning:

1) Learning is a constant modification of behavior that continues
throughout life.
2) Learning is dependent upon one’s innate intelligence and other
capabilities.
3) Learning is not possible without the basic minimum ability
needed to learn a task. As the nature of the task becomes
complex, so does the requirement for higher abilities.
4) Learning is developmental, time being one of its dimensions.
Learning is related to maturation too. The maturity of the
individual is an important factor in learning.
5) Environmental aspects of learning like opportunities as well as
facilities to learn are also important.
 79

6) What is learned need not be “correct” or adaptive. We learn

good habits as well as bad. Learning need not always involve
any overt manifestations. Attitudes and emotions can be learnt
as well.
7) Learning involves the whole person. Socially, emotionally and
intellectually. Interest and learning are positively related. The
individual learns best those things, which he is interested in
learning. Most kids find learning to play games easier than
learning to find square root of numbers.
8) Learning is responsive to incentives. In most cases positive
incentives such as reward are most effective than negative
incentives such as punishments.
9) Learning is always concerned with goals. These goals can be
expressed in terms of observable behaviour.

Thus, it is apparent that learning goes on with life and the

process of life. It is all pervasive, reaching into various aspects of
human life. You learn at each moment of your life.

Philosophers from Aristotle to David Hume were of the

opinion that we, human beings learn through association. Our mind
naturally connects events that occur in sequence. Learned
associations often operate subtly. Learned associations also feed
our habitual behavior. As we repeat behaviors in a given context,
the behavior becomes associated with the context, e.g., drinking
tea in the morning. Our next experience of the context then evokes
our habitual response, e.g., the moment we get up in the morning,
by habit we want to have tea. Studies have shown that on an
average, a particular behavior becomes part of our habits if it takes
place consistently for 66 days.

Even other animals learn through association. This is known

as associative learning. The process of learning associations is
called conditioning. There are two forms of associative learning –

1. Classical Conditioning
2. Operant Conditioning

Let us see both these forms of associative learning in detail.

5.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

In the early part of the 20th century, Russian physiologist

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was studying the digestive system of
dogs when he noticed an interesting behavioral phenomenon: The
dogs began to salivate when the lab technicians who normally fed
them entered the room, even though the dogs had not yet received
 80

any food. Pavlov realized that the dogs were salivating because
they knew that they were about to be fed; the dogs had begun to
associate the arrival of the technicians with the food that soon
followed after their appearance in the room. With his team of
researchers, Pavlov began studying this process in more detail.

5.2.1. Pavlov’s Experiment:

He conducted a series of experiments in which, over a
number of trials, dogs were exposed to a sound immediately before
receiving food. He systematically controlled the onset of the sound
and the timing of the delivery of the food, and recorded the amount
of the dog’s salivation. Initially the dogs salivated only when they
saw or smelled the food, but after several pairings of the sound and
the food, the dogs began to salivate as soon as they heard the
sound. The animals had learned to associate the sound with the
food that followed.

Pavlov had identified a fundamental associative learning

process called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers
to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone)
becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally
produces a behavior. After the association is learned, the
previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behavior.

As you can see in the Figure below “Panel Image of Whistle

and Dog", psychologists use specific terms to identify the stimuli
and the responses in classical conditioning. The unconditioned
stimulus (US) is something (such as food) that triggers a naturally
occurring response, and the unconditioned response (UR) is the
naturally occurring response (such as salivation) that follows the
unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is a neutral
stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the
unconditioned stimulus, evokes a similar response as the
unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the sound of the
tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning,
produced the conditioned response (CR), which is the acquired
response to the formerly neutral stimulus. Note that the UR and the
CR are the same behavior—in this case salivation—but they are
given different names because they are produced by different
stimuli (the US and the CS, respectively).

See Fig. 5.1-Top left: Before conditioning; the unconditioned

stimulus (US) naturally produces the unconditioned response (UR).
Top right: Before conditioning, the neutral stimulus (the whistle)
does not produce the salivation response. Bottom left: The
unconditioned stimulus (US), in this case the food, is repeatedly
presented immediately after the neutral stimulus. Bottom right: After
learning, the neutral stimulus (now known as the conditioned
 81

stimulus (CS), is sufficient to produce the conditioned responses

(CR).

Conditioning is evolutionarily beneficial because it allows

organisms to develop expectations that help them prepare for both
good and bad events. Imagine, for instance, that an animal first
smells new food, eats it, and then gets sick. If the animal can learn
to associate the smell (CS) with the food (US), then it will quickly
learn that the food that has bad smell creates the negative
outcome, and will not eat it the next time.

Figure 5.1: Panel Image of Whistle and Dog (Classical

Conditioning)

Key Elements in Classical Conditioning Model:

Pavlov identified four key elements in his classical
conditioning model:
1) Conditioned stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus
that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US),
comes to trigger a conditioned response.
2) Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to
conditioned stimulus is called Conditioned response.
3) Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that
unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a
response.
4) Unconditioned response (UR): The original response to the
unconditioned stimulus is called unconditioned response, such
as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Conditioning Processes:
Pavlov and his associates explored five major conditioning
processes: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery,
generalization and discrimination.
 82

1) Acquisition:
Association between conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus is called acquisition. In simple words, the
conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly
paired together and behavior increases. Acquisition is also called
initial learning of stimulus response relationship. Timing is an
important factor in acquisition. Pavlov found that the time lapse
between presenting neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
should not be more than half a second.

Another important point in acquisition is the sequence.

Conditioning will not occur if unconditioned stimulus appears before
neutral stimulus. This is because classical conditioning is
biologically adaptive. It helps humans and animals to prepare for
good or bad events, e.g., in Pavlov’s experiment, for the dog, the
originally neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus after
signaling an important biological event- the arrival of food. If instead
of food, something else, such as a flower was presented, the
conditioning would have not taken place. If food was presented
before sounding the bell, even then conditioning would not have
taken place, because the sound of bell does not help dog. It can be
concluded that ‘conditioning helps an animal survive and
reproduce- by responding to cues that help in gaining food, avoid
danger, locate mates and produce offspring. (Hollis, 1997)

2) Extinction:
Extinction refers to the repeated presentation of the conditioned
stimulus without unconditioned stimulus following it. This results in
conditioned response decreasing gradually. For example, if buzzer
is presented again and again without presenting food, dog will
gradually stop salivating to the buzzer.

3) Spontaneous recovery:
After a pause, when the CS is again presented alone, the behavior
may occur again, though in weaker form, and then again show
extinction. The increase in responding to the CS following a pause
after extinction is known as spontaneous recovery. For example,
after a time gap of few days, if once again buzzer is presented, the
dog will salivate little bit (spontaneous recovery) and if food is not
followed, the salivation will stop once again.

4) Generalization:
Generalization refers to the tendency to respond to stimuli
that resemble the original conditioned stimulus. For example, dog
will salivate to the sounds of bell, buzzer, etc. The ability to
generalize has important evolutionary significance. If we eat some
red berries and they make us sick, it would be a good idea to think
twice before we eat some purple berries. Although the berries are
 83

not exactly the same, they nevertheless are similar and may have
the same negative properties.

Researchers have also found that we like unfamiliar people

more if they look somewhat like someone we have learned to like.
These examples show that people’s emotional reactions to one
stimulus have generalized to another similar stimuli.

5) Discrimination:
This refers to the tendency to respond differently to stimuli
that are similar but not identical. Organisms must also learn that
many stimuli that are perceived as similar are functionally different
and they have to respond adaptively to each. This learned ability to
distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant
stimuli is called discrimination. For example, dog could learn to
distinguish between different sounds of buzzer depending upon
which sound was followed by unconditioned stimulus (food).

6) Second-order Conditioning:
Second - order conditioning occurs when a conditioned
stimulus which has been established during earlier conditioning is
then paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus and if this neutral
stimulus, by itself comes to evoke conditioned stimulus. For
example, Pavlov’s dog learns the association between buzzer
(conditioned stimulus) and food(unconditioned stimulus) and
salivates at the sound of buzzer (conditioned response). Once this
conditioning becomes strong, then an electric bulb lights up before
the buzzer is sounded and then food is presented. The dog will
learn the association between the light, buzzer and food and will
start salivating even when just the light is presented. This is known
as second order conditioning.

Laws of Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning:

There are three basic laws in classical conditioning.
Complete information about the laws are given below.

1) Law of Excitation:
It says that if a previously neutral CS is paired with the UCS,
the CS acquires excitatory properties. That is, it acquires the
properties of eliciting the CR.

2) Law of Internal Inhibition:

Internal inhibition develops when the conditioned stimulus is
not followed by the unconditioned stimulus. Internal inhibition
develops gradually and is acquired through learning. The type of
inhibition depends upon changes in the conditioned associations of
CS and US. For example, A dog who is trained to give CR to
buzzer will actively stop giving CR (salivation) if buzzer is not
followed by food repeatedly. Take another example, if a dog has
 84

been exposed to buzzer sound very often prior to conditioning,

then no conditioning will occur due to this pre-exposure or it will
take many more trials of associating buzzer sound with food before
we can convincingly say that CR ( salivation) is occurring due to
buzzer sound only.

3) Law of External Inhibition:

In essence, this law states that excitatory or inhibitory
process in the conditioning can be disrupted by novel distracting
stimuli. This is called law of external inhibition since the inhibition is
not being acquired in the learning process but from outside. For
example, when a loud sound reduces conditioned salivation to a
light. This external inhibition may be temporary or permanent.

5.2.2. Pavlov’s legacy:

Most psychologists agree that classical conditioning is a
basic form of learning. If we judge it by today’s knowledge of
cognitive processes and biological predispositions, Pavlov’s ideas
were incomplete. But if we see further than what Pavlov did, it is
because we stand on his shoulders. Why does Pavlov’s work
remain so important? If he had merely taught us that old dogs can
learn new tricks, his experiments would long ago have been
forgotten. Why should we care that dogs can be conditioned to
salivate at the sound of a tone? The importance lies first in this
finding: Many other responses to many other stimuli can be
classically conditioned in many other organisms—in fact, in every
species tested, from earthworms to fish to dogs to monkeys to
people (Schwartz, 1984). Subsequent studies have found out that
the principle made with the dog is applicable to all types of species
including us, human beings. Through Pavlov's work we were able
to find out that a process such as learning can be studied
objectively. For instance, Doctors use Classical conditioning to cure
patients. Patients easily get cured by sugar water because they
believe their doctor gave them the proper medication.

Thus, classical conditioning showed in one way that virtually

all organisms learn to adapt to their environment. Second, Pavlov
showed us how a process such as learning can be studied
objectively. He was proud that his methods involved virtually no
subjective judgments or guesses about what went on in a dog’s
mind. The salivary response is a behavior measurable in cubic
centimeters of saliva. Pavlov’s success therefore suggested a
scientific model for how the young discipline of psychology might
proceed—by isolating the basic building blocks of complex
behaviors and studying them with objective laboratory procedures.
These approaches made him one of the leaders in behaviorism and
behavior psychology
 85

5.3 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was the first

scientist to systematically study operant conditioning. In his
research Thorndike (1898) observed cats that had been placed in a
“puzzle box” from which they tried to escape. At first the cats
scratched, bit, and moved haphazardly, without any idea of how to
get out. But eventually, and accidentally, they pressed the lever that
opened the door and exited to their prize, a scrap of fish. The next
time the cat was constrained within the box, it attempted fewer of
the ineffective responses before carrying out the successful
escape, and after several trials the cat learned to almost
immediately make the correct response. Observing these changes
in the cat’s behavior led Thorndike to develop his law of effect, the
principle that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in
a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar
situation, whereas responses that produce a typically unpleasant
outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation (Thorndike,
1911). The essence of the law of effect is that successful
responses, because they are pleasurable, are stamped in by
experience and thus occur more frequently. Unsuccessful
responses, which produce unpleasant experiences, are stamped
out and subsequently occur less frequently.

5.3.1 Skinner’s Experiment:

Instrumental conditioning is sometimes also, roughly
speaking called as operant conditioning. This term was coined by
B.F. Skinner. The influential behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner
(1904–1990) expanded on Thorndike’s ideas to develop a more
complete set of principles to explain operant conditioning. Skinner
created specially designed environments known as operant
chambers (usually called Skinner boxes) to systemically study
learning. A Skinner box (operant chamber) is a structure that is big
enough to accommodate a rodent or bird and that contains a bar or
key that the organism can press or peck to release food or water. It
also contains a device to record the animal’s responses. The most
basic of Skinner‘s experiments were quite similar to Thorndike‘s
research with cats. A rat placed in the chamber reacted as one
might expect, scurrying about the box and sniffing and clawing at
the floor and walls. Eventually the rat chanced upon a lever, which
it pressed to release pellets of food. The next time around, the rat
took a little less time to press the lever, and on successive trials,
the time it took to press the lever became shorter and shorter. Soon
the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat the food that
appeared. As predicted by the law of effect, the rat had learned to
repeat the action that brought about the food and cease the actions
that did not.
 86

Figure 5.2: Skinners Experimental Box

Skinner studied, in detail, how animals changed their

behavior through reinforcement and punishment, and he developed
terms that explained the processes of operant learning. Skinner
used the term reinforcer to refer to any event that strengthens or
increases the likelihood of a behavior and the term punisher to refer
to any event that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a
behavior. What is reinforcing depends on the animal and the
conditions. For people, it may be praise, attention while for a
hungry rat it may be food.

Types of Reinforcers:
He used the terms positive and negative to refer to whether
a reinforcement was presented or removed, respectively.

1. Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting

something pleasant after the response.

2. Negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or

removing something unpleasant. For example, giving a child praise
for completing his homework represents positive reinforcement,
whereas taking aspirin to reduce the pain of a headache represents
negative reinforcement. In both cases, the reinforcement makes it
more likely that behavior will occur again in the future.

Difference between Negative Reinforcement and Punishment:

Reinforcement, either positive or negative, works by
increasing the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment, on the other
hand, refers to any event that weakens or reduces the likelihood of
a behavior. Positive punishment weakens a response by presenting
something unpleasant after the undesirable response, whereas
negative punishment weakens a response by reducing or removing
something pleasant. A child who is grounded after fighting with a
sibling (positive punishment) or who loses out on the opportunity to
go to recess after getting a poor grade (negative punishment) is
less likely to repeat these behaviors.
 87

Although the distinction between reinforcement (which

increases behavior) and punishment (which decreases it) is usually
clear, in some cases it is difficult to determine whether a reinforcer
is positive or negative. On a hot day, a cool breeze could be seen
as a positive reinforcer (because it brings in cool air) or a negative
reinforcer (because it removes hot air). In other cases,
reinforcement can be both positive and negative. One may smoke a
cigarette both because it brings pleasure (positive reinforcement)
and because it eliminates the craving for nicotine (negative
reinforcement).

Table 5.1: How Positive and Negative Reinforcement and

Punishment Influence Behavior.

Operant Description Outcome Example

conditioning term

Positive Add or increase a Behavior is Giving a student a

reinforcement pleasant stimulus strengthened prize after he gets
an A on a test.
Negative Reduce or remove Behavior is Taking painkillers
reinforcement an unpleasant strengthened that eliminate pain
stimulus increases the
likelihood that you
will take painkillers
again.
Positive Present or add an Behavior is Giving a student
punishment unpleasant weakened extra homework
stimulus after she
misbehaves in class.
Negative Reduce or remove Behavior is Taking away a
Punishment a pleasant Weakened teen‘s computer
stimulus after he misses
curfew.

It is also important to note that reinforcement and

punishment are not simply opposites. The use of positive
reinforcement in changing behavior is almost always more effective
than using punishment. This is because positive reinforcement
makes the person or animal feel better, helping create a positive
relationship with the person providing the reinforcement. Types of
positive reinforcement that are effective in everyday life include
verbal praise or approval, the awarding of status or prestige, and
direct financial payment. Punishment, on the other hand, is more
likely to create only temporary changes in behavior because it is
based on coercion and typically creates a negative and adversarial
relationship with the person providing the reinforcement. When the
person who provides the punishment leaves the situation, the
unwanted behavior is likely to return. Reinforcement helps to
increase a behavior, while punishment helps to decrease a
 88

behavior. Reinforcers and punishers have different types of

consequences.

Primary reinforcers: Such as food, water, and caresses, are

naturally satisfying.

Primary punishers: such as pain and freezing temperatures, are

naturally unpleasant.

Secondary reinforcers: Such as money, fast cars, and good

grades, are satisfying because they’ve become associated with
primary reinforcers.

Secondary punishers: such as failing grades and social

disapproval, are unpleasant because they’ve become associated
with primary punishers.

Secondary reinforcers and punishers are also called

conditioned reinforcers and punishers because they arise through
classical conditioning. Most real-world reinforcers are not
continuous; they occur on a partial (or intermittent) reinforcement
schedule—a schedule in which the responses are sometimes
reinforced, and sometimes not. In comparison to continuous
reinforcement, partial reinforcement schedules lead to slower initial
learning, but they also lead to greater resistance to extinction.
Because the reinforcement does not appear after every behavior, it
takes longer for the learner to determine that the reward is no
longer coming, and thus extinction is slower. The four types of
partial reinforcement schedules are summarized in table below.

Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers: Unlike other animals, humans

do respond to delayed reinforcers, for example, the salary at the
end of the month, good marks at the end of the exam, trophy at the
end of the series of game, etc. To function effectively, human
beings need to learn to delay gratification. Experimental studies
have shown that even four-year old kids show this ability to delay
gratification. While choosing a candy, they prefer having a big
reward next day rather than eating a small candy today. Children
who learn to delay gratification tend to become socially more
competent and high-achieving adults.

Shaping
Perhaps you remember watching a movie or being at a show
in which an animal—maybe a dog, a horse, or a dolphin—did some
pretty amazing things. The trainer gave a command and the dolphin
swam to the bottom of the pool, picked up a ring on its nose,
jumped out of the water through a hoop in the air, dived again to
the bottom of the pool, picked up another ring, and then took both
of the rings to the trainer at the edge of the pool. The animal was
 89

trained to do the trick, and the principles of operant conditioning

were used to train it. The question arises how they learn such
complex behaviors. The answer is that it takes place through the
concept of shaping in operant conditioning. Skinner said that in
everyday life, we continuously reinforce and shape others’
behaviour.

Shaping is based on the method of successive approximation.

To begin with a person/animal is rewarded or given positive
reinforcement even if the response is in the direction of right
response and not exactly the right response. Gradually, rewarding
responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior and
ignore all other responses. For example, suppose a trainer wants a
rat to learn to press the lever to get the food. In initial stages, the
trainer will reward the rat with food even if rat moves in the direction
of the lever. Once the rat starts regularly being close to bar, the
food will be given only when it moves closer to the lever. Once, the
rat regularly remains closer to lever, then food will be given only
when it presses the lever. Thus, rat can be trained to press the
lever by rewarding it for each step in the right direction. This
method is used by human beings and animal trainers alike.

Reinforcement Schedules:

Table5. 2: Reinforcement Schedules.

Reinforcement Explanation Real-world example
schedule
Fixed-ratio Behavior is reinforced Factory workers who are
Schedule after a specific number paid according to the
of responses. number of products they
produce.
Variable-ratio Behavior is reinforced Payoffs from slot
Schedule after an average, but machines and other
unpredictable, number of games of chance.
responses.
Fixed-interval Behavior is reinforced People who earn a
Schedule for the first response monthly salary.
after a specific amount
of time has passed.
Variable- Behavior is reinforced Person who checks
interval for the first response voice mail for messages.
Schedule after an average, but
unpredictable, amount of
time has passed.
 90

One way to expand the use of operant learning is to modify

the schedule on which the reinforcement is applied. To this point
we have only discussed a continuous reinforcement schedule, in
which the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs;
whenever the dog rolls over, for instance, it gets a biscuit.
Continuous reinforcement results in relatively fast learning but also
rapid extinction of the desired behavior once the reinforcer
disappears. The problem is that because the organism is used to
receiving the reinforcement after every behavior, the responder
may give up quickly when it doesn’t appear.

Partial reinforcement schedules are determined by whether

the reinforcement is presented on the basis of the time that elapses
between reinforcement (interval) or on the basis of the number of
responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the
reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable)
schedule. In a fixed-interval schedule, reinforcement occurs for the
first response made after a specific amount of time has passed. For
instance, on a one-minute fixed-interval schedule the animal
receives a reinforcement every minute, assuming it engages in the
behavior at least once during the minute. Animals under fixed-
interval schedules tend to slow down their responding immediately
after the reinforcement but then increase the behavior again as the
time of the next reinforcement gets closer. (Most students study for
exams the same way). In a variable-interval schedule the
reinforcers appear on an interval schedule, but the timing is varied
around the average interval, making the actual appearance of the
reinforcer unpredictable. An example might be checking your e-
mail: You are reinforced by receiving messages that come, on
average, say every 30 minutes, but the reinforcement occurs only
at random times.

Interval reinforcement schedules tend to produce slow and

steady rates of responding. In a fixed-ratio schedule, a behavior is
reinforced after a specific number of responses. For instance, a
rat‘s behavior may be reinforced after it has pressed a key 20
times, or a salesperson may receive an incentive after she has sold
10 products. Once the organism has learned to act in accordance
with the fixed-reinforcement schedule, it will pause only briefly
when reinforcement occurs before returning to a high level of
responsiveness. A variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcers after
a specific but average number of responses. Winning money from
slot machines or a lottery ticket are examples of reinforcement that
occur on a variable-ratio schedule. For instance, a slot machine
may be programmed to provide a win every 20 times the user pulls
the handle, on average. Ratio schedules tend to produce high rates
of responding because reinforcement increases as the number of
responses increase.
 91

5.3.2 Skinner’s legacy:

B. F. Skinner was known as one of the most intellectual
psychologist in the late twentieth century. He repeatedly insisted
that external influences shape behavior. According to him, internal
thoughts and feelings don’t shape behaviour. He counseled people
to use operant conditioning principles to influence others’ behavior.
He said we should use rewards to evoke more desirable behavior.

According to Skinner external consequences already control

people’s behavior in a haphazard manner. Why not administer
those consequences toward human betterment? Wouldn’t
reinforcers be more humane than the punishments used in homes,
schools, and prisons? And if it is humbling to think that our history
has shaped us, doesn’t this very idea also give us hope that we can
shape our future? The operant conditioning principles are used
considerably in variety of situations. Reinforcement technologies
are also work in schools, businesses and homes.

5.4. CONTRASTING CLASSICAL AND OPERANT

CONDITIONING

As we have seen, both classical and operant conditionings

involve associative learning i.e., the establishment of a relationship
between two events. Each learning process produces a new
behaviour. Some of the differences between operant and classical
conditioning lie in the extent to which reinforcement depends on the
behavior of the learner. In classical conditioning, the learner is
automatically reinforced. That is how it learns to respond to a once
neutral stimulus. In operant conditioning, the learner must provide a
correct response in order to receive the reinforcement. Another
difference between the two forms of conditioning is the type of
behavior to which each method applies. Classical conditioning
applies to a behavior that is always wanted. In operant conditioning,
a behavior can be learned or extinguished. If you want to train a
dog not to do something, you would use a form of punishment. In
essence, then in the operant model the learner actively operates on
his environment i.e., emits the response while under the classical
model the learner simply responds to the environment i.e., the
response is elicited from him/her. Classical and operant
conditioning are similar, but they do differ in a few ways. Both are
fairly reliable ways to teach an organism to act in a specific manner
and modify behaviour.

5.5. SUMMARY

In this unit, we began by explaining the concept of learning,

characteristics of learning and types of learning. We then explained
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning theory through experiments. In
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classical conditioning theory, we have studied elements of classical

conditioning and different laws of classical conditioning. Following
this we have studied operant conditioning theory. Different
elements of operant conditioning were explained. In operant
conditioning, we have also studied concepts like positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment,
negative punishment. We have also studied complex behaviors
through operant conditioning. Following this we explained the
different types of reinforcers (primary reinforcers, secondary
reinforcers, primary punishers, secondary punishers) and different
types of reinforcement schedules such as Fixed-ratio Schedule,
Variable-ratio Schedule, Fixed-interval Schedule and Variable-
interval Schedule. Towards the end of the unit we have compared
the concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

5.6 QUESTIONS

a) What is learning? Discuss in details.

b) Explain Operant Conditioning theory?
c) Explain Classical Conditioning theory?
d) Discuss different concepts in Classical Conditioning?
e) Discuss different concepts in Operant Conditioning?
f) What is difference between Classical Conditioning theory and
Operant Conditioning theory?

5.7. REFERENCES

Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International edition.

New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013.

Feldman, R.S. (2013). Understanding Psychology. publications

11edi. New York: McGraw Hill

B. B. (2012). Psychology: An Introduction. 11th ed. New York:

McGraw-Hill Publications.

Schachter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wegner, D. M. (2011).

Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.
 93

6
LEARNING - II
Unit Structure :

6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction: Biology, Cognition, and Learning
6.1.1 Biological Constraints on Conditioning:
6.1.2. Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning:
6.2 Learning by Observation
6.2.1 Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain
6.2.2 Applications of Observational Learning
6.2.3 Thinking Critically About: Does Viewing Media
Violence Trigger Violent Behaviour?
6.3 Summary
6.4 Questions
6.5 References

6.0 OBJECTIVES

Dear students! Just to refresh your memory from the

previous chapter, you must have a fair idea about the nature of
learning, factors affecting learning, classical and operant
conditioning and their implications in human life. In this unit you will
be learning about Cognitive approaches to learning. At the
completion of this unit you will be able to understand.

The relationship between Biology, Cognition, and Learning.

Biological constraints on conditioning and cognition’s influence
on conditioning.
Observational learning.
The Effects of Violence on Aggression.

6.1 INTRODUCTION: BIOLOGY, COGNITION, AND

LEARNING

In previous chapter, we have studied classical conditioning

and operant conditioning in details. As you have seen in the
previous unit, behavioural psychologists emphasize changes in
behaviour as the outcome of learning. They are concerned with the
effects of external events on the individual’s responses. In contrast,
Cognitive psychologists say that learning itself is an internal
process that cannot be observed directly. The change occurs in a
 94

person’s ability to respond to a particular situation. The change in

behaviour is only a reflection of the internal change. Interestingly
both behaviorism and cognitivism began as opposition to
structuralism of Wundt. Wilhelm Wundt, who set up the first
experimental psychology laboratory in Europe around 1879, was
looking for the basic elements in psychology- the smallest parts of
analyzable consciousness analogous with the Physics’ atomic
theory of matter. Wundt thought that by analyzing consciousness
into tiny elements or ‘atoms’ he would make Psychology as
respectable a science as Physics! Wundt, using the technique of
introspection trained his subjects to look within themselves and
report all of their most fleeting and minute feelings and sensations.
We will discuss in detail how biology and cognition influences
learning in next two topics.

6.1.1 Biological constraints on conditioning:

The school of behaviorism was born under the impetus of
John B. Watson. Watson was very much influenced by Ivan
Pavlov’s work. Questioning Wundt’s attempt to analyze
consciousness into all its basic parts, Watson insisted on objectivity
and he considered only behaviour that consisted of observable
stimuli and response to be worthy of investigations.

Ever since Charles Darwin, scientists have assumed that all

animals share a common evolutionary history and thus
commonalities in their makeup and functioning. Pavlov and
Watson, for example, believed the basic laws of learning were
essentially similar in all animals. So it should make little difference
whether one studied pigeons or people. Moreover, it seemed that
any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus.
As learning researcher Gregory Kimble proclaimed in 1956, “Just
about any activity of which the organism is capable can be
conditioned and these responses can be conditioned to any
stimulus that the organism can perceive.”

Twenty-five years later, Kimble (1981) humbly

acknowledged that “half a thousand” scientific reports had proven
him wrong. More than half of the early behaviorists realized, an
animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology.
Each species’ predispositions prepare it to learn the associations
that enhance its survival. Environments are not the whole story.

John Garcia was among those who challenged the prevailing

idea that all associations can be learned equally well. While
researching the effects of radiation on laboratory animals, Garcia
and Robert Koelling (1966) noticed that rats began to avoid drinking
water from the plastic bottles in radiation chambers. Could classical
conditioning be the culprit? Might the rats have linked the plastic-
tasting water (a CS) to the sickness (UR) triggered by the radiation
 95

(US)? To test their hunch, Garcia and Koelling gave the rats a
particular taste, sight, or sound (CS) and later also gave them
radiation or drugs (US) that led to nausea and vomiting (UR).

Two surprising findings emerged: First, even if sickened as

late as several hours after tasting a particular novel flavor, the rats
thereafter avoided that flavor. This appeared to violate the notion
that for conditioning to occur, the US must immediately follow the
CS. Second, the sickened rats developed aversions to tastes but
not to sights or sounds. This contradicted the behaviorists’ idea that
any perceivable stimulus could serve as a CS. But it made adaptive
sense, because for rats the easiest way to identify tainted food is to
taste it. (If sickened after sampling a new food, they thereafter
avoid the food—which makes it difficult to eradicate a population of
“bait-shy” rats by poisoning).

Humans, too, seem biologically prepared to learn some

associations rather than others. If you become violently ill four
hours after eating contaminated mutton, you will probably develop
an aversion to the taste of mutton but not to the sight of the
associated restaurant, its plates, the people you were with, or the
music you heard there. In contrast, birds, which hunt by sight,
appear biologically primed to develop aversions to the sight of
tainted food (Nicolaus et al., 1983). Organisms are predisposed to
learn associations that help them adapt.

The discovery of biological constraints affirms the value of

different levels of analysis, including the biological and cognitive,
when we seek to understand phenomena such as learning. And
once again, we see an important principle at work: Learning
enables animals to adapt to their environments. Responding to
stimuli that announce significant events, such as food or pain, is
adaptive. So is a genetic predisposition to associate a CS with a
US that follows predictably and immediately: Causes often but not
always, immediately precede effects. Adaptation also sheds light on
this exception. The ability to discern that effect need not follow
cause immediately—that poisoned food can cause sickness quite a
while after it has been eaten—gives animals an adaptive
advantage. Occasionally, however, our predispositions trick us.
When chemotherapy triggers nausea and vomiting more than an
hour after treatment, cancer patients may over time develop
classically conditioned nausea (and sometimes anxiety) to the
sights, sounds, and smells associated with the clinic (Hall, 1997).
Merely returning to the clinic’s waiting room or seeing the nurses
can provoke these conditioned feelings (Burish & Carey, 1986;
Davey, 1992). Under normal circumstances, such revulsion to
sickening stimuli would be adaptive.
 96

However, there are limits on operant conditioning. Mark

Twain said it so well, “Never try to teach a pig to sing. It wastes
your time and annoys the pig.” We can learn and retain behavior
that reflects our biological predispositions, e.g., you can teach
pigeons to flap their wings to avoid being shocked and to peck to
get food. Flapping wings and pecking for food are natural pigeon
behaviors. But you can’t teach a pigeon to peck to avoid shock and
to flap its wings to get food. So biological constraints predispose
organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.

6.1.2. Cognition’s influence on conditioning:

In their dismissal of “mentalistic” concepts such as
consciousness, Pavlov and Watson underestimated the importance
of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectations) and
biological constraints on an organism’s learning capacity.
Cognitive Processes:
The early behaviorists believed that rats’ and dogs’ learned
behaviors could be reduced to mindless mechanisms, so there was
no need to consider cognition. But Robert Rescorla and Allan
Wagner (1972) showed that an animal can learn the predictability of
an event. If a shock always is preceded by a tone, and then may
also be preceded by a light that accompanies the tone, a rat will
react with fear to the tone but not to the light. Although the light is
always followed by the shock, it adds no new information; the tone
is a better predictor. The more predictable the association, the
stronger the conditioned response. It’s as if the animal learns an
expectancy, an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur.
Such experiments help explain why classical conditioning
treatments that ignore cognition often have limited success. For
example, people receiving therapy for alcohol dependency may be
given alcohol spiked with a nauseating drug. Will they then
associate alcohol with sickness? If classical conditioning were
merely a matter of “stamping in” stimulus associations, we might
hope so, and to some extent this does occur. However, the
awareness that the nausea is induced by the drug, not the alcohol,
often weakens the association between drinking alcohol and feeling
sick. So, even in classical conditioning, it is (especially with
humans) not simply the CS–US association but also the thought
that counts.
Evidence of cognitive processes have also come from
experiments on rats in maze running. In these experiments, Tolman
placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward for finding their way
through it. He also studied a comparison group that was rewarded
with food at the end of the maze. As the unreinforced rats explored
the maze, they developed a cognitive map, a mental picture of the
layout of the maze. After 10 sessions in the maze without
reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of the
maze. As soon as the rats became aware of the food, they were
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able to find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as
the comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all
along. This is known as latent learning: learning that occurs but is
not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it.
The underlying point is that there is more to learning than
associating a response to its consequences, there is also cognition.

6.2 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION

Observational learning (modeling) is learning by observing

the behavior of others, especially among humans. Bandura and his
associates have done research on modeling. The researchers first
let the children view one of the three types of modeling (aggressive,
non-aggressive and no model condition), and then let them play in
a room in which there were some really fun toys. To create some
frustration in the children, Bandura let the children play with the fun
toys for only a couple of minutes before taking them away. Then
Bandura gave the children a chance to play with the Bobo doll. If
you guessed that most of the children imitated the model, you
would be correct. Regardless of which type of modeling the children
had seen, and regardless of the sex of the model or the child, the
children who had seen the model behaved aggressively also
behaved aggressively just as the model had done. They also
punched, kicked, sat on the doll, and hit it with the hammer.
Bandura and his colleagues had demonstrated that these children
had learned new behaviors, simply by observing and imitating
others.

Figure: 6. 1. Learning from observation: This 14-month-old boy in

Andrew Meltzoff’s laboratory is imitating behavior he has seen on
TV. In the top photo, the infant leans forward and carefully watches
the adult pull apart a toy. In the middle photo, he has been given
the toy. In the bottom photo, he pulls the toy apart, imitating what
he has seen the adult do.
 98

Observational learning is useful for animals and for people

because it allows us to learn without having to actually engage in
what might be a risky behavior. Monkeys that see other monkeys
respond with fear to the sight of a snake learn to fear the snake
themselves, even if they have been raised in a laboratory and have
never actually seen a snake (Cook & Mineka, 1990). As Bandura
put it, the prospects for human survival would be slim indeed if one
could learn only by suffering the consequences of trial and error.
For this reason, one does not teach children to swim, adolescents
to drive automobiles, and novice medical students to perform
surgery by having them discover the appropriate behavior through
the consequences of their successes and failures. The more costly
and hazardous the possible mistakes, the heavier is the reliance on
observational learning from competent trainers. (Bandura, 1977, p.
212). We are especially likely to learn from people we perceive as
similar to ourselves, successful or as admirable.

6.2.1 Mirrors and imitation in the brain:

On a 1991 hot summer day in Parma, Italy, a lab monkey
awaited its researchers to return from lunch. The researchers had
implanted wires next to its motor cortex, in a frontal lobe brain
region that enabled the monkey to plan and enact movements.
When the monkey moved a peanut into its mouth, for example, the
monitoring device would buzz. That day, as one of the researchers
re-entered the lab, ice cream cone in hand, the monkey stared at
him. As the student raised the cone to lick it, the monkey’s monitor
again buzzed—as if the motionless monkey had itself moved
(Blakeslee, 2006; Iacoboni, 2008). Having earlier observed the
same weird result when the monkey watched humans or other
monkeys move peanuts to their mouths, the flabbergasted
researchers, led by Giacomo Rizzolatti (2002, 2006), eventually
surmised that they had stumbled onto a previously unknown type of
neuron: mirror neurons, whose activity provides a neural basis for
imitation and observational learning. We will discuss mirror neurons
in details.

Mirror neurons:
Frontal lobe neurons fire when performing certain actions or
when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s
action may enable imitation and empathy. When a monkey grasps,
holds, or tears something, these neurons fire. And they likewise fire
when the monkey observes another doing so. When one monkey
sees, these neurons mirror what another monkey does.

It’s not just monkey business. Imitation shapes even very

young humans’ behavior. Shortly after birth, a baby may imitate an
adult who sticks out his tongue. By 8 to 16 months, infants imitate
various novel gestures (Jones, 2007). By age 12 months, they
begin looking where an adult is looking (Brooks & Meltzoff, 2005).
 99

And by age 14 months (FIGURE 6.4.A.), children imitate acts

modeled on TV (Meltzoff, 1988; Meltzoff & Moore, 1989, 1997).
Children see, children do.

PET scans of different brain areas reveal that humans, like

monkeys, have a mirror neuron system that supports empathy and
imitation (Iacoboni, 2008). As we observe another’s action, our
brain generates an inner simulation, enabling us to experience the
other’s experience within ourselves. Mirror neurons help give rise to
children’s empathy and to their ability to infer another’s mental
state, an ability known as theory of mind. People with autism
display reduced imitative yawning and mirror neuron activity—
“broken mirrors,” some have said (Ramachandran & Oberman,
2006; Senju et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2006).

For most of us, however, our mirror neurons make emotions

contagious. We grasp others’ states of mind—often feeling what
they feel by mental simulation. We find it harder to frown when
viewing a smile than when viewing a frown (Dimberg et al., 2000,
2002). We find ourselves yawning after observing another’s yawn,
laughing when others laugh. When watching movies, a scorpion
crawling up someone’s leg makes us tighten up; observing a
passionate kiss, we may notice our own lips puckering. Seeing a
loved one’s pain, our faces mirror their emotion. But it is not just our
faces, even our brains do the same as shown in figure6.2 .In this
fMRI scan, the pain imagined by an empathic romantic partner has
triggered some of the same brain activity experienced by the loved
one actually having the pain (Singer et al., 2004). Even fiction
reading may trigger such activity, as we mentally simulate the
experiences described (Mar & Oatley, 2008). The bottom line: Our
brain’s mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature.

Figure 6.2: Pain Empathy

6.2.2 Applications of Observational Learning:

From the basis of observational learning, we learn that there
are both negative and positive aspects towards observational
learning. Through positive learning, pro-social models have positive
 100

effects. They are nonviolent and have a helpful influence. On the

other hand, there are antisocial models that have a negative effect,
arousing problems such as abuse in families and violence amongst
children. We would discuss in details.

Pro-Social Behaviour:
Pro-social (positive, helpful) models can have pro-social
effects. To encourage children to read, read to them and surround
them with books and people who read. To increase the odds that
your children will practice your religion, worship and attend religious
activities with them. People who exemplify nonviolently, helpful
behavior can prompt similar behavior in others. India’s Mahatma
Gandhi and America’s Martin Luther King, Jr., both drew on the
power of modeling, making the nonviolent action a powerful force
for social change in both countries. Parents are also powerful
models. Models are most effective when their actions and words
are consistent. Sometimes, however, models say one thing and do
another. Many parents seem to operate according to the principle
“Do as I say, not as I do.” Experiments suggest that children learn
to do both (Rice & Grusec, 1975; Rushton, 1975). Exposed to a
hypocrite, they tend to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the
model did and saying what the model said.

Anti-Social Behaviour:
Observational learning may have antisocial effects. This
helps us understand why abusive parents might have aggressive
children, and why many men who beat their wives had wife
battering fathers (Stith et al., 2000). Critics note that being
aggressive could be passed along by parents’ genes. But with
monkeys, we know it can be environmental. In study after study,
young monkeys separated from their mothers and subjected to high
levels of aggression grew up to be aggressive themselves
(Chamove, 1980). One of the easiest way for us to get influenced is
by watching television. Imitation plays a major role in this learning.
Television and learning have a positive relationship. TV is a
powerful source of observational learning. While watching TV,
children may “learn” that bullying is an effective way to control
others, that free and easy sex brings pleasure without later misery
or disease, or that men should be tough and women gentle.

6.2.3 Thinking critically about: Does viewing media violence

trigger violent behaviour?
The average American child watches more than 4 hours of
television every day, and 2 out of 3 of the programs they watch
contain aggression. It has been estimated that by the age of 12, the
average American child has seen more than 8,000 murders and
100,000 acts of violence. At the same time, children are also
exposed to violence in movies, video games, and virtual reality
games, as well as in music videos that include violent lyrics and
 101

imagery (The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2003;

Schulenburg, 2007; Coyne & Archer, 2005). The most important
thing is that India is not exception to this scenario.

It might not surprise you to hear that these exposures to

violence have an effect on aggressive behavior. The evidence is
impressive and clear: The more media violence people, including
children, view, the more aggressive they are likely to be (Anderson
et al., 2003; Cantor et al., 2001). The relation between viewing
television violence and aggressive behavior is about as strong as
the relation between smoking and cancer or between studying and
academic grades. People who watch more violence become more
aggressive than those who watch less violence.

It is clear that watching television violence can increase

aggression, but what about violent video games? These games are
more popular than ever, and also more graphically violent. Youths
spend countless hours playing these games, many of which involve
engaging in extremely violent behaviors. The games often require
the player to take the role of a violent person, to identify with the
character, to select victims, and of course to kill the victims. These
behaviors are reinforced by winning points and moving on to higher
levels, and are repeated over and over. Again, the answer is clear,
playing violent video games leads to aggression. A recent meta-
analysis by Anderson and Bushman (2001) reviewed 35 research
studies that had tested the effects of playing violent video games
on aggression. The studies included both experimental and
correlational studies, with both male and female participants in both
laboratory and field settings. They found that exposure to violent
video games is significantly linked to increases in aggressive
thoughts, aggressive feelings, psychological arousal (including
blood pressure and heart rate), as well as aggressive behavior.
Furthermore, playing more video games was found to relate to less
altruistic behavior.

However, although modeling can increase violence, it can

also have positive effects. Research has found that, just as children
learn to be aggressive through observational learning, they can
also learn to be altruistic in the same way (Seymour, Yoshida, &
Dolan, 2009).

6.3 SUMMARY

In this unit, we studied the relationship between Biology,

Cognition and learning. Learning is an important form of new
behaviour. It involves establishing new associations and permanent
change in behaviour. Putting the terms cognition and learning
together gives a definition of cognitive learning. A change in the
way the information is processed as a result of experience a person
 102

or animal has had. In other words, due to past experiences, the

significance and meaning of events have been changed, new
associations have been formed and these changes have been
stored in the memory for future use. Obviously, most of our learning
is of the cognitive variety. Indeed, as you read this text, we hope
you are doing some cognitive learning.

We have briefly discussed observational learning. The

pioneer of the school of behavioral psychology John B. Watson,
who himself was very much influenced by Ivan Pavlov’s work,
questioned Wundt’s attempt to analyze consciousness into all its
basic parts. Watson insisted on objectivity and he considered only
behaviour that consisted of observable stimuli and response to be
worthy of investigations, The cognitive school of psychology was
founded by Max Wertheimer who felt that, Wundt in order to
produce his neat atomic chart of psychology, had lost sight of the
reality of human experience.

Observational learning is learning by observing the behavior

of others. Observational learning is useful for animals and for
people because it allows us to learn without having to actually
engage in what might be a risky behavior.

Towards the end of the chapter we have discussed the

effects of violence on aggression. It might not surprise you to hear
that these exposures to violence have an effect on aggressive
behavior. The more media violence people, including children,
view, the more aggressive they are likely to be(Anderson et al.,
2003; Cantor et al., 2001). It is clear that watching television
violence can increase aggression. Although modeling can increase
violence, it can also have positive effects. Research has found that,
just as children learn to be aggressive through observational
learning, they can also learn to be altruistic in the same way
(Seymour, Yoshida, & Dolan, 2009).

6.4 QUESTIONS

a) Explain the relationship between Biology, Cognition, and

Learning.
b) Explain cognition’s influence on conditioning.
c) Explain Mirror neurons and imitation in the brain
d) What is Pro-social behaviour?
e) What is Anti-Social Behaviour?
f) Explain observational learning.
g) Explain applications of observational learning.
h) Explain the Effects of Violent TV programs on Aggression?
 103

6.5 REFERENCES

Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International edition.

New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013.

Baron, R. A., & Kalsher, M. J. (2008). Psychology: From Science to

Practice. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Inc., Allyn and Bacon

Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
rd
Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2012). Psychology.3 edi. New
Jersey: Pearson education.
 104

7
MEMORY- I
Unit Structure :

7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Studying Memory
7.3 Memory Models – Information Processing Models
7.4 Building Memories - Encoding and Automatic Processing,
Encoding and Effortful Processing
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References

7.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able–

To understand the importance of studying the topic of memory
To understand how memories are formed and stored
To understand how memorization can be improved

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Memory is a fundamental component of daily life and life

without memory would be close to impossible. Our very survival
depends on our ability to remember who we are, who others are,
our past experiences, our learning to cope with our environment,
skills that we have learned. What is dangerous, what is safe, etc? If
we don’t have memory then everyone else would be a stranger to
us, in fact, we will not be able to recognize ourselves also when we
look into a mirror, every day every task will be new for us, every
place will be new for us and living a normal routine life will be
impossible. We use memory at every moment of our lives, either
consciously or unconsciously. For example, right now, while typing
the words I’m writing, I’m using my memory of the alphabets, words
and their meanings that I have learned in my childhood. My brain is
focused on the content, but while I’m doing that, I’m not recalling
how to type on a conscious level. So, let us explore together this
fascinating subject.
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7.2 STUDYING MEMORY

David Myers (2013) refers to memory as the persistence of

learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Baron defined memory as “an ability of the brain to retain

and later retrieve information”.

“Memory is an active system that receives information from

senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away,
and then retrieves the information from storage” Ciccarelli & Meyer
(2008)

Psychologists use three ways to find out that learning has

taken place and memory’s dominant role in these three ways is
obvious. These three ways are –

1. Recall: This process involves retrieving or bringing back

previously learned information, thought or idea, that is not in our
immediate conscious awareness but that we had stored in our
memory. For example, when you are answering an essay type
of question or fill in the blank type of question in exam, you are
recalling information that you have stored in memory previously.
2. Recognition: In recognition, you only need to identify
previously learned information, e.g., while answering multiple
choice questions in exam, various possible answers are given
along with the question and you are merely recognizing the
correct answer out of those various options. Recognition is
much easier than recall.
3. Relearning: Relearning refers to learning something more
quickly when you learn it a second time. It is a way of measuring
retention of information stored in memory. For example, while
preparing for exam, it may take you two hours to learn this
lesson. After a gap of two months, suppose you feel that you
need to learn it again as you are not able to recall it perfectly.
This time, it will take you much less time to relearn it because it
is already there in your memory.

Psychologists have conducted many empirical studies to

understand the phenomenon of memory. For instance,
psychologists have been intrigued to find that memory gets affected
by biological and environmental occurrences such as stroke,
accidents, traumas, etc. For instance, Myers (2013) observed that
people who suffer stroke may have warm personality as before and
may be able to do every day routine work, they may indulge in
enjoyable recollection of past events but they can’t remember new
memories of everyday happening. Such a person may not be able
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to recall what he had for lunch or the name of the person whom he
had met just half an hour back. Similarly, there are others, who
cannot remember past events from their lives after an accident or a
trauma.

Another interesting observation brought up by empirical

research is that though most of the people have to put in
considerable effort to learn a series of information or notes, but
there are few people, who can remember such details even by
listening it or seeing it just once. Moreover, such people, might be
able to recall these numbers or words, backward as easily as
forward. Studies showed that such people could recall correctly the
series of these numbers or words and the details of the setting in
which they were first exposed to these series (such as the room
layout and the clothes worn by the experimenter), even after many
years.

However, even in case of people with ordinary memory,

Konkleet.al. (2010) reported that people who were exposed to 2800
images for only 3 seconds each, could spot the repeats with 82%
accuracy. In another experiment, Mitchell (2006) found that people
who had seen a picture, 17 years back, could recognize that picture
correctly even when they were shown that picture in fragmented
form.

Every day, we are exposed to countless images, voices,

sounds, tastes, smells, textures, places, faces, etc. The question
arises, how does our brain choose information out of this vast
expanse of information and store that information away for later
use? How can we recollect information we have not thought about
for years? How exactly memories are formed and stored? Let us try
to get answers for some of these questions in the further part of this
unit.

7.3 MEMORY MODELS:

Psychologists have developed memory models to explain

how our brain forms and retrieves memories. Here we are going to
talk about various information processing models.

Information Processing Models:

Following are the three important Information Processing
models.
• Computer functioning and human memory
• Connectionism
• Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin’s Three Stage Model.
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7.3.1 Computer functioning and human memory:

This information processing model is based on the
assumption that human memory can be compared to a computer’s
operations. Like the computer, the human mind takes in
information, performs operations on it to change its form and
content, stores the information and retrieves it when it is needed.
This entire operation is done in three step processes –

1. Encoding: The information gets in our brain in a way that

allows it to be stored.
2. Storage: The information is held in a way that allows it to be
retrieved later.
3. Retrieval: This refers to getting back the information at a later
stage, through reactivating and recalling that information and
producing it in a form similar to what was encoded.

However, there is a difference between computer functioning

and human memory-
I. Our memories are less literal, more fuzzy and fragile than a
computer’s. That means that computer encodes the words
without assigning any meaning to them or using figures of
speech.
II. Most computers process information sequentially, even while
alternating between tasks. Our dual track brain processes
many things simultaneously, some of them unconsciously, by
means of parallel processing. In other words, computers
process one piece of data at a time, while human memory can
process a lot of information at the same time.
III. In computer, once a piece of information is stored, it will not
change one bit over the years. But in case of human memory,
memories will be continuously changed and reconstructed in
response to new experiences. Unlike a computer, we are not
dealing with a physical limit of size. Humans are constantly
removing some of their stored information through disuse and
adding some more information as they come across new
information.

7.3.2 Connectionism:
Another information-processing model is called
connectionism. It is based on the view that memories are products
of interconnected neural networks. Specific memories arise from
particular activation patterns within these networks. Every time you
learn something new, your brain’s neural connections change,
forming and strengthening pathways that allow you to interact with
and learn from your constantly changing environment.
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7.3.3 Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin’s A Three-Stage

Model:
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) model is the most popular model
based on information-processing concept explained above.
According to them memory-forming process passes through a
three-stage model. They proposed that information passes through
three stages before it is stored. (see Fig. 7.1) These are:

Sensory Memory: We first receive information from the

environment that needs to be remembered. Stimuli are recorded by
our senses and held briefly in sensory memory.

Short – term Memory: Some of the information is processed into

short – term memory and encoded through rehearsal.

Long- term Memory: Finally, the information is stored in long term

memory after being processed in short term memory. From long
term memory, it can be retrieved anytime when it is required.

Fig. 7.1

Dual -Track Memory: Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model emphasized

on storing information that we pay attention to or are aware of. But
other psychologists pointed out that our mind works on two tracks.
Some information skips conscious encoding in short term memory
and directly goes into storage, that is long term memory. This
automatic processing happens without our awareness. We will
discuss automatic processing in detail later on in this unit.

This is a brief description of three components of this model.

Now let us look at each component in detail.

Sensory Memory:
It is also called sensory register. It is the first and most
immediate form of memory that you have. It refers to an initial
encoding of sensory information that comes from environmental in
its raw form. For any information to enter our memory, it has to be
first picked up by our five senses, that is, taste, smell, sight, sound
and touch. The information received from five sense organs lasts
from a fraction of a second to a few seconds. It is a system of
memory that holds information briefly, but long enough so that it
can be processed further. However, unless we pay attention to the
information coming through our senses, the sensation will decay
and be lost immediately.
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Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of

sensory information even after the original stimulus has ceased.
For example, while walking in a market and getting exposed to
many faces passing by, an individual may turn around, if he feels
that a familiar face has passed by, even though the image of that
person from his sensory memory has already faded away, or if you
look at an object and then close your eyes, an icon, or fleeting
image will persist for one -half second afterwards. In other words,
sensory memory holds impressions briefly, it holds them long
enough so that series of perceptions are psychologically
continuous. Without sensory memory, a movie will look like a
sequence of still pictures.

Though this store is generally referred to as “the sensory

register” or “sensory memory”, it is actually composed of multiple
registers, one for each sense. Information is transferred to short
term memory only when attention is given to it. But there are two
types of sensory memory that are most talked about. They are:

a) Iconic Memory:
The mental representations of visual stimuli are referred to
as icons (i.e., fleeting images). The sensory register that holds
icons is called iconic memory. Iconic memories are accurate but
last for a few tenths of a second.

George Sperling (1960) conducted an experiment to show

the existence and length of iconic memory. The participants of the
experiment were asked to sit in front of a screen upon which 9
letters (three rows of three letters each) appeared for only 1/20th of
a second. After the presentation, participants were asked to recall a
particular row of letters. Sperling used a tone, immediately after
presenting the nine letters, to indicate which row the participants
should recall. A high-pitched tone meant that the participants need
to recall the first row, a medium tone indicated to recall the middle
row and the low tone indicated to recall the last row. Without the
tone, people recalled about 50% of the letters; with the tone, recall
for any of the rows was typically 100%.

However, it was found that if participants responded

immediately with 0 second delay after seeing the letters, they
remembered an average of nine letters. But if there was a delay of
merely 0.5 seconds, they could recall only six letters and if there
was a delay of 1.0 seconds, they could recall an average of only 4
letters, showing that all nine letters were momentarily available in
their sensory memory.

b) Echoic Memory:
The mental representations of auditory stimuli are called
echoes. echoic memory is a form of sensory memory that holds
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auditory information for one or two seconds. For example, if you are
watching T.V. and your mother asks you a question. You stop
watching T.V. and ask, “What did you say?”. The moment you say
this, you realize that you can recall your mother’s exact words. You
can recall these words because they are still in your echoic
memory. The memory traces of auditory stimuli can last for much
longer than the traces of visual stimuli. Echoic memory can last for
3 to 4 seconds. Echoic memory also lets you hold speech sounds
long enough to identify them as words. Yet, echoes like icons will
fade with the passage of time. If they are to be retained, we need to
pay attention to them. By selectively attending to certain stimuli, we
sort them out from the background noise.

The main functions of sensory memory can then be

described as:
i) Sensory memory prevents us from being overwhelmed by many
thousands of incoming stimuli. All incoming sensory information
will vanish within seconds unless we attend to it.
ii) Sensory memory gives us the time that we need to decide
whether or not the incoming data should be processed further.
iii) Iconic memory provides stability and makes visual world appear
smooth and continuous and echoic memory allows us to play
back information and recognize words.

Short-term Memory (STM):

Of the thousands of visual and auditory sensations, only a
small percentage gets automatically transferred into short-term
memory. Short term memory can hold a limited amount of
information for a short period of time which can be lengthened if the
information is rehearsed. Information held in STM is active
information, that is, information to which you are paying attention.

Without rehearsal, short term memory can hold information

for only 2 seconds to 30 seconds. To show this, Lloyd Peterson and
Margaret Peterson conducted an experiment. Participants were
asked to remember three consonant groups such as CHJ. To
prevent rehearsal, the participants were asked to start at 100 and
count aloud backwards by threes. Participants were then tested at
various times for recall. After 3 seconds, they were asked to stop
counting backward and recall the consonants that they were
shown, they could recall only half of them, and after 12 seconds
most memory of the consonants had decayed and could not be
recalled. This clearly showed that without active processing
(rehearsal) short term memory has limited life.

Short-term memory can hold about seven items, give or take

two. If nothing distracts us, we can recall seven items. In other
words, short term memory holds about 5-9 items at one time. The
capacity differs depending upon age and other factors. Experiments
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have demonstrated that compared with children and older adults,

young adults have more working memory capacity. That means
that young adults can do multitasking more efficiently than other
two groups. However, people from all age groups can do better and
more efficient work when there are no distractions and they are
focused on one task at a time.

Working Memory:
The terms working memory and short-term memory are
sometimes used interchangeably. Working memory refers to the
active, conscious manipulation of temporarily stored information.
Working memory is where active thinking takes place. The term
working memory emphasizes the fact that short-term memory is not
merely a box into which information is placed but is a working,
active system that focuses on the manipulation of information that it
contains at any given moment.

Cowan (2008) held that working memory capacity reflects

intelligence level and an ability to maintain focus. People with good
working memory are less likely to report than others that their mind
was wondering.

Alan Baddeley et.al. (2001; 2002) challenged Atkinson and

Shiffrin’s view of short term memory as a small, brief storage space
for recent thoughts and experiences. Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
developed an alternative model of short-term memory which they
called working memory. They argue that the picture of short-term
memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model is far too simple.
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model, STM holds limited
amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little
processing. This means it is a single system or store without any
subsystems.

They stated that working memory is not just a temporary

shelf for holding incoming information. It is an active desktop where
your brain processes information, making sense of input and linking
it with long-term memories. In other words, the short-term memory
is working in many ways. It holds information not just to rehearse it
for storage but also to process it, for example, hearing a word
problem in math, keeping it in mind and solving the problem in
head. Let us take another example; the pages that you are reading
right now are entering your working memory through vision. You
might also repeat the information using auditory rehearsal. As you
integrate this visual input with your long-term memory, your
attention is focused. Baddeley (1998, 2002) called this focused
processing the central executive. (See Fig. 7.2)
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Fig. 7.2

According to Baddeley the central executive is the most

important component of working memory. The central executive
decides what working memory pays attention to. Central executive
acts more like a system which controls attentional processes rather
than as a memory store. Without focused attention, information
often fades.

Sparrow et.al. (2011) empirically showed that people invest

less energy in remembering the information if they know that
information is available online. One can say, sometimes Google
replaces rehearsal and mobile phone replaces remembering phone
numbers of even family and friends.

Long Term Memory (STM):

Long-term memory (LTM) is the final stage of the multi-store
memory model proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin. Theoretically, the
capacity of LTM is unlimited. If we are not able to recall any
information, it is due to accessibility and not due to availability.
Encoding in LTM, generally, can be in semantic (meaning) mode
and visual (pictorial) mode but it can be in acoustic mode also.

There are three types of long term memories:

• Procedural Memory
• Semantic Memory
• Episodic Memory

Procedural memory: It is responsible for knowing how to do

things. It is involved in motor skills. It is at unconscious level,
automatic and declarative.

Semantic memory: It is responsible for storing information about

the world and involves knowledge about the meaning of words, as
well as general knowledge. We understand language due to this
memory.

Episodic memory: It is responsible for storing information about

events that we have experienced in our lives. It involves conscious
thoughts and is declarative. For example, you have memory of your
first day in college, your marriage, etc.
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We have discussed LTM in detail in building memories,

encoding and effortful processing, and levels of processing.

Check your Progress:

Write a short note on

a.) Information processing models with reference to comparison
with computers and as connectionism views.
b.) Sensory memory
c.) Short term memory
d.) Working memory

7.4 BUILDING MEMORIES

7.4.1 Encoding and Automatic Processing:

The facts and experiences that we consciously know and
declare are part of explicit memories and are called declarative
memory.

The content that we retain without conscious recollection is

part of implicit memories and is called non-declarative memory. Our
implicit memories include:

a.) Procedural memory for automatic skills such as how to swim,

drive a car, eating, typing on keyboard etc.

b.) Classically conditioned association among stimuli. For

example, you experience fear when you visit a dentist’s clinic
because you automatically link a dentist’s clinic with painful drill
and when you visit a dentist’s clinic, you have sweaty palm. You
did not plan to feel fear but it happens automatically. Another
example can be a pleasant smell that triggers the thoughts of a
favorite place.

It has been observed that people absorb some information

without paying attention to it. Some forms of processing take effort
but over time and with experience, becomes automatic. Many skills
are developed like this. For example, without conscious effort you
automatically process information about:

• Space:
While reading a textbook, you often encode the place on a
page where certain material appears; later, when struggling to
recall information, you may visualize its location. Similarly, you
visualize a road map when you are giving directions to a person for
any destination. Another example can be being able to visualize
where things are after walking through a room.
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• Time:
While going about your day, you unintentionally note the
sequence of the day’s events. Later, when you realize that you left
your purse somewhere, you re-create the sequence of what you did
that day and retrace your steps.

• Frequency:
You effortlessly keep track of how many times things
happen, thus enabling you to realize “this is the fifth time I have
come across this beggar today”.

As mentioned before, we have two track mind that engages

in vast information processing in a very impressive and efficient
way. One track automatically stores many routine details while the
other track focuses on conscious effortful processing. So, let us
now look at effortful processing.

7.4.2 Encoding and Effortful Processing:

Automatic processing happens so effortlessly that it is
difficult to shut off. For example, you automatically wake up at 5
O’clock in the morning, even if you forget to set up the alarm.
Automatic processing does not require attention or effort. Things
happen subconsciously. However, effortful processing requires
conscious processing. The learning requires a lot of effort and
thought so that it can be stored. Most new or complex tasks require
undivided attention and utilize effortful processing. Once the task is
learned, it becomes part of automatic processing. For example,
consider learning to drive a car; at first, drivers intensely grip the
steering wheel and pay undivided attention to the road ahead. But
with experience and practice, as they get used to driving, they
relegate some part of driving, such as when to press brake or how
much to press accelerator to automatic processing. This helps the
driver to do other tasks such as changing the music CD.

Same is true for other skills such as learning to read, write or

speak a new language, singing, playing cricket, gymnastics, etc.
The basic principle being that when the task is new we need to use
effortful processing to put it in memory and once it is learned
properly, we use automatic processing and perform that task
without paying conscious effort to it.

Effortful Processing Strategies:

Committing new information to memory requires efforts just
as learning a concept from a textbook. Empirical studies have
shown that many strategies can be used to increase our ability to
form new memories. Whether we will be able to recall this new
information from our long-term memory depends upon how
successfully we have used these strategies. If these strategies are
used effectively, they lead to durable and accessible memories.
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Let us look at some of the strategies that can be used to remember

new information.

1. Chunking:
George Miller was the first one to use the concept of
chunking in 1950s to increase STM. People can group information
into familiar manageable units to expand their short-term memory
capacity called “chunking”. In other words, chunking is a term
referred to the process of taking individual pieces of information
(chunks) and grouping them into larger units. A chunk is a
collection of elements having strong association with elements of
other chunks of information. Chunking usually occurs so naturally
that we take it for granted. We can remember information best
when we can organize it into personally meaningful arrangements.

Chunking can be based on:

• Language patterns, for example, RATSHOELACE can be
chunked as RAT SHOE LACE. A paragraph can be chunked
into phrases and sentences. To learn a song or a poem, you
break it into pieces of three lines or four lines and learn it, once
you have mastered each piece you link it again in proper
sequence. A shopping list can be broken down into smaller
groupings based on whether the items on the list are
vegetables, fruits, dairy or grains.
• Random digits are best chunked into groups of about three
items. The most common example of chunking occurs in phone
numbers. For example, if you think of a telephone number as
one large piece of information, then to easily remember this
number such as 8082892988, you can break it down to 808
289 29 88

In nutshell, to use chunking technique effectively, you must

use practice, look for connections, associate groups of items to
things from your memory and of course use other memory
strategies, such as mnemonics, along with chunking.

2. Mnemonics:
Ancient Greek scholars and orators used Mnemonics to
encode lengthy passages and speeches. Mnemonics are memory
aids (such as images, maps, peg – words, etc.) that use vivid
imagery. We are good at remembering mental pictures. It is easier
to remember concrete, visualizable words than abstract words.
Human mind more easily remembers spatial, personal, surprising,
physical humorous or otherwise relatable information rather than
abstract or impersonal information. Acronyms, rhyme or a jingle are
other mnemonics often used.

An acronym is a word formed from the first letters or groups

of letters in a name or phrase. For example, UNICEF is an acronym
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for The United Nations Children’s Fund, OCEAN is an acronym for

the big five personality traits- openness, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.

A rhyme is a saying that has similar terminal sounds at the

end of each line. Rhymes are easier to remember because they
can be stored by acoustic encoding in our brains. For example, in
fourteen hundred and ninety-two Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue.

A peg word system refers to the technique of visually

associating new words with an existing list that is already
memorized along with numbers. A peg system is a technique for
memorizing a list of words that must be recalled in a particular
order. One can use several types of pegs together such as rhymes,
numbers, shapes and alphabets. So, a peg is a mental hook on
which you hang information. For example, to learn numbers, you
associate each number with a word that rhymes with that number –
one-sun, two-shoe, three-tree, four- door, five- hive, etc.

3. Hierarchies:

Fig.7.3

Hierarchy is a way of organizing information for encoding.

When complex information is broken down into broad concepts and
further subdivided into categories and subcategories, it is called
hierarchy system. We are more likely to recall a concept if we
encode it in a hierarchy. For example, see the hierarchy of the topic
that we are studying right now (Fig 7.3)

Gordon Bower et.al. (1969) conducted an experiment in

which words were presented either randomly or grouped in
categories such as minerals, animals, clothing, and transportation.
These words were presented for one minute each. It was found that
participants could recall two to three times better when words were
organized in categories rather than when presented randomly.
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4. Distributed Practice:
More than 300 experiments over a century have shown that
we can memorize better, that is have better long - term retention,
when our encoding is distributed over time rather than concentrated
at one particular time. This is called spacing effect. The spacing
effect was first noted by Herman Ebbinghaus in the late 1800s.

For memorizing any information, we use two types of

practices – mass practice and distributed practice.

Mass practice: Mass practice refers to a practice schedule in

which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is very
short. Mass practice is essentially cramming. Mass practice can
produce speedy short-term learning and feeling of confidence. But
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) said that those who learn quickly also
forget quickly.

Distributed Practice: Distributed practice refers to a practice

schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or
trials is relatively long. As distributed practice takes longer in
absolute terms, individuals using this technique often falsely feel
that they are being less efficient.

Distributed practice is more likely to result in success;

however, it takes some maturity to be able to do a little bit each
day. For example, let us say there are two students preparing for
exam, having similar intelligence and abilities. One student studies
whole night before exam while another student has studied one
hour per day over six months, the second student will do better in
the exam than the one who studies for the whole night one day
before exam.

However, this does not mean that you need to study every
day. Memory researcher Harry Bahrick noted that the longer the
time between study sessions, the better the long-term retention will
be and the fewer sessions will be needed. After you have studied
long enough to master the material, further study becomes
inefficient. In other words, over learning or over memorizing is of no
use. It is better to use that extra reviewing time a day later if you
need to recall that information after 10 days or a month later if you
need to recall that information after 6 months. In other words, to
prepare for annual exam, it is better to study and memorize
material in consistent manner over the months rather than studying
in a crammed manner, in a month immediately before the exam.

In fact, Harry Bahrick along with his three family members

conducted a 9-year long experiment. His conclusion was that if you
spread your learning over several months, rather than over a short
period, you can retain information for a life time.
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Testing Effect: One effective way to distribute practice is repeated

self-testing. Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke (2006) called
self-testing as testing effect. They stated that it is better to practice
retrieval (that is try to answer the questions about the material as in
exam) than merely to reread material. Just rereading material will
lull you into a false sense of mastery. That is why, solving practice
question papers before exam helps in later performance in exam.

Levels of Processing:
Memory researchers believe that we process verbal
information at different levels, and the depth of our processing
affects our long-term retention of the information. The levels of
processing can be shallow and deep processing. Let us discuss
each one of them.

Shallow Processing: It encodes information at a very basic level

that is memorizing the appearance or sound of words.

Deep Processing: It encodes semantically. That means it -

• Attaches meaning of the words,
• Links them to existing memories, and
• Uses self -reference effect that is, people remember things that
are personally relevant to them.

The deeper (more meaningful) the processing, the better our

retention will be. Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted
an experiment to investigate the effects of different types of
processing on recall. Participants were presented with words that
either were written in capital letters (appearance) or rhymed with
other words (sound) or fitted in a sentence (semantic). Results
showed that processing a word deeply, by its meaning
(semantically) produced better recognition of that word at a later
time than the shallow processing of words by attending to their
appearance or sounds. This clearly shows that deeper levels of
processing based on meaning of information is better than
shallower recall method. It means that learning by rote or cramming
without understanding a lesson will not help in retaining it in long
term. To retain it in long term, you need to understand the meaning
of the material that you are studying and to related it with other
information that you already have.

Making Material Personally Meaningful:

We have difficulty in processing and storing the information
that does not appear meaningful to us or does not relate to our
experiences. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) believed that compared to
learning material that appears to be nonsense to us, learning
meaningful material takes just 1/10th of the effort.
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Wayne Wickelgren (1977) said “The time you spend thinking

about material you are reading and relating it to previously stored
material is about the most useful thing you can do in learning any
new subject matter”.

People remember information significantly better when they

process that information in reference to themselves. The more it is
personalized; the better will be recall of that information. This is
called the self-reference effect. This tendency of self-reference
effect is especially strong in members of individualistic western
cultures (Symons & Johnson, 1997).

There can be three explanations for self-reference effect –

1. Information relevant to self is processed more deeply and
rehearsed more often. May be due to better elaboration, such
information remains more accessible.
2. Information relevant to self leads to high arousal and that may
enhance memory.
3. People have special mechanism for encoding information
relevant to themselves.

Check your Progress:

Write short notes on

a.) Automatic Processing of information
b.) Effortful processing of information and Dual track memory
c.) Chunking & Mnemonics
d.) Hierarchies & Distributed Practice
e.) Shallow processing and deep processing

7.5 SUMMARY

In this unit, we began with why it is important to understand

human memory. Without memory, we cannot lead a normal life and
maybe we will not be human enough. Our entire learning depends
on memory. We also looked at the three methods used by
psychologists to know that learning has taken place. These three
methods are recall, recognition and relearning. Research studies
have shown that it is easier to use recognition than recall to extract
any information from memory. Similarly, while relearning if we take
less time than previous attempt at learning, it shows better retention
of the information.

Next, we looked at three information processing models- one

compared the functioning of human memory with the functioning of
computers, second one emphasized that the neural connections in
brain are different from the wires connecting different parts of
computers. Whenever we learn something new, these neural
connections change. In other words, this model states that human
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memory system is more dynamic than computers. The third model

is the most popular model of understanding how memories are
formed. This is Atkinson & Shiffrin's model of three stages. It
emphasizes that we have three types of memory systems- first one
being the sensory memory, which is the entry point of receiving
information from the environment. This act of receiving information
can be at the conscious level or unconscious level. If attention is
paid to the information for sufficient time the information will go to
short term memory and if the information is processed there also
for sufficient time it will go to long term memory. However, we will
be discussing long term memory in next unit.

We elaborated on sensory memory by saying that

information is received through all five sense organs and we have
separate memory for each sense organ. The most prominent ones
are Iconic memory- information received through eyes in the form
of visual stimuli, and echoic memory- information received through
ears in the form of auditory stimuli. Then we discussed short term
memory and working memory, emphasizing that short term memory
can hold on an average only seven items at a time and that too for
only 2 to 30 seconds depending upon the type of sensory
information received.

Working memory is also short-term memory only, except the

fact that it underlines the fact that short term memory is not merely
receiving the information and passing it on to long term memory, it
is actively manipulating the received information by understanding
the meaning of information received and linking it to information
already stored in long term memory.

Next, we talked about building memories where we said that

encoding can take place either automatically or through effortful
processes. Automatic processing takes place in procedural memory
or through classically conditioned association among stimuli. It is
also influenced by space, time and frequency.

Effortful processing is a conscious effort put in to memorize

some information and the techniques that can be used for that are
chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies and distributed practices.

We also discussed the levels of processing. There can be

shallow processing, when you don't pay attention to the meaning of
the information and there can be deep processing, when you pay
attention to the meaning of the information. Research studies have
shown that retention of information is better when people use deep
processing and when self-reference effect takes place, that is, they
get information that is related or relevant to them.
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7.6 QUESTIONS

1. Explain in detail Atkinson and Shiffrin’s three – stage

information processing model of memory.
2. Discuss in detail short-term memory and working memory.
3. Distinguish between automatic and effortful processing of
information. What are some effortful processing strategies that
can help us remember new information?

7.7 REFERENCE

1) Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013.

2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt.
Ltd.
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8
MEMORY - II
Unit Structure :

8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Memory Storage
8.3 Retrieval: getting information out
8.4 Forgetting
8.5 Memory Construction Errors
8.6 Improving Memory
8.7 Summary
8.8 Questions
8.9 References

8.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you will be able to understand

• how explicit and implicit memories are stored in the brain
• how retrieval takes place
• the causes of forgetting
• the techniques to improve memory

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In last unit, we mentioned that it is important to study

memory as it connects the present moment to what came before
and is the basis for the formation of one’s life story. Basically, we as
a person are derived from experiences that have been stored in our
long-term memory. Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three stage model stated
that from short term memory the information goes to long term
memory- its last destination. So, let us see briefly, what are the
characteristics of long- term memory. Long-term memory stores
memories for years and sometimes for entire life. Its capacity is
unlimited, but storing and retrieval of information depends upon
changes in neuronal structure. This physical change is relatively
permanent. Think of it, there is never a situation when a person
says I can’t learn anything anymore in my life. If people sometimes
can’t retrieve memories that were stored in childhood, it only means
those memories are available in memory but not accessible. Non-
accessibility can be for various reasons, but memories are there.
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There are different types of long term memories such as

explicit memories, implicit memories, flash bulb memories, etc.
After this short introduction to long term memory, let us see what
kind of physiological changes take place when we are processing
information and storing in long term memory and where it gets
stored. We will also discuss various techniques to retrieve the
information and how memory can be improved.

8.2 MEMORY STORAGE

8.2.1 Retaining Information in the brain:

Initially, people believed that long term memory is like an
empty room which has to be filled up with memories. It was also
believed that it does not have elasticity and has limited capacity, to
fill new information old information items need to be thrown out. But
later on, psychologists empirically showed that our long-term
memory is flexible and has endless capacity to store information.

However, we do not store information as books are stored in

libraries -carefully staked in distinctly labeled racks and having
precise locations. Instead, many parts of the brain interact as we
encode, store and retrieve the information from our memories.
Memories are not stored in any single site of the brain; instead they
are stored throughout the brain. To show that memories are not
stored in any single specific spot of the brain, Karl Lashley (1950)
conducted an experiment in which he trained rats to find their way
out of a maze. After that he surgically removed pieces of their
brain’s cortex and retested their memories. He found that no
matter what small brain section he removed, the rats always found
their way out of the maze, as they retained at least partial memory.
This indicated that while storing memories various parts of brain are
interacting. In fact, different parts of the brain are active in storing
different types of memories. Let us look at which parts are active for
implicit and explicit memories.

A) Explicit – Memory System: The Frontal Lobes and

Hippocampus
Explicit or declarative memory is one of the two main types
of long-term human memory. It stores facts, stories, meaning of the
words, previous experiences and concepts that can be consciously
recalled.

The network that processes and stores explicit memories

includes frontal lobes and hippocampus.

Frontal Lobes:
The frontal lobes are important in working memory. The left
and right frontal lobes process different types of memories. The left
frontal lobe is more active in memorizing verbal material, e.g., when
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you recall a password and hold it in working memory, you are using
the left frontal lobe. The right frontal lobe is more active in recalling
non-verbal material, e.g., if you are recalling a party scene, or
thinking about a painting, you are using your right frontal lobe.

Hippocampus:
The hippocampus is a small, curved neural center located in
the limbic system in each temporal lobe. It is involved in the
formation of new memories and emotional responses. It instantly
evaluates incoming data from the five senses and decides whether
to store or discard the information. So, for the brain, it is equivalent
to “save button” in computer. Studies have shown that explicit
memories of names, images and events are laid down through the
hippocampus. Therefore, damage to hippocampus disrupts recall of
explicit memories. Just like humans, birds also have hippocampus
in their brains. It has been found that birds, with their hippocampus
intact, can store food in hundreds of places and can still find it
months later when they return to these unmarked hiding places. But
they can’t remember, where they had stored the food if their
hippocampus is damaged (Kaamil & Chang,2001). Shettleworth
(1993) stated that among animals, a bird called Nutcracker can
locate 6000 pine seeds during winter season which it had buried
months back.

Furthermore, in case of human beings, it has been reported

that people cannot remember verbal information, if their left
hippocampus is damaged, but they have no difficulty in
remembering visual designs and locations. They cannot recall
visual designs and locations if their right hippocampus is damaged.
We would not be able to remember where our house is without the
work of the hippocampus.

Research has also found that different sub regions of the

hippocampus itself play important roles in certain types of memory.
For example, the rear part of the hippocampus is involved in the
processing of spatial memories. Studies of London cab drivers
have found that navigating complex mazes of big city streets is
linked to the growth of the rear region of the hippocampus.
(Maguire et.al. 2003a). Another study reported that anterior
hippocampus is active when people learn to associate names with
faces (Zeineh et.al.,2003) and another part of hippocampus is
active when people use spatial mnemonics (Maguire et.al.,2003b).
The reason is that the left hippocampus is more involved in the
memory of facts, episodes, words; it is responsible for constructing
episodic memory. The right hippocampus is more involved in
spatial memory.

Memories are not permanently stored in hippocampus.

Events or episodes (such as its smell, feel, sound and location) are
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held there temporarily for a couple of days before consolidating,

that is, moving to other parts of the brain for long-term storage. For
example, Tse et.al. (2007) showed in an experiment that if a rat’s
hippocampus is removed three hours after it has learnt the location
of some tasty food, it will not be able to locate food after the
operation, because its hippocampus did not get a chance to send
the information to different locations of long term memory. But if the
hippocampus was removed 48 hours after the rat has learned the
location of the tasty food, it could remember the location.

Much of this consolidation of memory occurs during sleep.

During deep sleep, the hippocampus processes memories for later
retrieval. Other studies have shown that getting a full eight hours of
sleep after learning a new task, such as a finger-tapping exercise,
or after studying a long list of words can boost recall the next day.
Even a one-hour nap can improve performance on certain tasks.
Researchers have watched the hippocampus and brain cortex
showing simultaneous activity rhythms during sleep, indicating as if
they are having a dialogue (Euston et.al.,2007). What happens is
that when you sleep at night, your brain “replays” the day’s events.
During these nightly recaps, hippocampus and the neo cortex, “talk”
to one another and transfer day’s experiences to the cortex for
long-term storage. Cortex areas surrounding the hippocampus
support the processing and storing of explicit memories. This
transfer of information from hippocampus to cortex is called
consolidation. In addition to strengthening memories, sleep can
also help integrate new information, leading to creative insight. In
one experiment, researchers showed how sleep restructures
information to help subjects see new patterns, linking new
information with prior knowledge.

B) Implicit -Memory System: The Cerebellum and Basal

Ganglia:
Implicit memory is sometimes referred to as unconscious
memory or automatic memory or non declarative memory. As
mentioned before, implicit memory includes skills and habits,
conditioned associations, priming and perceptual learning. Even if
you lose your hippocampus and frontal lobe, you will still be able to
do many activities because of implicit memory.

Non declarative memory is expressed through performance

rather than recollection. The unconscious status of non declarative
memory creates some of the mystery of human experience. Here
arise the habits and preferences that are inaccessible to conscious
recollection, but they nevertheless are shaped by past events, they
influence our current behavior and mental life. For example,
LeDoux (1996) reported a case of a brain damaged patient who
suffered from amnesia and could not form immediate memories.
Every day, her doctor shook her hand and introduced himself as
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she could not form memories of the current events. One day when
doctor shook hand with her, she suddenly pulled her hand back
with a jerk because doctor has a drawing board pin in his hand and
that had pricked her. The next day, when doctor returned to
introduce himself, she refused to shake his hand but she could not
explain why she was refusing to shake hand. She was classically
conditioned.

The cerebellum plays a very important role in formation and

storage of implicit memories created by classical conditioning. If
cerebellum is damaged, people cannot develop certain conditioned
reflexes, such as associating a tone with about to come puff of air
and thus do not blink in anticipation of the puff (Daum & Schugens;
1996). Similarly, when researchers surgically disrupted the function
of different pathways in the cerebellum of rabbits, the rabbits could
not learn a conditioned eye blink response. It was also reported that
if cerebellum is damaged, voluntary motor movement become slow
and uncoordinated. It is clearly evident from these experiments
that cerebellum plays an important part in formation of implicit
memories.

A subset of implicit memory, procedural memory, enables

us to perform many everyday physical activities, such as walking
and riding a bike, without having to give it thought. A large majority
of implicit memories are procedural in nature. Procedural memory
primarily depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia. The basal
ganglia are deep brain structures involved in motor movements and
memories of skills. The cerebellum plays a part in correcting
movement and fine tuning the motor agility found in procedural
skills such as painting, instrument playing and in sports such as
cricket, swimming, etc. Damage to this area may prevent the proper
relearning of motor skills.

The Basal Ganglia receives input from the cortex, but it does
not return the inputs to the cortex for conscious awareness of
procedural learning. For example, once you know how to ride a
bike, you never forget this skill, thanks to your basal ganglia. You
can ride the bicycle even if you can’t recall having taken the lesson
for this skill.

Infantile amnesia:
Implicit memory from infancy can be retained right up to
adulthood, including skills and conditioned responses. However,
explicit memories such as our recall of episodes, goes back to
about age 3 for most people. This nearly 3 years “blank” in our
memories is called infantile amnesia. For example, in an
experiment conducted by Bauer et.al. (2007), the events children
experienced and discussed with their mothers, when they were 3
years old, they could recollect 60% of these events at the age of 7
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but could recollect only 35% of these events at the age of 9. This
demonstrated that as we grow old we can’t recollect the events that
took place either before or at the age of 3. The question arises, why
we can’t remember these events that take place in infancy stage.
Psychologists have come up with two reasons for it-

1. Encoding: Some psychologists believe that explicit memories in

childhood develop with language acquisition because the ability
to use words and concepts helps in memory retention. It is
believed that after developing linguistic skills, memories that
were not encoded verbally, get lost within the mind. Another
explanation is that young children encode and store memory as
images or feelings. In adulthood, our language dominated
memories do not have retrieval cues appropriate for gaining
access to the stored memory of childhood.
2. The hippocampus, that plays a significant part in explicit
memories, is one of the last brain structure to mature.
3. Still other psychologists believe that children younger than 3 or
4 do not perceive contexts well enough to store memories
accurately.

8.2.2 The Amygdala, Emotions, And Memory:

It is a common knowledge that generally we remember
emotionally charged events better than boring ones. The brain
region that is most strongly involved in emotional memory is the
amygdala. The question arises how does intense emotions cause
the brain to form intense memories? Psychologists say

1. Emotions can trigger a rise in stress hormones that influences

memory formation. Heightened emotions (stress related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories. Stress hormones make
more glucose energy available to fuel brain activity. In a way,
emotions trigger stress hormones telling the brain that
something important just happened.
2. These hormones trigger activity in the amygdala and provoke it
to increase memory-forming activity in the frontal lobes and
basal ganglia and also to “tag” the memories as important. The
amygdala is critically involved in calculating the emotional
significance of events, and, through its connection to brain
regions dealing with sensory experiences, also appears to be
responsible for the influence of emotion on perception - alerting
us to notice emotionally significant events even when we're not
paying attention. Emotional arousal can blaze certain events
into the brain, while disrupting memory of certain other neutral
events at the same time. As a result, the memories are stored
with more sensory and emotional details. These details can
trigger a rapid, unintended recall of the memory.
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3. Emotions often persist without our being consciously aware of

what caused them. For instance, in an experiment, patients with
damaged hippocampus (so that they could not form new explicit
memory) watched a sad film and later a happy film. After the
viewing, they did not consciously recall the films, but the sad or
happy emotion persisted. (Feinstein et.al.,2010).
4. Stressful events can form very long-lasting memories.
Especially, traumatic events such as rape, house fire, terrorist
attack, etc. may lead to vivid recollection of the horrific event
again and again. James McGaugh (1994) noted that stronger
emotional experiences make for stronger, more reliable
memories. This helps in our survival also, because memory
serves to predict the future and alert us to future dangers.
5. Flashbulb memories: These tend to be memories of highly
emotional events. These events can be traumatic such as 9/11
terror attack, an earthquake, Tsunami, rape, news of a loved
one, etc. or it can be a pleasant but emotionally charged event,
such as first date outing. Typically, people can accurately recall-
• Place (where they were when the event happened),
• Ongoing activity (what they were doing),
• Own affect (the emotion they felt),
• Informant (who broke the news)
• Others’ Affect (how others felt)
• Aftermath (Importance of the event)

Flashbulb memories register like a photograph. It is as if the

brain commands, “Capture this”. People can recall them vividly and
with high confidence. However, as we relive, rehearse and discuss
them, these memories may get distorted as misinformation seeps
in. So, flashbulb memories are not as accurate as it was initially
thought.

8.2.3 Synaptic Changes:

When people form memories, their neurons release
neurotransmitters to other neurons across the synapses. With
repetition, the synapses undergo long-term potentiation (LTP),
that is, the signals are sent across the synapse more efficiently. It is
defined as a long-lasting increase in synaptic efficacy following high
frequency stimulation of pre synaptic neurons.

Synaptic changes include a reduction in the prompting

needed to send a signal and an increase in the number of
neurotransmitter receptor sites. In other words, neurons can show
history- dependent behavior by responding differently as a function
of prior input, and this plasticity of nerve cells and synapses is the
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basis of memory. Neurons that fire together wire together. It means,

through repeated pairing, there will be structural and chemical
changes that will result in strengthening of active synapses forming
a stronger circuit.

LTP occurs throughout the brain, but a high concentration of

LTP occurs in the hippocampus and is believed to play a role in
learning and memories. Many experiments have proved that LTP is
a physical basis for memory. For instance –

1. Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning (Lynch & Staubli,
1991).
2. In an experiment, rats that were given a drug to increase their
LTP learned a maze with half of the usual number of mistakes
(Service, 1994).
3. When rats were injected with a chemical that could block the
preservation of LTP, rats’ immediate memories were erased
(Pastalkova et.al.2006). After LTP has occurred, if electric
current is passed through the brain, it won’t disrupt old
memories, but it will erase current memories. This is exactly
what happens when depressed people are given
electroconvulsive therapy or somebody gets hit very hard on the
head. For example, football players or boxers who become
temporarily unconscious after a hit by the opponent, typically
have no memory of what happened before the hit (Yarnell &
Lynch, 1976).
4. Some pharmaceutical companies manufacture memory-
boosting drugs. These drugs are consumed by people suffering
from Alzheimer’s disease or having mild cognitive impairment
that may later on become Alzheimer’s disease, or simply by
people who are having age related memory decline. This
memory improving drugs are of two types –
a.) Drugs that enhance neurotransmitter glutamate.
b.) Drugs that improve production of CREB, a protein that
enhances the LTP process. Increased production of CREB
triggers enhanced production of some other proteins that help in
reshaping synapse and transfer short term- memories into long-
term memories and patients who take these drugs show
enhanced learning.

However, there are some people who wish to take drugs to

block the memories. These are the people who have gone through
traumatic experiences and do not want to go through the memories
of those events. A drug that helps in erasing such memories is
Propranolol. In an experiment, it was found that when victims of
traumatic event such as accident or rape were given this drug for
10 days immediately after the incident, it helped them to overcome
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their experiences as after three months they did not show any sign
of stress disorder.

The following charts shows the summary of encoding of both

types of memories and how the brain stores memories in its two –
track system (See Fig. 8.1 & Fig. 8.2)

Fig.8.1

Fig.8.2

8.3 RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT

Measures of Retention:
There are three measures of retention – recall, recognition
and relearning speed. It is easier for us to recognize the information
than to recall. Our recognition memory is impressively quick and
vast. Our speed of relearning also indicates how much we have
learned. Herman Ebbinghaus showed this in his learning
experiments, using a nonsense syllables. He found that the more
times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer
repetitions he required to retain it on day 2. Additional rehearsal
(overlearning) of verbal information increases retention, especially
when practice is distributed over days.
Retrieval Cues:
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Generally, it is believed that memory retrieval is a simple

process. Information has been stored in long term memory and can
be retrieved at will. But it is far from reality. Just because a memory
has been fully encoded is no guarantee that it can be retrieved and
applied at will, because memories are held in storage by a web of
associations, each piece of information interconnected with others.
These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. In
other words, memory is not stored as a file that can be retrieved by
searching alphabetically. Instead, it is stored as a web of
associations – conceptual, contextual and emotional.

One process that can improve the likelihood of remembering

previously learned knowledge is retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can
be defined as any stimulus or words that help us remember stored
memories (Goldstein, 2011).

Retrieval cues are clues or reminders which direct memory

search to the appropriate part of the LTM.

The more retrieval cues you have, the better will be your
chances of finding a route to your stored memory. Retrieval is good
when conditions favor rich and elaborate encoding because it
provides readily available retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can be
external such as place, color, sound that can help you to retrieve
the specific memories. For example, in various Hindi movies, we
have seen the use of external retrieval cue (such as a specific
shaped charm bracelet, a song learned in childhood, etc.) being
used to trigger memories. Retrieval cues can be internal also such
as internal such as feelings of sadness that reminds you of some
unfortunate event in your life.

Priming:
Retrieval is affected by activation of our associations.
Priming triggers a thread of associations that bring us to a concept,
just as a spider feels movement in a web and follows it to find the
bug. Our minds work by having one idea trigger another; this
maintains a flow of thought.

Priming has been called “invisible memory”, “memory less

memory” because it affects us unconsciously. Priming is an implicit
memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences the
response to another stimulus. Priming influences our behavior. For
example, Joly & Stapel (2009) empirically reported that Dutch
children primed with items associated with Santa Claus shared
more chocolate than did other children who were not primed with
Santa Claus. This is because Santa Claus is associated with
kindness and generosity and children who were primed with Santa
Claus were reminded of these qualities.
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Priming effects are not always positive. We may have biases

and associations stored in memory that also influence our choices.
For example, Vohs (2006) showed that participants primed with
money related words were less likely to help another person when
asked to do so. Ariely (2009) explained these findings and said that
in such cases, money primes our materialism and self-
centeredness rather than the social norm of helping.

Context-Dependent Memory:
Part of the web of associations of a memory is the context.
We retrieve a memory more easily when in the same context as
when we formed the memory. For example, words learned
underwater are better retrieved underwater. Students do better on
tests if they study in the same place where they take the test.
Eyewitness can recollect better when they are taken back to the
scene of crime where they saw the crime occurring. A student may
go to a stationary shop and may not remember what he wanted to
buy, but when he comes home and again sits on his study table, he
may recollect that he wanted to buy a specific pencil from the
stationary store.

When people visit their old school, they can recall memories
that they believed they had forgotten. This explains why people
experience the ‘flood’ of memories after revisiting their old school or
house after a gap of many years. When an individual moves to a
new location with different contextual information, remembering and
recalling information from this new environment may interfere with
the old memories and result in "forgetting". However, when
returning to the former location, the presence of contextual
information "reactivates" these old memories, allowing them to be
recalled, even after many years of absence. Experiments have
shown that a familiar context can activate memories even in 3-
month-old infants.

State- Dependent Memory:

Unlike context – dependency memory, which involves an
individual's external environment and conditions, state-dependent
memory applies to the individual's internal conditions. Our
memories are not just linked to the external context in which we
learned them. Memories can also be tied to the emotional state we
were in when we formed the memory.

State-dependent memory is the phenomenon through which

memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same
state of consciousness as they were when the memory was
formed. Alcohol-related state-dependent memory is known to occur
with humans as well as with animals. Heavy drinkers may forget
what they did while drunk, only to remember again the next time
they drink. For instance, someone who hides money when drunk
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may forget the location until drunk again. Rats were taught to run a
maze under the influence of a depressant drug often forgot the
route through the maze if tested later without the drug. Given the
drug again, they could retrieve their memory and run the maze
successfully.

Similarly, emotions that accompany good or bad events

become retrieval cues (Fiedler et.al. 2001). So, we can say that our
memories are mood congruent. Mood-congruent memory occurs
where current mood helps recall of mood-congruent material,
regardless of our mood at the time the material was stored. Thus,
when we are happy, we are more likely to remember happy events.
If you are in gloomy mood, you may recall other bad events from
your past. Research has shown that people put in a cheerful mood
– either through hypnosis or through positive events of the day –
recalled the world in very positive terms. They judged themselves
as competent and effective and judged others as benevolent and in
general were optimistic about world’s future. This retrieval effect
helps to explain why our moods persist. When happy, we recall
happy events and therefore see the world as happy place and our
happy mood prolongs and vice versa.

This clearly indicates that our moods color our thinking.

When we feel happy, we think happy. We see and recall a good
world. When our mood is gloomy, our thoughts switch to a different
track. The bad mood primes our recollection of negative events.
Our relationships seem to sour, our self-image plunges, our hopes
for the future dim and other people’s behavior seems sinister. As
depression increases, memories and expectations dive down. It
was found that currently depressed people recall their parents as
having been rejecting and punitive. But formerly depressed people
recall their parents in the same positive terms as do never
depressed people (Lewinsohn & Rosenbaum, 1987).

Similarly, Bornstein et.al. (1991) reported that adolescents’

ratings of their parental warmth differed from time to time
depending upon their mood. When teens were depressed or in low
mood, they rated their parents as inhuman and when their mood
brightened up, they rated their parents as angels. This indicates
that our perception of reality changes depending upon our changing
moods. We change our judgments, memories, interpretations of a
situation depending upon our moods. For instance, when we are in
bad mood and we find a person is constantly looking at us, we may
interpret it as a glare and feel even worse and avoid that person.
On the other hand, when we are in good mood and we find a
person constantly looking at us, we may interpret it as interest and
feel even better and strike a conversation with him.
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The serial Position Effect:

Priming and context cues are not the only factors which
make memory retrieval selective. The serial position effect refers to
the tendency to retrieve items at the beginning and at the end of a
long list. This happens due to the primacy effect (items at the
beginning of the list) and recency effect (items at the end of the
list). Memory researchers explain that the primacy effect happens
because information encoded earlier has more time and opportunity
to be rehearsed and elaborated in short-term memory, has less
competition in working memory, and has a higher chance of getting
stored in long-term memory. On the other hand, the recency effect
happens because information encoded later is still undergoing
rehearsal in working memory, and is therefore readily available for
recall.

Check your Progress:

Write short notes on
a.) Explicit memory
b.) Implicit memory
c.) Synaptic changes
d.) Infantile amnesia
e.) Retrieval cues

8.4 FORGETTING

People often feel that it will be wonderful to have a brain that

won’t forget anything that it is exposed to. There will be no need to
memorize anything. The question arises is it really a good idea. In
fact, the research shows that forgetting has its own advantages. If
we remembered everything that we came across, we could not
prioritize the important memories. We might have difficulty thinking
abstractly and making connections if our brain was devoted to
compiling isolated bits of information. If we were unable to forget,
we might not focus well on current stimuli because of intrusive
memories such as traumatic or discouraging memories.
“Forgetfulness is a form of freedom.” (Khalil Gibran)

8.4.1 Forgetting and the two-track mind:

While it is true that forgetting has its own advantages as
mentioned above, the fact remains that for some people memory
loss can be severe and permanent affecting their day to day life.
There are two types of such severe memory losses called
anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia: It refers to an inability to form new long-

term declarative/explicit memories from a particular date, usually
the date of an accident or operation of the brain. It is an inability to
transfer new information from the short-term memory to long-term
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memory. The brain damage can be caused by stroke, head trauma,

or surgery.

Retrograde amnesia: It is a loss of memory-access to events that

occurred, or information that was learned, before an injury or the
onset of a disease. People suffering from retrograde amnesia
cannot recall their past – the old memories stored in long term
memory that were stored before the injury, but they can form new
memories and store them in long term memory. Generally, the
memory loss is not for the individual’s entire lifetime. In a Hindi
movie Sadma (1983), Shridevi competently essayed the role of a
retrograde amnesia patient.

As an example of anterograde amnesia, Dittrich (2010)

reported a case of Henry Molaison (called H.M. in short) who used
to suffer from seizures and to stop his seizures, doctors conducted
a brain surgery. After brain surgery, H.M. developed severe
anterograde amnesia. He was unable to form new conscious
memories, though his working memory and procedural memory
were intact. His memory prior to operation was intact. He could
remember much of his childhood, he knew his name and family
history. He was intelligent and did daily crossword puzzles, but he
forgot daily events nearly as fast as they occurred. He
underestimated his own age, apologized for forgetting the names of
persons to whom he had just been introduced. His doctor Corkin
(2005) said “I’ve known H.M. since 1962, and he still does not know
who I am”. For about 20 seconds during conversation he could
keep something in mind. When distracted, he would lose what was
just said or what had just occurred. So he could never learn how to
use a TV remote.

Similarly, Oliver Sacks reported the case of Jimmie, who

was suffering from anterograde amnesia. He had no sense of how
much time has passed after he suffered his injury at the age of 19
in 1945. When he was 49 years old and doctor asked him his age,
he replied that he was 19 years old. Doctor placed a mirror before
him and asked him to say what he could see. Jimmie was shocked
by his appearance in the mirror and became frantic. He asked is it a
nightmare, or a joke? When his attention was diverted to some
children playing outside the room, his panic ended and he totally
forgot about seeing himself in the mirror. Even more interesting was
that when Sacks left the room and returned a few minutes later
Jimmy had no memory of ever meeting the doctor.

The strange facts about patients such as H.M., Jimmie and

others like them are that they can learn nonverbal tasks. They can
find their way to the bathroom, but if you ask them to explain where
is the bathroom, they will not be able to tell you. They can learn to
read mirror image writing and solve jigsaw puzzle and many other
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complicated job skills. They can be classically conditioned, but they

do all these things with no awareness of having learned them. That
means their automatic processing ability is intact and they can form
new implicit memories, but they lose their explicit memory as they
cannot consciously recall learning of these new skills. These
examples confirm that we have two distinct memory systems,
controlled by different parts of the brain.

8.4.2 Reasons for Forgetting

Encoding Failure:
As discussed previously, whatever is not encoded and
passed on to long term memory will never be remembered by us.
Very often we hear people saying that with age they have become
more forgetful. Research studies have also shown that with
advancing age our encoding efficiency reduces. The brain areas
that are instantly active when young adults encode new information
become less responsive as we grow old. However, no matter what
our age is, we are selective while paying attention to and encoding
information that continuously keeps bombarding us. For example,
we have seen many coins in our life time, we can recall their size,
shape and color but if I ask you to recall what is engraved on head
side and what is engraved on tail side or can you differentiate a
fake coin from a real one, the chances are the most people cannot
do that. But a coin collector will be able to differentiate a fake coin
from a real one and will remember the details engraved on the
head and tail side of the coin. This is because a coin collector will
encode the important features of the coins to his memory through
effortful processing. He would have paid close attention to those
features and that must have facilitated in encoding that information
and storing in long-term memory. Without putting effort, many
potential memories are never formed.

Storage Decay:
Very often we can’t recollect information despite putting
effort in encoding it. For example, you must have learned certain
study material for your exam last year and must have successfully
reproduce in the exam, but if I ask you to recall it now, the chances
are that you will not be able to recall it. Memories are lost over time.
To study the duration of stored memories, Ebbinghaus (1885)
learned lists of nonsense syllables and measured how much he
retained while relearning each list, from 20 minutes to 30 days later.
He found that the course of forgetting was initially rapid and then
leveled off with time. Harry Bahrick (1984) conducted a similar
experiment with students learning Spanish in school. He found that
compared to those who were just finishing school, people who
passed out from school 3 years back had forgotten much of what
they had learned in school but whatever they could remember at
that time (after this lapse of 3 years) they could recall after 25 years
later also. Their forgetting had leveled off.
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One of the reasons for this leveling off in forgetting can be

that physical memory traces fade gradually. Memories may be
inaccessible for various reasons such as –

a.) Some memories were never acquired/ not encoded, e.g , maybe
we never paid attention to the details of the coin, or even if paid
attention to it enough to get it into our working memory, maybe
we still didn’t bother to rehearse it and encode it into long term
memory.
b.) Some memories are discarded, that is, stored memories decay,
memory encoded into long-term memory will decay if the
memory is never used, recalled and re-stored.
c.) Some memories we are not able to retrieve.

Retrieval Failure – Tip of the Tongue:

a.) Very often forgetting takes place not because memories have
faded but because we are unable to retrieve them. For example,
try to recall a song that was your favorite 15 years back but after
that you have not heard it again or sang it again. You will find it
difficult to recall its lyrics. You feel the lyrics on the tip of your
tongue but just not able to say it. You will hum the tune but not
able to get the lyrics. But if somebody else gives you a clue
such as first few words, you will be able to recall that song. This
is called Tip-of-the-Tongue phenomenon.
b.) To prevent retrieval failure when storing and rehearsal
memories, you can build retrieval cues such as linking your
memorized material to images, rhymes, categories, initials, lists,
etc.

Interference:
Sometimes retrieval problem occurs due to interference. Old
and new memories can interfere with each other, making it difficult
to store new memories and retrieve old ones. There are two types
of interference

Proactive Interference: It occurs when past information interferes

(in a forward-acting way) with learning new information. You have
many strong memories of a previous teacher, and this memory
makes it difficult to learn the new teacher’s name. Or if you change
your password on your email account after a long time, your
memory of old password may interfere with remembering the new
password.

Retroactive Interference: It occurs when new stimuli/learning

interferes with the storage and retrieval of previously formed
memories. For example, if you hear a new song set on the tune of
an old song, you may have trouble recalling the words of old song.
Studies have shown that information presented just before the eight
hours sleep is protected from retroactive interference because the
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chances of interference are minimized. This was first discovered by

John Jenkins and Karl Dallenbach (1924) in an experiment. They
asked two people to memorize nonsense syllables and then try to
recall them after 8 hours of being awake or asleep at night. This
exercise was for many days. It was found that forgetting occurred
more rapidly after being awake and being involved in other daily
activities than for those who slept after memorizing the list. This
clearly shows that “forgetting is not so much a matter of the decay
of old impressions and associations as it is a matter of interference,
inhibition or obliteration of the old by the new.” Karl Dallenbach
(1924).

This, however, does not mean that you should commit

information to your memory just few seconds before sleeping. Such
information is not encoded. Research shows that we have very little
memory for information that is played aloud in the room during
sleep, although ears do register it. (Wood et.al., 1992) In both types
of interference, the greater the similarity of the interfering material,
the greater the interference will be.

Motivated Forgetting:
The concept of motivated forgetting was invented by
Sigmund Freud. He proposed that we repress (unconsciously) or
suppress (consciously)Motivated painful or unacceptable memories
to protect our self-concept, to prevent guilt, embarrassment, shame
and to minimize anxiety. But the repressed memories linger and
can be retrieved by some later cue or during therapy. Motivated
forgetting is a form of self-defense mechanism.

C. Tavris and Elliot Aronson (2007) pointed out that memory is an

“unreliable, self-serving historian”. For example, Ross et.al.
(1981) reported from their experiment that when some people
were told about the benefits of frequent tooth brushing, they
recalled having brushed their teeth frequently in the next two
weeks than those who were not told the benefits of tooth
brushing.

The concept of motivated forgetting was very popular in mid-

twentieth century psychology but today, many memory researchers
think repression occurs rarely. People’s efforts to intentionally
forget neutral material often succeed, but not when the to be
forgotten material is emotional. So, we may have intrusive
memories of the very traumatic experiences that we would like to
forget.

8.5 MEMORY CONSTRUCTION ERRORS

Memory not only gets forgotten, but it also gets constructed.

Memory is not precise. We infer our past from stored information
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plus what we later imagined, selected, changed, expected, rebuilt,

saw or heard. We often construct our memories as we encode
them, and every time we replay a memory, we replace the original
with a slightly modified version. Memory researchers call this
reconsolidation. No matter how accurate and video like our memory
seems, it is full of alterations, even fictions. Joseph LeDoux (2009)
rightly said, “Your memory is only as good as your last memory.
The fewer times you use it, the more pristine it is”.

8.5.1 Misinformation and Imagination Effects:

Misinformation Effect:
Generally, it is believed that people’s long-term memory
records events that we experience exactly as they happened. But
this is not true. In reality, researchers have found that long term
memory is very prone to errors and can easily be altered and
molded. The inaccuracy of long term memory is enhanced by the
misinformation effect, which occurs when misleading information is
incorporated into one’s memory after an event. For example,
Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) conducted over 200
experiments involving more than 20,000 participants. Different
groups of participants saw a video of a car accident and then
afterwards were questioned about what they had seen in the video.
It was found that the answers to such questions varied depending
on the way the questions were worded. When asked the question”
How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”
the answer typically involved a higher rate of speed than when the
question was framed as “How fast were the cars going when they
hit each other?”. Additionally, when the participants were asked a
week later to report whether or not there was glass at the scene of
the accident, those who had heard the word 'smashed' in their initial
interview were twice as likely to report broken glass, when in the
video there was not any. In fact the video has not shown any
broken glass. (See Fig 8.3)

Fig.8.3

Many other follow-up experiments confirmed that

misinformation effect takes place. If we are exposed to misleading
information, we tend to misremember. In fact, researchers said that
so powerful is the misinformation effect that it can influence later
attitudes and behaviors. Since we are not aware that we are being
presented with misinformation, it is not possible for us to pick and
remove suggested ideas out of large pool of real memories.
 140

Filling Memory Gaps:

Our memories get influenced by not only misinformation
effect, but we also tend to fill memory gaps. While describing a
childhood experience to somebody, we tend to fill in the memory
gaps with reasonable guesses and assumptions. After numerous
times of saying the same story, we accept the guesses as real
memory.

Implanted False Memories:

Just listening to a vivid retelling of an event may implant
false memories. In one experiment, University students were
suggested that as children, they became ill after eating spoiled egg
salad. After absorbing the suggestion, many of them did not eat
egg-salad sandwich, both immediately and even after four months
(Geraerts et.al. 2008).

Imagining:
Even repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events
can create false memories. For example, in another study by
Elizabeth Loftus, people were asked to provide details of a incident
in childhood when they had been lost in a shopping mall (which had
NOT happened). By trying to picture details, most people came to
believe that the incident had actually happened; they had acquired
an implanted memory. In another study, Garry et.al. (1996) asked
university students were asked to imagine certain childhood events,
such as breaking a window with their hand or having a skin sample
removed from a finger. One out of four students later recalled the
imagined event as something that really happened.

Imagination Inflation:
Once we have an inaccurate memory, we tend to keep
adding more imagined details. For example, in one experiment,
researcher digitally altered photos from a family album to show
some family members taking a hot-air balloon ride. kids with an
implanted memory of a balloon ride later added even more
imagined details, making the memory longer, more vivid, with high
confidence in their memories. When they were interviewed several
days later, they reported even richer details of their false memories.
The question arises why these misinformation and imagination
effect occurs. Gonsalves et.al. (2004) explained that misinformation
and imagination effects occur because visualizing something and
actually seeing it activates similar brain areas. So, imagined events
also later appear to be more familiar and familiar things seem more
real. The more vividly we can imagine things, the more likely they
are to become memories. The human mind, it seems, comes with
built-in photo shopping software.
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8.5.2 Source Amnesia:

Very often, it happens that I come across a person whom I
recognize as someone I know but I am unable to place where I
have met this person. Jean Piaget, a famous psychologist, was
surprised as an adult to learn that a vivid detailed memory from his
childhood – about a nursemaid preventing his kidnapping- was
totally false. He constructed this memory from a story often heard
from the nursemaid. So, a person’s memory for the event may be
accurate, but he may forget where the story came from and
attribute the source of that information to his own experiences. The
information may have come from a story someone told him about
his childhood ( as in case of Jean Piaget), from a movie that a
person has seen, or book he read, from a dream that he used to
have or from a sibling’s experience, etc. These all are sources for
amnesia. Source amnesia or misattribution is at the heart of many
of these false memories.

Source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or

how previously learned information has been acquired, while
retaining the factual knowledge. This branch of amnesia is
associated with the malfunctioning of one's explicit memory.
Authors and songwriters often suffer from this type of amnesia.
They think an idea came from their own creative imagination which
in fact they have unintentionally plagiarized from something they
have earlier read, heard or seen.

Source amnesia also explains déjà vu feeling that almost

two third of us have experienced at some time or the other. Déjà vu
refers to a feeling that you are in a situation that you have already
seen or have been in before. The most common technical definition
of déjà vu (French for “already seen”) is “any subjectively
inappropriate impression of familiarity of a present experience with
an undefined past.”

This can be seen as source amnesia - a memory (from

current sensory memory) that we misattribute as being from long
term memory. It generally happens to well-educated, well-traveled,
wealthy, liberal and imaginative young adults (15 to 25 years old),
especially when they are tired or stressed out. Research shows that
it is more likely to occur late in the day and late in the week. People
experiencing déjà vu wonder “how can I recognize a situation I am
experiencing for the first time?” or they may think of reincarnation
(“I must have experienced this in my previous life”) or they may
think that they had premonition/precognition (“I saw this scene in
my mind before experiencing it”).

Alan Brown and Elizabeth Marsh (2009) conducted an

experiment in a laboratory to study déjà vu phenomenon. In their
trials, they flashed a symbol at a subliminal level, on a computer
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screen, followed by a longer view of the same symbol or different

symbols or no symbols. When a flash was followed by its identical
symbol, participants were five times more likely to say they had
seen that symbol sometime before the experiment. So, half the
participants experienced déjà vu without being aware of why they
are feeling this familiarity. The key to déjà vu seems to be familiarity
with a stimulus without being clear where we have encountered it
before.

Reasons for Déjà vu:

1. Brown and Marsh explained that it is a case of double
perception that suggests that a quick glance at a scene can
make it appear strangely familiar when it is fully perceived
moments later. Brown said, “This is easy to imagine in today’s
distracted society. Let’s say you enter a new museum, glancing
at artwork while talking on your cell phone. Upon hanging up,
you look around and sense you’ve been there long ago.”

2. By studying patients suffering from epilepcy, neurologists

believe that déjà vu occurs due to temporal lobe processing.
Christopher Moulin and O’Connor studied four patients with
damaged temporal lobes who suffered from chronic déjà vu.
These patients greeted strangers like old friends, had no
interest in watching TV or reading newspaper because they
were convinced that they have seen everything before. This
suggests that déjà vu may be the result of a small seizure in the
part of the temporal lobe that governs our sense of familiarity.
Hippocampus and frontal lobe processing is responsible for our
consciously remembered details. When temporal lobe and
hippocampus and frontal lobe are out of sync, we experience a
feeling of familiarity without conscious recall. Then we have
déjà vu as our source amnesia forces us to do our best to make
sense of an odd moment.

8.5.3 Discerning True and False Memories:

False memories created due to misinformation or
misattribution feel as real as true memories and they can be very
persistent. False memories are often the cause of faulty eyewitness
testimony and faulty eyewitness identification. Hypnotically
refreshed memories may prove to be inaccurate; especially if the
hypnotist asks leading questions such as “Did you hear loud
noises?”

McFarland & Ross (1987) examined dating partners’

evaluation of their relationship over time. People who fell more in
love after their initial evaluation retrospectively exaggerated the
intensity of earlier reports of love; those who broke up the
relationship underestimated their original reports of caring for their
partners. Similarly, when people were asked what was their view
 143

about marijuana or gender issues 10 years ago, recalled attitudes

that were similar to their current views rather than the views they
had actually reported 10 years back.

8.5.4 Children’s Eyewitness Recall:

One interesting question faced by psychologists is how
reliable are children’s eyewitness descriptions. The credibility of
children’s testimony is often questioned due to their
underdeveloped frontal lobes and memory capacity. Ceci & Bruck’s
(1993, 1995) have researched the theme of children’s eyewitness
recall many times. In 1993 and 1995, using anatomically correct
dolls they asked 3-year-old children to indicate where the
pediatrician had touched them. 55% of the children who had not
received genital or anal examinations indicated that they had been
touched in their private parts. In a different experiment, Ceci &
Bruck (1999, 2004) found that by using suggestive questioning
techniques most preschoolers and even many older children could
be induced to report false events, like seeing a thief stealing food at
their daycare.

In another study, Ceci & Bruck had children choose from a

deck of cards with possible events on them such as getting a
mousetrap on your finger and going to the hospital. Once the card
was chosen by a child, an adult would read to that child and ask
“Think real hard, and tell me if this ever happened to you…”. The
same adult repeatedly asked children to think about many real and
fictitious events during the interviews. After 10 weeks, a new adult
asked the same questions and 58% of preschoolers produced false
stories with vivid details about one or more events they had never
experienced. Because the stories were so vivid and seemed so
authentic, psychologists could not tell the difference between real
and imagined memories and neither could some of the children.

Similarly, in another experiment, when preschoolers merely

overheard an erroneous remark that a magician’s missing rabbit
had gotten loose in their classroom, 78% of children recalled
actually seeing the rabbit in their classroom.

In the light of these studies, the question arises; can we trust

children as eyewitnesses? The answer is yes, if we question
children about the events in neutral words that they understand,
children can often recall accurately what happened and who did it.
Children are especially accurate when they have not talked with an
involved adult prior to the interview and when their disclosure is
made in a first interview with a neutral person who asks non-
leading questions.
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8.5.5 Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?

Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual
abuse results in repressed memories. But other psychologists
believe that such memories may be constructed.

Myers said that two types of tragedies happen when an adult

recollects childhood abuse:

1.) Disbelief of those who come forward. Trauma survivors may not
be believed when telling their secrets.
2.) Falsely accusing the innocent. While trying to dig up supposed
lost child-abuse memories, therapists use techniques like
hypnosis, drugs and guided imagery and thus create the
memories that they are trying to discover. Patients exposed to
such techniques may form an image of a threatening person
and with further visualization, the image grows more vivid. The
patient ends up stunned, angry and ready to confront or sue the
remembered abuser. The equally stunned and devastated
parent or relative, who has been accused, vigorously denies the
accusation.

So, while the therapists have noble intention of uncovering

the truth, they unintentionally trigger false memories that damage
innocent adults. Psychologists have criticized the therapists’ use of
“memory work” techniques such as guided imagery, hypnosis and
dream analysis to recover memories. The use of such techniques
and creation of false memories has devastated and broken many
families. On the other hand, therapists have accused these critics
to be adding to the trauma of victims and helping child molesters.
To overcome this memory war among psychologists, many
professional bodies of psychology have issued public statements
as given below.

People who are committed to protecting abused children and to

protecting wrongly accused adults agree on following points –
1. Sexual abuse happens: It is too common but there is no
characteristic “survivor syndrome”- no group of symptoms that
can allow us to identify the victims of sexual abuse.
2. Injustice happens: Sometimes the guilty walk free and the
innocent are charged.
3. Forgetting happens: The person may simply have been too
young to remember or may not have understood the meaning of
his/her experience.
4. Recovered memories are commonplace: When cued, it is
common to dig up old memories. But memories that surface on
their own are more reliable than cued ones.
5. Memories of things happening before the age 3 are unreliable.
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6. Memories recovered under hypnosis or the influence of drugs is

especially unreliable: Under hypnosis, people will incorporate all
kinds of suggestions into their memories, even memories of
“past lives”.
7. Memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting:
Both the accuser and the accused may suffer when what was
born of mere suggestion becomes like an actual trauma that
drives bodily stress.

Richard McNally and Elke Geraerts (2009) stated that

victims of childhood sexual abuse do not repress their abuse, they
simply stop devoting thoughts and emotions to it and letting go of
the memory is most likely when

• The experience, when it occurred was strange, uncomfortable

and confusing rather than being severely traumatic
• The abuse only once or only a few times
• Victim have not spent time thinking about the abuse, either
because of their own resilience or because no reminders are
available.

8.6 IMPROVING MEMORY

Now lastly let us see how we can use this knowledge of

memory to improve our memory, so that you can prepare better for
your exams.

a.) Study Repeatedly: To master any material, use distributed

practice. Give yourself many separate study sessions. Take
advantage of little breaks such as travelling to college/office,
taking a lunch break, etc. Thomas Landauer (2001) advises that
to memorize specific facts and figures, rehearse the name or
number that you are trying to memorize, wait for a few seconds
and then rehearse again, wait a little longer, rehearse again,
then wait still longer and then rehearse again. The wait should
be as long as possible without losing the information. Use recall
method to determine how much you have memorized. Reading
complex material with minimal rehearsal will result in little
retention. Rehearsal and critical reflection helps more. It pays to
study actively. Avoid cramming and establish regular study
sessions.

b.) Make the Material Meaningful: You can do this by building up

a network of retrieval cues. Apply the concept to your own life,
form images, understand and organize information, relate to
what you already know or have experienced, put it in your own
words instead of mindlessly repeating someone else’s words.
Previous knowledge helps understanding and understanding
 146

improves memory, so the more that you know about a topic the
easier it is to learn new, related facts. Making sense of what you
are studying is essential to maximize learning. Relating new
information to familiar information helps, even when the link is
otherwise unimportant. Because you’ve generated the links,
you’re likely to remember them, and they will cue the new
information. When encountering names, we normally ignore the
meaning of the words, but if you use that meaning and link it to
the person, it will help you remember their name.

c.) Activate retrieval Cues: Mentally recreate the situation and the
mood in which your original learning took place. We have better
retrieval when it occurs in the same situation in which we
learned the material.

d.) Use Mnemonic Devices: Associate items with peg words.

Make up a story that incorporates vivid images of the items. The
best mnemonics are those that utilize positive imagery, humor,
or novelty. You might come up with a rhyme, song, or joke to
help remember a specific segment of information. Chunk
information into acronyms. Create rhythmic rhymes.

e.) Minimize interference: Study before sleep. Do not study topics

one after the other that are likely to interfere with each other.
For example, studying subjects like English, Hindi, Marathi one
after the other.

f.) Adequate Sleep: Get enough sleep so that when you awake
you feel fresh. As mentioned before, during sleep the brain
reorganizes and consolidates information for long-term memory.
Sleep deprivation disrupts this process and information does not
get stored in long term memory.

g.) Test Your Own Knowledge: Test Your Own Knowledge, both
to rehearse It and to find out what you don’t know: Don’t get
carried away into overconfidence by your ability to recognize
information. Test your recall using the retrieval method. Take
practice tests.

Check your Progress:

Write short notes on
a.) Forgetting and two tracks- mind
b.) Encoding failure, storage decay and retrieval failure
c.) Interference and motivated forgetting
d.) Misinformation and imagination effects
e.) Source Amnesia
f.) Children’s eyewitness recall and repressed/constructed
memories
g.) Techniques to improve memory
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8.7 SUMMARY

In this unit, we talked about why it is important to understand

the functioning of human memory. While discussing the memory
storage, we said there are two types of memory - explicit and
implicit. In brain, frontal lobes and hippocampus play a major role in
formation of explicit memory. If left side of hippocampus is
damaged, we cannot retain verbal information, though we can
retain spatial information because rear part of hippocampus is
involved. It was also emphasized that much of consolidation of
explicit memory occurs during sleep, because hippocampus
processes memories for later retrieval.

The cerebellum and basal ganglia are responsible for implicit

memory. Implicit memory includes skills and habits, conditioned
associations, priming and perceptual learning. Infantile amnesia is
part of implicit memory. Infantile amnesia refers to the fact that
children can't remember events of up to 3 years of age but retain
their procedural memory, that is, whatever skills they have learned
in the first three years remain intact but not the memory for the
events. The amygdala is responsible for memory of emotions.
Emotionally charged events are stored much better in our memory
than boring events. That is why we can remember details of a
three-hour movie but not of the one-hour lecture. Flashbulb
memories are the memories of a highly emotional event and may
trigger with/ without any cue. These memories can be pleasant/
unpleasant. It has also been found that synaptic changes also take
place if we are exposed to same stimuli repeatedly and these
changes help in improved learning and storing memories. Once the
memories are stored, the next question is how do we know whether
memories were stored or no and if they are stored, how to retrieve
them. The research has shown that there are three methods that
indicate whether memory is stored or no. These are recall,
recognition and relearning. Memories can be retrieved with the help
of retrieval cues. Retrieval cues can be priming, context-dependent
memory, state-dependent memory and the serial position effect.

Next, we look at what is forgetting and why do people forget

previously stored information. Psychologists are of the opinion that
our brain does not function like computer, it is much more than that.
We have two track mind which works simultaneously. They talked
about two types of amnesia- anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
Both types of amnesia can take place due to injury, stroke or
disease. In anterograde amnesia we cannot form new memories
from the day we suffer from injury/accident and in retrograde
amnesia, we cannot recall the past events that took place before
the injury/accident. Some of the reasons for forgetting are encoding
failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, interference, motivated
forgetting.
 148

Apart from that we can have memory construction errors

such as misinformation and imagination effect, source amnesia.
This brings us to the question of how to differentiate between true
and false memories and can we rely on children's eyewitness
testimony. It also raises questions about whether child abuse
memories are repressed or constructed memories.

Lastly, we talk about how memory can be improved. Though

there are many methods to improve memory, here we talk about
few of them such as repetition, making material meaningful,
activating retrieval cues, using mnemonic devices, minimizing
interference, having sufficient sleep, and testing our own
knowledge repeatedly by using recall method.

8.8 QUESTIONS

1. How do external cues, internal emotions and order of

appearance influence memory retrieval?
2. Define forgetting. Elaborate on any two reasons for forgetting
3. Write a detailed note on memory construction errors.
4. Discuss in detail how memory can be improved.

8.9 REFERENCE

1) Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013

2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.
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9
THINKING, LANGUAGE AND
INTELLIGENCE - I

Unit Structure :

9.0 Objectives
9.1. Introduction: Thinking
9.1.1 How People Think?
9.1.2 Thinking or Cognition
9.2 Concepts
9.2.1 Mental Imagery
9.2.2 Prototypes
9.3 Problem Solving Strategies and Obstacles
9.3.1 Problem Solving Strategies
9.3.2 Obstacles in Problem Solving
9.4 Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
9.5 Thinking Critically About the Fear Factor
9.5.1 Why We Fear the Wrong Things
9.6 Do Other Species Share Our Cognitive Skills?
9.7 Summary
9.8 Questions
9.9 References

9.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

Understand how people think.
Understand the meaning of thinking, mental imagery and
concepts.
Understand problem solving and decision making and the
methods people use to solve problems and make decisions.
Comprehend the various barriers to problem solving.
Understand the Decision Making.

9.1. INTRODUCTION: THINKING

Most of our waking hours, and even when we are asleep and
dreaming, we are thinking. It is hard not to think. As you read these
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words you are thinking and even if you stop thinking about what
you are reading, your thoughts wander off to something else-
perhaps to what you are going to do tomorrow- you will still be
thinking. What do we do when we think? Loosely speaking, we
might say that we mentally, or cognitively, process information.
There are different definitions of thinking. We would discuss in
briefly.

Thinking consists of the cognitive rearrangement and

manipulation of both information from the environment and the
symbols stored in long-term memory. From another viewpoint,
thinking is the form of information processing that goes on during
the period between a stimulus event and the response to it.

In other words, thinking is the set of cognitive processes that

mediate, or go between, stimuli and responses. To illustrate,
suppose you are trying to make a decision about buying a new
mobile. The seller presents several mobiles in your price range (the
stimuli), and you eventually purchase one of them (the response).
Before making the response, however, you consider the
advantages and the disadvantages of the several mobiles; you
process the information you have about them. Your thinking about
the mobiles - thus mediates between the mobiles as stimuli and
your eventual response of buying one of them.

The general definition of thinking given above encompasses

many different varieties of thought. For instance, some thinking is
highly private and may use symbols with very personal meanings.
This kind of thinking is called as autistic thinking; dreams are an
example of autistic thinking. Other thinking is aimed at solving
problems or creating something new; this is called directed thinking.
Directed thinking is the kind you were engaged in when you solved
(or tried to solve) the problem.

9.1.1. How people think?

One of the most complex and highest forms of human
behaviour is thinking. The topic of thinking came within the purview
of psychology only in the 1960s with the growth of cognitive
psychology. Behaviorists were not in favor of the study of thinking
as according to them thinking was covert in nature and not
empirically observable. Thinking is closely related to learning,
memory, intelligence, decision making and language development.
We would discuss these topics in this as well as the next unit.

9.1.2. Thinking or Cognition:

The terms thinking and cognition are often used
synonymously. There is considerable difference between them. The
term cognition is much broader in scope as compared to thinking.
According to one definition, thinking is a symbolic mediation or a
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symbolic bridge that fills the gaps between a situation and the
response we make to it. According to Watson, ‘thinking’ is ‘sub-
vocal speech’. Thinking is also defined as “mental activity that goes
on in the brain when a person is processing information such as
organizing it, understanding it, and communicating it to others.”
Thinking is not only verbal in nature but also involves the use of
mental images or mental representation. The three most important
elements involved in thinking are mental images (also called as
mental imagery), concepts and prototypes.

9.2. CONCEPTS

Concepts are an important class of language symbols used

in thinking. A concept is a symbolic construction representing some
common and general features of object or events. Some natural, or
basic, concepts are easily acquired and appear in thinking early in
life. Other concepts are acquired by discriminative learning by
seeing examples of the concept in different context, and by
definition. There are different types of concepts. We would discuss
these in detail.

1) Super ordinate Concept:

It is the most general type of a concept, such as “bird” or
“vegetable” or “fruit”.

2) Basic level Type:

A basic level type of concept is one around which other
similar concepts are organised, such as Mango or apple or
watermelon, as there can be many different types of mangos such
as alphonso, dusseri, badami, payri, langda, etc.

3) Subordinate Concept:
It is the most specific type of a concept. Such as “Crackle Cadbury
chocolate” or the name of your dog or a “Kashmiri apple”, etc.

4) Formal Concept:
Formal concepts refer to those concepts which have a strict
definition. These concepts are defined by specific rules or features
and are very rigid. Formal concepts are generally taught in schools
and colleges as a part of academic activity.

5) Natural Concept:
Natural concepts are those concepts which people form as a
result of their experiences in the real world. Unlike formal concepts,
natural concepts are not well defined. Is tomato a vegetable or
fruit? Is duck a mammal or a bird? What about whale, is it a fish or
a mammal? We form concepts about these as a result of our
experiences in the outside world. Natural concepts help us to
understand our surrounding in a less structured and rigid manner.
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Becoming a human being involves the attainment of

concepts: much human thinking uses them. It is therefore of some
practical value to discover what helps or hinders concept
attainment. One factor in concept attainment is transfer. A second
factor is the degree to which the common elements are isolated,
grouped, or otherwise made conspicuous. This may be called as
distinctiveness. A third factor is ability to manipulate the materials
involved in the concept. Rearranged, rewarding, or reorganized
materials containing the common properties helps people to
discover the concept. Another factor is the instructional set people
have. Finally, people usually learn concept faster if they have all the
relevant information available at the same time, instead of being
given only a piece of information at a time.

9.2.1 Mental Imagery:

Mental imagery is also called as visual imagery or imagery
and is an important component of human thought or cognition.
Mental imagery refers to the representations that stand for objects
or events and have a picture-like quality. Mental imagery is used by
most people in their everyday life. Considerable degree of research
on mental imagery has been done by Allan Paivio, Kosslyn and
others.

Research studies by Kosslyn and his colleagues (1990)have

shown that most of our imagery is visual. They did some pioneering
studies on mental rotation of visual images. Kosslyn found that
when we form a mental image our experience seems much like
seeing something in our mind. It seems a lot like vision. When we
form a mental image we seem to be able to manipulate them and
we seem to be solving problems some times by means of
manipulating them. Mental images can be quite detailed but they
tend to be less detailed than actual perception. Kosslyn's research
has demonstrated the following with respect to imagery and size.

People take longer to make judgments about the

characteristics of small mental images than of the large mental
images.

Research shows that visual imagery is a powerful strategy

for enhancing memory. Research has also shown that memory is
most effective when the items must be recalled are shown
interacting with each other (Begg 1982).

9.2.2 Prototypes:
Prototype is another important element of thinking. It can be
defined as an example of a concept that closely matches the
defining characteristics of a concept. Prototypes can be defined as
mental images of the typical qualities of members of some group or
category.
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Concepts simplify our thinking. We can’t think of life without

concepts. Without concepts, we would need a different name for
every person, vents, objects and ideas. For example, suppose we
ask a child to “throw a ball”, a child will not understand if he has no
concept of ball or throw. So, we can say that concepts such as ball
gives us much information with little cognitive efforts.

Prototypes can be defined as mental frame- work, e.g., we

have prototypes for Indian political leaders, certain film stars,
criminals, etc. Prototypes describe the truly typical member of such
categories. The prototypical model helps us to compare new
persons we meet in order to determine if they do or do not fit into
the category. When they fit quite well, we can readily place them in
various categories. When they do not, the situation is more
puzzling. For example, suppose you meet a young woman who told
you that she reads books as a hobby, likes to do social work and
who was dressed in simple clothes. If you discover that she was a
film actress you would probably be surprised. The reason is simple:
she does not seem to fit well with the prototype of film actress that
you have built up through past experience. Prototypes also exert
important effects on social thought and social behaviour. The
prototype for objects and events varies from culture to culture and
from region to region. For example, in an Indian family it is
customary to touch the feet of elders. However, such a custom
does not exist in many other cultures. Similarly, prototype of fruits
or drink varies from region to region depending upon what fruit or
drink is commonly available in a given region or culture. Someone
who lives and grew up in a tropical area where there are many
coconut trees will have a different prototype for fruit as compared to
one who stays in Northern Hemisphere. A person from Kerala
might think of coconut as the most typical fruit as compared to a
person who comes from Kashmir where apples are found in plenty.
It has also been noted that people who are familiar or have
knowledge about given objects and events will have a different
prototype about these objects and events as compared to persons
who are not knowledgeable or lack information about such objects
and events. Thus, many factors influence the development and
formation of prototypes. Some common factors are as follows:

Geographical Region
Culture
Information and Knowledge
Experience

One’s thinking is considerably influenced by the prototype

that one develops or holds. They also aid in the process of problem
solving and decision making. Eleanor Rosch (1973) has done
considerable research work with respect to prototypes. The
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prototype approach has had an important impact on cognitive

psychology and other related disciplines.

9.3 PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES AND

OBSTACLES

In general, a problem can be any conflict or difference

between one situation and another situation we wish to produce our
goal. In trying to reach the goal of problem solution, we use
information available to us from long term memory and from our
here-and-now perception of the problem situation before we
process this information according to rules that tells us what we can
and cannot do. In other words, many instances of problem solving
can be considered a form of rule-guided, motivated information
processing (Newell & Simon, 1972).

9.3.1. Problem Solving Strategies:

Many of the rules used in solving problems concern the
changes that are permissible in going from one situation to another.
Four major types of such rules are algorithm, heuristics, trial and
error and insight.

1) Algorithm:
An algorithm is a set of rules which, if followed correctly, will
guarantee a solution to a problem. For instance, if you are given
two numbers to multiply, you immediately start thinking of all the
rules for multiplication you have learned and you apply these
algorithm to the problem. If you follow the rules correctly, you will
solve the problem. Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that
guarantees a solution. But it can be laborious and frustrating
experience.

2) Heuristics:
Heuristic are simpler thinking strategies, usually based on
our past experience with problems, that are likely to lead to a
solution but do not guarantee success. One common strategy, or
heuristic, is to break the problem down into smaller sub problems,
each a little closer to the end goal.

3) Trial and Error:

This is the most commonly used method in problem solving.
It is used when a person does not have any well thought out
strategy for solving a problem or when he is incapable of thinking
about his problem systematically. In other words, he does not know
about the rules to help him solve the problem. He goes on trying
one thing after another till somehow the problem gets solved by
chance – an abrupt, true seeming and often satisfying solution.
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Insight strikes suddenly with no prior sense of ‘getting warmer’ or

feeling close to a solution.

Mechanical solutions also involve solving by rote or a

learned set of rules. Many problems in life can be solved by merely
applying certain rules mechanically. If the rules are applied
correctly the solution is sure to be found. Many problems in
everyday life and in school and college situations involve
mechanical application of the facts or knowledge that we have
acquired. The strategy involving use of algorithms and heuristics is
representatives of this method.

4) Insight:
This is another important method of solving a problem. For
some problems, solutions occur suddenly. Insight occurs when the
problem solver suddenly ‘sees’ the relations involved in a task and
is immediately able to solve the problem. It was Kohler who first
suggested that learning takes place by insight. An instance of
insight is found in the example of Archimedes who ran naked out of
his bathtub, shouting ‘Eureka’, when he found an answer to a
problem that had troubled him for a long time. Most creative
problems are solved through insight. When human beings solve the
problem through insight they experience a good feeling called as
‘aha’ experience. Thus, insight occurs when the learner ‘suddenly
sees’ the solution involved in a task and is immediately able to
solve the problem. When he suddenly gets the solution, he is said
to have got insight.

9.3.2. Obstacles in Problem Solving:

Problem solving is not an easy task, it is filled with
considerable difficulties or obstacles that are involved in the
process of problem solving. Some problems are difficult to solve as
compared to others. Human beings commit errors or have
limitations that come in the way of solving problems. The three
most common barriers to solving a problem are as follows:

1. Functional Fixedness
2. Mental Set
3. Confirmation bias.
4. Using incomplete or incorrect representations
5. Lack of Problem specific knowledge or expertise

We will discuss each of these briefly.

1. Functional Fixedness:
Functional Fixedness means that the functions or uses we
assign to objects tend to remain fixed or stable. Functional
fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object
only in the way it is traditionally used. Karl Duncker defined
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functional fixedness as being a "mental block against using an

object in a new way that is required to solve a problem." This
"block" then limits the ability of an individual to use the components
given to them to make a specific item, as they cannot move past
the original intention of the object. When people develop functional
fixedness, they recognize tools only for their obvious function. For
example, an object is regarded as having only one fixed function.
The problem-solver cannot alter his or her mental set to see that
the tool may have multiple uses. To overcome functional fixedness,
we need to think flexibly about other ways that objects can be used.
To overcome functional fixedness, we have to realize that an object
designed for one particular function can also serve another
function. The history of technology offers numerous examples of
overcoming functional fixedness. For instance, the steam engine
was used for a century to pump water out of mines before an
inventor realized that it could be used as a source of locomotive
power (Gellatly, 1986).

2. Mental Set:
Mental set is a tendency to adopt a certain framework,
strategy or procedure or more generally, to see things in certain
ways instead of others. Mental set is analogous to perceptual set,
the tendency to perceive an object or pattern in a certain way on
the basis of your immediate perceptual experience. Mental set is
one type of functional fixedness. Mental set directs the thinking
process to solving problems in the same way. When problem
solvers have mental set, they keep trying the same solution they
have used in previous problems, even though the problem could be
approached via other, easier ways. Mental sets involve a kind of
mindless rigidity that blocks effective problem solving (Langer,
1989).A mental set often works against us in our everyday
experiences too. A number of research studies have been carried
out to study how mental set effects problem-solving behavior. The
three major studies using different problems are as follows:

i) Luchin’s study using water Jar problem.

ii) Nine-dot problem
iii) Six match stick problem.

Luchin (1942) in one of the earliest studies on mental set

demonstrated that 75 percent of the students were blind to easy
solution and continued to solve the problem in the same fashion as
they did in the practice problem.

3. Confirmation bias:
Confirmation bias is one of the barriers to logical thinking.
Confirmation bias refers to a type of selective thinking whereby one
tends to notice and to look for what confirms one's beliefs, and to
ignore or not look for, or undervalue the relevance of what
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contradicts one's beliefs. Confirmation bias is a phenomenon

wherein decision makers have been shown to actively seek out and
assign more weight to evidence that confirms their hypothesis, and
ignore or under weigh evidence that could disconfirm their
hypothesis. Confirmation bias is one of the hurdles in objective
evaluation of a theory. In this a researcher overemphasizes data
supporting the theories they favour and tend to ignore or downplay
data which are inconsistent with their views.

4. Using incomplete or incorrect representations:

Irrelevant information hinders problem solving as it slows the
process down, can cause confusion or misunderstandings.

5. Lack of Problem Specific Knowledge or Expertise:

If we don't have problem specific knowledge or expertise for
a specific problem, we can’t solve that problem. Even if we are
going to solve problem it can create difficulties in solving problem.

9.4 FORMING GOOD AND BAD DECISIONS AND

JUDGMENTS

Decision-making is a kind of problem solving in which a

person must choose among several alternatives. In choosing
among alternatives that involve certain amounts of risk, we are
often guided by heuristic rules. There are two types of heuristics.

1) Availability Heuristics
2) Representative Heuristics

We would discuss each of these heuristics briefly.

1) Availability Heuristics:
Availability heuristics is a mental shortcut that helps us make
a decision based on how easy it is to bring something to mind. In
other words, we often rely on how easy it is to think of examples
when making a decision or judgment. For instance, in 2011, what
percentage of crimes do you suppose involved violence? Most
people are likely to guess a high percentage because of all the
violent crimes - murder, rape, robbery, and assault - that are
highlighted on the news. Yet the FBI reported that violent crimes
made up less than 12% of all crimes in the United States in 2011.
So, anything that makes information ‘pop up’ into mind- its
vividness, recency or distinctiveness can make it seem common
place. We often fear the wrong things. For example, we fear flying
because we play in our head some air disaster.

2) Representative Heuristics:
A mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by
comparing information to our mental prototypes. For example, if
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someone was to describe an older woman as warm and caring with

a great love of children, most of us would assume that the older
woman is a grandmother. She fits our mental representation of a
grandmother, so we automatically classify her into that category.

These rules include judging on the basis of

representativeness, using the available information to decide which
outcome is more likely, and using adjustment to arrive at an
estimate of the probability of a certain outcome. Each of these
heuristics introduces bias into the decision-making process.

Heuristics are simple decision-making rules we often use to

make inferences or draw conclusions quickly and easily. Heuristics
are strategies, usually based on our past experiences with
problems, that are likely to lead to a solution but do not guarantee
success. We make use of many mental heuristics in our effort to
think about and use social information. Two most important
heuristics approaches in solving a problem are as follows:

1) The Means-Ends Analysis

2) The Analogy Approach.

1) The Means-Ends Analysis:

It is a problem-solving strategy in which the solver compares
the goal to the current state, and then chooses a step to reduce
maximally the difference between them. In other words, this
strategy involves figuring out the “ends” you want and then figuring
out the “means” you will use to reach those ends. The means-ends
analysis concentrates the problem solver’s attention on the
difference between the current problem state and the goal state.
Very often, it so happens that in order to reach a goal state certain
preconditions have to be fulfilled. These preconditions constitute
sub goals. Through the creation of sub goals, the task is broken
down into manageable steps, which help us to reach a final goal
state. Newell and Simon developed a computer program called
General Problem Solver or GPS, which is a program whose basic
strategy is means-ends analysis.

2) The Analogy Approach:

In an analogy, we use a solution to an earlier problem to
help with a new one. Analogies pervade human thinking. Whenever
we try to solve a new problem by referring to a known, familiar
problem, we are using an analogy (Halpern et al., 1990).

Bad Decisions:
a.) Overconfidence: Sometimes our judgments and decisions go
wrong simply because we are more confident than correct. In many
tasks, people tend to overestimate their performance. For example,
many overconfident students expect to finish preparing for exam
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ahead of schedule. In fact, the preparation takes more time than

what they predict. Similarly, many people do not realize that there
can be a potential for error in their thinking and believe that they will
have more money next year and merrily take loans and later on find
it difficult to pay back as they may not get as much pay raise as
they expected.

However, overconfidence has an adaptive value. Research

studies have shown that people who make mistakes in judgment
due to overconfidence live more happily. They make tough
decisions more easily, and they seem to be more credible than
others. The wisdom to know when we know a thing and when we
don’t know is born from experience.

b.) Belief Perseverance: Just like we have problem of

overconfidence, we also have problem of belief perseverance - our
tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
Belief perseverance often leads to social conflicts. The more we
come to appreciate why our beliefs might be true, the more tightly
we cling to them. For example, once we have explained to
ourselves why we believe a child is ‘gifted’ or has a ‘learning
disability’, we tend to ignore evidence undermining our beliefs.
Once beliefs form and get justified, it takes more compelling
evidence to change them than it did to create them.

To control this tendency, a simple trick is to consider the

opposite. When people are asked to imagine and ponder over
opposite findings, they become much less biased in their evaluation
of the evidence.

c.) The Effects of Framing: Framing refers to the way we present

an issue, sways our decisions and judgments. For example,
imagine that two different surgeons are explaining a surgery risk to
a patient. One surgeon says that 10% people die during this
surgery, while the other surgeon says that 90% people survive this
surgery. The information is same but the effect will be different.
Patients report that risk seems greater when they are told that 10%
people die during this surgery.

Framing can be a powerful persuasion tool. If rightly framed

arguments are presented, it can persuade people to make
decisions that could benefit them or society as a whole.

9.5. THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE FEAR

FACTOR

“Most people reason dramatically, not quantitatively,” said

Oliver Wendell Holmes. After 9/11, many people feared flying more
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than driving. (In a 2006 Gallup survey, only 40 percent reported

being “not afraid at all” to fly.) Yet Americans were 230 times more
likely to die in an automobile crash than on a commercial flight in
the months between 2003and 2005 (National Safety Council,
2008). In a late-2001 essay, we calculated that if because of 9/11—
we flew 20 percent less and instead drove half those unflown miles,
about 800 more people would die in traffic accidents in the year
after 9/11(Myers, 2001). In checking this estimate against actual
accident data, German psychologist Gerd Gigerenzer (2004) found
that the last three months of 2001 did indeed produce significantly
more U.S. traffic fatalities than the three-month average in the
previous five years. Long after 9/11, the dead terrorists were still
killing Americans. As air travel gradually recovered during 2002
through 2005, U.S. commercial flights carried nearly 2.5 billion
passengers, with no deaths on a major airline big jet (McMurray,
2006; Miller, 2005). Meanwhile, 172,000 Americans died in traffic
accidents. For most people, the most dangerous aspect of airline
flying is the drive to the airport.

9.5.1 Why we fear the wrong things:

Figure: 9.1 Dramatic deaths in bunches breed concern and
fear: The memorable South Asian tsunami that killed some
300,000-peoplestirred an outpouring of concern and new tsunami-
warning technology. Meanwhile, a “silent tsunami” of poverty-
related malaria was killing about that many of the world’s children
every couple months, noted Jeffrey Sachs, the head of a United
Nations project aiming to cut extreme poverty in half by 2015
(Dugger, 2005).

Why do we judge terrorism to be a greater risk than

accidents—which kill nearly as many per week in just the United
States as did terrorism (2527deaths worldwide) in all of the 1990s
(Johnson, 2001)? Even with the horror of 9/11, more Americans in
2001 died of food poisoning (which scares few) than of terrorism
(which scares many). Psychological science has identified four
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influences on our intuitions about risk. Together they explain why

we sometimes fret over remote possibilities while ignoring much
higher probabilities.

First, we fear what our ancestral history has prepared us to

fear. Human emotions were road tested in the Stone Age. Our old
brain prepares us to fear yesterday’s risks: snakes, lizards, and
spiders (which combined now kill just about no one in developed
countries). And it prepares us to fear confinement and heights, and
therefore flying.

Second, we fear what we cannot control. Driving we control,

flying we do not.

Third, we fear what is immediate. Threats related to flying

are mostly telescoped into the moments of takeoff and landing,
while the dangers of driving are diffused across many moments to
come, each trivially dangerous. Similarly, many smokers(whose
habit shortens their lives, on average, by about five years) fret
openly before flying (which, averaged across people, shortens life
by one day). Smoking’s toxicity kills in the distant future.

Fourth, we fear what is most readily available in memory.

Powerful, available memories—like the image of United Flight 175
slicing into the World Trade Center—serve as our measuring rods
as we intuitively judge risks. Thousands of safe car trips have
extinguished our anxieties about driving.

Dramatic Death in Bunches:

Vivid events also distort our comprehension of risks and
probable outcomes. We comprehend disasters that have killed
people dramatically, in bunches. But we fear too little those threats
that will claim lives un-dramatically, one by one, and in the distant
future. As Bill Gates has noted, each year half million children
worldwide die quietly, one by one, from rotavirus, and we hear
nothing of it (Glass, 2004). Dramatic outcomes make us gasp;
probabilities we hardly grasp. The point to remember: It is perfectly
normal to fear purposeful violence but smart thinkers will remember
this: Check your fears against the facts and resist those who serve
their own purposes by cultivating a culture of fear. By so doing, we
can take away exaggerated fear.

9.6 DO OTHER SPECIES SHARE OUR COGNITIVE

SKILLS?

Other species’ cognition research examines the processes

used to generate adaptive or flexible behavior in species. In the
context of animal cognition research, cognition research usually
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focuses on questions about the mechanisms involved in specific

capacities, such as learning, memory, perception, or decision-
making. Researchers also investigate animal’s concepts, beliefs,
and thoughts. While the representational theory of mind is a
common assumption among animal cognition researchers, there is
also the investigation into the role perception plays in animal
learning, and interest in how much explanatory work can be done
by non-conceptual content, sometimes inspired by work in
embodied cognition (e.g. Barrett 2011). Yes, other species share
our cognitive skills to some extent. They don't share our all
cognitive skills as it is. For example, dogs that understand
commands or birds that can “talk”? Dogs can be trained to follow
certain commands such as ‘sit’, ‘come’ and ‘roll over’, but does this
mean they understand language and therefore can use it as well?
Dogs are known to be experts at reading their owners intentions
and that they do not respond to actual words but the tone in which it
is said. So, if you say “bad dog” in a cheerful tone, the dog will wag
its tail. If you say “good dog” in a harsh tone, the dog will put his tail
in between his legs. Birds that are in captivity are known to be able
to “talk”- it is believed that it does not mean anything to them and
they are merely copying sounds they hear. There is no doubt that
animals communicate with each other to one degree or another in
response to different stimuli such as hunger or fear. Human
language is creative and consists of unique characteristics that give
us the ability to engage in abstract and analytical ways.

9.7 SUMMARY

In this unit we began by explaining the concept of thinking.

We then explained the concept, mental imagery and prototypes,
which are the three elements of thinking. Following this, the
concept of problem solving was discussed. In Problem solving
concept we have studied briefly problem solving strategies and
problem solving obstacles. We explained the four methods of
problem solving which included: Algorithms, Heuristics, Trial &
Error and Insight. We also discussed the five most common
problems in the process of solving a problem i.e. Functional
Fixedness, Mental Set and Confirmation bias, Using incomplete or
incorrect representations, Lack of Problem specific knowledge or
expertise. We have also studied decision making in briefly. We
have also studied thinking critically about: the fear factor and why
we fear the wrong things. Towards the end of the unit we have
discussed about other species and cognitive skills.

9.8 QUESTIONS

a) What is thinking?
b) What is Mental Imagery?
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c) What is Concepts?
d) What is Prototypes?
e) Discuss in detail about Problem Solving.
f) Discuss in detail about Decision Making.
g) Explain the different Methods people use to solve problems and
make decision?
h) What are the different barriers in Problem Solving?

9.9 REFERENCES

Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology.10th edition; International edition.

New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013.

Feldman, R.S. (2013). Psychology and your life. Publications 2nd

edi. New York: McGraw Hill
Feldman, R.S. (2013). Understanding Psychology publications 11
edi. New York: McGraw Hill
nd
King, L.A. (2013). Experience Psychology. publications 2edi. New
York: McGraw Hill Lahey, B. B. (2012). Psychology: An
Introduction. 11thedi. New York: McGraw-Hill Publications
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10
THINKING, LANGUAGE AND
INTELLIGENCE - II
Unit Structure :

10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction: Language
10.1.1 Language structure
10.1.2 Language development
10.1.3 Close Up: Living in a silent world
10.1.4 The brain and language
10.1.5 Do other species have language?
10.2 Thinking and Language
10.2.1 Language influences thinking
10.2.2 Thinking in images
10.3 Summary
10.4 Questions
10.5 References

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Understand the Language structure
Know the nature of Language development
Study the relationship between thinking and language.
Study language and related topics
To know how Language influences thinking
Understand the concepts of emotional intelligence

10.1 INTRODUCTION: LANGUAGE

Language is a system of communication that is governed by

a system of rules (grammar) and can express an infinite number of
propositions. Language gives us the ability to communicate our
intelligence to others by talking, reading, and writing. As the
psychologist Steven Pinker puts it, language is the jewel in the
crown of cognition (Pinker, 1994).

It is important to define language precisely and particularly to

distinguish between language and communication. Although
language is often used as a communication system, there are other
communication systems that do not form true languages. For
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example, many bees use elaborate dances to tell other bees about
a new found source of food. Although this dance communicates
where the food is, it can only communicate that kind of message-
the dance can’t inform the bees about an interesting sight to see
along the way to the food source. A natural language has two
essential characteristics.

1) Regular and Productive:

It is regular (governed by a system of rules, called grammar),
and it is productive, meaning that infinite combinations of things can
be expressed in it.

2) Arbitrariness and Discreteness:

Other characteristics of human languages include
arbitrariness (the lack of necessary resemblance between a word
or sentence and what it refers to) and discreteness (the system can
be subdivided into recognizable parts, for example- sentences into
words (Hocket, 1960).

10.1.1The Structure of Language

When you have conversation, you first have to listen to the
previous sounds the speaker directs at you. Different languages
have different sounds (called phonemes). Phoneme is the smallest
distinctive sound unit of a language. The study of the ways in which
phonemes can be combined in any given language constitutes the
study of phonology. Next you put the sounds together in some
coherent way, identify the meaningful unit of the language, an
aspect known as morphology. Word ending prefix, tense markers
and the like are critical part of each sentence. Some of the
morphemes (smallest unit that carry meaning in a given language)
are words, and you also need to identify this and determine the role
each word plays in sentence. To do so, you need to determine the
syntax, or structure, of the sentence. A syntactically correct
sentence does not by itself make for a good conversation.

The sentence must also mean something to the listener.

Semantics is the branch of linguistics and psycholinguistics denotes
to the study of meaning. Finally, for the conversation to work there
must be some flow of given- and-take. Listeners must pay attention
and make certain assumptions, and speakers must craft their
contributions in ways that will make the listener’s job easy. This
aspect of language, pragmatics, will conclude our discussion on the
Structure of language. Keep in mind throughout that although the
various aspects of language will be discussed separately, in actual
conversation they must work together.

We will repeatedly bring forth the ideas of the different

linguistic rules (such as phonological rules, syntactic rules) in this
section. These rules make up the grammar of the language and,
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taken together, define the ways language works. It is important to

note that linguists and psychologist used the term grammar in the
very restricted sense, here, meaning “the set of rules for language”.
In particular, grammatical in this context has nothing to do with the
“rules” of “good English” such as “Don’t use ain’t” or “Use
punctuation at the end of the statement.” To a linguist or a
psycholinguist, the sentence “I ain’t going happily to it” is perfectly
meaningful and “legal”-that is, it follows the “rules” of English that
native speakers observe - and is therefore grammatical. (You
understand it perfectly well, right?). Here grammar refers not to
polite ways of speaking but to ways of speaking that form intelligible
phrases or utterances recognizable as examples of language that a
native speaker of the language might produce. Starting with the
basic sound of speech, spoken language can be broken down into
these elements: phonemes, syllables, morphemes, word, Phrase,
and sentence. Apart from this there are many concepts in this topic.
We would discuss all these concepts in details.

Phoneme:
Speech sounds, or phonemes, are made by adjusting the
vocal cords and moving the tongue, lips, and mouth in wonderfully
precise ways to produce vibrations in the airflow from the lungs.
Hundreds of speech sound can be distinguished on the basis of
their frequency (the number of vibrations per second), their intensity
(the energy in the vibrations) and their pattern of vibrations over
time.

To illustrate phonemes, consider the k phoneme in the word

key and cool. Say these words to yourself, and you will realize that
the k sound is different in two words: simply notice the position of
your lips when you are saying them and the “sharper” sound of the
K phoneme in the word key here, they are two different phonemes,
but either K sounds can be used in the word key without changing
the meaning of the word; the same can be said for cool. English
speakers do not notice the difference in these k sounds and,
therefore, since they make no difference in the meaning of the
words and can be substituted for the one another, they can be
grouped together as a single phoneme.

Morpheme:
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may
be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). Although syllables
are the unit of speech perception, and some syllables have
meanings, other language elements are the perceptual units
carrying the meaning of speech. These elements, morphemes, are
the smallest units of meaning in the speech perception. Consider
the word distasteful. It is composed of three morphemes, each of
which has meaning. The morphemes in this example are dis, taste,
and ful. Dis means “negation” taste is a meaningful word, ful and
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means “quality”. Thus, morphemes can be prefixes, words, or

suffixes. Each is composed of syllables, of course, but what makes
them morphemes is that they convey meaning. Morphemes are
discovered by asking people to break words up into the smallest
unit that have meaning for them.

Semantics:
The set of rules by which we derive meaning from
morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the
study of meaning.

Syntax:
The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible
sentences in a given language.

Grammar:
In language, a system of rules that enables us to
communicate with and understand others. Words are combined by
the rules of grammar into clauses, and clauses are formed into
sentences. A clause consists of a verb and its associated nouns,
adjectives, and so on. Evidence indicates that clauses, and not
individual words or whole sentences, are the major units of
perceived meaning in speech. When we hear a sentence with more
than one clause, we tend to isolate the clauses, analysing the
meaning of each (Bever, 1973).

10.1.2 Language Development

Childhood is the best time for language, no doubt about it.
Young children, the younger the better, are good at it; it is child’s
play. It is a onetime gift to the species. (Lewis Thomas, The Fragile
Species, 1992). Language development is a process starting early
in human life. Anyone who has tried to master a second language
as an adult knows the difficulty of language learning. And yet
children learn languages easily and naturally. Children who are not
exposed to language early in their lives will likely never learn one.
Case studies, including Victor the “Wild Child, who was abandoned
as a baby in France and not discovered until he was 12, and Genie,
a child whose parents kept her locked in a closet from 18 months
until 13 years of age, are (fortunately) two of the only known
examples of these deprived children. Both of these children made
some progress in socialization after they were rescued, but neither
of them ever developed language (Rymer, 1993). This is also why it
is important to determine quickly if a child is deaf and to begin
immediately to communicate in sign language. Deaf children who
are not exposed to sign language during their early years are likely
to never learn it (Mayberry, Lock, & Kazmi, 2002).
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Milestones in Language development?

Receptive Language:
Children’s language development moves from simplicity to
complexity. Infants start without language (infantis means “not
speaking”). Yet by 4 months of age, babies can discriminate
speech sounds (Stager & Werker, 1997). They can also read lips:
They prefer to look at a face that matches a sound, so we know
they can recognize that “ah” comes from wide open lips and from
mouth with corners pulled back (Kuhl & Meltzoff, 1982). This period
marks the beginning of the development of babies’ receptive
language, their ability to comprehend speech – what is said to them
or about them. At seven months and beyond, babies grow in their
power to do what you and I find difficult when listening to an
unfamiliar language: segmenting spoken sounds into individual
words. Moreover, their adeptness at this task, as judged by their
listening patterns, predicts their language abilities at ages 2 and 5
(Newman et al., 2006).

Productive Language:
Babies’ productive language is their ability to produce words.
It matures after their receptive language.

Stages of Language Development:

There are mainly five stages of language development. We
would discuss in details all the stages-

1) Babbles Stage:
Beginning at about 04 months. It consists of babbles, many speech
sounds. Yet by 4 months of age, babies can discriminate speech
sounds (Stager & Werker, 1997). Many of these spontaneously
uttered sounds are consonant -vowel pairs formed by simply
bunching the tongue in the front of the mouth or by opening or
closing the lips.

Beginning at about 10 months, babbling changes and a

trained ear can identify various sounds related to the household
language. Without exposure to other languages, babies lose their
ability to hear and produce sounds and tones found outside their
native language. Babbling is not an imitation of adult speech - it
includes sounds from various languages, including the one not
spoken at home. Deaf infants who observe their deaf parents
signing begin to babble more with their hands.

2) One-word stage:
Beginning at about 12 months. The stage in speech
development, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
They have already learnt that sounds carry meanings. They now
begin to use sounds - usually only one recognizable syllable such
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as ma or da. But family members quickly learn to understand.

Across the world, baby’s first words are often nouns that label
objects or people. This one-word stage may equal a sentence.

3) Two-word, telegraphic speech:

At about 18 months, children’s words learning explodes from
about a word per week to a word per day. By their second birthday,
most have entered the two-word stage. They start uttering two-word
sentences in telegraphic speech: Like the old-fashioned telegrams
(TERMS ACCEPTED. SEND MONEY), this early form of speech
contains mostly nouns and verbs (Want juice). Also like telegrams,
it follows rules of syntax; the words are in a sensible order. English-
speaking children typically place adjectives before nouns—big
doggy rather than doggy big.

4) Language develops rapidly into complete sentences:

Once children move out of the two-word stage, they quickly
begin uttering longer phrases (Fromkin & Rodman, 1983). If they
get a late start on learning a particular language, for example after
receiving a cochlear implant or being an international adoptee, their
language development still proceeds through the same sequence,
although usually at a faster pace (Ertmer et al., 2007; Snedeker et
al., 2007). By early elementary school, children understand
complex sentences and begin to enjoy the humour conveyed by
double meanings: “You never starve in the desert because of all the
sand-which-is there.”

Table 10.1.: Summary of Language development

Sr. Month Stage

No. (Approximate)
1 4 Babbles many speech sounds
2 10 Babbling resembles household language.
3 12 One-word stage.
4 24 Two-word, telegraphic speech.
5 24+ Language develops rapidly into complete
sentences.

Explaining Language Development:

Noam Chomsky argued that all languages do share some
basic elements which he called universal grammar. For example,
all human languages have nouns, verbs and adjectives as
grammatical building blocks. Chomsky believed that we human
beings are born with a built-in predisposition to learn grammar
rules, that is why preschoolers pick up language so readily and use
grammar so well. It happens naturally. But no matter what language
 170

we learn, we start speaking it mostly in nouns rather than in verbs

and adjectives.

Further, research shows that 7 month olds can learn simple

sentence structures. In an experiment, after repeatedly hearing
syllable sequences that follow one rule, infants listened to syllables
in a different sequence. They could detect the difference between
two patterns later on. This suggested that babies come with a built
in readiness to learn grammatical rules.

Childhood seems to represent critical (sensitive) period for

mastering certain aspects of language before the language learning
window closes. People who learn a second language as adults
usually speak it with the accent of their native language and have
difficulty in mastering the second language. The window on
language learning closes gradually in early childhood. By about age
7, those who have not been exposed to either a spoken or a signed
language gradually lose their ability to master any language.

Language communication:
A language is said to communicate when others understand
the meaning of our sentences, and we, in turn, understand their
communications, of course, this is not limited to language. We
convey much information to others nonverbally by gesture. When
we speak one of the thousands of languages of the world, we draw
on our underlining knowledge of the rules governing the use of
language. This knowledge about language, or linguistic
competence, as it is called, is used automatically and almost
effortlessly to generate and comprehend meaningful speech.
Linguistic competence seems to be universal human species-
typical ability.

10.1.3 Close Up: Living in a silent world:

The discussion so far has been about the use of vocal
speech symbols, or verbal language, in thinking. Can other
language system be used as tools of thought? Studies of the deaf
provide an approach to this question. Deaf children with little verbal
language ability score in the normal range on standardized tests of
cognitive performance (Vernon, 1967), and their cognitive and
thinking abilities develop relatively normally (Furth, 1971). Such
findings have been interpreted as indicating that language plays
little or no role in the thinking or cognitive development of the deaf.
But many of the deaf are taught sign language, and, even if they
are not explicitly taught such language, it has been found that deaf
children will develop their own (Goldin & Feldman, 1977). This may
indicate that there is an innate human program for language be it
verbal or gestural.
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The standard visual-gestural sign languages learned by the

deaf have many features in common with auditory languages. For
example, just as the auditory-vocal languages use combinations of
small number of basic sounds, or phonemes, as they are called to
generate meaningful language, so, too, do the visual-gestural
languages of the deaf make use of a relatively small number of
basic movement combinations for communication. Thus, from
combinations of the basic gestures, an infinity of ideas can be
expressed in the visual-gestural languages. Some studies suggest
that deaf children who know sign language are better at a variety of
cognitive and thinking tasks than are those without this language
(Vornon & Koh, 1971; Stuckless & Birch, 1966).Thus, those deaf
people whose verbal languages skills are minimal seem to have a
nonverbal language tool of thought.

The challenge of life without hearing may be greatest for

children. Unable to communicate in customary ways, signing
playmates find it difficult to coordinate their play with speaking
playmates. Their school achievement may suffer because
academic subjects are rooted in spoken languages. Adolescents
may feel socially excluded with a resulting low self-confidence.

10.1.4 The brain and language:

We process complex language information with amazing
speed is an understatement. Caplan (1994), reported, for example,
that people typically recognize spoken words after about 125
milliseconds (about one eight of a second) that is, while the word is
still being spoken. Normal word production, estimated over a
number of studies, requires us to search through a mental
“dictionary” of about 20,000 items, and we do so at the rate of three
words per second.

Obviously, the brain architecture to support this rapid and

complex cognitive processing must be sophisticated indeed.
Neurophysiologists have been trying to understand what the
underlying brain structures involved with language are, where they
are located, and how they operate. In this topic, we will see two
important language disorders which are related to brain and
language.

Adults whose hearing becomes impaired later in life also

face challenges. When older people with hearing loss must expend
efforts to hear words, they have less remaining cognitive capacity
available to remember and comprehend them. It has been found
that people with hearing loss, especially those not wearing hearing
aid, have reported feeling sadder, being less socially engaged and
more often experiencing others’ irritation. They may also
experience a sort of shyness. Henry Kisor (1990) very aptly said,
“we can be self-effacing and diffident to the point of invisibility.
 172

Sometimes this tendency can be crippling. I must fight it all the

time”. Helen Keller, both deaf and blind, also noted that “Blindness
cuts people off from things. Deafness cuts people off from people”.

Broca’s Aphasia:
Interest in localizing language function in the brain dates
back at least to the 1800s, when a French physician with interests
in anthropology and ethnography, Pierre Paul Broca, read a paper
in 1861 at the meeting of the society Anthropologist in Paris. The
paper reported on a patient, nicknamed “Tan” because he had lost
the ability to speak any word save for tan. Shortly after the patient
died, his brain was examined and found to have a lesion in the left
frontal lobe. The very next day, Broca reported this exciting (for
science, not for the patient or his family, probably) finding (Posner
& Raichle, 1994). The area of the brain, henceforth known as
Broca’s area, is shown in the figure 10.1. It is also called expressive
aphasia. A Broca’s aphasia appeared to leave language reception
and processing undisturbed. In 1865, Broca reported that after
damage to an area of the left frontal lobe a person would struggle
to speak words while still being able to sing familiar songs and
comprehend speech.

Fig.10.1: Brain structure involved with languages.

Wernicke’s Aphasia:
About 13 years later, in 1874, a German neurologist Carl
Wernicke identified another brain area that, if damaged by a small
lesion (often result of a stroke), left patients with extreme difficulty
in comprehending (but not producing) spoken language (Posner &
Raichle, 1994). (Not surprisingly, this area has come to be called
Wernicke’s area, and it is also shown in figure 10.1. It is also called
receptive aphasia. People could speak words and sentences but
the language was often gibberish. Damage to Wernicke’s area also
disrupts understanding.

But today, Functional MRI scan shows that different neural

networks are activated by nouns and verbs, or objects and actions,
 173

by different vowels and by reading stories of visual vs. motor

experiences. It was also found that jokes that play on meaning are
processed in a different area of the brain than jokes that play on the
words. The main point is that in processing language, the brain
operates by dividing its mental functions – speaking, perceiving,
thinking, remembering into sub functions. Localized trauma that
destroys one of these neural work teams may cause people to lose
just one aspect of processing.

10.1.5 Do other species have language?

Language is considered to be a very complex form of
communication that occurs among the human race. It is a set of
verbal and non-verbal conventions that humans use to express
their ideas and wants. Humans use words while talking to express
their needs and wants and they cry, slouch and make faces when
they want to express feelings. Animals, or in other words non-
humans also show signs of communication such as a dog wagging
its tail when excited or a bird singing a song to attract the opposite
sex. However, do animals have their language? Researchers say
that animals or non-humans do not have a true language like
humans. However, they do communicate with each other through
sounds and gestures. Animals have a number of in-born qualities
they use to signal their feelings, but these are not like the formed
words we see in the human language. Human children show these
same forms of communication as babies when crying and
gesturing. But they slowly learn the words of the language and use
this as form of communication.

If human children were separated at birth away from humans

they would not learn the words of the language and would not be
able to communicate with other humans. They would resort to
sounds and gestures as their primary form of communication.
However, in the animal kingdom if they are reared alone from birth
they are still able to behave and communicate in the same way as
other species of their kind.

So, what about animals such as dogs that understand

commands or birds that can “talk”? Dogs can be trained to follow
certain commands such as ‘sit’, ‘come’ and ‘roll over’, but does this
mean they understand language and therefore can use it as well?
Dogs are known to be experts at reading their owners intentions
and that they do not respond to actual words but the tone in which it
is said. So if you say “bad dog” in a cheerful tone, the dog will wag
its tail. If you say “good dog” in a harsh tone, the dog will put his tail
in between his legs. Birds that are in captivity are known to be able
to “talk”- it is believed that it does not mean anything to them and
they are merely copying sounds they hear. There is no doubt that
animals communicate with each other to one degree or another in
response to different stimuli such as hunger or fear. Human
 174

language is creative and consists of unique characteristics that give

us the ability to engage in abstract and analytical ways.

10.2 THINKING AND LANGUAGE

Philip Dale very correctly said that thinking is more than

language and language is more than thinking, but thinking and
language are related and in this section, we will describe some of
the ways in which they are related.

Every day we use language in our thinking. For many

people, much of the time, a good deal of thinking involves the use
of word symbols and the rules of grammar to join the words into
phrases and sentences. The words, their meanings and rules for
joining them together are stored in our semantic long-term
memories. When we think with language, we draw on this store of
information to use language as tool of thought.

Some theories take a more extreme view of the role of

language in thinking; they claim that language can actually
determine the thoughts we are capable of having. But this linguistic
relativity hypothesis, as it is called, has been under increasing
attack in recent years.

Because so much thinking involves language, the idea arose

in psychology that thinking was actually a kind of inner speech, a
kind of “talking to yourself under your breath.” According to this
idea, people make small movement of the vocal apparatus when
they think and carry on their thinking by talking to themselves. A
number of experiments have indicated that movements of the vocal
apparatus may indeed accompany thought, but other experiments
have made it clear that such movements are not necessary for
thinking (Smith et al., 1947). In one heroic experiment, the subject,
a physician, was completely paralyzed by means of a drug. He
literally could not move a muscle, and his breathing was done for
him by an iron lung. The paralyzing drug, however, did not affect
the way his brain worked; it merely acted on the drug, the subject
was given certain verbal problems to solve; he could not answer, of
course, because the muscles necessary for speaking were
paralyzed. There is no way to be certain that, thinking was affected,
while under the influence of the drug, but all indications are that he
was unable to do so because after the paralysis was removed by a
counteracting drug, he clearly remembered what had taken place
while he was drugged and promptly gave the answer to problems.

10.2.1 Language influences thinking:

There are at least 5,000 living languages in the world about
140 of them are spoken by a million or more people. Is a particular
language merely a convenient set of symbols for the
 175

communication of our thoughts? According to the linguist Benjamin

L. Whorf, the answer is no. Whorf argued that the higher levels of
thinking require language and that the characteristics of particular
language actually shape the way that users of the language think
about things. There are two ideas here. One is that thinking
requires language, the other has come to be called the linguistic
relativity hypothesis. Most of the interest has focused on this
hypothesis. In its strongest form, it says that the particular language
that people use determines how they see the world.

Whorf based his hypothesis on studies of North American

Indian languages, but his hypothesis is said to hold for all
languages. He found many differences between these languages
and European ones and argued that such differences predispose
their users to think in different ways. For example, the grammar of a
language dictates how people describe changes in the
environment. Since the basic unit of English grammar are nouns
and verbs, English-speaking people commonly think in terms of
“things” and “actions” Whorf found that people using other
languages do not necessarily divide situation up this way.
Furthermore, all languages have some words for which no
equivalents can be found in any other language. The German word
weltanschauungs for instance, means something like “a general
world view, or a general philosophy of the world”. There is no word
with this precise meaning in English. In addition, languages
categorize events in various ways. Eskimos are said to use some
four different words for snow, while English has only one. According
to the linguistic relatively hypothesis. Eskimos can think about snow
with greater precision than English speaking can people and have
different conception of what snow is, the Hopi language has single
word for all flying objects than birds. The hypothesis states that
Hopi speakers thinks differently about flying objects than do
speakers of languages that do not categorize the world in this way.
The Hanno people of the Philippine, islands are said to have names
for 92 varieties of rice, but all 92 varieties are, for the English
speaker, simply rice(Con, 1954 cited in brown, 1965).

The linguistic relativity hypothesis is controversial. Many

linguistic have argued that the hypothesis is circular. Whorf found
that languages differ in their grammar and in the concepts, they can
express. From that he hypothesized that thinking must also differ
among the users of these different languages. However, the
differences in the thinking are themselves assessed by the way
language is used. We cannot assess conceptions of the word
independently of language. The few experiments that have
attempted this have had inconclusive results. Perhaps it is not so
much a matter of what can be thought about by users of a language
as it is of how easy it is to think about certain things. English-
speaking thinkers can think about the concept of the “world view”
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even if they do not have a convenient word for it. Eskimos can think
about different kinds of snow, even if they have to use more words
to describe it.

More recently, interest has shifted away from relativity to

universals in thinking. Perhaps the basic thought processes in
thinking are similar, even though languages differ widely. Colour
perception provides an example of the possible universality of
thinking despite the different ways in which different languages
designate colours. It has been found that certain “focal” colours-a
maximum of 11-are chosen from a colour chart by speakers of
widely differing languages. Furthermore, it has been shown that
thinking can be influenced by these focal colours even when the
language does not have names for them. This is contrary to what
might be expected from the linguistic relativity hypothesis. For
example, Eleanor Rrosch has done experiments with the Dani
people of the New Guinea. The Dani have only “black” and mola for
“white”. The Dani subjects in these experiments studies a colour
chart arbitrary names were assigned to eight of the focal colours
and eight of the non-focal colours on the chart. The Dani learn the
names assigned to the focal colours more rapidly and remembered
them better than they did those given to the other colors. Thus even
though the Dani do not have names for the focal colors in their
language, their thinking is influenced by them.

10.2.2 Thinking in images

To a large degree, the availability of the symbols that we use
in thinking are often words and language, and therefore thinking
and language are closely related. A language makes available
hundreds of thousands of potential language symbols is what
makes human thinking so much more sophisticated than the
thinking of other animals. Although language is a powerful tool in
human thought, as when we “talk to ourselves” internally, images
are another important type of symbol used in thinking.
People are very remarkable in how much they use images in
their thinking. A few report that they almost never use mental
pictures, so they must be doing their thinking with words, or
verbally; others that most of their thinking is done in image form.
When we use images to think, they are not usually complete
“pictures in the head”. They are usually incomplete. Consider the
imagery you use, if you use it at all, in solving the following
problems (Huttenlocher, 1973). Imagine that you are standing on a
certain street corner in a section of a city you know well. How would
you walk or drive from this point to some other part of the city?
Here is another problem in which you might use imagery:
From where on earth could you walk first 1 mile south, then 1 mile
east, then 1 mile north, and end up exactly where you began? Did
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you use imagery in trying to solve this problem? If so, what was
your imagery like?

When solving problems like these, most people report that

their images are incomplete. To solve the first problem, people
usually make a visual map, but it is a strange one. Although it
shows turns, the lines connecting the turns are of no particular
length. In solving the second problem (the answer is the North
Pole), people imagine a globe- but not the whole globe, only the
polar region. Such problem-solving images contain only a few
details- say, of sidewalks, roads, buildings, or color-although some
people may imagine snow when they think of the North Pole. In
general, the images are abstractions of certain features from
previous experience.

The incomplete, abstract images most of us use in thinking

seem to be constructed from elements stored in long term memory.
The constructive process involved in imagery has been studied by
means of experiment in which people were asked to form images of
various sizes. For example, an elephant might be imaged as the
size of a mouse, or mouse imaged as the size of an elephant.
Variations of this sort in the sizes of images indicate that images
are constructions. Even more interesting, however, are studies
indicating that the ease with which information is found in an image
depends on the size (and other aspects) of the image constructed
(Kosslyn, 1983).

10.3 SUMMARY

In this unit we began by explaining the concept of language and its

structure. We then explained how language developed in human
beings. We have also studied the stages of language development.
We explained the relationship between thinking and language and
how language influences thinking. The concept of thinking in
images and association between brain and language was also
explained. In “brain and language” topic, we studied two important
language disorders (Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia).
Following this we discussed about living in a silent world and do
other species have language.

10.4 QUESTIONS

A) Write long answers:

a) Discuss in detail about language structure.
b) Discuss about Language development.
c) Explain how language influences thinking?
 178

B) Write short notes:

a) The brain and language.
b) Do other species have language?
c) Thinking and Language.
d) Thinking in images.

10.5 REFERENCES

1. Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013

2. Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, thought and reality New York :

Wiley.

3. Slobin, D. I (1979). Psycholinguistic (2d edi) Gien-view, IL :

Scott, foresman.

4. Rasch. E (1973). Natural Categories. Cognitive psychology,

4,328-350.

5. Lahey, B. B. (2012). Psychology: An Introduction. 11th edi. New

York: McGraw-Hill Publications
th
6. Feldman, R.S. (2013). Understanding Psychology publications
11th edi. New York: McGraw Hill
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11
THINKING, LANGUAGE AND
INTELLIGENCE – III
Unit Structure :

11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Is intelligence one general ability or several specific abilities?
Is intelligence neurologically Measurable.
11.3 The origins of intelligence testing
11.4 Assessing Intelligence.
11.5 Modern Tests of Mental Abilities: Binet Mental Ability Test,
Stanford Binet and IQ, The Wechsler Tests.
11.6 Intelligence and creativity:
11.7 Emotional intelligence:
11.8 Principles of test construction:
11.9 Summary
11.10 Questions
11.11 References

10.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Know the nature of intelligence and some important concepts of
intelligence.
Understand the origins of intelligence testing and Assessment of
Intelligence.
Understand the various tests that are used to measure
intelligence.
Understand the relationship between Intelligence and creativity
Understand the concepts of emotional intelligence.
Understand the Principles of test construction.

11.1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

In this unit, we will discuss numerous topics related to

intelligence such as determinants of intelligence and is intelligence
one general ability or several specific abilities. We will also be
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discussing neurological measurement of intelligence, mental

retardation and giftedness. We would discuss in detail about the
origins of intelligence testing and different ways to assess
intelligence. After this, we would briefly discuss modern tests of
mental abilities such as Binet Mental Ability Test, Stanford Binet
and The Wechsler Tests. It should be remembered that Intelligence
is one of the most important and unique ability that human beings
possess. The term intelligence was popularized by Sir Francis
Galton, Alfred Binet and others. Intelligence refers to the cognitive
ability of an individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and
to cope with the demands of daily living. Some important concepts
and topics related to intelligence such as emotional intelligence,
Intelligence and creativity, the nature v/s nurture controversy and
the bell curve would also be discussed in brief. Towards the end of
the unit we would study principles of test construction.

Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how

individuals differ from one another. It also provides an
understanding of how people adapt their behaviour according to the
environment they live in. In this chapter, we would learn about
intelligence in its various forms.

Definition:
Psychological notion of intelligence is quite different from the
common notion of intelligence. If you watch an intelligent person,
you are likely to see in her/him attributes like mental alertness,
ready wit, quickness in learning and ability to understand
relationships. Intelligence is not a quality like height or weight,
which has the same meaning for everyone around the globe.
People assign the term intelligence to the qualities that enable
success in their own time and in their own culture. There are
different definitions of intelligence given by different psychologist,
some of which are given below.

Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on

intelligence. According to him, Intelligence is the ability to judge
well, understand well and reason well (Alfred Binet, 1973).
According to Wechsler, Intelligence is the global and aggregate
capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally
and to deal effectively with his/her environment. (Wechsler,
1950).
Other psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg have
defined intelligence as well. Intelligent individual not only adapts
to his/her environment but also actively modifies or shapes it
(Gardner & Sternberg).

In simple words, intelligence is synthesis of one’s abilities.

Binet assumes intelligence as a general capacity for
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comprehension and reasoning that manifests itself in various ways,

another psychologist, Charles Spearman, proposed that all
individuals possess a general intelligence factor in varying
amounts. In contrast to Spearman. Louis Thurstone felt that
intelligence could be broken down into a number of primary
abilities. Rejecting all these theories, Guilford states that many
aspects of intelligence tends to be ignored when items are grouped
together to form tests.
Important Concepts in Intelligence:
Individual Differences in Intelligence:
It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates;
they differ from each other in some way or the other. Hence the job
of the psychologist is to identify and understand this uniqueness in
individuals. Such a similarity or difference between persons reveals
individual differences. It happens in our day-to-day life when we
see people around us. A question comes to mind; how and why
people appear similar or different to each other? For example,
when we think about their physical appearance, we often ask
ourselves why some people have dark or fair complexion, why
some people are tall and some are short, why some are thin and
why some are very fat. When we think about their psychological
characteristics we often come across people who are very talkative
or less talkative, some laugh too much whereas others take too
much time even to smile and some are very friendly whereas some
others prefer to be alone. In psychology, these are called individual
differences referring to the extent and kind of variations or
similarities among people on some of the important psychological
aspects such as intelligence.
When we speak about Individual differences in terms of
intelligence, individual difference occur due to interaction of genetic
and environmental factors. We inherit certain characteristics from
our parents through genetic codes. The phenotype or the
expressed forms of our characteristics depend on contributions of
the socio-cultural environment. This is the reason why we are not
exactly like our parents and our parents are not exactly like our
grandparents. We do share similarities with our parents in respect
of many physical attributes like height, colour of eyes, shape of
nose etc. We also inherit certain cognitive, emotional and other
characteristics from our parents like intellectual competence, love
for sport, creativity etc. However, our own characteristics develop
largely by the support from the environment in which we live.

Extremes of Intelligence: Retardation and Giftedness:

The results of studies assessing the measurement of
intelligence show that IQ is distributed in the population in the form
of a normal distribution curve in which the pattern of scores is
usually observed in a variable that clusters around its average. In a
normal distribution, the bulk of the scores fall toward the middle,
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with very few scores falling at the extremes. The normal distribution
of intelligence (Figure11.2. Distribution of IQ Scores in the General
Population") shows that on IQ tests, as well as on most other
measures, the majority of people cluster around the average (in this
case, where IQ = 100), and fewer are either very smart or very dull.
Because the standard deviation of an IQ test is about 15, this
means that about 2% of people score above an IQ of 130 (often
considered the threshold for giftedness), and about the same
percentage score below an IQ of 70 (often being considered the
threshold for mental retardation).
The normal distribution of IQ scores in the general
population shows that most people have about average
intelligence, while very few have extremely high or extremely low
intelligence.
Figure11.1: Normal Distribution Curve of Intelligence: Bell
Curve

Retardation:
One cause of mental retardation is Down’s syndrome, a
chromosomal disorder leading to mental retardation caused by the
presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. The incidence
of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1,000 births,
although its prevalence rises sharply in those born to older
mothers. People with Down syndrome typically exhibit a distinctive
pattern of physical features, including a flat nose, upwardly slanted
eyes, a protruding tongue, and a short neck.
Societal attitudes toward individuals with mental retardation
have changed over the past decades. We no longer use terms such
as mad, idiot to describe these people, although these were the
official psychological terms used to describe degrees of retardation
in the past. Laws such as the Person with Disabilities Act (PWD)
have made it illegal to discriminate on the basis of mental and
physical disability, and there has been a trend to bring the mentally
retarded out of institutions and into our workplaces and regular
schools.
 183

Giftedness:
Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem than
having extremely low IQ, but there may also be challenges to being
particularly smart. It is often assumed that schoolchildren who are
labeled as gifted may have adjustment problems that make it more
difficult for them to create social relationships. To study gifted
children, Lewis Terman and his colleagues (Terman & Oden, 1959)
selected about 1,500 high school students who scored in the top
1% on the Stanford-Binet and similar IQ tests (i.e., who had IQs of
about 135 or higher), and tracked them for more than seven
decades (the children became known as the termites and are still
being studied today). This study found, first, that these students
were not unhealthy or poorly adjusted but rather were above
average in physical health and were taller and heavier than
individuals in the general population. The students also had above
average social relationships for instance, being less likely to divorce
than the average person (Seagoe, 1975).

As you might expect based on our discussion of intelligence,

kids who are gifted have higher scores on general intelligence (g).
But there are also different types of giftedness. Some children are
particularly good at math or science, some at automobile repair or
carpentry, some at music or art, some at sports or leadership, and
so on. There is a lively debate among scholars about whether it is
appropriate or beneficial to label some children as gifted and
talented in school and to provide them with accelerated special
classes and other programs that are not available to everyone.
Although doing so may help the gifted kids (Colangelo & Assouline,
2009), it also may isolate them from their peers and make such
provisions unavailable to those who are not classified as gifted.
There is IQ classification given by Wechsler for understanding of IQ
range. Classification of IQ range is given below.

Sr. No. IQ Range IQ Classification

1 130 and Above Very Superior
2 120-129 Superior
3 110-119 Above Average Intelligence
4 90-109 Average Intelligence
5 80-89 Below Average Intelligence
6 70-79 Borderline Intelligence
7 55-69 Mild Mental Retardation
8 40-54 Moderate Mental Retardation
9 25-39 Severe Mental Retardation
10 24 and Below Profound Mental Retardation

Figure11.1.A: Classification of Intelligent Quotient by Wechsler

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Nature v/s Nurture Controversy:

Intelligence has both genetic and environmental causes, and
these have been systematically studied through a large number of
twin and adoption studies (Neisser et al., 1996; Plomin, DeFries,
Craig, & McGuffin, 2003). These studies have found that between
40% to 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that
overall genetics plays a bigger role than does environment in
creating IQ differences among individuals (Plomin & Spinath,
2004). The IQs of identical twins correlate very highly (r = .86),
much higher than do the scores of fraternal twins who are less
genetically similar (r = .60). And the correlations between the IQs of
parents and their biological children (r = .42) is significantly greater
than the correlation between parents and adopted children (r = .19).
The role of genetics gets stronger as children get older. The
intelligence of very young children (less than 3 years old) does not
predict adult intelligence, but by age 7 it does, and IQ scores
remain very stable in adulthood (Deary, Whiteman, Starr, Whalley,
& Fox, 2004).

But there is also evidence for the role of nurture, indicating

that individuals are not born with fixed, unchangeable levels of
intelligence. Twins raised together in the same home have more
similar IQs than do twins who are raised in different homes, and
fraternal twins have more similar IQs than do non-twin siblings,
which is likely due to the fact that they are treated more similarly
than are siblings. The fact that intelligence becomes more stable as
we get older provides evidence that early environmental
experiences matter more than later ones. Environmental factors
also explain a greater proportion of the variance in intelligence for
children from lower-class households than they do for children from
upper-class households (Turkheimer, Haley, Waldron, D‘Onofrio, &
Gottesman, 2003). This is because most upper-class households
tend to provide a safe, nutritious, and supporting environment for
children, whereas these factors are more variable in lower-class
households.

Social and economic deprivation can adversely affect IQ.

Children from households in poverty have lower IQs than do
children from households with more resources even when other
factors such as education, race, and parenting are controlled
(Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). Poverty may lead to diets that are
under-nourishing or lacking in appropriate vitamins, and poor
children may also be more likely to be exposed to toxins such as
lead in drinking water, dust, or paint chips (Bellinger & Needleman,
2003). All of these factors can slow brain development and reduce
intelligence. If impoverished environments can harm intelligence,
we might wonder whether enriched environments can improve it.
Government-funded after-school programs such as Head Start are
designed to help children learn. Research has found that attending
 185

such programs may increase intelligence for a short time, but these
increases rarely last after the programs end (McLoyd, 1998;
Perkins & Grotzer, 1997). Intelligence is improved by education; the
number of years a person has spent in school correlates at about r
= .60 with IQ (Ceci, 1991).

It is important to remember that the relative roles of nature

and nurture can never be completely separated. A child who has
higher than average intelligence will be treated differently than a
child who has lower than average intelligence, and these
differences in behaviors will likely amplify initial differences. This
means that modest genetic differences can be multiplied into big
differences over time.

The Bell Curve:

Richard Herrinstein and Charles Murray in 1994 published
an important book called as “The Bell Curve” which has become
highly controversial and had made certain conclusion concerning
intelligence, race and genetics. According to Herrenstein and
Wilson (1994) intelligence is an important asset in a modern
society. The demand for intelligence in modern society has created
two groups in society. One group consists of highly intelligent
individuals who hold good jobs and earn more. Due to their high
intelligence, they are paid more and they progress economically as
well as socially. On the other hand, are individuals, who, because
of their low intelligence, hold low status jobs and are paid less.
Consequently, their economic and social status is also low. Thus,
according to Herrenstein and Murray (1994) one’s intelligence
determines one’s occupational success and one’s social status. Its
central point is that intelligence is a better predictor of many factors
including financial income, job performance, unwed pregnancy, and
crime than parents' Socioeconomic or education level. Also, the
book argued that those with high intelligence, which it called the
"cognitive elite", are becoming separated from the general
population of those with average and below-average intelligence
and that this was a dangerous social trend.

Thus, in The Bell Curve, Herrnstein and Murray set out to

prove that American society was becoming increasingly
meritocratic, in the sense that wealth and other positive social
outcomes were being distributed more and more according to
people's intelligence and less and less according to their social
backgrounds.

The Bell Curve has become highly controversial. The Bell

Curve is not a scientific work. It was not written by experts, and it
has a specific political agenda. According to experts the book has
many statistical errors and ignored the effects of environment and
culture in determining a person’s success in life.
 186

Social Determinants & Biological Determinants of Intelligence:

There are two basic factors which influence the human
intelligence. These two factors are biological and social. The
heredity-environment issue, debated in regard to many aspects of
human behaviour, has focused most intensely on the area of
intelligence. Few experts doubt that there is some genetic basis for
intelligence, but opinions differ as to the relative contribution of
heredity and environment.

Most of the evidence bearing on the inheritance of the

intelligence comes from studies correlating IQs between person of
various degree of genetic relationship. The average correlation
between the IQs of parents and their natural children is 50;
between parents and their adopted children the correlation is about
25. Identical twins, because they develop from a single egg, share
precisely the same heredity; the correlation between their IQs very
high –about 90. The IQs of fraternal twins (who are genetically no
more alike than ordinary siblings, since they develop from separate
eggs) correlated higher, .75, than those of fraternal twins reared
together.

Note that being reared in the same home situation tends to

increase IQ similarity, even for individual who are unrelated.
Although adopted children resemble their natural parents on the
basis of their natural parent’s ability (Skodak and Skeels, 1949).

Racial Differences:
After discussing generic contribution to intelligence, it is
obvious that there are racial differences in intelligence. Because of
the recent issue on the question of whether blacks are innately less
intelligent than whites. In view of the heated controversy centered
on this issue and its significance for social policy, it is important that
we examine the available evidence. On standard intelligence tests
black Americans, as a group, score 10 to 15 IQ points lower than
while Americans, as a group. This fact is not a debate but revolves
around how to interpret the difference. Some possible explanations
should be apparent from what we have already said about the
nature of IQ tests and the influence of environmental factor on
tested intelligence. For example, most intelligence have been
standardized on white populations. Since black and whites
generally grow up in quite different environments and have different
experiences, the contents of such tests may not be appropriate for
blacks. And a black child may react differently to being tested
(particularly if he or she is being tested by a white examiner) than a
white child. Thus, the whole issue of estimating black intelligence is
complicated by the questions of whether the tests are appropriate
and whether the data obtained by white testers represent an
unbiased measure of IQ.
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11.1.1 Is intelligence one general ability or several specific

abilities?
In the early 1900s, the French psychologist Alfred Binet
(1857–1914) and his colleague Henri Simon (1872–1961) began
working in Paris to develop a measure that would differentiate
students who were expected to be better learners from students
who were expected to be slower learners. The goal was to help
teachers better educate these two groups of students. Binet and
Simon developed what most psychologists today regard as the first
intelligence test, which consisted of a wide variety of questions that
included the ability to name objects, define words, draw pictures,
complete sentences, compare items, and construct sentences.

Binet and Simon (Binet, Simon, & Town, 1915; Siegler,

1992) believed that the questions they asked their students, even
though they were on the surface dissimilar, all assessed the basic
abilities to understand, reason, and make judgments. And it turned
out that the correlations among these different types of measures
were in fact all positive; students who got one item correct were
more likely to also get other items correct, even though the
questions themselves were very different.

On the basis of these results, the psychologist Charles

Spearman (1863–1945) hypothesized that there must be a single
underlying construct that all of these items measure. He called the
construct that the different abilities and skills measured on
intelligence tests have in common the general intelligence factor
(g). Virtually all psychologists now believe that there is a
generalized intelligence factor, g, that relates to abstract thinking
and that includes the abilities to acquire knowledge, to reason
abstractly, to adapt to novel situations, and to benefit from
instruction and experience (Gottfredson, 1997; Sternberg, 2003).

Although there is general agreement among psychologists

that g exists, there is also evidence for specific intelligence (s), a
measure of specific skills in narrow domains. One empirical result
in support of the idea of "s" comes from intelligence tests
themselves. Although the different types of questions do correlate
with each other, some items correlate more highly with each other
than do other items; they form clusters or clumps of intelligences.

Theory of Multiple Intelligence:

According to American psychologist Howard Gardner (1983)
we do not have one underlying general intelligence, but instead
have multiple intelligences. The nine types of intelligence identified
by Howard Gardner are as follows:

• Linguistic Intelligence: Children with this kind of intelligence

enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.
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Linguistic intelligence involves aptitude with speech and language

and is exemplified by poet T. S. Eliot.

• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: Children with lots of logical

intelligence are interested in patterns, categories and relationships.
They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and
experiments. Physicist Albert Einstein is a good example of this
intelligence.

• Spatial Intelligence: It is used to perceive visual and spatial

information and to conceptualize the world in tasks like navigation
and in art. Painter Pablo Picasso represents a person of high
spatial intelligence.

• Musical intelligence: It is the ability to perform and appreciate

music, is represented by composer A. R. Rahman and Rahul Dev
Burman (R. D. Burman).

• Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: It is the ability to use one’s

body or parts of body in various activities, such as dancing,
athletics, acting, surgery, and magic. Martha Graham, the famous
dancer and choreographer, is a good example of bodily-
kinaesthetic intelligence. It is the type of ability shown by the gifted
athletes, dancers or super surgeons who have great control over
their body, hand and finger movements.

• Interpersonal intelligence: It involves understanding others

and acting on that understanding. It is the type of ability shown by
those who can easily infer other people's mood, temperaments, or
intentions and motivations.

• Intrapersonal intelligence: It is the ability to understand one’s

self and is typified by the leader Mohandas Gandhi. It is the ability
shown by someone who has great insight into his/her own feelings
and emotions.

• Naturalist Intelligence: the ability to recognize and classify

plants, animals, and minerals. Naturalist Charles Darwin is an
example of this intelligence. Naturalistic Intelligence is defined as
the ability to observe and/or interact with diverse species in nature.
The type of ability shown by biologists or environmentalist

• Existentialist: It is the ability to see the “big picture of the

human world by asking questions about life, death and the ultimate
reality of human existence.

11.1.2 Intelligence and creativity:

One important debate in understanding the variations in
creativity has been the relationship of creativity with intelligence.
 189

Let us take an example of two students in a class. Savita is

regarded by her teacher as an excellent student. She does her
work on time, scores the highest grades in her class, listens to
instructions with care, grasps quickly, reproduces accurately but
she rarely comes out with ideas which are her own. Rima is another
student who is just average in her studies and has not achieved
high grades consistently. She prefers to learn on her own. She
improvises new ways of helping her mother at home and comes up
with new ways of doing her work and assignment. The former is
considered to be more intelligent and the latter as more creative.
Thus, a person who has the ability to learn faster and reproduced
accurately may be considered intelligent more than creative unless
she/he devises new ways of learning and doing.

Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were

not necessarily creative. At the same time, creative ideas could
come from persons who did not have a very high IQ. Other
researchers have shown that not even one of those identified as
gifted, followed up throughout their adult life, had become well-
known for creativity in some field. Researchers have also found that
both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly
intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The
same person, thus, can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not
necessary that intelligent ones, in the conventional sense, must be
creative. Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.

Researchers have found that the relationship between

creativity and intelligence is positive. All creative acts require some
minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to comprehend,
retain and retrieve. Creative writers, for example, need facility in
dealing with language. The artist must understand the effect that
will be produced by a particular technique of painting, a scientist
must be able to reason and so on. Hence, a certain level of
intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that intelligence
dose not correlate well with creativity. It can be concluded that
creativity can take many forms and blends. Some may have more
of intellectual attributes, others may have more of attributes
associated with creativity. Yet there is more to creativity than what
intelligence tests reveal. Intelligence tests require convergent
thinking while creativity tests require divergent thinking. Injury to
certain areas of the frontal lobes can leave reading, writing and
arithmetic skills intact but destroy imagination. Sternberg et.al. have
identified 5 components of creativity-

1. Expertise – a well-developed base of knowledge- furnishes the

ideas, images and phrases we use as mental building blocks. The
more blocks we have, the more chances we have to combine them
in novel way.
 190

2. Imaginative Thinking Skill– It provides the ability to see things

in a novel way, to recognize patterns, and to make connections.
Having mastered a problem’s basic elements, we redefine or
explore it in a new way.

3. A Venturesome Personality – A venturesome personality seeks

new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in
overcoming obstacles. For example, Wiles said he labored in near-
isolation from the mathematics community partly to stay focused
and avoid distractions.

4. Intrinsic Motivation – Intrinsic motivation is being driven more

by interest, satisfaction and challenge than by external pressures.
Creative people focus less on extrinsic motivators such as meeting
deadlines, impressing people, or making money – than on the
pleasure and stimulation of the work itself. When Newton was
asked how he solved such difficult problems, he said by thinking
about them all the time.

5. A Creative Environment sparks, supports, and refines creative

ideas. After studying the careers of 2026 famous scientists and
inventors, Dean Keith Simonton (1992) concluded that most of
these men were mentored, challenged and supported by their
colleagues. Many had the emotional intelligence needed to network
effectively with peers. Creativity -fostering environments support
innovation, team building and communication. They also support
contemplation.

11.1.3 Emotional intelligence:

Most psychologists have considered intelligence a cognitive
ability, people also use their emotions to help them solve problems
and relate effectively to others. Emotional intelligence refers to the
ability to accurately identify, assess, and understand emotions, as
well as to effectively control one’s own emotions (Feldman-Barrett
& Salovey, 2002; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000).

This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer.

According to them, Intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own
and others’ emotions, to discriminate among emotions and to use
the information to guide one’s thinking and actions. The idea of
emotional intelligence is seen in Howard Gardner‘s interpersonal
intelligence (the capacity to understand the emotions, intentions,
motivations, and desires of other people) and intrapersonal
intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, including one‘s
emotions).

Emotional Quotient (EQ):

Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional
intelligence in the same way as Intelligent Quotient (IQ) is used to
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express intelligence. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is a ratio concept

and is a score of emotional intelligence obtained by dividing
chronological age by emotional age and multiplying by 100. The
formula of Emotional Quotient (IQ) is given below.

Emotional Quotient (EQ) = Emotional Age/ Chronological Age*

100
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate
appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling
side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic record is not enough
to be successful in life. You may find many people who are
academically talented but are unsuccessful in their own life. They
experience problems in their life, workplace and interpersonal
relationships. What do they lack? Some psychologists believe that
the source of their difficulty may be lack of emotional intelligence. In
simple words, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process
emotional information accurately and efficiently. There are some
characteristics of emotional intelligent person. Person who are high
on emotional intelligence possess following characteristics.

Characteristics of Emotional Intelligent Person:

Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others
by noting their body language, voice, tone and facial
expressions.
Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them
into account while solving problems and taking decisions.
Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of
your emotions.
Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while
dealing with self and others.

Daniel Goleman, an American author and journalist,

popularized the concept in his book Emotional Intelligence (1995).
He expanded the concept to include general social competence.
The importance of emotional intelligence has been very well
brought out in the following words by Daniel Goleman “Emotional
Intelligence is a master aptitude, a capacity that profoundly affects
all other abilities, either facilitating or interfering with them.
According to Daniel Goleman the term encompasses has following
five characteristics and abilities:

1) Self-Awareness: Knowing your emotions, recognizing feelings

as they occur, and discriminating between them.
2) Mood Management: Handling feelings so they're relevant to the
current situation and you react appropriately.
3) Self-Motivation: Gathering up your feelings and directing
yourself towards a goal, despite self-doubt, inertia, and
impulsiveness.
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4) Empathy: Recognizing feelings in others and tuning into their

verbal and nonverbal cues.
5) Managing relationships: Handling interpersonal interaction,
conflict resolution, and negotiations.

Thus, emotional intelligence is not same as self-esteem and

optimism. Rather emotionally intelligent people are both social and
self-aware. Those scoring high on managing emotions enjoy
higher-quality interactions with friends (Lopes et.al.2004). They
avoid being hijacked by overwhelming depression, anxiety or
anger. Being sensitive to emotional cues, they know what to say to
soothe a grieving friend encourage a colleague and manage
conflict.

Emotional intelligence is less a matter of conscious efforts

and more of one’s unconscious processing of emotional
information. (Fiori, 2009). Across many studies in many countries,
those scoring high on emotional intelligence showed somewhat
better job performance. They could also delay gratification in
pursuit of long-term rewards, rather than being overtaken by
immediate impulses. They were emotionally in tune with others and
therefore often succeeded in career, marriage and parenting.

11.1.4 Is intelligence neurologically Measurable?

Using today’s neuroscience tools, we might link differences
in people’s intelligence test performance to dissimilarities in the
heart of smarts—the brain? Might we anticipate a future brain test
of intelligence?

More recent studies that directly measure brain volume

using MRI scans do reveal correlations of about +.33 between brain
size (adjusted for body size) and intelligence score (Carey, 2007;
McDaniel, 2005). Moreover, as adult’s age, brain size and
nonverbal intelligence test scores fall in concert (Bigler et al., 1995).
One review of 37 brain-imaging studies revealed associations
between intelligence and brain size and activity in specific areas,
especially within the frontal and parietal lobes (Jung & Haier, 2007).
Sandra Witelson would not have been surprised. With the brains of
91 Canadians as a comparison base, Witelson and her colleagues
(1999) seized an opportunity to study Einstein’s brain. Although not
notably heavier or larger in total size than the typical Canadian’s
brain, Einstein’s brain was 15 percent larger in the parietal lobe’s
lower region—which just happens to be a center for processing
mathematical and spatial information. Certain other areas were a
tad smaller than average. With different mental functions competing
for the brain’s real estate, these observations may offer a clue to
why Einstein, like some other great physicists such as Richard
Feynman and Edward Teller, was slow in learning to talk (Pinker,
1999).
 193

If intelligence does modestly correlate with brain size, the

cause could be differing genes, nutrition, environmental stimulation,
some combination of these, or perhaps something else. Recall from
earlier chapters that experience alters the brain. Rats raised in a
stimulating rather than deprived environment develop thicker,
heavier cortexes. And learning leaves detectable traces in the
brain’s neural connections. “Intelligence is due to the development
of neural connections in response to the environment,” notes
University of Sydney psychologist Dennis Garlick (2003).
Postmortem of the brain revealed that highly educated people die
with more synapses—17 percent more in one study—than their
less-educated counterparts (Orlovskaya et al., 1999). This does not
tell us whether people grow synapses with education, or people
with more synapses seek more education, or both. But other
evidence suggests that highly intelligent people differ in their neural
plasticity—their ability during childhood and adolescence to adapt
and grow neural connections in response to their environment
(Garlick, 2002, 2003).

The neurological approach to understanding is currently in

its heyday. Will this new research reduce what we now call the g
factor to simple measures of underlying brain activity? Or are these
efforts totally wrongheaded because what we call intelligence is not
a single general trait but several culturally adaptive skills? The
controversies surrounding the nature of intelligence are a long way
from resolution.

11.2 ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE

11.2.1 The origins of intelligence testing:

In 1904, French government officials asked psychologist
Alfred Binet to help them decide which students were most likely to
experience difficulty in school, since they needed a way to identify
and help these youngsters. (Primary school education was
mandatory in France). Binet asked a colleague, Theodore Simon,
to help him create a test with questions focusing on practical
matters such as attention, memory and problem solving, things the
children were not taught in school. Some children were able to
answer more advanced questions than their age group, and so,
based on these observations, the now classical concept of mental
age came into being. Their test, the Binet - Simon scale, was the
first standardized IQ test.

By 1916, Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman had

taken the Binet-Simon scale and adapted it to the American public.
The Binet–Simon Scale (adapted) was named the Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard intelligence test
for several decades in the United States. The Stanford-Binet, as it
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is called, used a single number known as IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

to represent an individual’s score on the test.

During World War I, several tests were developed by the

United States Army with an eye to screening recruits and
determining eligibility for certain military jobs. The Army Alpha was
a written test and the Army Beta was administered only in cases
where the recruits were illiterate.

These and other IQ tests were eventually used for a less

than admirable purpose, screening new immigrants as they entered
the United States from Ellis Island. IQ test results were
inappropriately used to make sweeping generalizations and to
verify the claim of “surprisingly low intelligence” of Jewish and
Southern European immigrants. These test results and outlandish
claims led to a then popular proposal by the “racially motivated”
psychologist H.H. Goddard and others (1920)—to enable Congress
to enact restrictions in immigration. Despite the fact that the tests
administered were in English only and the vast majority of the
immigrants could not understand that language, the United States
government deported many thousands of worthy individuals whom
they unfortunately labeled as “unfit” or “undesirable.” And this took
place a full decade or so before the news began to trickle in from
Nazi Germany about Adolph Hitler’s new eugenics. This is, indeed,
a sad chapter in the history of the United States of America.

In 1955, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale made its

debut. The WAIS, as it is called, was psychologist Robert
Wechsler’s first test, and the WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children) and the Wechsler Preschool Primary Intelligence Scale of
Intelligence (WPPSI) were developed later. The adult version has
since gone through three revisions: WAIS-R (Revised, 1981), the
WAIS-III (1997), and, in 2008, the WAIS – IV made its first
appearance in the United States. Thus, psychologist started to
develop psychological tests scientifically.

Measurement of intelligence is a topic that has interested

psychologists since last more than 100 years. It was Alfred Binet
and his team in France who developed some of the earliest tools
for measuring Intelligence. Let us understand the concept of
Intelligent Quotient (IQ).

Intelligent Quotient (IQ):

The concept of IQ was for the first time introduced by William
Stern in 1912 and employed in 1916 in Stanford Binet Scale. IQ is a
ratio concept and is a classic score of intelligence obtained by
dividing chronological age by mental age and multiplying by 100.
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Intelligent Quotient (IQ) = Mental Age / Chronological Age* 100

Originally, IQ was calculated with the formula A 10-year-old
who scored as high as the average 13-year-old, for example, would
have an IQ of 130 (13/10 X 100). With the help of IQ, children of
different chronological ages can be directly compared. IQ scores of
above 100 indicate that the person is more intelligent than the
average.

11.2.2 Modern Tests of Mental Abilities:

There are many different ability tests developed in the world
of psychology. We would discuss only some of these test such as
Binet’s mental ability test, Stanford - Binet test and The Wechsler
test.

1. Binet’s Mental Ability Test:

Alfred Binet along with his colleague Theodore Simon
developed one of the first known Intelligence test, which came to be
called as Binet - Simon scale. This test was revised in 1908 and
191. Binet believed that intelligence should be measured by tasks
that required reasoning and problem solving. According to Binet the
slow learner child was similar to a normal child except for the fact
that the mental growth of the slow child was retarded. On the test of
intelligence, a slow learner would perform just like a normal child
but his/her performance will be equivalent to that of a young child.
He developed the concept of mental age. Alfred Binet assumed that
intellectual abilities improved with age during childhood. Alfred
Binet arranged the test items of his intelligence tests in order of
increasing difficulty. The score obtained on Binet’s Intelligence Test
is equal to the number of questions answered correctly, but it is
expressed in terms of the age of the child for which that score is the
average. For example, if the child correctly answered 9 items and
the average number of items answered by the children of 4 years
and 3 months of age was 9 then the score would be expressed as
“4 years and 3 months.” Binet called this score as the mental age.

2. Stanford - Binet Test :

The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales is an individually
administered intelligence test that was revised from the original
Binet-Simon Scale by Lewis M. Terman, a psychologist at Stanford
University. After Binet’s death in 1911 his tests were revised and
used extensively in America. The most widely used revision was
called as Stanford-Binet Intelligence tests. One of the first Stanford
Binet Scale was developed in 1916. This test was revised in 1937
1960, 1972 and 1986 and 2003. The Fifth edition of Stanford-Binet,
revised in 2003, (SB5) is the most updated and revised version of
the Stanford-Binet tests. The Stanford Binet Scale is one of the
most widely used and scientifically well developed tests of
Intelligence to measure the intelligence of school children.
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3. The Wechsler Tests:

The Wechsler intelligence scales were developed by Dr.
David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist with Bellevue Hospital.
David Wechsler developed a series of test initially to measure adult
intelligence and later on he developed tests of intelligence to
measure intelligence of children and preprimary school children.
His tests have been periodically revised and updated. David
Wechsler felt that the Binet scales were too verbally loaded for use
with adults, so he designed an instrument with sub-tests to
measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities, largely borrowing from
many other tests, such as the US Army Alpha and US Army Beta
tests.

The first Wechsler scale, called as the Wechsler Bellevue

scale was constructed in the year 1939 to measure adult
intelligence. However, this scale had a number of technical
difficulties, which were corrected in the 1955 scale, which has
become famous as WAIS. The 1955 WAIS was revised in 1981 and
is called as WAIS-R. He further revised this test which is today
called as WAIS – IV. He has also developed Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC – IV) and the Wechsler Preschool and
Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI – III).

These tests differ from that of Stanford-Binet in the sense

that they give three different types of IQ: Verbal Scale IQ,
Performance Scale IQ and Full Scale IQ. All of the Wechsler scales
are divided into six verbal and five performance subtests. The
following table gives a brief overview of the different types of sub-
tests in the WAIS test.

Sr. No. Verbal Subtests Performance Subtests

1 Information. Picture Completion
2 Digit Symbol Picture Arrangement
3 Comprehension Block Design
4 Arithmetic Digit Span
5 Similarities Object Assembly
6 Vocabulary

11.2.3 Principles of Test Construction:

Test construction is a scientific process and is concerned
with development of new tests, revising existing tests and issues
relating to test administration and interpretation. Development of
intelligence test is a difficult process. Some important
characteristics of good test construction include: Reliability, Validity,
Standardization of Tests and Norms.
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Reliability:
Reliability is one of the most important characteristics of a
given scientific test. Reliability can be defined as the extent to
which a test yields consistent results. Reliability refers to
consistency of scores obtained by the same individual on the same
test or equivalent forms of the test, which is administered after
some period of time. It refers to the scores obtained by the same
person when re-examined with the same test on different occasions
or with different sets of equivalent form. In order to determine
reliability we actually measure correlations between two sets of
scores on the same test (also called as test retest reliability)
obtained by the same individual after some period of time. If instead
of the same test an equivalent form is used then the reliability is
termed as equivalent or alternate form of reliability. When two
examiners obtain score by administering the same test to an
individual then the correlation between the scores obtained by the
two examiners is called as scorer reliability or inter-rater agreement
or inter-judge reliability.

Validity:
Validity is an important characteristic of intelligence test. It
means the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to
measure. Validity is concerned with the following question: Does a
test measure what it wants to measure and how well it measures
what it wants to measure. Validity of a test is generally assessed by
correlating it with some external criteria. This criterion can be
obtained either along with the test score or just prior or immediately
after the test score was obtained. Thus, validity of a given test is
determined by correlating the scores obtained by the individual on a
test as well as scores obtained on some external criteria.

Standardization of Tests:
The number of questions you answer correctly on an
intelligence test would tell us almost nothing. To evaluate your
performance, we need a basis for comparing it with others’
performance. To enable meaningful comparisons, test-makers first
give the test to a representative sample of people. When you later
take the test following the same procedures, your scores can be
compared with the sample’s scores to determine your position
relative to others. This process of defining meaningful scores
relative to a pretested group is called standardization.
Standardization is basically concerned with uniformity. By a
standardized test we mean a test which is uniform and will remain
uniform for all the conditions and subjects. Uniformity should be in
the areas of administering, scoring and interpretation of a test.

Norms:
Norms are the scores from the standardization group. Norms
are standards (created by the scores of a large group of individuals)
 198

used as the basis of comparison for scores on a test. Norms are

developed on the basis of empirical data by using a sample (called
as normative sample). Norms tell us what is a good or of poor
performance. Norms help us to set standards against which we
judge an individual’s performance on a given test.

11.3 SUMMARY

In this unit we had defined intelligence and discussed the

different concepts of intelligence. We have also studied different
types of Intelligence Tests. There are three types of tests that we
briefly discussed, Binet Mental Ability Test, Stanford Binet and IQ,
The Wechsler Tests. Research studies have revealed that there is
Individual Differences in Intelligence. Two important components of
intelligence were discussed i.e. Mental Retardation and Giftedness.
Some important concepts and issues related to intelligence were
also discussed such as Emotional Intelligence, Nature v/s Nurture
Controversy and The Bell Curve, Is intelligence one general ability
or several specific abilities, origins of intelligence testing.
Neurologically Measurement of Intelligence were also discussed in
brief. Towards the end of this unit we have discussed some
Principles of Test construction. Principles of Test construction is a
scientific process. Some important topics related to Principles of
test construction such as validity; reliability, standardization and
norms were discussed in brief.

11.4 QUESTIONS

a) Explain Intelligence in details.

b) Is intelligence one general ability or several specific abilities?
c) Discuss in detail about Intelligence and creativity.
d) Explain emotional intelligence in detail.
e) Discuss in detail about the origins of intelligence testing.
f) Discuss in detail about Modern Tests of Mental Abilities.
g) Explain different Principles of test construction.

Short Notes:
a) Measuring Intelligence.
b) Neurologically Measurement of Intelligence.
c) Binet Mental Ability Test
d) Stanford Binet Test
e) The Wechsler Tests.
 199

11.5 REFERENCES
th
1. Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10 Edition; International
edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013.
2. KumarVipan (2008), General Psychology, Himalaya Publishing
House, Chapter 06.
3. Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology (Indian sub-
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt
ltd.
4. Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian
subcontinent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India)
pvt. Ltd.
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12
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION– I
Unit Structure :

12.0 Objective
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Motivation Concept
12.2.1 Instincts and evolutionary psychology
12.2.2 Drives and incentives
12.2.3 Optimum arousal
12.2.4 Hierarchy of motives
12.3 Hunger
12.3.1 The Physiology of Hunger
12.3.2 The psychology of Hunger
12.3.3 Obesity and weight control;
12.3.4 Close-up: Waist management
12.4 Summery
12.5 Questions
12.6 References

12.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to understand:

The concept of motivation.
Various approaches/theories related to the concept of
motivation.
How hunger motivates human beings.
Why people become obese (fat) and how to control weight.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we will discuss about motivation. Before

explaining the concept of motivation, let’s ask you some questions
that will help you to understand the concept of motivation.

Have you ever wondered why some people regularly go to

gym or take part in Marathon even if they are senior citizens or
have physical disability? In fact, such people might have been
discouraged by their family members. They do not expect to
 201

receive any reward or recognition and yet take part with great
enthusiasm. Similarly, the question arises why do people observe
fast or go on pilgrimage even though it causes lot of physical
discomfort? Why do some people enjoy activities like hiking,
playing football while others like to sit down in a corner, with a novel
or watch a movie on television?

We can continue raising question “Why” for almost each and

every situation in everyday life. By raising the question “why” we
are trying to understand the reason or motivation behind the
behavior that we observe.

Different people may have different motives for same

behavior. For example, a student may take up a course in
Psychology because he likes the subject and wants to enhance his
knowledge, while another may take up a course in Psychology
because this may brighten his career prospects, a third student
may take up a course in Psychology because his parents have
insisted on it or because of peer pressure.

Different people with same motive may behave in

different manner. For example, a person who is hungry may
decide to have his lunch to satisfy his hunger while another person
may satisfy his hunger by eating a burger or any other junk food.

The motivation issue becomes more complex with the fact

that the same person showing same behavior may have
different motives at different stages of life. For example, a lady
who dislikes mathematics, may study mathematics to pass her
school exam, but later on, she may study mathematics again with
lot of zeal to help her child to cope up with this subject.

These examples highlight the fact that all human behavior

takes place in response to some form of internal or external
motives /needs or desires. It also shows that motivation is a
complex issue and yet necessary to understand so that we can
deal with them in much more meaningful and effective way. Now let
us try to understand what is motivation.

Definition of Motivation:
The word motivation comes from a Latin word ‘movere’
which means to move or to energize. Steers and Porter (1987)
believe that “When we discuss motivation, we are primarily
concerned with (1) what energizes human behavior; (2) what
directs or channels such behavior and (3) how this behavior is
maintained or sustained.”

Thus, in another way motivation can be defined as an

internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to
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our thoughts, feelings and actions, and maintains our activity

till our goal is achieved.

Characteristics of Motivation:
On the basis of above mentioned definitions and explanation
we can deduce following characteristics of motivation.

1. Motivation is Inferential: An important characteristic of

motivation is that we cannot see it directly. We can only infer it
to explain others’ behavior. For example, we cannot see hunger,
but if we see a person eating food hungrily, we can infer that his
behavior is guided by hunger motivation.

2. Motivation Predicts Behaviour: Motivation helps us to make

predictions about our own or others’ behavior. If we understand
the motive behind a person’s present behavior, we might be in a
better position to predict how that person will behave in future.

3. Motivation is goal directed behavior: Motivated individuals

keep working until they reach their goal.

4. Multiple motives - People can have multiple causes for same

behavior. For example, a person may take part in adventure
sport due to need to risk taking motive, social motivation,
escape from boredom, need to overcome fears, need for
achievement, etc.

5. Motivation varies in the type and strength – People differ in

the type and strength of their motives from time to time. Studies
have shown that there are two types of motivation that can
influence a person. Primary motives and Secondary Motives.
Primary motives cater to our need for self-preservation. For
example, need for hunger, thirst, warmth, avoidance of pain,
etc. Secondary motives are mainly learned motives, and they
differ from one person to another. In many ways, they involve a
person's own sense of values and priorities in life. Secondary
motivation is influenced by socio-cultural factors.

6. A person may be aware of his motives or may not be aware

of his motives that guide his behavior. Usually a person may
automatically respond to primary motives without being
conscious of them and may be fully aware of his secondary
motives and meticulously plan to achieve them.

12.2 MOTIVATIONAL CONCEPTS

The question, why people behave as they do, has intrigued

psychologists for more than a century and has generated lot of
research. There is no single answer. Motivation can be triggered by
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biological, cognitive and social factors. Mayer (2013) aptly

suggested that motivation arises from the interplay between nature
(the bodily “push”) and nurture (the “pull” from our thought
processes and culture). However, the complexity of motivation has
led different psychologists to develop various conceptual
approaches or theories of motivation over the years. Many of these
theories of motivation differ in the amount of emphasis they place
on either biological, cognitive or social factors but most of them
include some level of both (some nature, some nurture).

We will elaborate here on four most prominent theories that

have received lot of attention over the years.

Theories of Motivation
12.2.1 Instincts and Evolutionary Theories:
Instincts refer to inborn patterns of behavior that are
biologically determined, have a fixed pattern throughout a species,
and are not learned behaviors. Early in the 20th century,
psychologists were highly influenced by Charles Darwin’s
evolutionary theory and sought to explain the motivation behind all
kinds of behavior in terms of instincts. For example, if people
criticized themselves, they explained it in terms of “self-abasement
instinct”.

Instinct theory argued that people try to survive, and that any
quality that increases survival will eventually become genetically
based. Psychologists believed that people and animals are born
with preprogrammed set of behaviors that are necessary for their
survival. These instincts give them the energy that channels their
behavior in appropriate direction. For example, sex can be
explained as a response to an instinct for reproduction.

William McDougal (1908) viewed instincts as behavior patterns

that are unlearned, uniform in expression and universal in a
species. For example, within a species of bird, all the members
may build identical nests and work in the same ways. This is true
even for those birds of that species born and raised in captivity and
isolation, and thus could not have learned the appropriate nest
building behavior from others or experienced role model birds.
McDougal carried it a step further by stating that humans are the
same and have instincts for behaviors such as: parenting,
submission, jealousy, mating, and more.

Criticism of this perspective:

1. Instead of explaining human behavior, this theory was simply
naming them or labeling them in terms of instincts. For example,
submissive people possess the instinct of submission. To name
a behavior is not same as explaining it.
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2. According to it all instincts occur impulsively and therefore

people have no control over their behavior. It does not
recognize the role of free will.

3. There is a circular argument. The cause (instinct) explains the

behavior, but the behavior is proof for its cause.

4. There is no agreement on what, or even how many primary

instincts are there. William McDougall (1908) suggested that
there are 18 instincts. Other theorists came up with even more.
One sociologist scanned 500 books and compiled a list of 5759
supposed to be human instincts.

12.2.2 Drives and Incentives:

After rejecting instinct theory, psychologists proposed drive -

reduction theory. Let us first understand what is the meaning of
drive.

Drive:
A Drive is an internal state of tension/ an unpleasant state
that causes us /energizes behavior to do something to reduce or
remove that tension. A drive is an arousal that takes place in order
to fulfill some need. For example, biological needs arising within our
bodies create unpleasant states of arousal – the feelings of hunger,
thirst, fatigue, etc. The moment this drive/ arousal or tension takes
place, we become active to reduce it or eliminate it.

So, the physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the body’s natural tendency to maintain a steady
internal state - a state of physiological equilibrium. For example, our
body’s temperature regulation works like a room thermostat. If our
body’s temperature cools, blood vessels constrict to conserve
warmth, and we feel driven to put on more clothes or seek a
warmer environment. On the other hand, if the body temperature
increases, we start perspiring to cool the body and seek to remove
extra clothing and seek cooler environment, which finally leads to
the restoration of equilibrium.

Basic kinds of drives, such as hunger, thirst, sleepiness,

stable body temperature, etc. are called Primary drives. According
to drive theory, motivation is basically a process in which these
primary drives push (drive) us to action designed to satisfy these
needs. Behaviors that helps us to reduce the appropriate drive are
strengthened and tend to be repeated and those behavior that fail
to bring the equilibrium /homeostasis will not be repeated when that
drive occurs once again.
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Criticism:
1. Drive reduction theory works well to explain the actions people
take to reduce tension created by needs, but it does not explain
all human motivation. For example, it does not explain why we
eat even when they are not hungry?

2. It could not explain behavior in which the goal is not to reduce a

drive, but rather to maintain or even to increase a particular
level of arousal. For example, some people seek thrills through
activities such as racing cars, etc. The question arises why
would people do things like these if it does not reduce some
need or restore homeostasis? In such cases the concept of
homeostasis seems irrelevant.

3. Though, in its original form, drive theory focused primarily on

biological needs and the drives they produce. But later on,
psychologists realized that motivation may exist without a drive
/arousal and therefore extended this model to cover other forms
of behavior that was not clearly linked to basic needs, such as
drive for stimulation, status, achievement, power, and forming
stable social relationships. These are called secondary drives.
The needs involved in secondary drives are created by prior
experience and learning.

Psychologists recognized the fact that we are not only

pushed by our need to reduce drive, but we are also pulled by
incentives.

Incentives:
Incentives are positive or negative stimuli that attract or repel
us. Incentives are influenced by an individual’s personal
experiences or learning in the past. Here we can see a move away
from biological influence toward the environment and its influence
on behavior. In incentive approach, behavior is explained in terms
of external stimulus and its rewarding or repelling properties. The
rewarding or repelling properties exist independently of any need or
level of arousal and can cause people to act only upon the
incentive. Thus incentive theory is actually based on the principle of
learning.

For example, if in the past, a person has enjoyed the taste

and aroma of freshly made coffee, then while passing outside a
coffee shop, the aroma of freshly made coffee can motivate his
behavior and he may get pulled (attracted/tempted) towards the
coffee shop. When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel
strongly driven. For instance, if you are hungry and you get the
aroma of freshly baked bread, you will feel strong hunger drive. The
aroma of baking bread becomes a compelling incentive. So, for
each motive, we can ask, “How is it pushed by our inborn
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physiological needs and pulled by incentives in the environment?”

In other words, drive reduction theory accepted that our past
learning and environment also plays a major role along with
physical internal drives in motivating our behavior.

12.2.3 Optimum Arousal:

With more research in the area of motivation, when it
became clear to psychologists that we are much more than
homeostasis system and people sometimes seek to increase rather
than reduce existing drives, another theory of motivation known as
“arousal theory” was proposed. This theory focuses on arousal, our
general level of activation. After all our biological needs are
satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation and we hunger
for information. Neuroscientists, Irving Biederman and Edward
Vessel (2006) said we are “infovores”, after they identified brain
mechanism that rewards us for gaining information. For example,
toddlers explore every nook and corner of the house, children love
to break their toys to investigate the mechanism inside the toys,
people love to travel to new places just to explore what those
places look like, etc.

Arousal levels vary throughout the day, from low levels

during sleep to much higher levels when we are performing
strenuous tasks or activities that we find exciting. The theory
suggests that what we seek is not less or more arousal but optimal
level of arousal – the level that is best suited to our personal
characteristics and to whatever activity we are currently
performing. If our stimulation and activity levels become too high,
it creates stress for us and we try to reduce them. On the other
hand, if the levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we feel
bored and try to reduce boredom by seeking stimulation and
activity. Even though the average person might require an average
level of arousal to feel content, there are some people who need
less arousal and some who need more. The person who needs
more arousal is called a sensation seeker. Sensation seekers seem
to need more complex and varied sensory experiences than do
other people.

12.2.4 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy:

Abraham Maslow proposed that human beings are driven by
different factors/needs at different times. When a single need is
fulfilled humans seek to satisfy the next need, and so forth. Maslow
introduced his theory based on personal judgment and his theory is
generally known as the need hierarchy theory. He believed that if
people grow up in an environment in which their needs are not met,
they will be unlikely to function as healthy individuals or well-
adjusted individuals.
 207

Maslow believed that all needs vary in priority. Some needs

have to be satisfied first while the satisfaction of other needs can be
delayed. He described these priorities as a hierarchy of needs and
arranged them in a pyramidal form to indicate which needs have
more priority. The journey of satisfying these needs before
graduating to other needs starts from the bottom of the pyramid.

Originally Maslow’s (1943,1954) hierarchy of needs pyramid had

only five needs – up to self-actualization, but later on it was
expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (Maslow,
1970a) and later transcendence needs (Maslow, 1970b).Maslow
explained that throughout our life we are dominated by some need
or the other. There is not a single moment in our daily life when we
are not dominated by some need or the other. Now let us see what
these needs are.

1. Physiological Needs - These needs include the need for food,

water, rest, air, temperature regulation, etc. If these needs are
not met, the organism can’t survive. Thus, these are the most
basic and most important needs. Maslow classified these needs
as part of deficiency needs. If these needs are not satisfied, the
human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail.
Therefore, once any of these needs is aroused it demands
immediate gratification without any delay and a person cannot
think of anything else unless and until that particular need is
satisfied.

2. Safety Need–Once the physiological needs are satisfied, then

we get concerned about our safety. These needs refer more to
the long-term survival than day to day needs. In other words, we
are faced with the question that just as today we have been able
to satisfy our physiological needs and survived peacefully, can
we survive in future also.

a. People want physical safety – freedom from threat of war,

natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse. They want
order and do not want to live in a world that is not filled with
chaos and danger.
b. People want economic safety - For example, all saving
schemes, insurance schemes work on the basis of this need
only. We choose jobs where we can have job security; we try to
improve our qualifications today to ensure that our future is not
endangered. We fix safety doors, grills, and cc cameras in our
homes, offices to satisfy this need only. People seek out
grievance procedures for protecting themselves from unilateral
authority and arbitrary decisions.

3. Belongingness and love –Once our safety need is satisfied,

then we pay attention to other people in our surroundings.
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People seek out love and affection from family members,

friends, and lovers. People long to get into steady long term
relationships. It is the need to be loved and to love, to belong
and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation.

4. Esteem - Once individuals’ physical, safety and belongingness

needs are satisfied, they look at ways to satisfy their need for
developing positive feelings of self-worth and self-esteem, and
act to foster pride in their work and in themselves as people. At
this level, people are concerned with achievements, mastery,
independence, status, dominance, prestige, responsibilities, etc.
both at work place as well as in their social circle.

5. Cognitive - Needs at this level are based on acquiring

knowledge and understanding of the world, people, behavior,
etc. If you are in college to learn (not simply to get a degree)
then you are attempting to fulfill your cognitive needs. This need
also includes curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and
predictability. This need is typical of an academician who learns
for the sake of gathering knowledge.

6. Aesthetic - Aesthetic need includes appreciation and search for

beauty, balance and order in life. Humans need beautiful
imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to
continue up towards Self-Actualization. Aesthetics refers to the
quality of being creatively, beautifully, or artistically pleasing;
aesthetic needs are the needs to express oneself in pleasing
ways. Decorating your living room, wrapping birthday presents
attractively, washing and waxing your car, and keeping up with
the latest styles in clothing are all ways of expressing your
aesthetic sense. This need is typical of artistic people.

7. Self-actualization - The growth of self-actualization refers to

the need for personal growth and discovery that is present
throughout a person’s life. In self-actualization, a person comes
to find a meaning to life that is important to them. As each
individual is unique the motivation for self-actualization is
satisfied in different ways by different people. For example,
people can achieve self-actualization through creating works of
art or literature, through sport, in the classroom, or within a
corporate setting. This is the highest and most difficult level to
reach. In fact, according to Maslow, very few people actually
reach this level. Self-actualization is the need to fulfill one’s own
potential, capacities and talents. As Maslow stated, “What a
man can be, he must be.”

According to Maslow self-actualizing persons have some

common characteristics such as they are - able to look at life
objectively, problem-centered (not self-centered). They are
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independent and nonconformist. They are democratic, fair and non-

discriminating, concerned for the welfare of humanity, accept
themselves and others as they are and do not trying to change
people. They have deep appreciation of basic life-experiences,
establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with a few
close intimate friends rather than many surface relationships. They
have unusual sense of humour directed at oneself or the human
conditions in general. They are spontaneous, creative, inventive
and original, excited and interested in everything, and have strong
moral values.

8. Transcendence Needs: Maslow later divided the top of the

triangle to add self-transcendence which is also sometimes
referred to as spiritual needs. Spiritual Needs are a little
different from other needs, accessible from many levels. This
need when fulfilled, leads to feelings of integrity and take
things to another level of being. Transcendence involves helping
others to achieve their full potential.

Criticism of the theory:

1. There is little scientific support for this theory. Maslow
developed this theory based on his personal observations rather
than on any empirical research.

2. There have been many anecdotal evidences indicating that

lower needs need not be satisfied before moving over to higher
needs. For example, while preparing for an upcoming exam, a
student may not eat / sleep a day before exam.

3. Maslow’s theory is based on his study of Americans. Cross-

cultural research shows that the order of needs in the hierarchy
does not always hold true in other cultures.

Check your Progress:

1. Define motivation. What are the characteristics of motivation.
2. Elaborate on any two motivational concepts
3. Write short notes on Instinct theory and Optimal arousal theory
of motivation.
4. Write a detailed note on Drives and incentives.
5. Discuss in detail Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

12.3 HUNGER

Introduction: Hunger as a Motive

Hunger motivation – an urge to eat food is one of the most
powerful biological motivation. The power of hunger motivation was
very aptly demonstrated by Aneel Keys et.al. (1950) in their
experiment. In their experiment, 36 male volunteers went through
semi starvation and researchers studied their behavior. Semi-
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starvation had physical and psychological impact on these men.

Without thinking about it, they began conserving their energy;
appeared listless and apathetic. They became food obsessed. They
talked, day dreamed about food, collected recipes, read cookbooks,
and stared at forbidden food. In other words, unsatisfied hunger
motivation hijacked their consciousness.

Hunger motivation and eating habits of people today have

become a major concern and has been extensively studied. The
question arises why do we feel hungry? Research has shown that
hunger is a much more complex phenomenon and there are
various aspects to it.

12.3.1 Physiological Components of Hunger:

Generally, we know that hunger takes place due to empty
stomach. But this is not the only cause. There are other causes
also that activate hunger.

a) Hunger Pangs/ Stomach Contraction: In an earlier

experiment, Canon (1912) believed that the source of the
hunger motivation was hunger pangs or stomach contractions.
When the stomach is empty, contractions occur and are sensed
and they are the signals for feelings of hunger. Canon believed
that the presence of food in the stomach would stop the
contractions and appease the hunger drive. But it was found
that in many cases, empty stomach is not the only deciding
factor. Recent research studied showed that people reported
feeling hungry and ate food even after their stomach was
removed.

b) Body Chemistry and the Brain: Human beings and other

animals automatically regulate their caloric intake to prevent
energy deficits and to maintain a stable body weight. Body does
this automatic regulation of calories intake through ‘Glucose’ or
‘Blood sugar’. Pancreas in our body produce hormones called
insulin and glucagon that control the levels of fats, proteins
and carbohydrates in the whole body, including blood sugar.
Insulin reduces the level of glucose in the blood stream while
glucagons increase the level blood glucose levels. When
glucose drops below a certain level, our brain triggers the
feeling of hunger and people eat. When the glucose level in the
blood exceeds a certain point, they feel satiated and stop
eating. If your blood glucose level drops, you may not
consciously feel this change. But your brain, which is
automatically monitoring your body’s internal state, will trigger
hunger. This is the reason why dieticians ask a person to take
low-carbohydrate diet. Low carbohydrate will control the insulin
reaction and prevent hunger cravings.
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c) Hypothalamus: Brain receives the messages from stomach,

intestine and liver about glucose level in body and accordingly
triggers hunger. However, stomach and pancreas are not the
only factors influencing our hunger. The hypothalamus in our
brain also plays a significant role in controlling the hunger. The
hypothalamus has two parts that control our eating behavior.
These two parts are –

1. The Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

2. The Lateral Hypothalamus (LH).

1. The Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) is involved in

stopping the eating response when glucose levels in the
blood go up. For example, in one experiment, rats whose VMH
areas were damaged could not stop eating. They kept eating
until they were quite overweight (looked almost like a football).

2. The Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) influences the onset of eating

behavior when insulin levels go up in the blood. If this area of
hypothalamus is damaged, rats stop eating to the point of
starvation. They would eat only when they are force fed. Blood
vessels connect the hypothalamus to the rest of the body, so it
can respond to our current blood chemistry and other incoming
information. One of its task is to monitor the levels of appetite
hormone such as ghrelin, a hunger arousing hormone secreted
by an empty stomach. During bypass surgery for severe
obesity, doctors seal off part of the stomach. The remaining
stomach then produces less ghrelin, and the person’s appetite
lessens. Other appetite hormones are leptin, PYY and orexin.
Orexin triggers hunger while the other two reduce hunger.

Weight Set Point and Basal Metabolic Rate:

Hypothalamus affects the particular level of weight that the
body tries to maintain. This is called weight set point. When semi
starved rats fall below their normal weight, the weight thermostat
(that is complex interaction between appetite hormones and brain
activity) signals the body to restore the lost weight. Hunger
increases and energy expenditure decreases. If body weight rises,
as it happened when rats were force fed, hunger decreases and
energy expenditure increases. This stable weight toward which
semi starved and overstuffed rats return is their weight set point.

Metabolism – the rate at which the body burns available energy for
maintaining basic body functions when the body is at rest. When
people don’t get enough food for a long time, to maintain their set
point, they reduce their energy expenditure, partly through inactivity
and partly by dropping basal metabolic rate. Metabolism and
exercise also play a part in the weight set point.
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Some researchers, however, doubt that our bodies have a preset

tendency to maintain optimum weight. They point out that slow,
sustained changes in body weight can change one’s set point and
that psychological factors also influence our feeling of hunger. With
unlimited access to a wide variety of food, people as well as
animals, tend to overeat and gain weight. Therefore, researchers
have given up on the idea of biologically fixed set point and now
they prefer the term settling point. Settling point indicates the level
at which a person’s weight settles down in response to caloric
intake and expenditure, which is influenced by biology and
environment both.

The rate at which the body burns energy when a person is

resting is called the basal metabolic rate(BMR) and is directly tied
to the set point. If a person’s BMR decreases, that person’s weight
set point increases. The BMR decreases more dramatically as the
age of the person increases. Adolescents can eat far more than an
adult of the same size and not gain weight. In adulthood, the BMR
begins to decline. If the eating habits of the teenage years are
maintained, adult will gain excessive weight in no time.

12.3.2. The Psychology of Hunger:

The question arises is hunger controlled and regulated by
biological factors only or whether psychological, cultural and
situational factors can also influence the feeling of hunger and
eating behavior? The answer is, along with biological factors, all
these factors mentioned above also play a very significant role in
driving and regulating the feeling of hunger.

A) Eating is a learned Behavior:

People often eat even when they are not hungry. Many of
them eat breakfast, lunch and dinner at certain times just because it
is the convention, that is, it is lunch/dinner time. A large part of this
convention is result of our classical conditioning. The body
becomes conditioned to respond with the hunger reflex at certain
times of the day, through association with the act of eating at those
times of the day. For example, a person who has just had late
breakfast will still feel hungry at noon, simply because the clock
says it’s time to eat.

B) Memory:
Cognitive factors too play a part in eating behavior. For
example, Rozinet.al. (1998) conducted an experiment to show that
apart from internal cues from 9our bodies, memories about when
we last ate can influence whether we decide to eat and how much
we eat at a given time. For their experiment, they tested two
patients with amnesia, who could not remember recent events -
events occurring more than a minute ago. Both patients were
offered lunch at lunch time and after 20 minutes they were again
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offered lunch, which they readily consumed. 20 minutes after their

second lunch they were again offered lunch, a third time. One of
them ate part of the third meal also. They were asked to rate their
hunger before and after the meal. Both of them had rated their
hunger less after having first meal than before it. Yet, in spite of not
being hungry, they went ahead and had second meal and partly the
third meal also because they could not remember that they had just
eaten.

C) Taste Preference:
Very often, you must have noticed that a person enjoying
dinner at a wedding party comments that he has over eaten and
now he cannot consume another morsel, but while passing in front
of dessert counter he gets tempted by the sight of his favorite ice-
cream and gulps down a large helping of that ice-cream. The
reason is that biological and cultural factors play a significant role in
our taste preference.

Biological Factors: It has been observed that people crave to

have starchy, high in carbohydrate food especially when they are
tense or depressed. Carbohydrates help boost levels of the
neurotransmitter serotonin, which has calming effects on our
nerves. Though preferences for sweet and salty taste are genetic
and universal but other taste preferences are conditioned. If people
are given highly salted food from childhood, they develop a liking
for excess salt. Same is true for spicy food. People who become
sick due to food (food poisoning) develop an aversion to it and
avoid to eat that food in the future that caused them food poisoning.

Culture also affects the taste preference: Indian children are

used to eating spicy food and like it that way while European kids
are used to bland non-spicy food and can’t tolerate even the smell
of spicy curries from the neighborhood.

Taste preferences are adaptive. For example, the spices are

used in hot climate countries, especially in non-vegetarian dishes
because meat spoils quickly in hot climate and spices inhibit the
growth of bacteria. Pregnancy related nausea and food aversions
peak during the 10th week of pregnancy because the developing
embryo is most vulnerable to toxins at that time.

Both human beings and animals avoid unfamiliar food,

especially animal based foods. Sociobiology explains that this
dislike of things unfamiliar was adoptive for our ancestors. It
protected them from potentially harmful/toxic substances. So, there
is biological wisdom to our taste preference. Cultural trends can
also influence the human genetics that affect their diet and taste.
For example, where milk is available in abundance, survival
patterns have favored people with lactose tolerance.
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D) Situational and Cultural Factors Influence Eating Behavior:

People eat more when they eat with others. This is the
reason why after participating in celebrations, we realize that we
have over eaten.

Cultural factors also play a major role in determining what,

when, and how much we eat. Andrew Geier et.al. (2006) conducted
a research to show cultural influence on eating habits. They
observed that French people offer foods in smaller portion sizes.
That is why they are much slimmer than Americans. Their research
found that when people are offered large size portions, they
consume that entire large size portion and gain more calories. They
called this unit bias.

Food Variety: We tend to eat more when there is more variety of

food to choose from. From biological point of view, this tendency
makes sense. When food is available in plenty and in variety,
eating all types of food provides vitamins and minerals and produce
fat that used to protect our ancestors in winter or famine when food
was not available. But, now when food is available in abundance, if
a person wants to control his waistline, he needs to follow certain
rules as follows –

Before eating with others, they should decide how much they
wish to eat
Make sure to take small size portions of the food
Not to go for second helpings.
Food should be served with smaller bowls, plates and utensils.
Variety should be limited and
Appealing food should be kept out of sight.

Check your Progress

1. Define hunger. What are the physiological causes of hunger?

2. Define hunger. What are the psychological causes of hunger?
3. Write short notes on the following:
a) Role of Hunger Pangs and Blood Glucose in regulating hunger
b) Role of Hypothalamus in regulating hunger
c) Weight Set Points
d) Hunger influenced by classical conditioning and memory
e) Taste Preference and Eating Behavior
f) Food Variety and situational factors influencing eating behavior
g) Cultural influence and gender differences in eating behavior

12.3.3 Obesity and Weight Control:

Being overweight and obesity is a growing problem all over
the world and it has taken the shape of an epidemic. In a survey
conducted in 2007 by World Health Organization, it was estimated
that worldwide more than one billion people are overweight and out
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of that three million are obese - that is they had body mass index of
30 or more.

The question arises why being overweight is alarming for

us? If we look back at folk wisdom, in earlier centuries, being thin
was considered bad and unattractive while people used to find
heavier bodies attractive. Obesity was a symbol of affluence and
social status. It was believed that our bodies store fat for good
reasons. Fat is an ideal form of stored energy – a high calorie fuel
reserved to carry the body through periods when food is scarce.
Scarcity of food was a common occurrence in our prehistoric
ancestor’s time. So the convention was to consume when they
found energy rich fat or sugar. However, in present times, in most
parts of the world food is available in abundance and this
convention has now become dysfunctional.

A) Impact of being overweight or obese:

a) Biological: Being overweight has become a health hazard.
Studies have shown that obesity increases the risk of diabetes,
high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis and
certain types of cancer and shortens life expectancy.

b) Cognitive: Recent research has linked women’s obesity to their

risk of deteriorating cognitive abilities, including Alzheimer’s
disease and loss of brain tissues, in late life. Gunstadet.al.
(2011) found in their experiment that memory performance
improved for severely obese people, 12 weeks after they went
through weight loss surgery and lost significant weight.

c) Social: Obesity can be socially toxic. It affects the way you are
treated by others and how you feel about yourself. The
stereotype of obese people is that they are lazy, slow,
undisciplined, less sincere, less friendly, meaner and extremely
unpleasant.

Gortmakeret.al. (1993) conducted a longitudinal study on

370 obese women and found that even after 7 years two third of
them were still obese and were earning less money than an equally
intelligent group of non-obese women and they were less likely to
get married. Similarly, Regina Pingitoreet.al. (1994) studied the
impact of discrimination based on weight. They found that when the
same person appeared as overweight applicant he/she was
considered as less worthy of hiring than when he/she appeared as
normal weight person. Weight bias was especially strong against
women.

Weight discrimination is worse than race and gender

discrimination. It occurs at every stage of employment. Overweight
people (especially women) have less chance of getting hired and
 216

promoted, they are paid less and chances of their getting punished
for indiscipline and getting sacked from the job are much higher.
The prejudice against weight appears early in life. Children show
contempt and disdain towards fat children and even towards normal
weight friends of fat children. Obese children are bullied more.

d) Psychological Well-Being: Obesity is linked to lower

psychological well-being, especially among women. Obese
women are more likely to suffer depression, body dissatisfaction
and low self-esteem.

B) The Causes of Obesity:

1) Biological Factors:

I. Set Point and Metabolism: People become fat because they

consume more calories than they expend and to reduce
weight they go on diet. That means they reduce their food/
calorie intake. In most of the cases dieting does not help.
Why? This is because once we become fat, we require less
food to maintain our weight than we did to attain it. Fat has a
lower metabolic rate than does muscles. That means fat takes
less food energy to maintain itself. So when an overweight
person’s body drops below its previous set point/settling point,
the person’s hunger increases and metabolism slows down.
The body adapts to starvation by burning off fewer calories.
Bray (1969) reported that in a month-long experiment, obese
patients’ daily food intake was reduced from 3500 calories to
450 calories but they lost only 6% of their weight. The reason
was that their metabolic rate dropped by 15% only as a result
of starvation.

II. Physical Activity: In another experiment, Levine et.al. (1999)

overfed volunteers an extra 1000 calories a day for 8 weeks.
They found that those who tended to spend their extra calorie
energy by fidgeting more, gained least weight. Lean/slim
people have a natural tendency to move around much more
rather than sitting at one place for long time.

III. The Genetic Factors: Studies have shown than genes

influence body weight. For example, it was found that –
i. In a family, if two children are adopted , then in spite of sharing
same family meals, their body weights are not similar to each
other and are not similar to their adoptive parents also. Their
body weights are similar to their biological parents’ body
weight.
ii. Another study reported that identical twins have closely similar
weights even when they are reared apart.
iii. It was also found that if parents are obese then the chances of
a boy being obese are 3 times more and the chances of girl
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being obese are 6 times more, compare to children of normal

weight parents.
iv. Scientists have identified many different genes that influence
body weight. For instance, a variant of a gene called FTO
nearly doubles the risk of becoming obese.

IV. Hormonal Factors: Scientists now believe that a hormone

called leptin plays a key role in appetite control. Leptin is a
protein that is secreted as a hormone by the fatty tissues of
the body. Leptin enters the bloodstream from the fat cells,
traveling to the hypothalamus in the brain and causes the
hypothalamus to signal the body to either stop eating or to eat
more. When enough food is consumed, high levels of leptin
are produced that cause the appetite to decrease. A low level
of leptin signals a condition of starvation and increases the
urge to eat. Scientists conducted experiments on obese rats
by giving them a high dosage of leptin and expected it to
decrease the appetite and result in weight loss for the mice.
However, it was found that certain obese mice initially
responded to leptin as it was expected but later on did not lose
weight when leptin levels were increased. They developed a
resistance to leptin, suggesting that their bodies can respond
only to certain levels of leptin, and when the level goes too
high, the body stops responding, allowing appetite to remain
out of control. The studies are suggesting that once we have
gained a significant amount of weight, our sensitivity to leptin
actually decreases.

2) Environmental Factors:

I. Sleep Loss: Studies in Europe, Japan and the United States

indicate that those who suffer from sleep loss tend to be obese
because with sleep deprivation, the levels of leptin (which
reports body fat to the brain) fall, and ghrelin (the appetite-
stimulating stomach hormone) rises.

II. Social Influence: Social influence is another important factor

in gaining weight. A longitudinal study conducted over 32
years found that people are most likely to be obese when a
friend becomes obese. If the obese friend happens to be a
close one, the chances of your also becoming obese increase
by three times.

III. The Food and Activity Factor: People from developed as

well as developing countries are getting heavier and obesity
has reached an alarming proportion. One of the most
important reason for this phenomenon is our changing food
consumption habits and activity levels. We are eating more
and moving less. Increasingly, jobs requiring physical activity
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are declining and technology is enabling us to do everything at

the click of the button (remote control). We have put fast food
on every corner, junk food in our schools, we have got rid of
physical education classes, we put chocolates and soft drinks
at the payment counters in malls and every other shop. Junk
food is available on every road and street, in every nook and
corner.

C) Weight Control:
With set point, metabolism and genetic and environmental
factors always working in favor of obesity, it is not easy to lose
weight permanently. Many people lose weight successfully but it all
comes back with vengeance the moment they are not vigilant.

Psychologists believe that obesity is neither the result of any

personality maladjustment, nor it is due to lack of will power. In fact,
continuously trying to be thin puts people at the risk of binge eating,
food obsession, weight fluctuations, malnutrition, smoking,
depression, and harmful side effects of weight loss drugs. It is
better to accept oneself as a bit heavy than to diet and binge and
feel continually out of control and guilty.

12.3.4 Close Up: Waist Management:

Researchers have offered some tips for managing your waist
line.
1. Managing waist line requires being self- motivated and self-
disciplined. Permanent weight loss requires a lifelong change in
eating habits and increased exercise.
2. Minimize exposure to tempting food cues - keep tempting food
out of the house. Go for buying food items only when you have
eaten and your stomach is full. Avoid the counters where
sweets and chips or other fried items are kept.
3. Eat simple meals. If there is more variety, people consume
more.
4. Exercise empties fat cells, builds muscles, speeds up
metabolism and helps lower your settling point, especially when
supported by 7 to 8 hours of sleep a night.
5. Eat healthy food – Whole grain, fruits, vegetables and healthy
fats such as those found in olive oil and fish help regulate
appetite and artery clogging cholesterol.
6. Don’t starve all day and eat one big meal at night - It slows
down metabolism. Those who eat a balanced breakfast are by
late morning more alert and less fatigued.
7. Eat slowly that will lead to eating less. Don’t consciously restrain
your eating, drinking alcohol, and don’t feel anxious or
depressed about being overweight. This can trigger the urge to
eat.
 219

8. Keep monitoring your eating, especially when you are eating

with your friends. One tends to eat more with friends. Once a
diet is broken, a person has a tendency to binge eat. So, make
sure a lapse should not become full collapse.
9. Connect to a support group- Join with others, either face to face
or online, with whom you can share your goals and progress.
10. Don’t sit with any kind of food or drink while watching television
or a movie. Consciously unlearn that behavior.

Check Your Progress:

1. Define Obesity. What is the impact of obesity and how waist
management can be done?
2. What are the causes of obesity.
3. Write a short note on waist management.

12.4 SUMMARY

You would recall that we have touched upon the three

learning items in this unit- Motivational, Hunger and Obesity.

In motivation, we have dwelled into definition and

characteristics of motivation, four theories of motivation- instinct
and evolutionary theory, drive-incentive theory, optimum arousal
theory and Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

In hunger motivation, we have looked at physiological

causes such as hunger pangs, body chemistry and role of
hypothalamus, weight set point and metabolic rate. In psychology
of hunger we have discussed that eating is a learned behavior.
Apart from that memory, taste preference, situational and cultural
factors also influence eating behavior. In obesity, we looked at what
is obesity, why it is important to study obesity and what causes it
and in waist management we pondered over how we can reduce
and manage our weight. It is important to study obesity due to
biological, cognitive, social, and psychological issues. It is caused
due to biological and environmental reasons and tips to control it.

12.5 QUESTIONS

1. Write short notes on

a.) Instinct theory of motivation
b.) Drive and Incentive theory
c.) Motivation and optimal arousal theory of motivation
d.) Physiological causes of hunger
e.) Psychological causes of hunger
f.) Waist management
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2. Discuss in detail Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

3. Discuss in detail physiological and psychological causes of
hunger.
4. Elaborate on what are the causes of obesity and how can you
manage weight?

12.6 REFERENCES
th
1) Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10 edition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013

2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
 221

13
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION-II
Unit Structure :

13.0 Objectives
13.1 The Need to Belong: Introduction
13.2 Cognition & Emotions
13.3 Embodied Emotions: The Physiology of Emotions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Questions
13.6 References

13.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit, you will be able to understand –

The concept of Need to Belong and its usefulness for human
beings
The concept of ostracism and why it is a painful experience
The concept of social networking, its social effects and how to
maintain balance between real world and virtual world.
Historical theories of emotion and what is the connection
between cognition and emotions
The physiology of emotions
How to detect emotions expressed by others
The causes and consequences of anger
The causes and consequences of happiness
The techniques of being happier

13.1 THE NEED TO BELONG: INTRODUCTION

Aristotle wrote that all human beings are social animals.

Even if people have all resources and amenities to live life
comfortably, but no social contact with other human beings, they
will choose not to live. They will prefer to live with others, even if it
means to live with limited resources. We all have a need to affiliate
with others, even to become strongly attached to certain others in
long lasting close relationships. Alfred Adler called it an “urge to
community”. The question arises why do we have such strong
desire to affiliate with others. Psychologists believe that need to
belong is beneficial for human beings.
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13.1.1 Aiding in Survival:

Evolutionary psychologists explained that social bonds
increased the survival rate of our ancestors who were living in
forests and caves. Survival was enhanced by cooperation. In solo
combat, our ancestors could not fight back other animals who were
much stronger than them. Similarly, to get food by hunting, fishing
or by just collecting from plants, our ancestors realized that it is
better to hunt in team and share the spoils rather than try to hunt
individually. Travelling in group gave every one of them protection
from predators and enemies.

Psychologists believe that all human beings have a strong

instinct to propagate their genes in next generation. As adults,
those who formed attachments were more likely to reproduce (have
children) and to co-nurture their offspring to maturity. By keeping
children close to their caregivers, attachments served as a powerful
survival impulse. Those who felt a need to belong survived and
reproduced more successfully. So being social is there in our
genes.

Good Health: Studies have shown that people who feel supported
by close relationships are the ones who live longer with better
health and at a lower risk of psychological disorder than those who
do not have social support, e.g. It was observed that married
people are less at risk for depression, suicide and early death.
Social isolation puts us at the risk of declining mental and physical
health.

13.1.2 Wanting to Belong:

Most people report close, satisfying relationships with family,
friends, or romantic partners is the first and foremost requirement
for their happiness and meaning in life. (Berscheid, 1985) Studies
show that money does not make a person happy, rich and
satisfying close relationship do. A person may be very rich and yet
unhappy and lonely. When our need to belong is satisfied in
balance with psychological needs of autonomy (having a sense of
personal control) and competence, we experience a deep sense of
well-being. (Deci & Ryan (2002). When we feel included, accepted
and loved by those who are important to us, our self-esteem goes
up. Therefore, most of our actions are aimed at increasing our
social acceptance. To avoid rejection, we generally conform to
group norms and try to make favorable impressions.

The need to belong influences our need to define who we

are. We express our identity in terms of faithful relationships and
loving families. We proudly say that I belong to so and so family.
However, our need to define who we are can be expressed in
negative way also. For example, we may become part of teen
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gangs, we may become part of ethnic rivalries (our identity as

Hindu, Muslim, or Sikh, etc.) and fanatic nationalism.

13.1.3 Sustaining Relationships:

It is well known that generally familiarity produces liking.
Think of it. In a new class or conducted vacation trips, initially, we
are indifferent to other students/participants, who are total strangers
for us, but by the end of the course/ vacation trip, parting ways and
breaking social bonds becomes a distressing experience and we
promise to keep in touch with each other. These friendships with at
least some of them becomes lifelong.

Our strong desire to maintain relationships with others, no

matter how bad or abusive, are due to our fear of being alone.
Studies on abusive relationships have shown that people prefer to
stay in abusive relationships and suffer emotional and physical
abuse rather than face the pain of being alone. People suffer
emotional trauma even when bad relationship breaks down. After
separations, people have feelings of loneliness and anger.
Sometime they have strange desire to be near the former partner
even if the relationship with former partner was not good.

Children who move through a series of foster homes or

through repeated family relocations, with repeated disruptions of
budding attachments, may have difficulty in forming deep
attachments in later life. (Oishi & Shimmack, 2011). It has been
observed that children reared in institutions have no sense of
belonging to anyone, or children locked away at home under
extreme neglect become pathetic beings – withdrawn, frightened
and speechless.

Life’s best moments occur when close relationships begin,

e.g., when new friendship develops, we fall in love or when a new
baby is born in the family. The worst moments of life take place
when close relationship comes to an end. When some situation
threatens, or dissolves our social ties, we experience extreme
anxiety, loneliness, jealousy or guilt. When a person loses a life
partner, he or she feels that life has become empty and
meaningless. For immigrants and refugees moving alone to new
places, the stress and loneliness can lead to depression for them.
But if the feeling of acceptance and connection increases, then our
self-esteem, positive feelings and desire to help others instead of
hurting others also increases.

13.1.4 The Pain of Ostracism:

This social exclusion is called ostracism. For centuries
together, humans have controlled social behavior by using the
punishing effect of severe ostracism. In extreme form, it can be in
the form of exile, imprisonment or solitary confinement. In milder
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form, it can be being excluded, ignored or shunned by your friends,

being given a silent treatment by not talking to you, by avoiding you
or averting his/her eyes in your presence or even making fun of you
behind your back. Williams & Zadro (2001) stated that being
shunned – given the cold shoulder or the silent treatment, with
others’ eyes avoiding yours- threatens one’s need to belong. This is
the meanest thing you can do to someone, especially when you
know that the other person can’t fight back. Even just being
linguistic outsider among people speaking a different language that
you can’t speak or understand must have made you feel excluded.

People often respond to social ostracism with depressed

moods. In the beginning, they try to restore their acceptance and if
they don’t succeed, they go into withdrawal. People lose their self-
esteem and their weight drops. Experiencing cyber-ostracism is
equal to experiencing real pain. Ostracism (in the form of being
ignored in a chat room or email going unanswered) even by
strangers or by a despised out group takes its toll on the victim. It
activates the same area of brain that is activated in response to
physical pain. (Williams et.al.,2006).

When people experience rejection, and cannot rectify the

situation they seek new friends or gain stress relief by
strengthening their religious faith. They may turn nasty, may
indulge in self- defeating behaviors, may underperform on given
tasks, may not empathize with others and are more likely to behave
aggressively, especially towards those who had excluded them.

13.1.5 Social networking:

Since social relationships are essential for leading a healthy
life, it is but natural for us to see how the progress of
communication technology has significantly impacted satisfaction of
our need to have social contacts. Technology has changed the way
we connect with others and communicate. Texting, e-chatting and
e-mailing has replaced phone talking. With social networking being
pervasive in all aspects of our life it is important for us to see how it
impacts us.

The Social Effects of Social Networking:

As electronic communication becomes part of new normal,
researchers are exploring how these changes affect our
relationships. The question asked by psychologists is “Are Social
Networking Sites Making Us More Or Less Socially Isolated?”
Research has reported that when online communication in chat
rooms and during social games was mostly between strangers in
the internet’s early years, adolescents and adults who spent more
time online spent less time with friends, and their offline
relationships in real world suffered.
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Bonetti et.al. (2010) reported that lonely people tend to spend

greater than average time online. Social networkers are less likely
to know their real-world neighbors, and compared to non-internet
users, are 64% less likely to rely on neighbors for help either for
themselves or for their family members.

However, social networking has its own advantages also.

The internet is diversifying our social networks. It is possible to
connect with likeminded people having similar interest from all over
the world. Geographical boundaries are broken. To a large extent,
social taboos are also broken. Despite the decrease in
neighborliness, social networking is mostly strengthening our
connections with people we already know. For example, we form
groups on Facebook and WhatsApp. If Facebook page helps you to
connect with friends, stay in touch with extended family, or find
support in facing challenges, then you are not alone.

Another phenomenon noticed on social networking sites is

that people disclose personal information to perfect strangers or for
the whole world to see that in normal circumstances they will not
like to disclose in real life. This observation brought another
important question to psychologists – Does Electronic
Communication Stimulate Healthy Self-Disclosure?

Mental health experts point out that confiding in others can

be a healthy way of coping with day to day challenges. Very often
we find that people pour out their woes on social networking site.
For example, it was reported in TOI, dated 16th May 2017, that a
film producer of Marathi films posted his suicide note on Facebook
before committing suicide. This is not isolated news. Before that
also, media has reported many such incidents. The question arises
why people disclose their distress on social networking sites rather
than talking to somebody in their vicinity. There can be many
reasons for it such as:

1. People may not have any close friends to whom they can
communicate face to face about their problems.

2. While disclosing our distress face to face, we are not sure how
the other person is going to react. We are vulnerable and self-
conscious. It makes us feel weak and hits our self-esteem. On
the other hand, while communicating electronically rather than
face-to-face, we often are less focused on others’ reactions, feel
less self-conscious and thus feel less inhibited. We become
more willing to share our joys, worries and vulnerabilities.
Sometimes, this disinhibition can take an extreme form. For
example, people indulge in sexting, teens send nude photos of
themselves to their internet friends, youth are “cyber-bullied” or
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trolling takes place, hate groups post messages promoting

bigotry or crimes.

3. Self-disclosure can also help to deepen friendships. Even if our

friendship with internet friends gets stronger, we crave to meet
them face to face. This is because nature has designed us for
face to face communication, which appears to be better
predictor of life satisfaction. Texting and e-mailing are rewarding
but having face to face conversation with friends and family is
more enjoyable.

There are all sorts of people in virtual world just as they are
in real world. Some people are honest, loving good human beings
and some are cheats, criminals/ predators. Psychologists wondered
whether people reveal their true selves on internet. So the next
question is –Do Social Networking Profiles and Posts Reflect
People’s Actual Personalities?

Beck et.al. (2010) found that ratings based on Facebook

profiles were much closer to the participants’ actual personalities
than to their ideal personalities. This indicated that generally social
networks reveal people’s real personalities. In another study, it was
found that people who seemed most likable on their Facebook
page also seemed most likable in face to face meetings also. This
also indicates that Facebook profile reflects real personality of the
person.

It has been observed that most of the people using social

networking sites are mainly talking about themselves. It is always
about me, my life, my family, my thoughts, my experiences etc. So,
another question that intrigued psychologists was - Does Social
Networking Promote Narcissism?

Narcissistic people are self – focused, self- promoting and

have an unusual sense of self – importance. They like to be the
center of attention. Such people on Facebook compare the number
of friends they have, the number of likes they get from others,
compared to their other friends. They are very active on social
media. Just to feel the pleasure of having maximum number of
friends, they collect more superficial friends. They post more
staged, glamorous photos of themselves just to get more likes.
Anyone who visits their Facebook page can judge that they are
narcissists. So, social media is not just a platform for all narcissists
to gather there, but it also satisfies their narcissistic tendencies

Maintaining Balance and Focus:

The question arises how to maintain balance between our
real world and the virtual world. Some of the suggestions offered by
experts are as follows:
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1. Monitor your time: Keep a diary and see whether the way you
use your time reflects your priorities. Check whether the time
spent on internet is interfering with your academic and work
performance and whether it is eating your time with friends and
family.

2. Monitor your Feelings: Check how you feel when you are not
online. If you feel anxious and restless, if you keep thinking
about social networking sites all the time even when you are in
class or at work, then you are getting addicted to social
networking sites and you need help.

3. “Hide” your more distracting online friends: Before posting

anything on your social networking sites, ask yourself, is it
something that I would like to read if somebody else had posted
it?

4. Try turning off your handheld devices (mobiles) or leaving

them elsewhere: Cognitive psychologists point out that we
cannot pay full attention to two things at a time. When you do
two things at once, you don’t do either of them as well as when
you do them one at a time. So while studying, resist the
temptation to check your social networking sites like WhatsApp /
Facebook. Disable sound alerts and pop-ups.

5. Try going on Internet “Fast”: That means decide to go off

internet for five hours/ten hours or one day.

6. Recharge your focus with a natural walk: Research has

shown that walking in a quiet garden or in a forest recharges
people’s capacity for focused attention rather than walking in a
busy street.

Check your Progress

1. Explain in detail the importance of need to belong in our lives.
2. Discuss in detail social networking.
3. Write a short note on methods to balance virtual world with real
world.

13.2 COGNITION AND EMOTIONS

Emotions are responsible for the finest inhuman

achievement and for the worst in history. They are the source of
pleasure as well as sorrow in our life. Negative and long-lasting
emotions can make us sick. So, what are emotions? Emotions are
our body’s adaptive response. They exist to give us support for our
survival. When we are faced with a challenge, emotions focus our
attention and energize our actions. (Cyders & Smith, 2008).
Emotions are a mix of bodily arousal (heart pounding), expressive
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behaviors (quickened pace) and conscious experience, including

thoughts and feelings (panic, fear, joy). (Mayers D.G., 2013)

Historical as well as current research has been trying to find

answer to two questions
1. Whether bodily arousal comes before or after we emotional
feelings?
2. How do thinking (cognition) and feelings interact?

13.2.1 Historical Emotion Theories:

1) A. James Large Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion
Common sense suggests that first we experience a feeling
and then consequently comes our action, e.g., we cry because we
are sad, tremble because we are scared. But James-Lange theory
proposes exactly opposite of that and states that feeling comes as
a consequence of our action, e.g., we feel sorry because we cry.

In other words, James and Lange would say, “I feel sorry

because I cry, I feel afraid because I tremble”. If a person sees a
bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would
suggest that the person would tremble and then realize that,
because they are trembling, they are afraid. He further stated that
without the bodily states following on the perception, the latter
would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colorless, destitute of
emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best to
run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should not
actually feel afraid or angry.

2) The Cannon-Bard Theory:

Cannon disagreed with James-Lange Theory and stated that
people who show different emotions may have the same
physiological state, e.g., cry when happy and sad. The body’s
responses such as heart rate, perspiration and body temperature
are often too similar and too slow to cause different emotions,
which erupt very quickly, e.g., does racing heart signal fear, anger
or love? Physiological arousal may occur without the experience of
an emotion, e.g., exercise increases heart rate no emotional
significance. Cannon - Bard explained that our bodily responses
and experienced emotions occur separately but simultaneously,
e.g., The emotion triggering stimulus travels to sympathetic nervous
system, causing body’s arousal. At the same time, it travels to
brain’s cortex, causing awareness of emotion. So, my pounding
heart did not cause my feeling of fear, nor did my feeling of fear
cause my pounding of heart.

However, Cannon-Bard’s theory has been criticized by those

doing research on spinal cord injuries. It was reported by them that
patients with high spinal cord injury (those who could feel nothing
below neck) reported changes in their emotions’ intensity. Patients
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reported that the intensity of experienced emotion such as anger

has come down drastically. One patient reported that “Anger just
doesn’t have the heat to it that it used to…” But other emotions that
are expressed mostly in body above the neck were felt more
intensely, e.g., these patients reported increase in weeping, lumps
in the throat and getting choked up when saying good-bye,
worshipping or watching an emotional movie. This indicates that
our bodily responses feed our experienced emotions.

13.2.2 Cognition Can Define Emotion: Schachter and Singer’s

Two Factor Theory:
Schachter and Singer maintain that we don’t automatically
know when we are happy, angry, or jealous. Instead, we label our
emotions by considering situational cues. Our physical reactions
and thoughts together create emotions. So, there are two factors –
physical arousal and cognitive appraisal. They also talked about
spillover effect. Some element in the situation (e.g., you have
come home after a rigorous exercise) must trigger a general,
nonspecific arousal marked by increased heart rate, tightening of
the stomach, and rapid breathing. At that time, you get the good
news that you have got the job that you wanted for a long time. You
will feel more excited because of lingering arousal from the
exercise. You would not have felt the same intensity of excitement
if you had just woken up from sleep.

To show this spillover effect, they conducted an experiment

in which volunteered were told that experiment was about the
effects of a vitamin called Suproxin. After volunteers consented
they were injected with epinephrine or a placebo. Epinephrine
triggers a feeling of arousal and generally increases blood
pressure, heart rate, and respiration. Thus, the men who received
the epinephrine were more physiologically aroused than those who
received the placebo. Schachter and Singer reasoned that once the
epinephrine’s effects take place, participants would begin to search
for the cause of their arousal and their reaction would depend on
the available situational cues. After administering injection, all
participants were asked to wait in a waiting room, where another
person (actually an accomplice of the experimenters) was already
present. This accomplice acted either euphoric or irritated.

Before going into the waiting room some of the epinephrine

injected participants were told that there are some common side
effects of the drug - they might feel flushed, their hands might
shake, and their hearts might pound. The other subjects, in
contrast, were given no information at all about the effects of the
drug. Once the effect of epinephrine kicked in, people who were
told beforehand that the drug would arouse them felt no emotion
and assumed that the drug was causing their hands to shake and
their heart to pound and those who weren’t told about the drug’s
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effects, interpreted their arousal as an emotion. As Schachter and

Singer had predicted, the physiologically aroused subjects who
hadn’t been told about the drug’s side-effects responded with
motions that matched the confederate’s actions. If they were
aroused and hadn’t been expecting the arousal, then they felt
happy when the other person, i.e., confederate, was happy, but
angry when the other person was angry. Forewarned subjects and
unaroused subjects who received a placebo did not display any
pronounced emotion. This finding that arousal state can be
experienced as one emotion or the other depending on how we
label it has been replicated in many other studies, indicating that
arousal fuels emotions, cognition channels it.

13.2.3 Cognition May Not Precede Emotion: Zajonc, LeDoux

and Lazarus’ Theory:
Zajonc believed that some of our emotional reactions involve
no deliberate thinking. He believed that our emotional responses
follow two different brain pathways. Some emotions such as hatred
and love travel a “high-road” while other emotions such as simple
likes, dislikes and fears take “low road”. This low road is like
shortcut that enables our emotional response before our intellect
interferes.

Lazarus said that our brains process vast amount of

information without our conscious awareness and that some
emotional responses do not require conscious thinking. Much of our
emotional life operates via the automatic, speedy low road.
However, we still need to appraise a situation to determine what we
are reacting to. This appraisal may be effortless and we may not be
conscious of it. In other words, he said that emotions arise when we
appraise an event as harmless or dangerous, whether we truly
know it is or not, e.g., we appraise the sound of the rustling bushes
as the presence of danger. Later on we might realize that it was just
the wind. So, some emotional responses-especially simple likes,
dislikes and fears involve no conscious thinking, e.g., we may fear
a snake and our emotion may not change in spite of knowing that
snake is harmless. However, studies have shown that highly
emotional people are intense partly because of their interpretations
and although the emotional low road functions automatically, the
thinking high road allows us to retake some control over our
emotional life.

13.3 EMBODIED EMOTION: THE PHYSIOLOGY OF

EMOTIONS

Different emotions do not have sharply distinct biological

signatures and they do not engage very distinctly in different brain
regions. For example, insula, a neural center deep inside the brain
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gets activated when we experience different social emotions such

as lust, pride and disgust. It gets activated with taste, smell or even
thought of some disgusting food or even if we feel moral disgust
over a cheating case. However, researchers have identified some
subtle physiological distinctions and brain patterns for different
emotions,

We can say that we cannot differentiate in emotions on the

basis of heart rate, breathing and perspiration, but different
emotions have different facial expressions and brain activity.

Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System:

By now, we know that autonomic nervous system helps in
moving our various bodily organs into action when the need arises
and parasympathetic nervous system helps in calming down our
bodily reactions. For example, when we are faced with a
challenging or exhilarating situation, our adrenal glands secrete
stress hormones, our liver releases more sugar in the blood stream
to provide more energy and respiration rate goes up to provide
more oxygen. The digestion slows down to divert more blood from
internal organs to muscles and if you are wounded, the blood clots
more quickly to stop the bleeding. The pupil in the eyes dilates so
that more light comes in and you can see better. The perspiration
increases to cool your stirred-up body, etc. This kind of bodily
response is beneficial for better performance to meet the
challenges. Moderate arousal is needed to give better performance.
For example, can you imagine P.T. Usha winning a race if she was
not moderately aroused/tense (or was sleeping) just before the race
started. However, having too much arousal/ tension or having too
little arousal/ tension before an important activity will not enhance
the performance. One should not be too relaxed or too tense before
the important activity.

On the other hand, when the situation comes back to normal

and is no more challenging, the parasympathetic gradually calms
down the body and stress hormones slowly dissipate from the
blood stream.

The Physiology of Emotions:

Different emotions neither have very distinct biological
reactions nor do they originate from specific distinct brain regions.
For example, the insula in the brain is activated when we
experience various social emotions such as lust, pride and disgust.
It does not matter that these feelings may originate from different
sources. For example, the feeling of disgust may originate from
taste of disgusting food, smell of disgusting food or just a thought of
some disgusting food or it may originate from watching a disgusting
news of corruption practiced by politicians.
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However, studies have shown that even though biological reactions

and brain regions for different emotions appear to be similar, there
are emotions such as sexual arousal, fear, anger, and disgust that
are felt differently by the people and they appear to be different to
other people. Researchers have identified some subtle brain
pattern differences and physiological differences for different
emotions. For example, the finger temperature and hormone
secretion related with fear and rage differ. Heart rate increases in
fear and joy but both feelings stimulate different facial muscles.
While experiencing fear, your eye brow muscles get tensed up and
while experiencing joy, your cheeks and under your eyes pull into
smile.

Some emotions also differ in their brain circuits. People

show more activity in amygdala when they are watching fearful
faces rather than angry faces. Experience of negative emotions
such as disgust activates right side prefrontal cortex rather than left
side one. People with depression and negative personality in
general also show more right frontal activity. People with positive
personalities, that is people who are alert, enthusiastic, energized
and persistently goal oriented, show more activity in the left frontal
lobe than in the right frontal lobe.

Thus, we can say that we can’t easily differentiate emotions

on the basis of bodily reactions such as heart rate, breathing and
perspiration. But facial expressions and brain activity can differ with
emotions.

13.3.1 Expressed Emotion:

A.) Detecting Emotions in Others:

To determine other people’s emotions we read their bodies,
listen to their voice tones and study their faces. Psychologists
wondered whether non-verbal language differs according to our
culture and can our expressions influence our experienced
emotions. For example, in western culture, a firm handshake
conveys an outgoing, expressive personality. A gaze, an averted
glance or a stare indicates intimacy, submission or dominance. In a
study, male-female pairs who were total strangers to each other,
were asked to gaze intently at each other for two minutes. They
reported feeling a tingle of attraction towards each other.

Most of us read nonverbal cues well. We are especially good

at detecting nonverbal threats. In a crowd of faces, a single angry
face is identified much faster than a single happy face. Experience
can also sensitize us to particular emotions, e.g., viewing a series
of faces depicting anger to fear, physically abused children were
much quicker to spot the signals of anger than non-abused
children. Hard to control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions
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that a person may be trying to hide, e.g., eyebrows raised and

pulled together signal fear. Our brains are very good detectors of
subtle expressions. Seeing a face for just 0.1 seconds also enabled
people to judge attractiveness or trustworthiness of a person (Willis
& Todorov, 2006). It is rightly said that first impression occurs at
lightning speed. Despite our brain’s emotion detecting skills, it is
difficult to detect deceiving expressions. The behavioral differences
between liars and truth-tellers are too minute for most people to
detect. However, some people are much better emotion detectors
(especially introverts) than others. It is difficult to detect emotions
from written communication because it does not have gestures,
facial features and voice tones to help detection of emotions.
Electronic communication also provides very poor quality nonverbal
cues. That is why, people often use emoticons.

Lie Detection:
It is a common practice for researchers and crime detectors
to use lie detector- polygraph to detect the lies. The question arises
how effective and reliable is polygraph in detecting lies. The
polygraph works on the principle that certain emotion-linked bodily
changes, such as changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity and
perspiration changes take place when a person tells a lie, even if
that person can control his facial expressions. The tester/examiner
asks questions to the testee and observes these bodily changes
taking place in the testee while answering the questions. The tester
starts questioning with certain question that may make any person
nervous and polygraph will show signs of arousal. These are called
control questions. For example, a tester may ask in last 10 years
have you taken anything that does not belong to you? The arousal
level shown on a polygraph, in response to these control questions
serves as the base line. Then the tester will ask the critical
questions, e.g., have you stolen anything from your previous
employer? The arousal level shown on polygraph in response to
this question will indicate whether the person is telling the truth or
lying. For example, if the arousal level while answering the critical
question is weaker than the base line arousal determined before,
then we can say that person is telling the truth. On the other hand,
if the arousal shown in response to critical question is more than
base line arousal that means the person is telling the lie.

Criticism: It appears to be that simple, but it has certain criticism –

1. Our physiological arousal is almost same for various emotions
such as anxiety, irritation and guilt. So how do we know which
emotion a person was experiencing while answering that
question?
2. Many innocent people get extremely tensed up while answering
a critical question that implies accusation. Lykken (1991) found
that many rape victims fail this test because they react
emotionally even when they are telling the truth. On the other
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hand, Robert Park (1999) noted that a Russian spy within CIA
went undetected, even though he took many polygraph tests
and passed them all. Many hardened criminals also pass this
test without getting detected.

Remedies: Psychologists are trying to find new ways to catch the

liars. For example, it has been suggested that instead of polygraph,
one should use ‘guilty knowledge test’. This test also assesses a
suspect’s physiological responses to crime-scene details that are
known only to police and to the guilty person. For example, if a
camera is stolen, then only a guilty person will react strongly to the
brand name of the stolen item. Thus, an innocent person will rarely
get wrongly accused.

Psychologists are also training police to detect fleeting

signals of deceit in facial expressions. For example, when a
person is lying, he has to use more of his cognitive abilities (that
means, he has to think more), during such time his eye blinking will
decrease and once he has finished telling a lie, his eye blinking will
increase.

Some researchers are developing a software to analyze

the facial micro expressions or to compare the language of
truth-tellers and liars. It is believed that liars use less of first
person pronouns and more of negative emotion words.

Forensic Neuroscience researchers are analyzing the EEG

recordings. It has been observed that liars’ brain activity can be
seen in fMRI scans while honest people’s brains do not show any
such activity. A liar’s left frontal lobe and anterior cingulate cortex
becomes active when the brain inhibits truth telling.

B.) Gender, Emotion and Nonverbal Behavior:

Studies have proved that women are better at reading
emotional cues than men, even if they are exposed to very little
behavior of the other person, e.g., they can detect whether a male-
female couple is a genuine romantic couple or just pretending
one(Barnes & Sternberg, 1989).Women’s nonverbal sensitivity is
due to their greater emotional literacy and they are more
emotionally responsive. For example, in an experiment on
emotional literacy, when men were asked how will they feel saying
good bye to a friend, they simply said, “I will feel bad”, while women
said “It will be bittersweet; I’ll feel both happy and sad”.(Barrett
et.al., 2000). A study of people from 26 cultures found that women
reported themselves as more open to feelings than men. (Costa
et.al. 2001). This clearly indicates that women are more emotional
than men. However, generally, people tend to attribute women’s
reactions to their emotions while men’s reactions to their
circumstances, except for the feeling of anger. Anger is considered
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as more masculine emotion. Surveys showed that women are more

likely to describe themselves as empathic. Their heart rate goes up
and they are more likely to cry when they see someone in distress.

C.) Culture and Emotional Expression:

Studies have shown that there are universal facial
expressions for basic emotions across different cultures. Facial
muscles speak a universal language. In entire world, children cry
when in distress and smile when they are happy. Even people blind
from birth, naturally show the common facial expressions linked
with emotions such as joy, sadness, fear and anger. Musical
expressions also cut across cultures. In all cultures, fast paced
music seems to be happy one and slow music is considered as sad
one.

Charles Darwin said that in prehistoric times, before our

ancestors communicated through words, they communicated
threats, greetings and submission through facial expressions. Their
shared expressions help in their survival. Emotional expressions
help in our survival in other ways also, e.g., surprise raises the
eyebrows and widens the eyes so that we can take in more
information. However, it is observed that people are more accurate
in judging emotions from their own culture, and there are cultural
differences in how much emotion will be expressed. For example,
in western culture, people openly show their emotions while in
Asian cultures, people tend to have less visible display of their
emotions.

D.) The Effects of Facial Expression:

Studies indicate that expressions not only communicate
emotions, they also amplify and regulate them. People report
feeling more fear than any other emotion, when made to construct
a fearful expression. It is said smile warmly on the outside and you
will feel better on the inside. So, your face feeds your feelings. In an
experiment, depressed patients felt better after getting Botox
injections that paralyze the frowning muscles. Similarly, it is
reported that people see ambiguous behaviors differently
depending on which finger they move up and down while reading a
story. If they read the story, while moving an extended middle
finger, the story behaviors seemed more hostile. If read with a
thumb up, they seemed more positive.

13.3.2 Experienced Emotions: Anger and Happiness

The experience of emotions in human beings can be placed
on two dimensions – Positive vs. Negative and Low Arousal versus
High Arousal. Any emotion is a combination of these two
dimensions. For example, if we take emotion of anger, then
enraged is angrier than angry (at arousal level) and it is a negative
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feeling. Let us discuss two of the most noticeable and pervasive

emotions that impacts our lives. These are anger and happiness.

Anger:
Ancient wisdom describes anger as ‘a short madness’. It
says that anger ‘carries the mind away’ and can be ‘many times
more hurtful than the injury that caused it’. In other words, it is
trying to say that when we are angry, we can’t think rationally and
may do or say things that ultimately causes more misery to us.
However, Shakespeare held a different view and said that noble
anger makes a coward person brave and energizes us. Who is
correct? The answer is both are right. Anger can harm us. Studies
have shown that chronic hostility can cause heart disease, blood
pressure, lead to impaired social relationships and may even
shorten our lives.

The question arises can we get rid of our anger? If yes, then
how?
Gender Differences: A Gallup teen survey showed that there
are gender differences in dealing with anger. It reported that to get
rid of their anger, boys usually move away from the situation that is
causing them anger, they do lot of physical activities such as
exercising to get over their anger. On the other hand, girls cope
with their anger by talking to a friend, listening to music or writing
down in diary or journal.

Cultural Differences: Western culture, a predominantly an

individualistic culture, believes that people should vent their anger,
because internalizing the feeling of anger is more harmful. In fact,
‘recovery’ therapists encourage people to vent their rage against
our dead parents, confront our childhood abuser and curse our
boss in our imagination. Keeping anger within us is considered bad
for our mental and physical health. Western culture believes that
venting out of anger can be done through emotional release (either
through aggressive act or through imaginary act) or catharsis.
There is some empirical support for this line of thinking. Studies do
show that sometimes, not always, the anger subsides when people
retaliate against a provoker. But anger subsides only if a person
counterattacks directly his provoker or retaliation is justifiable or
their target is not intimidating (Geen et.al., 1977) and if they do not
feel anxious or guilty later on. If anger led physical or verbal acts
generate regret later on, it becomes maladaptive.

However, catharsis often fails to erase our feeling of rage.

There can be some reasons for it
1. Expressing anger may strengthen the anger instead of
reducing it: e.g., in case of road-rage. Ebbesen et. al. (1975)
conducted an experiment on laid off employees. They were allowed
to vent their hostility and later on given chance to express their
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attitude towards the company. Compared to those laid off

employees who were not given a chance to vent their hostility in
initial questionnaire, it was found that employees who were given
such a chance in first questionnaire, expressed more hostility. Their
hostility increased instead of reducing. Similar results were reported
by another study. Brad Bushman (2002) rightly said that venting to
reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire.

2. It may provoke retaliation and a minor conflict may turn

into major confrontation: In Asian culture, which is a community
culture, giving vent to your aggression in this manner is considered
bad. People don’t give went to their rage because they derive their
identity from the group and have a sense of interdependence. Such
people consider venting their anger as a threat to group harmony.

3. Angry outbursts are dangerous in another way: They may

temporarily calm us but this may act as reinforcement and so may
be habit forming.

4. Anger can lead to prejudice: Americans developed prejudice

against immigrants and Muslims after 9/11.

Techniques to Control Anger:

1. Wait before reacting. You can bring down the level of
physiological arousal of anger by waiting.
2. Don’t ruminate. Ruminating inwardly serves to increase it
3. Calm yourself by exercising, playing an instrument or talking it
through with a friend.
4. Anger when used wisely can be a strength and can benefit the
relationship. Express the grievances in ways that promotes
reconciliation rather than retaliation.
5. Talk things over with the offender, thereby reducing the
aggravation. Be civil but assertive.
6. If conflict can’t be resolved, use forgiveness. Forgiveness
releases anger and calms the body.

Happiness:
Happiness is a state of mind or a feeling of contentment,
satisfaction, pleasure, or joy. ’Positive psychology, describes
happiness as a high ratio of positive to negative feelings or sense
of satisfaction with life.

A) Importance of Happiness in Our Lives:

Happiness / unhappiness has tremendous impact on each
and every aspect of our lives. This impact can be temporary or long
lasting, mild or severe. Psychologists have been investigating the
difference between happy and unhappy people and how it affects
them. Some of the conclusions are that happy people perceive the
world as safer and they feel more confident, make decisions and
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cooperate more easily, are more tolerant, rate job applicants more
favorably, savor their positive past experiences without thinking too
much on the negative aspects, are more socially connected, live
healthier and more energized and satisfied lives (Mauss et.al.,
2011), earn significantly more money (Diener et.al.,2002).

Baas et.al. (2008) stated that when your mood is gloomy, life
as a whole seems depressing and meaningless, you are critical of
your surroundings and thinking is skeptical, in such a situation, if
you put in efforts to brighten your mood, your thinking will get
broadened and you will become more playful and creative. In other
words, you will get transferred from unhappy state to happy state.
When we are happy, our relationships, self-image, and hopes for
the future also seem more positive.

Feel - Good, Do- Good Phenomenon: Many research studies

have reported that happiness doesn’t just feel good, it does good,
e.g., in many studies, mood boosting experiences (such as finding
money, recalling a happy event, etc.) had made people more likely
to give money, pick up someone’s dropped papers, volunteer time
and do other good deeds. Reverse of feel good and do good was
also found to be true. When you do good for someone, you feel
good.

B) The Short Life of Emotional Ups and Downs:

Studies have shown that over the long run, our emotional
ups and downs tend to balance out, not only over the days but also
during the day. Positive emotion rises over the early to middle part
of most days and then drops off. A stressful event can trigger a bad
mood, but by the next day, the gloom almost always lifts. Even
when negative event persists for longer period, our bad mood
usually ends. For example, romantic breakup feels devastating, but
eventually the emotional wound heals and we move on in life.

Grief over the loss of a loved one or anxiety after a severe

trauma such as child abuse, rape, or the terrors of war, may last for
longer period, but eventually we get over it. No tragedy is
permanently depressing. People who become blind or get
paralyzed too recover near normal levels of day to day happiness.

People cope well with a permanent disability, though they do

not rebound back to former emotions of happiness and well-being.
A major disability leaves people less happy than average, yet much
happier than able bodied people suffering from depression. Bruno
et.al. (2008) commented that most patients “locked-in” motionless
body( being in coma) do not say they want to die. The fact is that
we overestimate the duration of our emotions and underestimate
our resiliency and capacity to adapt.
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C.) Wealth and Well-Being:

To some extent, wealth does correlate with well-being, e.g.,
rich people are typically happier, healthier than poor people who
lack control over their lives. Money can help to get out of hunger
and hopelessness and also buy happiness. But once you have
sufficient money for comfort and security, adding more money does
not add to more happiness. This is because of diminishing returns
of phenomenon. The power of more money to increase happiness
is significant at low incomes and diminishes as income rises. In
every culture, those who strive hardest for wealth tend to live with
lower well-being, especially if they are seeking money to prove
themselves, gain power or show -off rather than support their
families.
D)Two Psychological Phenomena - Adaption and Comparison:
There are two psychological phenomena that explain why
happiness is relative. These are Adaptation and Comparison. Let
us understand these two principles –
1) The Adaptation-Level phenomenon: This principle suggests
that we have a natural tendency to judge various stimuli in
comparison to our past experiences. Harry Helson (1977) explain
this phenomenon by explaining that on the basis of our past
experience, we all reach certain neutral levels for everything, e.g.,
there are certain levels at which we will not find sounds either too
loud or soft, temperatures as too high or low, events as pleasant or
unpleasant. We will feel just neutral about them. Once these neutral
points are developed, then we judge any new events or variations
in existing events in comparison to these levels, e.g., if temperature
goes higher than our neutral point temperature, then we find
temperature too hot for our comfort.

Similarly, if compared to our present income we get higher

income, we feel a temporary surge in our happiness, but later this
new high becomes the new normal level and then to again feel
happy we will require income more than this new normal level also.
Same is true for other areas such as academic rewards, social
prestige, etc. For example, do you remember, the thrill you had
when cordless phones came in the market and you owned one
(Those phones worked only within a limited range of landline
phones, giving you very little flexibility). Later, mobile phones came
into market and they gave you the freedom to talk to anyone even
while traveling far away from your home. At that stage you were no
more thrilled with cordless phones. Afterwards, mobiles got
upgraded to smart phones and now you could not only talk with
mobile phone but could also do lot more like using internet on
phone. Now does ordinary mobile phone gives you any happiness
or excitement? The answer will be no. This is exactly what the
psychologists meant when they said happiness is relative to our
own experiences.
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There is no permanent happiness. Tomorrow, suppose you

get a chance to live in an ideal world where you don’t have any
economic worries or health worries and your near dear ones give
you unconditional love. You will be elated, but after some time you
will adjust your adaptation level and this new world will become
your new normal. Now you will feel satisfied if events exceed your
expectations or you will feel dissatisfied if these events fall below
your expectations. The point is that satisfaction or dissatisfaction
are just our judgments based on our past experiences.

2) Comparison -Relative Deprivation: We always compare

ourselves to others and our feeling of good or bad depends upon
with whom we are comparing. Seeing many others getting rich may
create a sense of relative deprivation. Such comparisons are the
reason why rich people are more satisfied with life than the poor
people. However, Russell (1930,p90) noted very aptly that
“Beggars do not envy millionaires, though of course they will envy
other beggars who are more successful”. Comparing ourselves with
those who are better off creates envy and comparing ourselves with
those who are worse off creates contentment.

E) Predictors of Happiness:
Happy people share many characteristics such as they have
high esteem, are optimistic, outgoing and agreeable, have close
relationships or a satisfying marriage, have work and leisure that
engages their skills, have an active religious faith, sleep well and
exercise Research shows that age, gender, parenthood and
physical attractiveness has no link with happiness, but genes
matter.

Heritability: In one study of identical and fraternal twins, it was

found that about 50% of the difference among people’s happiness
ratings was heritable. Other studies have also indicated that
identical twins raised apart are often similarly happy.

Personal History and Culture: On the personal level, we already

know that our emotions tend to balance around a level defined by
our experiences. On the cultural level, groups differ in the traits that
they value. For example, self-esteem and achievement are more
important to Westerners due to emphasis on individualism. Social
acceptance and harmony are more important for people living in
communal cultures such as Japan, where family and community is
more important than personal achievements. However, apart from
our genes, studies indicate that relationship quality is also an
important determinant of our happiness.

So, depending on our genes, our values, our recent experiences,

our happiness seems to fluctuate around our “happiness set point”.
Due to this some people are always happy while others are always
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negative. However, psychologists believe that our satisfaction with

our lives is not fixed. Happiness can increase or decrease. It can be
influenced by factors under our control.

13.3.3 Close up: Want to be Happier?

Our happiness, like our cholesterol levels, is genetically
influenced. As cholesterol can be kept under check through diet
and exercise, similarly, level of happiness can also be partly kept
under our control. Researchers have given some research based
suggestions to improve our mood and satisfaction of life. These
suggestions are –

1. Realize that long lasting happiness may not come from

financial success: We adapt to changes by adjusting our
expectations. Neither wealth nor any other circumstances that
we desire can guarantee happiness.

2. Take control of your time: Happy people feel in control of their

lives. To manage time, set goals and break them into sub-goals
for daily aims. It will be difficult and frustrating because you will
find that first of all it is not possible to set goals, then break them
into daily sub-goals. We need to have very clear and systematic
thinking for that. Another problem is that human beings have a
natural tendency to overestimate how much work they can
accomplish in any given time, e.g., you may set a goal that you
will finish studying the present chapter in a day. At the end of
the day, you may realize that you have not been able to finish it
for various reasons. So, to avoid disappointments and
frustration, one needs to practice setting up realistic goals and
organize the daily activities accordingly.

3. Act Happy: Empirical research showed that when people were

manipulated to put on a smiling expression, they felt better. So,
put on a happy face, laugh more, talk as if you feel positive self-
esteem, being optimistic and outgoing. We can often act our
way into a happier state of mind.

4. Seek Work and leisure that engages your skill: Happy

people are often in a zone called “flow” – that is, they are
absorbed in tasks that challenges but does not overwhelm
them. The most expensive forms of leisure often provide less
flow experience than simple activities such as gardening,
socializing or creating something new. Money also buys more
happiness when spent on experiences that enjoy, remember,
and look forward to rather than when money is spent on buying
some material stuff such as expensive mobile or clothes.

5. Joint the “Movement” movement: It has been found that

aerobic exercise can relieve mild depression and anxiety as it
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promotes health and energy. Sound mind resides in sound

body.

6. Sleep Sufficiently: Give your body the sleep it wants. Happy

people live active lives, yet reserve time for renewing sleep and
solitude. Now days, many people suffer sleep debt that results
in fatigue, diminished alertness and gloomy mood. They remain
irritable throughout the day that can have further negative
experiences.

7. Give Priority to Close Relationships: Intimate friendships can

help you to sail through difficult times. Confiding is good for soul
as well as for body. It has been noticed that compared to
unhappy people, happy people engage less in superficial talks
and more meaningful conversation. Nurture your close
relationships by not taking your loved ones for granted. Show
them the sort of kindness you show to others, affirming them,
playing together and sharing together.

8. Focus beyond Self: Reach out and help those who are in
need. Happiness increases helpfulness but doing good also
makes one feel good.

9. Count Your Blessings and Record Your Gratitude: Keep a

gratitude journal, that is keep a register where at the end of the
day, remember and enjoy good moments once again and write
in that journal all positive events that occurred that day and why
they occurred. You also write express your gratefulness to
others in that journal. It is scientifically proven that keeping
gratitude journal heightens one’s well-being.

10. Being Happy is a Matter of Choice: It is our attitude that

makes us feel happy or unhappy. It is true, we meet all kinds of
situations during the day, and some of them may not be
conducive to happiness. We can choose to keep thinking about
the unhappy events, and we can choose to refuse to think about
them, and instead, relish the happy moments. If we let outer
events influence our moods, we become their slaves. We lose
our freedom. We let our happiness be determined by outer
forces. On the other hand, we can free ourselves from outer
influences. We can choose to be happy, and we can do a lot to
add happiness to our lives.

11. Surround yourself with happy people: It is easy to begin to

think negatively when you are surrounded by people who think
that way. Conversely, if you are around people who are happy
their emotional state will be infectious.
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Check your progress:

Write short notes on the following-
1. The physiology of emotions
2. Gender and nonverbal expression of emotions
3. Consequences of anger
4. Predictors of happiness
5. Techniques to be happier

13.4 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have touched upon three learning items -

need to belong, emotions and happiness.

In need to belong, we looked at the definition and usefulness

of need to belong. We also discussed how ostracism is painful for
anybody and in social networking topic we discussed how
technology has impacted our social communications. We also
looked at the ways and means of maintaining a balance between
real world and internet world.

In emotions we first talked about its definition, and we

discussed four historical theories of emotion to see the link between
cognition and emotions. The James Lange theory proposed that
first comes bodily response and then we label emotions based on
those bodily responses. Cannon-Bard’s theory argued that
emotions and autonomic responses occur simultaneously but
separately. One is not the cause of the other. The individual’s
appraisal of the emotion producing situation largely determines the
emotions.

Schachter and Singer believed that to experience emotions,

we must consciously interpret and label them. Zajonc, LeDoux and
Lazarus noted that we have many emotional reactions without
interference of intellect. Many emotions occur without our being
aware of them. Then we discussed the physiology of emotions and
how emotions can be detected by others. We also dwelled upon
how gender and culture can influence the expression of emotions,
and how facial expression can influence the actual experience of
emotions.

Lastly, we discussed about experiencing two major

emotions, that is, anger and happiness. We saw in detail what are
the consequences of anger and how it can be controlled. In case of
happiness, we discussed the definition, nature of happiness and
how there is a positive yet limited connection between wealth and
feeling of well-being. How two psychological phenomena-
adaptation and comparison can influence the experience of
happiness. Finally, we looked at the predictors of happiness and
how happiness can be increased.
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13.5 QUESTIONS

1. Explain the usefulness of need to belong and pain of ostracism.

2. What is social networking and how can we maintain balance
between real world and virtual world.
3. Define emotion and discuss various theories of emotion.
4. How can we detect emotions in others and what role is played
by gender and culture in detecting emotions?
5. What are the consequences of anger and how it can be
reduced?
6. “Catharsis may or may not reduce anger”. Explain
7. Write a detailed note on happiness.
8. Define happiness. What are the consequences of happiness?
9. “Happiness is relative to our own experience and to others’
success. Explain

Write a short note on

a. Effects of social networking
b. Maintaining balance between real world and virtual world
c. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
d. Schachter & Singer’s theory of Emotion
e. Predictors of Happiness
f. Tips to reduce anger

13.6 REFERENCES

1) Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013

2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology.(Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India)
pvt ltd.
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14
PERSONALITY - I
Unit Structure :
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Psychodynamic Theories
14.2.1 Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective - exploring the
unconscious
14.2.2 The Neo-Freudian and psychodynamic theorists
14.2.3 Assessing unconscious processes
14.2.4 Evaluating Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective
14.2.5 Modern views of the unconscious
14.3 Humanistic theories
14.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s self-actualizing person
14.3.2 Carl Rogers’ person-centered perspective
14.3.3 Assessing the self
14.3.4 Evaluating humanistic theories
14.4 Summery
14.5 Questions
14.6 References

14.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand:

The psychoanalytic view of human mind, its views on division of
personality and the stages of personality development.
The work of various Neo-Freudians and modern views of
unconscious.
The contribution of humanistic psychologists such as Abraham
Maslow and Carl Roger to personality development.
The pros and cons of humanistic theories.

14.1 INTRODUCTION

Though all human beings are similar in many ways they

perceive, learn, remember, think and feel, yet there are individual
differences and each one of us is unique. These differences and
uniqueness is due to personality differences. Personality is an
important dimension of individual differences. Personality has been
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the area of interest for psychology for more than 100 years. This
and the next unit would provide an exposure to different personality
theories, ranging from classical to contemporary. This unit
discusses psychodynamic and humanistic theories of personality.
The next unit will cover trait and socio-cognitive theories of
personality.

Personality can be considered as sum-total of who you are –

emotions, attitudes, motives, and behaviour. No two people are
same because they have different personality.

Personality is unique and relatively stable way in which people

feel, think, and behave throughout the life.

Personality can be defined as a person’s characteristic

pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting (Mayers, 2013).

14.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES

Psychodynamic theories of personality consider human

behavior as a dynamic interaction between the conscious and
unconscious mind and its associated motives and conflicts. These
theories originated from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory
and later on Neo-Freudian theories were included. So, let us begin
with psychoanalytic perspective.

14.2.1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring the

Unconscious:
Sigmund Freud was born 1856. That was a Victorian era in
Europe – a time of tremendous discovery and scientific
advancement, but also a time of sexual repression and male
dominance. In general, only male sexuality was acknowledged and
that too very discreetly. Freud was very independent, brilliant and
voracious book reader right from his teens. He became a doctor
specializing in nervous disorders and started a private clinic. Very
soon he became famous because of his work in psychiatry. Till
today his influence lingers in psychiatry and clinical psychology as
well as in many other courses.

Many of his patients were rich females, and while treating

them he realized that they had disorders without any neurological
base, e.g., a patient may complain that she has lost all sensations
in her hand and yet he observed that no sensory nerve was
damaged that would numb only the entire hand but nothing else.
Freud’s search for a cause for such disorders made him realize that
some neurological disorders can have psychological causes. He
called his theory of personality and the associated treatment
techniques as Psychoanalysis. In his personality theory, he
emphasized first of all on division of mind, then on structure of
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personality, psycho-sexual stages of personality development and

defense mechanism.

Division of the Mind:

Freud believed that mind is divided into three parts. The
conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious.

1) The Conscious Mind:

The conscious mind is the uppermost part of the mind. It
contains information that one is aware of at any given time. This is
an Individual’s current perceptions, memories, thoughts, fantasies,
feelings that he is aware of. It is quite close to short-term memory
concept which you have studied in earlier chapters. Freud believed
that mind is mostly hidden and the conscious awareness is like the
part of an iceberg. In other words, what we are aware of is a very
small part of our consciousness and beneath this awareness is the
large unconscious mind with its thoughts, wishes, feelings and
memories.
2) The Preconscious Mind:
The preconscious mind contains ideas, feelings, events,
concerns beliefs, thoughts that person is not aware of at present
but can easily be made accessible to the conscious. This contains
memories that are not at the moment in the conscious thought
process, but can readily be brought to mind whenever needed. It
works closely with the conscious mind. Today, it can be called as
explicit long-term-memory. But Freud suggested that these two are
the smallest parts of mind.
3) The Unconscious Mind:
The unconscious mind (often called as “the unconscious”) is
the most central and significant part of Freudian theory. The
unconscious is most important determinant of human personality
and behaviour. According to Freud, the unconscious is a mass of
unacceptable passions and thoughts that he believed we repress or
forcibly block from our consciousness because it would be too
stressful to acknowledge them. These are the major source of our
motivations ranging from simple desires for food, and sex to the
complex motives like creativity of an artist. This largest part of mind
remains hidden to conscious. Without our awareness, these
troubleshooting feelings and ideas powerfully influence us,
sometimes getting expressed in disguised form such as dreams,
slip of tongue, the work we choose, the beliefs we hold, our daily
habits, or other behavior that people carry out without
understanding the reasons for it. He believed that nothing is ever
accidental and considered jokes as expression of repressed sexual
and aggressive tendencies and dreams as the “royal road to the
unconscious”. In dream analyses, he searched for patients’ inner
conflicts.
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To gain access to patients’ unconscious mind, initially he

used hypnosis. But that did not work. So, he devised a new method
called “Free Association”. In using this method, he asked his
patients to relax and say whatever came to their mind, no matter
how embarrassing or trivial it is. He assumed that certain mental
blocks from patient’s distant past are responsible for his troubled
present and free association will allow him to retrace those mental
blocks, allowing him to peep into patient’s unconscious mind and
retrieve and remove painful memories stored from his childhood.

Personality Structure:
According to Freud, personality can be divided into three
parts. They dynamically interact with each other. They are: Id, Ego,
and Superego.

1) ID:
The first and primitive part of personality is Id. It is present
since infancy. It is completely unconscious and amoral. It contains
all the basic biological drives to survive, reproduce and aggress.
The id is the impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that
operates on the “pleasure principle”. The pleasure principle states
that there should be immediate gratification of the needs without
caring about outside world’s restrictions or societal conventions of
civilized, standard, and moral behaviour. People dominated by ID
will concentrate on present pleasure rather than think about future
pleasure, e.g., they will enjoy parties, movies now rather than
sacrifice today’s pleasure for future success and happiness.

Freud believed that human personality is the result of our

efforts to resolve these conflicts between impulses and restraints
between our aggressive, pleasure seeking biological urges and our
internalized social control over these urges.

2) EGO:
This second part of personality is developed to handle the
reality. It is partially conscious part of mind that includes our higher
cognitive abilities, rationality, perceptions, thoughtfulness,
memories, learning, and logical processes. It provides buffer
between illogical, amoral impulses of id and societal restrictions.
The Ego works on reality principle, which means that the id’s drives
are satisfied in a realistic way that will avoid negative outcomes and
will bring long term pleasure. So, there are times when ego denies
the gratification of id’s drive because of possible negative
consequences. For example, if a very young kid is hungry, then he
picks up food from anybody’s plate, but slightly older kids will not do
that. Instead they would wait for their plate to come or make a
request in more formal ways. If they are at stranger’s place, then
they will prefer to stay hungry than asking for food. This is because
ego develops with the age.
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3) SUPEREGO:
Freud believed that around the age of 4 or 5 our superego
starts developing and ego starts recognizing the demands of
superego. Superego represents our moral values imbibed from the
society. These are the rules and regulations about what is right and
wrong taught by parents, teachers, and important others. The
superego tells us how we ought to behave. It forces ego to consider
not only the real world but also the ideal world. In other worlds, it
tells ego to not only avoid punishment but also to strive for ideal
behavior. It strives for perfection. It prevents us from doing morally
incorrect things, by producing guilt (also called as moral anxiety). It
produces feeling of pride when we do morally correct things. A
person with very strong superego may be virtuous and yet guilt-
ridden, while another person with weak superego may be low in
using self-restraint and yet may not feel any guilt.

Fig. 14.1

Since the Id is unrealistically impulsive and the superego is

unrealistically moralistic, the id and superego’s demands are
always in conflict, the ego tries to strike a balance between the two.
The ego is the “executive” part of the personality. It mediates
between the impulsive demands of the id and the restraining
demands of the superego and the real life demands of the external
world. Anxiety is created when ego cannot meet their needs.
Extreme anxiety leads to disorders. The Psychological Defense
Mechanisms are used to deal with anxiety and stress created by
conflicts between the three components of personality. They are
unconscious strategies people use to deal with the anxiety and by
distorting the reality. They have been classified as psychotic,
immature, neurotic and healthy defense mechanisms. But before
talking about defense mechanisms in detail let us look at the
developmental stages of personality.

Developmental Stages of Personality:

Freud proposed that development of personality takes place
when a child passes through a series of psychosexual stages.
Freud has identified particular body parts as a focus of specific
 250

developmental stage. In each psychosexual stage, id’s pleasure

seeking energies focus on specific body parts that provide
sensation of pleasure during that stage. It is called as erogenous
zone. In every psychosexual stage, there is a conflict between id,
ego and superego. Conflicts unresolved during earlier
psychosexual stages could lead to maladaptive behavior in the
adult years. These stages are Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and
Genital.
Table 14.1
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Stage Age Erogenous Characteristics

Birth to 18 Indulges in oral activities like
Oral months Mouth sucking, biting, mouthing,
eating, to obtain pleasure.

Gratification obtained from

18 to 36 Anus withholding and expelling
months fesses, try to handle the
Anal
pressures of society regarding
toilet training.
Fixation leads to anal
expulsive or anal-retentive
personality.
Derives pleasure by fondling
genitals.
Phallic 3 – 6years Genitals Oedipal Conflict is important
characteristics, and it is
resolved by identifying with
same sex parents.
Latency 6 years to Adolescence The sexual feelings are kept
Puberty Social skills latent by repressing them in
unconscious.
intellectual
abilities.
Puberty Maturation of sexual interests
Genital onwards - The mature, adult sexuality
develops during this stage.

1) Oral Stage:
The duration of first stage of psychosexual development,
namely Oral Stage, is from birth to 18 months. The erogenous zone
of oral stage is mouth. Children enjoy activities like sucking, biting,
mouthing, etc. The conflict that is experienced in this stage is
weaning the child from bottle or mother’s breast feed. The child will
get fixated in the oral stage if the child overindulges (continue to
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breast/bottle feed for longer duration)or become frustrated (due to

early or abrupt weaning) with the oral gratification. This leads to
development of oral personality in adulthood. Aggressive-
pessimistic traits develop if oral needs are under gratified and
dependency-optimism develops if they are over gratified. If they are
over gratified, they may continue to seek oral gratification by
overeating, talking too much, smoking, etc. If they are weaned
away too early leading to under gratification they may act tough or
speak in “bitingly” sarcastic way, etc.
2) Anal Stage:
The duration of Anal Stage of psychosexual development is
from 18 months to 3 years. The erogenous zone of anal stage is
anus. Children at this stage derive pleasure by both withholding
and expulsion of fesses at will. In addition to physical pleasure,
child also derives pleasure from self-control and the praise from
parents. The conflict that is experienced in this stage is toilet
training. The child will get fixated in the anal stage if toilet training is
too harsh. The conflict leads to development of anal personality in
adulthood. They are of two types: anal expulsive personalities and
anal retentive personalities. Anal Expulsive Personality results from
child’s rebel against toilet training by parents. The adult would show
destructiveness, hostility, emotional outbursts, disorganization,
rebelliousness and carelessness. They could also become
extremely generous and indiscipline. Anal-Retentive Personality
develops due to fear of punishment. The child retains fesses and
refuses to go to toilet. They develop traits like excessive
orderliness, neatness, stubbornness, a compulsion for control and
have interest in collecting, holding, and retaining objects.
3) Phallic Stage:
The Phallic Stage is between 3 years to 6years. The genitals
are erogenous zone during this stage. Child derives pleasure by
fondling genitals. Boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their
mother and jealousy and hatred for their fathers, whom they
consider as their rivals. Similarly, girls develop unconscious sexual
desire for their fathers. Boys experience Oedipal Conflict and girls
experience Electra Complex in this phase. Father is perceived as
powerful, and they develop castration anxiety, a fear that their penis
will be cut-off by their fathers, if fathers come to know of their
sexual attraction towards their mothers. To resolve this anxiety
boys Identify with their fathers and girls identify with their mothers.
This is called as Oedipus complex. According to Freud, girls get
attracted to father and experience penis envy, feeling of inferiority
for not having that anatomical part. They held mother responsible
for this. To resolve this conflicting feeling towards mother, girls
identify with mother. Normal sexual development occurs if the
conflict is resolved. Immature sexual attitudes, promiscuous or
sexually inhibited behaviour, and sexual confusion in adulthood
may result from fixation in phallic stage.
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4) Latency Stage:
The duration of this stage is from 7 to 12 years. The sexual
feeling of child is repressed in unconscious, or kept latent, and the
child grows physically, intellectually, and socially. This is relatively a
calm stage where sexual energy is converted into interest in
excelling in school work and sports, etc.
5) Genital Stage:
The duration of this phase is from 13 years onwards till
death. The mature, adult sexuality develops during this stage. At
this stage, once again the attention is shifted to genitals but sexual
attraction is shifted from one’s parents to members of the opposite
sex. Sexual urges are expressed through socially approved
channels. Sex takes a matured form by moving from desire for
pleasure only to a desire for reproduction. The sexual and
aggressive motives are transferred into energy for marriage,
occupation and child rearing.
Defense Mechanisms:
Table 14.2
Defense Unconscious process Examples
Mechanism employed to avoid
anxiety-arousing
thoughts/feelings
Regression Reverting back to more Throwing temper
immature behavior from tantrums as an adult
infantile psychosexual when you don’t get your
stage, where some way or reverting back to
psychic energy remains the oral comfort of
fixated. thumb sucking.
Reaction Acting in exactly the Being overprotective of
Formation opposite way to one’s and generous towards
unacceptable impulses. an unwanted child, or
repressing angry
feelings, a person may
display exaggerated
friendliness.
Projection Attributing one’s own Accusing your friend on
unacceptable feelings cheating on you
and thoughts to others because you have felt
and not to yourself. like cheating on her.
There is a saying “The
thief thinks everyone
else is a thief”.
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Rationalization Creating false excuses Justifying cheating in an

for one’s unacceptable exam by saying that
feelings and thoughts to everyone else does
others and not to that, or a habitual
yourself. In other words, drinker says he drinks
offering self-justifying just to be sociable.
explanations in place of
the real, more
threatening unconscious
reasons for one’s
actions.
Displacement Redirecting unacceptable Taking your anger
feelings from the original towards your boss out
source to a safer, more on your wife or children
acceptable substitute by shouting at them and
target. not at your boss or a
child bangs the door
hard instead of shouting
back at his mother.
Denial Blocking external events Smokers may refuse to
from awareness. If some admit to themselves
situation is just too much that smoking is bad for
to handle, the person health, or a person may
refuses to believe or refuse to believe that
even perceive painful his son is involved in
realities. anti-national activities.

Freud held that anxiety is the price we pay for civilization.

There is a constant tug of war between id and superego and ego
has to balance both of them. Sometimes, ego fears losing control
over this inner war and we experience anxiety. At such times, ego
protects itself with defense mechanisms, i.e., the tactics used to
reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality. All these defense
mechanisms work at unconscious level and ego unconsciously
defends itself against anxiety. Some of these defense mechanisms
are discussed here.

14.2.2 The Neo-Freudian and Psychodynamic Theorists:

Freud’s theory has been criticized as well as praised by his
contemporaries and by other psychologists later. Those who
followed broad framework of Freud and developed their own
theories of psychoanalysis are called as Neo-Freudians. Neo-
Freudians accepted his basic ideas such as personality structure of
id, ego, superego; the importance of the unconscious; the shaping
of personality in childhood; and the role of anxiety and defense
mechanisms in personality development. However, they did not
agree with the idea that only sex and aggression are dominant
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motives in our lives. They believed that social interaction also plays
an important role. Similarly, while accepting the role of unconscious
mind they emphasized the role of conscious mind also in
interpreting our experiences and in coping with our environment.
Some of the important Neo-Freudian theorists are Jung, Adler,
Horney, etc.

Carl Jung:
Carl Gustav Jung differed from Freud on the nature of
unconscious and parted away from Freud. In addition to Personal
Unconscious, he developed the concept of Collective Unconscious.
It is the store house of our experiences as a species since ancient
ages. We are born with it and are not conscious of it. He called
these collective universal human memories as Archetypes, an
unlearned inclination to experience world in a particular way.
Among the many archetypes, Mother (our inner tendency to identify
a particular relationship of “mothering”), Anima / Animus (feminine
component within males/ masculine component within females),
Shadow (dark side of ego containing sex and life instincts), persona
(individual’s public image) are important.

Jung was initially Freud’s disciple but later turned his

dissenter. While he agreed with the idea that unconscious exerts a
powerful influence on our behavior, he believed that unconscious
holds more than our repressed thoughts and feelings. He criticized
Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex and his emphasis on
infantile sexuality. He said we all have a collective unconscious, a
storehouse of repressed memories specific to the individual and our
ancestral past. This is a level of unconscious shared with other
members of the human species comprising latent memories from
our ancestral and evolutionary past. ‘The form of the world into
which [a person] is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image’
(Jung, 1953, p. 188). Jung called these ancestral memories and
images that have universal meaning across cultures as archetypes.
These archetypes show up in dreams, literature, art or religion.
These past experiences explain why people in different cultures
share certain myths and images, e.g., mother as a symbol of
nurturance, or fear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders.

Alfred Adler:
Alfred Adler had struggled to overcome his own childhood
illnesses and accidents due to which he had suffered from
inferiority complex. So, while proposing the concept of inferiority
complex he stated that everybody experiences sense of inferiority,
weakness and helplessness as a child and struggle to overcome
the inadequacies by become superior and powerful adults. He
identified ‘striving for superiority’ as a thrust propelling thought,
feelings, and actions of humans. Two important concepts in his
theory are: Parenting and Birth Order. According to Adler, the order
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in which person is born in the family innately influences persons

personality. The firstborn, experience crisis as the attention shifts to
younger sibling after their births and to overcome this they become
overachievers. Middle born children are not pampered but get the
attention and become more superior. After dethroning older sibling,
they have power over their younger siblings and engage in healthy
competition. The youngest children have the least amount of power
in family and are more pampered and protected. This creates a
sense that they cannot take responsibilities and feel inferior to
others.

Adler identified two Parenting Styles that leads to problems

in adulthood: Pampering and Neglect. Pampering parents
overprotect a child, provide excessive attention, and protect from
the dark part of life. As adults, child has poor skills to deal with
realities, self-doubts about abilities. A Neglecting Parent do not
protect child at all, and they are left to deal with life problems alone.
As adults, they fear the world, cannot trust others, and have trouble
in developing close relations.

Karen Horney:
Karen Horney differed from Freud on his masculine focus
and idea of ‘penis envy’ and women having weak superego. She
substituted the concept of ‘penis envy’ with her idea of ‘womb
envy’. She said that “The view that women are infantile and
emotional creatures, and as such, incapable of responsibility and
independence is the work of the masculine tendency to lower
women’s self-respect”. She considered that the basic anxiety, a
feeling of fearfulness and anxiety experience in childhood triggers
the desire for love and security.

Post Freud’s life, most contemporary psychodynamic

theorists and therapists do not accept the idea of sex as the basis
of personality. They do not accept the idea of id, ego and superego
and do not classify their patients in terms of oral, anal or phallic
characters. But they do accept that much of our mental life is
unconscious, that very often we struggle with inner conflicts among
our wishes, fears and values and that our childhood experiences
shape our personality and the way we become attached to others in
later life.

Neo-Freudians’ major disagreements with Freud can be

summarized as -
1. Socio cultural factors determine conflicts, not instincts.
2. Infantile sexuality is of little importance compared to socio-
cultural factors. Conflicts can be or are predominately non-
sexual.
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3. Societal factors cause anxiety, not a defense.

4. Dreams have no latent content: could be metaphorical
expressions of the patient’s real concern or reflect struggles to
achieve self-awareness and responsibility.
5. Oedipal complex has no sexual component, is due to
interpersonal/ social factors.
6. Technique of treatment: normally emphasize ‘here and now’,
de-emphasis on past, gaining insight etc.

14.2.3 Assessing Unconscious Processes:

To peep into unconscious mind, early childhood experiences
and to unearth hidden impulses and conflicts, psychologists have
developed certain tools that do not ask direct questions and expect
answers in yes-no or true-false format as objective assessment
tools do. These tools that measure personality indirectly are known
as projective tools. Projective tests are like “psychological X-ray” in
which a test taker is asked to tell a story or describe an ambiguous
stimulus. It is assumed that any hopes, desires and fears that test
taker sees in the ambiguous image are the projections of their own
inner feelings or conflicts. One of these projective tests is

Rorschach Inkblot Test:

People are presented a series of 10 inkblots printed on cards
and people are asked to describe what they see in these inkblots.
The test has been criticized on various counts. For instance, some
clinicians believe in the power of Rorschach test so much that they
have used it to assess criminal’s violence potential and present it to
court as evidence. Others consider it as a helpful diagnostic tool, an
icebreaker and a revealing interview technique. However, the
scoring and interpretation of the test had been criticized often and
to overcome this criticism a research based, computerized tool has
been designed to bring uniformity in scoring and interpretation. Yet
many critics comment that only some of Rorschach based scores,
such as scores for hostility and anxiety, have shown validity. So
these tests are not reliable as a whole. Other critics believed that
this test diagnoses many normal people as pathological as
clinician’s interpretations of the answers given are based on
intuitions of the clinicians.

14.2.4 Evaluating Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective and

Modern Views of the Unconscious:
Recent research disagrees with Freud’s ideas on many
counts. For instance-
1. Modern developmental psychologists believe that development
is a lifelong process and not fixed in childhood only as Freud
believed.
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2. They do not believe that an infant’s neural networks are mature

enough to hold as much emotional trauma as Freud assumed
that they do.
3. Some critics think that Freud overestimated the parental
influence and underestimated the peer influence.
4. Freud’s idea that conscience and gender identity develops when
children resolve Oedipus complex at the age of5 or 6 was also
criticized. It is observed that children develop their gender
identity much earlier than age of 5 or 6 and become strongly
masculine or feminine even without a same sex parent present.
5. Critics also believe that Freud’s ideas about childhood sexuality
arose from his skepticism of stories of childhood sexual abuse
told by his female patients. He attributed these stories of
childhood abuse to their own childhood sexual wishes and
conflicts.
6. Freud is also criticized on his methodology of collecting
information. The way he framed his questions might have
created false memories of childhood sexual abuse.
7. New ideas about why we dream are also contrary to Freud’s
belief that dreams display hidden feelings and are tools for wish
fulfillment. Similarly, slips of the tongue can be explained as
competition between similar choices in our memory. When
someone says that “I don’t want to do it- it’s a lot of bother” may
simply be blending bother and trouble.
8. Freud’s idea that defense mechanisms disguise sexual and
aggressive impulses, and suppressed sexuality causes
psychological disorders, is also not supported by modern
research. From Freud’s time, our sexual inhibitions have gone
down but psychological disorders have not gone down.
9. Psychoanalytic theory assumes that the human mind often
represses troublesome wishes and feelings, banishing them into
the unconscious mind until they resurface. He believed that if
we can recover and resolve childhood’s conflicts and wishes,
emotional healing would follow. However, modern researchers
believe that repression is a rare mental response to trauma.
Even those who have witnessed a parent’s murder or survived
Nazi death camps retain their unrepressed memories of the
horror. (Helmreich 1992; Pennebaker,1990)
10. It is also argued that Freud’s theory does not meet the criteria of
being scientific theory. A scientific theory must offer new
testable hypotheses and objective way of testing the existing
theory.
11. The most serious problem with Freud’s theory is that it offers
after-the-fact explanations of any characteristic but fails to
predict such behaviors and traits, e.g., according to his theory, if
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you feel angry at your mother’s death, it is because your

unresolved childhood dependency needs are threatened. On
the other hand, if you do not feel angry, it is because you are
repressing your anger. Lindzey (1978) rightly commented that it
is like betting on a horse after the race is over.
12. Critics said that a good theory should give testable predictions
but Freud’s supporters said that Freud never claimed that
psychoanalysis was a predictive science. He merely claimed
that looking back, psychoanalyst could find meaning in our state
of mind.
13. His supporters further point out that some of Freud’s ideas are
everlasting, e.g., he drew attention to the idea of unconscious,
irrationality, self-protective defense mechanisms, importance of
sexuality, tension between our biological impulses and our
social well-being. He challenged our self-righteousness,
punctured our pretensions and reminded us of our potential for
evil.

14.2.5 The Modern Unconscious Mind

Modern researchers agree with Freud that we have very
limited access to all that goes on in our minds, but they think
unconscious does not comprise of just seething passions and
repressive censorings, rather there is information processing going
on there without our awareness. This information processing can
involve:

a.) Formation of the schemas that automatically control our

behavior
b.) The implicit memories that operate without conscious recall,
even among those with amnesia.
c.) The emotions that activate instantly, before conscious analysis.
d.) The formation of self-concept and stereotypes that
unconsciously influence the way we process information about
ourselves and others.
So, our lives are guided by off-screen, out-of-sight,
unconscious information processing. The unconscious mind is
huge.

Recent research also supported Freud’s idea of defense

mechanisms. People tend to see their own faults and attitudes in
others. Freud called this tendency as ‘Projection”, a defense
mechanism. Modern researchers call it “False Consensus Effect”,
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our
beliefs and behaviors. For example, people who break traffic rules
assume that everyone does it, people who are happy, kind and
trustworthy assume all others are also have same attributes.
Similarly, another defense mechanism used by people to defend
their self-esteem is Reaction formation. Baumeister stated that
 259

defense mechanisms are less likely to be used by seething

impulses and more by our need to protect our self-images.

Modern research has supported Freud’s idea that we

unconsciously defend ourselves against anxiety. Greenberg et.al.
(1997) rightly said that one source of anxiety is “the terror resulting
from our awareness of vulnerability and death”. Terror management
theory shows that death anxiety increases contempt for others and
esteem for oneself (Koole et.al.,2006). Living in a threatening world,
people tend to act not only to enhance their self-esteem but also to
stick strongly to worldviews that answer questions about life’s
meaning. For example, the likelihood of death increases religious
sentiments and deep religious beliefs enable people to be less
defensive (Jonas & Fishcher,2006). When faced with death, people
yearn for and stick to close relationships, e.g., when a person is
nearing his end, he/she yearns to meet family and friends, and put
in extra efforts to reach out to them even if they have not
communicated before for years together.

Check your progress:

1. Write short notes on the following-
a.) Division of Mind
b.) Personality Structure
c.) Defense Mechanisms
d.) Neo-Freudian Psychologists
e.) Rorschach Inkblot Test
2. Describe in detail the developmental stages of personality
according to Psychoanalytic theory
3. Critically evaluate Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory.
4. Describe the modern view of unconscious mind.

14.3 HUMANISTIC THEORIES

By 1950s and 1960s, some personality psychologists were

dissatisfied with Freud’s deterministic and B. F. Skinner’s
mechanistic explanation of personality. They objected to Freud’s
ideas that human behavior is determined by forces beyond our
control, that human beings are basically evil and would destroy
themselves if not restrained by social norms which are internalized
in the form of superego. Moreover, Freud’s theory was developed
on the basis of motives reported by sick people. On the other
hand, Skinner viewed human personality through respond-reward
prism and emphasized only on learning. He considered human
beings like machines, where they respond to environmental inputs
on the basis of reward or punishment received in the past. They felt
 260

that these theories ignored the qualities that make humans unique
among animals. Two psychologists, Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers, became well known for their humanistic theories.
Humanistic theorists focused on the ways ‘healthy’ people strive for
self-determination and self-realization and offered a ‘third force’
option that emphasized human potential

14.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person:

Maslow developed his theory based on healthy, creative
people rather than troubled clinical cases. He proposed that we are
motivated by a hierarchy of needs. First, we are motivated to satisfy
our physiological needs followed by safety needs, then need to be
loved or belong and then self-esteem and finally self-actualization
and self-transcendence. Self-actualization refers to a process of
fulfilling our potential and self-transcendence refers to searching
meaning, purpose and communion beyond the self.

He based his study of self-actualization on the basis of

studying people like Abraham Lincoln, who were known for their
rich and productive lives. Maslow stated that such people share
certain similar characteristics. They are more self-aware, self-
accepting, open and spontaneous, loving and caring and not stuck
by their own opinions. While working with college students, Maslow
said that those who will become self-actualizing adults later on are
the ones who are likeable, caring, privately affectionate to their
elders and secretly uneasy about the cruelty, meanness and mob
spirit.

Maslow's self-actualizing characteristics:

• Efficient perceptions of reality: Self-actualizers are able to
judge situations correctly and honestly. They are very sensitive
to the fake and dishonest, and are free to see reality 'as it is'.
• Comfortable acceptance of self, others and nature: Self-
actualizers accept their own human nature with all its flaws. The
shortcomings of others and the contradictions of the human
condition are accepted with humor and tolerance.
• Reliant on own experiences and judgment: Independent, not
reliant on culture and environment to form opinions and views.
• Spontaneous and natural: True to oneself, rather than being
how others want. They have outgrown their mixed feelings
towards their parents, have found their ultimate goals, have
enough courage to be unpopular, to be unashamed about being
openly virtuous.
• Task centering: Since they are secure in their sense of who
they are, their interests are problem-centered and not self-
centered. They focus their energies on a particular task and
make that task as the mission of their lives. Most of Maslow's
 261

subjects had a mission to fulfill in life or some task or problem

'beyond' themselves to pursue
• Autonomy: Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external
authorities or other people. They tend to be resourceful and
independent.
• Continued freshness of appreciation: The self-actualizer
seems to constantly renew appreciation of life's basic goods. A
sunset or a flower will be experienced as intensely time after
time as it was at first. There is an "innocence of vision", like that
of an artist or child.
• Profound interpersonal relationships: The interpersonal
relationships of self-actualizers are marked by deep loving
bonds.
• Comfort with solitude: Despite their satisfying relationships
with others, self-actualizing people value solitude and are
comfortable being alone.
• Non-hostile sense of humor: This refers to the ability to laugh
at oneself.
• Peak experiences: All of Maslow's subjects reported the
frequent occurrence of peak experiences(temporary moments of
self-actualization). These occasions were marked by feelings of
ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning. Self-actualizers reported
feeling at one with the universe, stronger and calmer than ever
before, filled with light, beauty, goodness, and so forth.
According to Maslow, peak experiences are "Feelings of
limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being
simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one
ever was before, the feeling of ecstasy and wonder and awe,
the loss of placement in time and space with, finally, the
conviction that something extremely important and valuable had
happened, so that the subject was to some extent transformed
and strengthened even in his daily life by such experiences."In
other words, these are moments of transcendence in which a
person emerges feeling changed and transformed.
• Socially compassionate: Possessing humanity. They are
emotionally mature and have learned enough about life so that
they are compassionate towards others.
• Few friends: They have few close intimate friends rather than
many superficial relationships.

14.3.2 Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective:

Carl Roger also believed that people are basically good and
are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies. Unless faced with an
environment that hinders growth, each of us is like a fruit, ready for
growth and fulfillment. Roger believed that growth promoting
climate needs to fulfill three conditions:
 262

1. Genuineness: Genuine people are open with their feelings,

drop their pretentions or deceptive outward appearance, are
transparent and self-disclosing.

2. Acceptance: When people are accepting, they offer

unconditional positive regard, an attitude of grace that values us
even knowing our failings. It is a great relief to drop our
pretentions, confess our worst feelings, and discover that we
are still accepted, that we are free to be spontaneous without
feeling the loss of others’ esteem.

3. Empathy: Empathic people share and mirror other’s feelings

and reflect their meanings.

Rogers believed that genuineness, acceptance and empathy

are like water, sun and nutrients that help us to grow like a fruit. As
people are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring
attitude toward themselves. When people are heard emphatically, it
becomes possible for them to listen more accurately to the flow of
inner experiencing. Unconditional love makes a person optimistic,
enthusiastic and helpful. For Carl Rogers and Maslow, the central
figure of personality is self-concept. Self-concept refers to all the
thoughts and feelings that one has in response to a question-Who
am I? If self-concept is positive we view the world positively and if
we have negative self-concept, we view the world negatively and
we will feel dissatisfied and unhappy.

14.3.3 Assessing the Self:

To measure personality, humanistic psychologists ask
people to fill out a questionnaire that would evaluate their self-
concept. The questionnaire has questions asking people to
describe themselves both as they would ideally like to be and as
they actually are. Rogers said that the self-concept will be positive
when ideal self and real self are nearly alike.

Some humanistic psychologists believe that using a

standardized assessment tool such as questionnaire, to measure
personality is depersonalizing. Instead of forcing a person to
respond to narrow categories, it is better to use tools like interviews
and intimate conversations for a better understanding of each
person’s unique experiences.

14.3.4 Evaluating Humanistic Theories:

Just like Freud, Maslow and Carl Rogers also have had a
tremendous impact on other psychologists. Their ideas have
influenced counseling, education, child-rearing, and management.
Unintendedly, they have also influenced today’s popular
psychology. But there has been some criticism for humanistic
theories.
 263

1. Humanistic psychology believes in tenets such as positive self-

concept is key to happiness and success, acceptance and
empathy nurture positive feelings about oneself, people are
basically good and capable of self-improvement, humans are
basically rational, socialized and forward moving (striving to be
better), humans are constructive, trustworthy, and congruent
when they are free of defensiveness. These ideas are well
accepted in western cultures but not in all cultures.

2. Critics are of the opinion that humanistic theories are vague and
subjective. For example, Maslow’s description of self-actualizing
people as open, spontaneous, loving, self-accepting and
productive is not a scientific description. This description is
merely a description of Maslow’s own values and ideals, an
impression of his personal heroes. However, if another theorist
has another set of heroes such as Napoleon or Margaret
Thatcher, he would probably describe self-actualizing people as
“undeterred by others’ needs and opinions”, “motivated to
achieve”, and “comfortable with power”. (M. Brewster
Smith,1978) . In other words, subjective ideas such as authentic
and real experiences are difficult to objectify; an experience that
is real for one individual may not be real for another person.

3. Humanistic psychology is not a true science because it involves

too much common sense and not enough objectivity.
Humanistic concepts are difficult to define operationally and test
scientifically. These theories have been criticized for merely
describing personality, rather than explaining it.

4. Critics also objected to the idea that put by Rogers that the only
thing that matters is the answer to a question, “Am I living in a
way which is deeply satisfying to me, and which truly expresses
me?” Critics said that this encouragement on individualism in
humanistic psychology can be detrimental. Emphasizing on
trusting and acting on one’s feelings, being true to oneself,
fulfilling oneself can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, and an
erosion of moral restraints. Those who focus beyond
themselves are most likely to experience social support, enjoy
life and cope effectively with stress. However, humanistic
psychologists defended themselves by saying that a secure,
non defensive self-acceptance is the first step towards loving
others. If people don’t love themselves, how can they love
others.

5. There are those who believe humanistic theory falls short in its
ability to help those with more sever personality or mental health
pathology. While it may show positive benefits for a minor
issue, using the approach of Rogers to treat schizophrenia
would seem ludicrous.
 264

6. Critics also say that humanistic psychology is naïve, i.e., lacking

wisdom. It fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity
for evil. We are living in a world where we are facing the
challenges of climate change, overpopulation, terrorism and the
spread of nuclear weapons. In such a situation, it is most likely
that we may lose optimism that denies the threat and we may
drown in dark despair where we think it is hopeless to try to
change the situation. Critics say that humanistic psychology
does encourage the hope that is needed for taking action but it
does not provide equally necessary realism about the evil and
how to cope with it.

Check Your Progress:

1. Explain the concept of self-actualization given by Maslow.
2. Discuss Carl Rogers’ person-centered perspective to explain
personality.
3. Critically evaluate Humanistic theories of personality.

14.4 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed various theories of

personality. We began with Freud’s theory of psychoanalyses in
which he had explained the division of mind, personality structure
divided into three parts – id, ego and superego, five psychosexual
developmental stages of personality – oral, anal, phallic latency and
genital stage, and based on the conflicts and anxieties faced during
these developmental stages, people use various defense
mechanisms such as projection, reaction formation, denial,
regression, rationalization and displacement. These defense
mechanisms can be useful to alleviate anxiety, only if they are used
in moderation. If they are used in excess they can lead to
maladjustment.

However, Freud’s theory has been criticized on various

counts by Neo- Freudians as well as Humanistic psychologists.
Though Neo -Freudians could not shake themselves away from
Freud’s ideas completely but they significantly held different views.
They said that they don’t completely agree with Freud’s idea that
sexuality explains everything. They either modified, extended or
revised Freud’s original psychoanalytic theory and emphasized the
role of social, cultural and interpersonal factors also in shaping the
personality. Some of the most well known Neo-Freudians are Alfred
Adler, Karen Horney and Carl Jung. While Freud assumed that
people have no choice in shaping their personality, Adler believed
that people are largely responsible for who they are and they are
driven by need reduce inferiority complex. Freud assumed that
present behavior is caused by past experiences while Adler
believed that present behavior is shaped by people’s view of the
future. Unlike Freud’s emphasis on unconscious mind, Adler
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believed that psychologically healthy people are usually aware of

what they are doing and why they are doing it.

Horney objected strongly to the concept of “penis envy”,

Oedipus complex, lack of confidence and an overemphasis on love
relationships, and said that personality development has got very
little to do with the anatomy of sex organs. She also believed that
aggression is not inborn, but humans try to protect themselves by it.
Similarly, she did not believe that conflict is inbuilt in human nature,
rather she felt that it arises from social conditions.

Carl Jung also objected to the idea of Oedipus complex and

infantile sexuality and emphasized on collective consciousness.

Maslow and Carl Rogers emphasized on looking at healthy

and successful individuals while framing the tenets of personality
theory and emphasized that human beings are inherently directed
towards self-actualization. However, their ideas were also not
without criticism.

14.5 QUESTIONS

1. Describe Freud’s views on Personality.

2. Discuss in detail Neo-Freudian views of personality.
3. Discuss in detail various developmental stages of personality
development and defense mechanisms used by people
according to Psychoanalytic theory.
4. Critically evaluate Psychoanalytic theory and discuss the
modern view of unconscious mind.
5. Discuss in detail humanistic psychologists view personality.
What criticism they have faced?

14.6 REFERENCES

1) Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013
2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology.(Indian sub-
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
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15
PERSONALITY - II
Unit Structure :

15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Trait theories
15.2.1 Exploring and assessing traits
15.2.2 Thinking critically about: how to be a “successful”
astrologer or palm reader
15.2.3 The Big Five Factors
15.2.4 Evaluating Trait Theories
15.3 Social cognitive theories
15.3.1 Reciprocal influences
15.3.2 Personal control;
15.3.3 Close-up: Toward A More Positive Psychology
15.3.4 Assessing behaviour in situations
15.3.5 Evaluating social-cognitive theories
15.4 Exploring the self -
15.4.1 The benefits of self-esteem
15.4.2 Self-Serving Bias
15.5 Summery
15.6 Questions
15.7 References

15.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to understand -

1. Personality traits, how trait theories originated and how
personality is measured
2. Why astrologers and others in the profession of future gazing
should not be believed
3. the concept of Reciprocal determinism and personal control
4. the concept of Positive psychology
5. the concept of Self, Self-esteem and Self-serving Bias
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15.1 INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, we have discussed some approaches to

understand personality. In this unit, we are going to explore Trait
Perspective, social cognitive approach to personality and we will be
looking at self in detail. We will see how self-esteem is beneficial for
us and how self-serving biases influence our behavior. We will also
see how biology is linked to personality.

15.2 TRAIT THEORIES

15.2.1 Exploring and assessing traits

Instead of focusing on unconscious forces and hampered
growth opportunities Trait theorists define personality in terms of
traits - traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behavior,
thought, and emotion. Traits are relatively stable over time, differ
across individuals (e.g. some people are outgoing whereas others
are shy), and influence behavior.

The seed of this approach was sown when in 1919, Gordon

All port, a young psychologist met Sigmund Freud, a renowned
psychologist of that era, out of curiosity. During that meeting, Freud
kept trying to find out what were all port’s hidden motives behind
that meeting. That experience led all port to describe personality in
terms of traits. He was not interested in explaining the individual
traits; rather he was more interested in describing these traits.

Exploring traits:
Each of us are a unique combination of multiple traits. The
question arises which trait dimensions describe personality. All port
and Odbert (1936) counted all the words in a dictionary with which
one could describe people. There were almost 18000 such words.
It was necessary for psychologists to condense this list to a
manageable number of basic traits. To achieve that they used a
statistical technique called factor analysis.

Factor Analysis: It is a statistical procedure used to identify

clusters of test items that represent basic components of a given
trait. For example, people who describe themselves as outgoing
also tend to like excitement and practical jokes and dislike quiet
reading. Such a statistically correlated cluster of behaviors
indicates a basic trait, in this example it is extraversion.
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Fig.15.1

Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck believed that by using

factor analysis, we can reduce many of our normal individual
variations to two or three dimensions such as extraversion-
introversion and stability-instability. (Fig. 15.1)

Biology and Personality: There are many traits and mental states
such as extraversion, intelligence, impulsivity, addictive cravings,
lying, sexual attraction, aggressiveness, empathy, spiritual
experiences, racial and political attitudes, etc. that can be studied
with brain-imaging procedures. For example, studies using brain
imaging indicate that extraverts seek stimulation because their
normal brain arousal is relatively low and frontal lobe area involved
in behavior inhibition is less active in them.

Similarly, studies have shown that our genes also

significantly influence our temperament and behavioral style. For
example, Kagan attributed differences in children’s shyness and
inhibition to their autonomic nervous system reactivity. If we have
highly reactive autonomic nervous system, we respond to stress
with greater anxiety and inhibition. On the other hand, the fearless,
curious child may become the rock climbing or fast-driving adult. It
has been found that not only humans but even animals have stable
traits that shapes their personalities and by selective breeding,
researchers can produce bold or shy birds.

Assessing Traits:
Once it was established that stable traits influence our
behavior, the next question was how to measure these traits in
most reliable and valid way. Many trait assessment techniques
have been devised, such as personality inventories. Personality
inventories are longer questionnaires covering a wide range of
feelings and behaviors, i.e., they assess many traits at once. Some
of these personality inventories are -

MBTI: Myers and Briggs devised a questionnaire with 126

questions based on Carl Jung’s personality types. This
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questionnaire is known as Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). It is

available in 21 languages and is used mostly for counseling,
leadership training, and work-team development. It counts the test-
taker’s preferences, labels them as indicating “feeling type” or
“thinking type” and gives feedback to the test-taker in
complimentary terms. For example, feeling type are told that they
are sensitive to values, sympathetic and tactful, while thinking type
are told that they prefer an objective standard of truth and are good
at analyzing. Each type has its strengths, so everyone is affirmed.
Though this test is popular in business and career counseling but it
is not a good predictor of job performance.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): This test

was developed by Starke Hathaway et.al. (1960) originally to
assess “abnormal” personality tendencies such as emotional
disorders, but now it is used for many other screening purposes,
such as work attitudes, family problems, and anger.

To construct this test, the MMPI items (questions) were

empirically derived. Hathaway et.al. Initially gave hundreds of true-
false statements to groups of psychologically disordered patients
and normal people. From a large collection of items, they retained
only those items (questions) on which both groups differed
significantly. Then these questions were grouped into 10 clinical
scales such as scales measuring depressive tendencies,
masculinity-femininity, and introversion-extraversion.

Personality inventories are better measure of personality

than projective tests discussed in previous unit, because projective
tests have subjective interpretation while personality inventories
can be scored objectively. In fact, so objectively that a computer
can administer and score them. Yet these personality inventories
do not guarantee high validity. For instance, people taking MMPI for
employment purpose may not give truthful answers and may give
socially desirable answers to create a good impression on the
tester. To overcome this problem the MMPI has a lie scale and
those who are not being very truthful may get high lie score
revealing to the tester that test-taker has faked his answers. The
objectivity of the MMPI has made it more popular than many other
tests and it has been translated in more than 100 languages.

15.2.2 Thinking critically about how to be a “successful”

Astrologer or Palm reader:
For centuries now, psychologists have been wondering, can
we predict personality traits, career of a person from his horoscope
or can we be assured that marriage based on matching horoscope
will be successful and long-lasting. The answer to all these
questions is “NO”. Research has shown that matching the
 270

horoscope is no guarantee that couple will be happy or well-

adjusted with each other or that their marriage will last.

Similarly, graphologists (who make predictions from

handwriting samples) have been found to be very often inaccurate
in judging people’s personality and occupation from their
handwritings. Yet, millions of people seek out these astrologers,
palm readers and graphologists. The question arises how these
people are able to fool so many people?

Ray Hyman (1981), a palm reader turned research

psychologist revealed the tricks used by these people. Some of
these tricks or suckering methods are –

1. Stock Spiel: This method is based on the observation that

everyone in this world is different from everyone else and yet
they are very similar. Since we are similar to others in many
ways, when the astrologer/palm reader makes a generalized
statement, it appears to be very accurate to the listeners. For
example, he may say, “I sense that you worry about things more
than you disclose, even to your best friends” or he may say, “I
sense that you're nursing a grudge against someone; you really
ought to let that go" or he may say, “you have a strong need for
other people to like and to admire you, you have a tendency to
be critical of yourself….”, etc. These are general statements
that can be connected with personality traits. People accept the
generalizations that are true of nearly everybody to be
specifically true of themselves.

2. Barnum Effect: People have the tendency to accept potentially

vague and over-generalized, unsupported information as true,
especially if that information is flattering or favorable to them.
This is called the Barnum effect. For several decades,
psychologists have investigated the ‘Barnum effect’ (sometimes
known as the Forer effect). This phenomenon occurs when
people accept personality feedback about themselves because
it is supposedly derived from personality assessment
procedures. In other words, people fall victim to the fallacy of
personal validation. People accept the generalizations that are
true of nearly everybody to be specifically true of themselves.
For example, Davies(1997) conducted an experiment, in which
college students were given a personality test and then given
false, generalized feedback for the test that they had taken.
When that feedback was favorable and were told that it was
prepared just for them, the students always rated that feedback
as good or excellent. Studies showed that when favorable
personality description was given as a feedback, students who
were initially doubtful about astrology were more likely to accept
the personality description as well as increased their belief in
 271

astrology as a whole. In other words, those for whom

astrological theory provided a more attractive self-portrait were
more likely to express belief in the validity of astrologers.

3. Read: Astrologers keep their eyes open. They also use their
other senses to judge a client on the basis of clothing, jewelry,
mannerisms and speech. For example, if they see a lady
dressed in expensive clothes longingly looking at the calendar
on the wall with a happy child’s photo, the astrologer can judge
that lady is rich but does not have or has lost a child of her own.

4. Tell them what they want to hear: Astrologers start with some
safe sympathy statements such as “I sense you are having
some problems lately. You seem unsure what to do….” Then tell
them what they want to hear. They memorize some Barnum
statements from astrology manuals and use them liberally.

5. Gain a client’s cooperation in advance: They tell clients it is

their responsibility to cooperate by relating astrologer’s
message with their specific experiences. They emphasize that
the success of reading their palm or horoscope depends as
much upon client’s sincere cooperation as upon astrologer’s
efforts. The clients will connect those statements with their
experiences and later on they will think that astrologer predicted
those specific details.

6. Fishing: They use the technique of fishing - a method for

getting the client to tell the astrologer about himself/herself. One
way of fishing is to phrase each statement in the form of a
question. Then wait for the client to reply (or react). If the
reaction is positive then the astrologer turns the statement into a
positive assertion. Very often the client responds by answering
the implied question and later forgets that he was the source of
astrologer’s information.

7. Good Listener: During the session, astrologer listen carefully to

his client and later on, in different words, reveal to client what
the client himself earlier revealed to the astrologer. He does not
realize that what astrologer is saying is exactly what he had told
the astrologer a few minutes ago. So, the saying goes, if you
dupe the clients, they will come back. Another value of listening
is that most clients who seek the services of a reader actually
want someone to listen to their problems. In addition, many
clients have already made up their minds about what choices
they are going to make. They merely want support to carry out
their decisions.
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15.2.3 The Big Five Factors :

Personality Trait Representative Traits

High Low
Neuroticism Emotional, insecure, Self-confident, secure,
moody, anxious, angry, assured, hopeful,
depressed, encouraging
embarrassed, worried
Extraversion Talkative, assertive, Introverted, reserved,
energetic, social, withdrawn, silent,
gregarious, active, lively inactive, unsocial
Openness to Experience Curious, imaginative, Stubborn, unimaginative,
creative, original, artistic, uncreative, narrow-
broad-minded minded, unoriginal
Agreeableness Cooperative, forgiving, Aggressive,
modest, argumentative,
tolerant, trustworthy, suspicious,
courteous, flexible, soft confrontational, impolite,
hearted, altruistic, inflexible, egoistic,
sensitive insensitive

Conscientiousness Organized, persistent, Disorganized, negligent,

thorough, responsible, undisciplined,
goal directed, careful irresponsible,
unsystematic, careless

Modern trait researchers believe that while simple trait

factors such as Eysenck’s’ introverted-extroverted and unstable-
stable dimensions are important but they do not cover the entire
personality. Costa & McCrae (2009) felt that a slightly expanded set
of factors, called the Big Five, does a better job of judging entire
personality. The Big Five is the most popular trait theory in
personality psychology in modern times, and since 1990s lot of
research is being carried out on this theory. These Big Five factors
are as shown in the above table.

Research has explored various questions related to Big Five.

For example, psychologists wondered:

a.) How stable are these traits? Research shows that in adulthood,
these traits are quite stable, with some tendencies (such as
emotional instability, extraversion, and openness) decreasing or
even disappearing a bit during early and middle adulthood, and
some tendencies (such as agreeableness and
conscientiousness) rising. Conscientiousness increases most
during people’s 20s while agreeableness increases during
people’s 30s and continues to increase through their 60s
(Srivastava et.al.2003)
 273

b.) Psychologists were curious to know whether these traits are

heritable. It is found that individual differences in each of Big
Five factors are attributable to genes up to 50% or little more.
Many genes combine to influence our traits. It is also found that
certain brain areas are also associated with the various Big Five
traits. For example, frontal lobe area is sensitive to reward and
is larger in extraverts.

c.) Another question that psychologists asked was, do the Big Five
traits predict other behavioral attributes? The answer is yes. For
example:

i) Shy introverts are more likely than extraverts to prefer

communicating by e-mail rather than face-to-face (Hertel
et.al.,2008)

ii) Highly conscientious people earn better marks. They are also
more likely to be morning type persons, that is, they get up early
in the morning and are fully alert and full of energy in the
morning. Evening types are more likely to be extraverted.

iii) People low on agreeableness; stability and openness are more

likely to suffer marital and sexual satisfaction.

iv) Big Five traits influence our written language use also. For
instance, in text messaging, extraverted people use more of
personal pronouns, people high on agreeableness use more of
positive emotion words, and those high on neuroticism
(emotional instability) use more of negative emotion words.

15.2.4 Evaluating Trait Theories:

The question arises whether research supports the
consistency of personality traits over time and across situations. Is
our behavior influenced by the interaction of our inner traits with
environment? If yes, which is more important – the traits or the
environment? Research shows that as people grow older their
personality traits stabilize. Their interests, careers, relationships
may change, but their personality traits do not change. It is also
empirically recognized that our traits are socially significant. They
influence our health, our thinking and our job performance.
Longitudinal studies have shown that our mortality, divorce and
occupational attainment can be predicted on the basis of our
personality traits. Even though our personalities traits are stable
over time and do influence our behavior, the specific behavior of
the people differs from situation to situation. People do not act with
predictable consistency. For example, a person will display much
more confidence, an outgoing social behavior in a familiar situation
when he is with his friends than when he is in unknown, hostile
circumstances. However, people’s average outgoingness,
 274

happiness or carelessness over many situations can be predicted

(Epstein, 1983a, b).

Research also shows that we do have genetically influenced

traits. And those traits remain in hidden form in our music
preference, our preferences in our personal space such as homes
or offices, familiar or unfamiliar, formal or informal situations,
personal websites, and even e-mails. For instance, it is found that
in case of Music preference classical and folk music lovers tend to
be open to new experiences and have high verbal intelligence.
Religious music lovers tend to be cheerful, outgoing and
conscientious (Rentfrow & Gosling, 2003,2006)

Personal Space – Our personal space shows our identity and

leaves a behavioral residue. A quick inspection of anyone’s room
can tell about that person’s conscientiousness, openness to new
experiences, and even emotional stability (Gosling et.al.2002,
2008).

Personal Website – Personal website or a Facebook profile of a

person can reveal that person’s extraversion, conscientiousness
and openness to new experiences. Even just pictures of people,
their clothes, expressions and postures can give us clues about
their personality (Naumann et.al. 2009).

E-mail – We can detect personality traits such as extraversion and

neuroticism, of people from the writing voice in their e-mails or even
blog writing. For example, extraverts use more of adjectives.

Unfamiliar, Formal Situations - When we visit as a guest, the

home of a person from another culture, our traits remain hidden as
we carefully attend to social cues. In familiar informal situations
such as just being with friends, we feel less restricted and allow our
traits to emerge (Buss, 1989). In informal situation, our expressive
styles, our way of speaking and gestures are very much consistent.
For instance, Bella DePaulo et.al. (1992) conducted an experiment
to evaluate people’s voluntary control over their expressiveness.
She ask participants to be either expressive or inexpressive while
stating opinions. She found that inexpressive people, even when
pretending to be expressive, were less expressive than expressive
people who were acting naturally. Similarly, expressive people
while trying to pretend to be inexpressive were less inexpressive
than inexpressive people who were acting naturally. It shows that it
is difficult to be someone you are not or not to be who you are.

So, to summarize we can say that at any moment the

immediate situation (especially strong situation) powerfully
influences a person’s behavior. For instance, while driving all
drivers will stop at red light irrespective of their personality traits.
 275

But if we average our behavior across many situations, it does

reveal our distinct personality traits.

15.3 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

Social cognitive perspective on personality was proposed by

Albert Bandura. He said that just like nature and nurture always
work together similarly, individuals and their situations also work
together. Our behavior is influenced by our learning (social part
learnt through conditioning/observing/imitating) and what we think
(mental process or the cognitive part) about the situation. It is the
way we interpret and respond to external events. Our schemas,
memories and our expectations influence our behavior patterns. So
let us see some of these influences.

15.3.1 Reciprocal Influence:

Bandura viewed the person-environmental interaction as
reciprocal determinism. A person's behavior both influences and is
influenced by personal factors and the social environment, e.g., a
child’s T.V. viewing habits (past behavior) influences his viewing
preference (an internal factor) which will influence how TV (an
environmental factor) affects his current behavior. These influences
are mutual. There are 3 specific ways in which individuals and
environments interact-

a.) Different people choose different environments: The kind of

programs you watch on TV, the kind of friends you choose,
music you listen to, etc. are all part of an environment you have
chosen based partly on your nature or personality. First you
choose your environment and then it shapes you.

b.) Our personality’s shape how we interpret and react to

events: For example, anxious people are more receptive to
potentially threatening events. They perceive the world as
threatening and react accordingly.

c.) Our personalities help create situations to which we react:

How we view and treat other people influences how they in turn
treat us. If we expect someone to ignore us, we may give that
person a cold shoulder, and in return that person may snub us
as we expected. On the other hand, if we have an easygoing
positive temperament, we are more likely to enjoy close,
supportive friendships. Thus, we are both the product and the
architects of our environment. Behavior is an interplay of
external and internal influences. See figure 15.2
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Fig.15.2

15.3.2 Personal Control:

Personal control refers to whether we see ourselves as
controlling or being controlled by our environment. When we
believe that we control our environment it is known as internal locus
of control and when we believe that we are controlled by our
environment, it is called external locus of control. Let us see how
these beliefs affect us.

a) Internal vs. External Locus of Control:

Those who have internal locus of control believe that
whatever happens to them is chosen by them or is due to their
efforts. They believe that they are successful due to their hard work
and not because of their fate. On the other hand, people with
external locus of control believe that whatever happens to them due
to their destiny or other external factors, they have no control over
them.

Research studies have shown that people having internal

locus of control get better marks, are more independent, have
better health, are less depressed, and are better in delaying
gratification and coping with stressors including marital problems
(Miller & Monge,1986)Such people learn better, perform better at
work and are more helpful. Another study found that children who
expressed internal locus of control at the age of 10 had less
obesity, hypertension and distress at the age of 30.

b) Depleting & Strengthening Self-Control:

Self-control refers to the ability to control impulses and delay
gratification. People with high self-control have good adjustment,
better marks and social success. Students who plan their day’s
activities and then stick that plan are less likely to be depressed
later on. Baumeister & Exline (2000) held that self-control is like a
muscle. It temporarily becomes weak after exertion, gets strong
again after rest and becomes stronger with exercise. If we use
willpower, it temporarily uses up our mental energy needed for self-
control on other tasks. It even uses up blood sugar and neural
activity associated with mental focus. For example, experiments
 277

showed that hungry people who had resisted the temptation to eat
chocolate biscuit gave up sooner on a tedious task later than those
who had not resisted and eaten chocolate biscuit. Similarly, people
who had used up their mental energy in trying to control their
prejudices were less restrained later in being aggressive in
response to provocations. They were less restrained in their
sexuality after spending willpower on laboratory tasks. However, it
was also found that their effortful thinking improved if they were
given energy-boosting sugar.

Self-control requires attention and energy. People who

practice self-regulation through physical exercise and time-
management develop self-regulation capacity. People with
strengthened self-control have better self-management in eating,
drinking, smoking and household chores (Oaten & Cheng, 2006a,
b). In other words, if we develop self-discipline in one area of our
lives, this strengthened self-control spills into other areas of life as
well. We can grow our willpower muscle by using some willpower.

c) Learned Helplessness vs. Personal Control:

People with external locus of control often feel helpless and
oppressed. This perception deepens their feeling of resignation. For
example, an elephant who had been shackled right from childhood
develops a feeling of helplessness and later on when it becomes
strong enough to break the chain and free itself, still does not do it
due to learned sense of helplessness. Similarly, among human
beings also, when people are repeatedly faced with traumatic
events over which they have no control, they start feeling helpless,
hopeless and depressed. This is called learned helplessness.

We feel shocked in an unfamiliar culture due to reduced

sense of control; we are not sure how others will respond to us.
People in prisons, factories, colleges and nursing homes
experience lower morale and increased stress due to lack of control
over their environment. Studies showed that when prisoners were
allowed to move chairs and control room lights and TV, their health
and morale went up. Similarly, when factory workers were allowed
to participate in decision making and were allowed to personalize
their workspace, their work engagement went up, and when
patients in nursing homes were offered choices about their
environment and allowed to exert more control over their
environment, it significantly improved their health and morale. They
became more happy, alert and active.
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These studies showed that people thrive when they are

given personal freedom and empowerment. This is the reason why
people in stable democracies report higher levels of happiness. It
shows in their body language also, e.g., even poor people in
democracy feel empowered and often laugh more, sit upright rather
than slumped. However, Barry Schwartz (2000, 2004) concluded
from his study that excess of freedom in today’s Western cultures
leads to decreasing life satisfaction and increases depression and
sometimes decisional paralysis. For instance, research showed that
people express dissatisfaction when they choose jam or chocolate
out of 30 brands than those who choose jam/chocolate our of only
12 brands. The tyranny of choice brings information overload and
the chances are more that we will regret over some of the un-
chosen options and feel dissatisfied.

d) Optimism vs. Pessimism:

Optimism and Pessimism refers to attributional style of the
people, their characteristic way of explaining positive and negative
events. For instance, if a student fails, he may attribute his failure to
his lack of ability or to situations that were beyond his control
(Pessimism). Such a student is more likely to continue getting low
marks than those who adopt more helpful attitude that hard work
and good study habits and self-discipline can make a difference.
Similarly, in dating couples, optimists and their partners feel more
supported and satisfied with their relationships. Expect good things
from others and you will get what you expect is the assumption.

e) Excessive Optimism:
Though positive thinking is beneficial when we are faced
with difficulties in life, but realism is equally important. One should
not be overly optimistic. Realistic anxiety over possible failure can
lead us to put in more energetic efforts to avoid such a failure. A
student who is realistically anxious about upcoming exam will study
more and make sure that he passes the exam compared to a
student who is over confident and does not study much. Studies
have indicated that Asian American students show higher
pessimism than European-American students. That is why Asian
American students have higher academic achievements. To be
successful you need to have enough optimism to give you hope
that you can succeed and there should be enough pessimism to
prevent complacency. Remember the story of hare and tortoise.
Hare was too optimistic and very low on pessimism.

Excessive optimism can blind us to real risks. An unrealistic

optimism about future life events gets fueled by our natural positive
thinking bias. For example, most teenagers who are rash drivers
see themselves as less vulnerable to meet with the accidents than
other average teenager rash drivers. If we are overconfident of our
ability to control an impulse such as the urge to smoke, we are
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more likely to expose ourselves to temptations, and to fail. That is

why, you must have often heard smokers to say confidently,” there
is nothing much to giving up smoking I have done it many times”.
Those who optimistically deny the power and effects of smoking,
get into failed relationships, outwit themselves in many other ways
and ring the truth of “blind optimism can be self-defeating”.

People also show illusory optimism about their groups. For

example, in all IPL matches, we keep guessing that our cricket
team has better chance of winning than the other teams even
though other teams may be known to be strong. Even when we
ourselves are getting prepared to get feedback such as our results
from the exams given, we tend to assume that we will pass
irrespective of how did we fare in our exams. This is due to natural
positive-thinking bias. Similarly, when the match is coming to an
end, we are more doubtful of our team winning especially if our
team has been ahead than when our team was fairing worse than
the other team. Positive illusion also vanishes after a traumatic
personal experience. For example, Americans were living with
positive illusion that terrorism will not touch their lives till 9/11
happened.

f) Blindness to One’s Own Incompetence:

It is rather ironic that most people are most overconfident
when they are most incompetent. Justin Kruger and David Dunning
(1999) said it takes competence to recognize competence. Our
ignorance of what we don’t know helps in sustaining our confidence
in our own abilities. This ignorance about our own abilities becomes
part of our self-concept and then our self-assessment also
influences how we perceive ourselves doing. So, it is important to
ask someone else also to assess our competence and predict our
future performance. For example, if you want to assess your
leadership abilities, don’t assess yourself, ask your batch mates to
judge your leadership abilities.

15.3.3 Close-Up: Toward a More Positive Psychology:

Martin E. P. Seligman (2004) has been proponent of positive
psychology. Positive psychology can be defined as The scientific
study of optimal human functioning. It aims to discover and promote
strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to
thrive.

Positive psychology is an umbrella term for the study of

positive emotions, positive character traits and enabling institutions.

a.) Positive emotion is a combination of satisfaction with the past,

happiness with the present, and optimism about the future.
Seligman stated that happiness is a by-product of a pleasant,
engaged and meaningful life.
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b.) The Positive character focuses on exploring and enhancing

creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control,
leadership, wisdom and spirituality. Seligman stated that
positive psychology is about building not just a pleasant life, but
also a good life that engages one’s skills, and a meaningful life
that points beyond oneself.

c.) Positive groups, communities and cultures, seek to foster a

positive social ecology. This includes healthy families,
communal neighborhoods, effective schools, socially
responsible media and civil dialogue.

Positive psychologists hope that positive psychology will be

able to build healthy minds and cure mental diseases. Just like
Humanistic psychology, positive psychology also believes in
advancing human fulfillment but its methodology is scientific.

15.3.4 Assessing Behavior in Situations:

Social cognitive theories do not believe that future behavior
can be predicted by administering a personality test or through an
interviewer’s intuition. They believe that future behavior of a person,
in any given situation, can be predicted by looking at the person’s
past behavior patterns in similar situation, e.g., the best predictor of
future aggressiveness is past aggressiveness and the best
predictor of future job performance is past job performance. If it is
not possible to check the past performance of a persona to predict
his future performance, than we need to create an assessment
situation that simulates the task that a person will have to perform
on actual job. For instance, to assess a candidate for spy mission,
The U.S. Army psychologists made candidates go through
simulated undercover conditions. They tested their ability to handle
stress, solve problems, maintain leadership, and withstand intense
interrogation without blowing up their cover.

This method is time consuming and expensive, but it

predicts future behavior more accurately. Seeing the success of
simulated method, similar method called assessment center had
been developed and is extensively used by military, educational
institutes and Fortune 500 companies.

15.3.5 Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories:

Social cognitive theories are based upon psychological
research conducted in the field of learning and cognition. These
theories sensitize researchers to how situations affect and how
situations are affected by individuals.

Critics of social cognitive theories however argue that these

theories give too much importance to situations and do not give
much attention to person’s inner traits. For instance, a person’s
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unconscious motives, emotions, and general personality traits,

biologically influenced traits, etc.

15.4 EXPLORING THE SELF

For more than a century now, psychologists have been

vigorously researching the concept of self. There are many studies
that have studied topics like self-esteem, self-disclosure, self-
awareness, self-schema, self-monitoring, etc. Even neuroscientists
have identified a central frontal lobe region in brain that gets
activated when people answer self-reflective questions related to
their personality traits. The self generates so much interest among
researchers because it is assumed that the self as an organizer of
our thoughts, feelings, and actions is the center of personality.

Possible selves: Hazel Markus et.al. proposed that when people

think about self, they think about their possible selves. Possible
selves include a person’s vision of the self that he dreams of
becoming, e.g., rich self, successful self, loved and admired self,
etc. as well as vision of self that he fears of becoming, e.g., the
unemployed self, lonely self, failed self, etc. Such possible selves
motivate people to set specific goals to be achieved and also to
muster up energy to work towards those goals.

Spotlight Effect: When we are self-focused, we easily tend to

assume that others are noticing and evaluating us, e.g., a
conservative lady, wearing a swim suit for the first time feels self-
conscious and assumes that everybody in the swimming pool is
watching her. While in reality very few people may have noticed
her. There are very few people who notice any variations in our
appearance and performance (Gilovich et.al., 2002), our
nervousness, irritation or attraction. In fact, even when we make a
mistake such as wearing creaky shoes and reaching late for a
class, dropping books with a loud noise in library, the number of
people who notice those blunders are far less than what we
assume. If you know about this tendency of spotlight effect, it can
empower you. For example, if a public speaker understands that
his nervousness is not obvious to his audience, his speaking
performance will improve.

15.4.1 The Benefits of High Self-Esteem:

Having high self-esteem can be advantageous. For instance,
people with high self-esteem:

• Have less sleepless nights

• Do not easily give in to pressures to conform
• Are more persistent at difficult tasks
• Less shy, anxious and lonely.
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• Are much happier than others. If they feel bad, they believe that
they deserve better and make more efforts to repair their mood.

Effects of Low Self-esteem:

People with low self-esteem tend to be oversensitive and
judgmental (Baumgardner et.al.1989).Even if people’s self-image is
temporarily deflated, they are more likely to belittle others or to
express heightened racial prejudice (Ybarra, 1999).People with low
self esteem are insecure and often become highly critical of others,
as if they want to impress others with their own brilliance (Amabile,
1983).

Maslow and Rogers proposed that a healthy self-image is

beneficial for our growth and happiness. If we accept ourselves as
we are, it is easier for us to accept others. If we belittle ourselves,
we tend to criticize and reject others also.

15.4.2 Self-Serving Bias:

Carl Rogers (1958) stated that most of the people “despise
themselves, regard themselves as worthless and unlovable”. Mark
Twain seconded his opinion and said, “No man, deep down in the
privacy of his heart, has any considerable respect for himself”.
However, later research indicated exactly the opposite of Rogers’
and Mark Twain’s views. Research studies done on self-esteem
indicated that actually people have a good reputation of
themselves. Even low scoring people responded in midrange of
possible scores, e.g., a low self-esteem person will respond to
statements such as “I have good ideas” by saying “I have
somewhat good ideas” while a person scoring high on self-esteem
will simply say that “I have good ideas”. Modern psychologists
believe that people with low self-esteem also respond positively
about themselves due to self-serving bias. Self-serving bias can be
defined as our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably, accepting
more responsibility for success than failure, for good deeds than
bad.

A self-serving bias is any thought or perception that is

distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem, or the
tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner.
Individuals tend to attribute their success to their own abilities and
efforts, but attribute their failure to external factors. When
individuals reject the validity of negative feedback, focus on their
strengths and achievements but overlook their faults and failures,
or take more responsibility for their group's work than they give to
other members, they are protecting their ego from threat and injury.

These cognitive and perceptual tendencies perpetuate

illusions and error, but they also serve the self's need for esteem.
For example, a student gives credit to his own intelligence and
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preparation when gets good marks in an exam, but if he gets low

marks, he blames external factors such as that the teacher did not
teach properly or teacher does not know how to teach or question
paper was not set properly, etc. Thus, he shows his self-serving
bias. Research studies have shown that self-serving bias plays a
dominant role in various situations, such as the workplace,
interpersonal relationships, sports, and consumer decisions, driving
behavior, etc. For instance, a driver will always say that I was
driving properly, it is the other driver who was rash and smashed
his car into mine, or that pedestrian was not looking carefully while
crossing the road.

Most people see themselves as better than average,

especially when the behavior is socially desirable. For example,
studies have shown that 90% managers and more than 90%
professors rate their performance as superior to that of their
average peers. Similarly, most business managers say that they
are more ethical than their average counterparts. This phenomenon
of overestimating self and underestimating others is more common
in western countries. It is less prevalent in Asian countries because
in Asian culture modesty is valued. It does not mean that it is totally
absent in Asian countries. Self-serving bias is a worldwide
phenomenon. Pronin (2007) commented that the irony is that most
of the people think that others suffer from self-serving bias and they
themselves are immune to it, but the reality is that all of us suffer
from self-serving bias. Daniel Gilbert (2006) rightly said that “ if you
are like most people, then like most people, you don’t know, you
are like most people…….one of the most reliable of these facts is
the average person doesn’t see herself as average”.

Some additional findings from research on self-serving bias

are:
a.) People remember and justify their past actions in self-enhancing
ways.
b.) People show an inflated confidence in their beliefs and
judgments.
c.) In situations, where most of people behave in less desirable
manner, we overestimate how desirable we would act.
d.) People are quicker to believe flattering descriptions of
themselves rather than unflattering ones, and they are
impressed with psychological tests that make them look good.
e.) People tend to enhance their self-image by overestimating the
commonality of their weaknesses and by underestimating the
commonality of their strengths.
f.) We tend to believe that our contribution to our group task is
better than average. Since every member of the group believes
that his/her contribution to group task is better than average,
group members’ self-contribution estimates are usually higher
than 100%.
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g.) We display group pride that means that we have a tendency to

see our group as superior than others’ group.

The Dark Side of Self-serving Bias/ High Self-Esteem:

Self-serving bias can be a major root cause for conflicts in

interpersonal relationships or even at world forum, e.g., people tend
to blame their spouse for marital discord, or they arrogantly believe
and promote their own ethnic superiority (e.g., Nazis believed in
“Aryan Pride” and committed atrocities on Jews.) when their self-
esteem is threatened, people with large egos, not only run down
other people but also react violently. Self-serving biases have the
potential to initiate wars and can make ending war more difficult.

Self-serving bias is not restricted to adults only, one can see

these tendencies even in children. Most of the fights among
children take place, when children with high self-esteem face social
rejection. Children with high self-esteem tend to be more
aggressive, when other children dislike them and that hurts their
ego. Similarly, teenagers or adults who have very high opinion
about themselves become potentially very dangerous if their ego is
deflated by an insult, e.g., if a boy with very high opinion about
himself proposes to a girl and girl out rightly rejects him and may
even insult him, he will become potentially very dangerous for that
girl. Brad Bushman & Roy Baumeister (1998) called it “the dark
side of high self-esteem”. Their experiment showed that threatened
egotism, more than low self-esteem, inclines a person towards
aggression. When people are encouraged to feel good about
themselves when they have not earned it seems to create
problems. Baumeister (2001) said, “Conceited, self-important
individuals turn nasty toward those who puncture their bubbles of
self-love”.

In western culture as well as in Asian culture, from 1980s

onwards, popular songs have been emphasizing that one should be
self-focused and should have high self-esteem to succeed in life.
Research shows that college going students are getting influenced
by these songs and their self-esteem has gone up several notches
but the adverse effect of increasing self-esteem is that people have
correspondingly gone down on empathy. People with high self-
esteem do not see things from others’ perspective or do not have
tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than them
(Konrath et.al. 2011).

Jean Twenge (2006; 2010) reported that modern generation

– generation Me shows more narcissism than previous generation.
Narcissists are people who believe they are superior than others or
that they are special people. Narcissism is closely related with
materialism, the desire to be famous, inflated expectations, more
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hookups with less committed relationships, more gambling and

more cheating. All these characteristics are on the rise in modern
generation as narcissism is rising.

Use of Self- Disparage:

The question arises that if self-serving bias is so common
then why do so many people undervalue themselves. Research
shows that people undervalue themselves for four reasons:

a.) Sometimes self-directed put-downs are subtly strategic. They

extract reassuring comments from others, e.g., if somebody
says “No one likes me”, the other person may respond by
saying, “But not everyone has met you”.

b.) Before a game or an exam, self-belittling statements prepare us

for possible failure. If somebody tells you that in an upcoming
game your opponent is a very strong one, then if you lose the
game, it does not hurt your ego. You blame your losing a game
to the unfairness of the competition that is superior strength of
your opponent. On the other hand, if you win the game, it
enhances your ego that in spite of having a strong opponent you
have won the game.

c.) Self- disparaging comments such as “How could I be so stupid”

also helps you to learn from your mistakes.

d.) Very often, self-disparagement is related to one’s old self. When

people asked to remember their really bad behaviors, they recall
things from long ago while good behavior is recalled from recent
past. For example, a person may say I used to be short-
tempered when I was a teenager but now I have cooled down
as I have matured. Wilson &Ross(2001) rightly pointed out that
people are much more critical of their distant past selves than of
their current selves- even when they have not changed.

While researchers acknowledge the dark side of self- serving

bias and self -esteem, they also point out that we have two types of
self-esteem having two distinct effects.

a.) Defensive self-esteem: It is fragile and focuses on sustaining

itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening. This
perceived threat leads to anger and disorders.

b.) Secure Self-esteem: It is less fragile and less dependent on

external evaluations. People with secure self-esteem feel
accepted for who they are and not for their looks, wealth or
acclaim. They are not under pressure to succeed and focus
beyond themselves. One can gain secure self-esteem by losing
oneself in relationships and purposes larger than self.
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Check your Progress:

Write a detailed note on –
a.) Assessing traits
b.) The Big Five
c.) Reciprocal Influences
d.) Exploring Self
e.) Self-serving Bias

15.5 SUMMARY

In this unit, we talked about how trait theories originated with

Allport’s meeting with Freud. Trait theorists had a herculean task of
reducing the list of thousands of traits describing human personality
into manageable basic traits. For this they used the method of
factor analysis. We also looked at how our autonomic nervous
system and genes can influence our traits and shape our
personalities. The most popular trait theory now days is Big Five
that speaks of five traits that describes entire hue of personality.
While evaluating trait theories, we looked at the person-situation
controversy and found that both are important. Our personality
traits also influence our behavior in different situations and if
situation is very strong, then situation influences our behavior rather
than traits. Out of this controversy originated social cognitive
theories.

Social cognitive theories talked about reciprocal determinism

and personal control. In personal control, we talked about locus of
control, techniques to strengthen self-control, learned helplessness
vs. personal control, pessimism and optimism and blindness to
one’s own incompetence.

We shortly touched upon on benefits of positive psychology

and the evaluation of social cognitive theories.

While exploring the self we touched upon the benefits of self-

esteem and how self-serving bias protects our self-esteem.
However, there can be both advantages and disadvantages of self-
serving bias. It can make us narcissist if overused and it can protect
our ego if we use self-disparage.

15.6 QUESTIONS

1. Describe in detail and evaluate trait theories.

2. Discuss in detail The Big Five Factors and evaluate trait
theories.
3. Write a detailed note on –
a) Techniques used by successful Astrologers or Palm readers
 287

b) Reciprocal Influences
c) Internal vs. External locus of control
d) Depleting and strengthening Self-Control
e) Learned Helplessness
f) Optimism vs. Pessimism
g) Positive Psychology
4. Discuss in detail personal control from social-cognitive
psychology point of view.
5. Why psychologists have been doing extensive research on self
and how self-esteem is beneficial to us.
6. Discuss in detail self-serving bias and how it protects our self-
esteem.

15.7 REFERENCES

1) Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013

2) Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub-

continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
 288

16
STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY:
UNDERSTANDING DATA
Unit Structure :

16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Why do Psychologists use Statistics?
16.3 Descriptive Statistics
16.3.1 Frequency Distributions
16.3.2 Histogram
16.3.3 Frequency Polygon
16.4 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode
16.5 Measures of Variability: Range, SD
16.6 Z – Scores and the Normal Curve
16.7 The Correlation Coefficient
16.8 Inferential Statistics
16.9 Summary
16.10 Questions
16.11 References

16.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Understand as to why psychologists use statistics
 Know the various descriptive measures of Statistic
 Know the various measures of central tendency
 Understand the measures of variability, the concept of Z-score
and the normal curve
 Understand the concept of inferential statistics as well as the
concept of correlation coefficient.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Statistics and Psychology are intimately connected.

Psychology is research oriented. Research requires application of
statistical knowledge to summarize the data and to draw certain
valid inferences or conclusions. Statistics deals with the method of
collecting, organizing, classifying, analyzing and interpreting
 289

numerical data. Statistics is divided in to broad fields: Descriptive

Statistics and Inferential Statistics. In this unit, we would discuss
the uses of Statistics for Psychologists. Following this we would
discuss the Descriptive and Inferential Statistics and topics
associated with it.

16.2 WHY DO PSYCHOLOGISTS USE STATISTICS?

Psychologists use statistics for multiple purposes. Some of

which are briefly outlined below:

1. Knowledge of statistics helps us in our understanding of issues

related to applied and theoretical research.
2. Statistics helps us to summarize the data so as to study the
patterns in the given data. The branch of statistics that deals
with organizing numbers and summarizing them so that patterns
can be determined is called as Descriptive Statistics.
3. Statistics helps us to make scientific interpretations and draw
valid inferences. The field of statistics which deals withdrawing
valid and scientific inferences is called as Inferential Statistics.
4. Knowledge of Statistics helps in measuring /quantifying human
characteristics or abilities.
5. Statistics is of great use in identifying the general pattern of the
set of scores. Besides identifying we can also tabulate and
make graphic representations of the sets of scores (e.g.,
Results of Students in a given class for Example XII).
6. It gives an idea as to how each individual’s own performance in
each area compares with his performance in other areas. For
e.g., how has Meena done in Paper IV as compared to Paper V.
This going togetherness is known as a measure of correlation.
7. Distribution of scores, also, tells us something about the test or
the question paper. For e.g.: Are the scores evenly distributed,
too easy or too difficult or do they vary uniformly or differently.
8. It can help us to get the standing of each individual, to see how
he/she has performed on each test. This requires a common
yardstick to express performance in two different areas.
9. Statistics gives an idea about the average level of a group,
makes comparison possible, and gives the typical level of
performance in the group. For e.g., how have the 8thstandards
done on the Math's test?
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16.3 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: FREQUENCY

DISTRIBUTIONS

Descriptive Statistics refers to various methods of

organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in an informative
way. Descriptive Statistics is that statistics that is used to describe
the given data in a summarized manner. We can summarize the
data by using either the numerical method or the graphic method.

Descriptive Statistics includes the following:

a. Frequency Distribution, histogram and Frequency Polygon, the

normal curve and other distribution types.
b. Measures of Central Tendency (i.e., Mean, Median, Mode).
c. Measure of Variability (Range, Quartile Deviation, Average
Deviation, and standard Deviation).
d. Measure of Relationships.

However, in this part of the unit we are focusing only on

Frequency Distribution and related concepts.

16.3.1 Frequency Distribution:

A frequency Distribution is a method of presenting the data
in a summarized form. Frequency distribution can be constructed
by determining how often (with what frequency) various scores
occur. The other way is to set up the categories or classes and
check the occurrences of scores in each category or class. Some
frequency distribution tables include an extra column that shows
the percentage of cases in each category. Frequency distributions
are presented as frequency tables, histograms or polygons.

The advantages of using frequency distribution are:

1. Frequency tables help in organizing raw data in such a way that
information makes sense at a glance.
2. Frequency tables can help to identify obvious trends within a
data set and can be used to compare data between data sets of
the same type.
3. Frequency tables are easy to interpret and they can display a
large data sets in a fairly concise manner.
4. Frequency tables are used to present a frequency distribution
visually, with graphs.

Let us see an example of how frequency distribution table

looks for students scoring marks on psychology test
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Table 16.1: Raw Data

91 84 80 77 75
72 75 93 73 81
81 91 64 92 82
62 94 84 71 87
62 77 94 89 83
93 83 86 88 84
82 90 86 88 84
83 91 84 92 94

Table No. 2: A Frequency Distribution Table

Scores on Test Frequency (f)

94 3
93 2
92 2
91 3
90 1
89 1
88 2
87 1
86 2
84 5
83 3
82 2
81 2
80 1
77 2
75 2
73 1
72 1
71 1
64 1
62 2
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16.3.2 Histogram:
Histogram is a graph that represents the class frequencies in
a frequency distribution by vertical adjacent rectangles. It is the
most widely used methods of a frequency distribution. The purpose
of a histogram is to show the frequencies within class graphically.
In a histogram, it is assumed that scores be spread uniformly over
their intervals. The frequencies within each class interval of a
histogram are represented by a rectangle. The base of which
equals the size of the class interval and the height of which equals
the number of scores (f) within that interval.
The histogram has following special features:

1. The area of the histogram corresponds to the total (N) of the

distribution
2. The area of each bar in a histogram corresponds to the
frequency within a given interval.
3. The class intervals shown at the x axis in histogram do not have
any gaps. They are continuous and always touch. For example,
if we want to draw a histogram of above table, then on x axis,
for class interval 50-59 we will begin with 49.5 -59.5, then 59.5 -
69.5 and so on.
4. The bars are always vertical.

To plot a histogram the first step is to create a frequency

table. Let us take an example to plot a histogram from the following
frequency table

Table No. 3 Frequency Table

Fig. 1 Histogram

Interval's Interval's Frequency

Lower Limit Upper Limit
159.5 169.5 1
149.5 159.5 1
139.5 149.5 6
129.5 139.5 11
119.5 129.5 36
109.5 119.5 59
99.5 109.5 78
89.5 99.5 130
79.5 89.5 147
69.5 79.5 107
59.5 69.5 53
49.5 59.5 10
39.5 49.5 3
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16.3.3 Frequency Polygon:

A frequency polygon is also a graphical presentation of
frequency distribution. It is a line graph showing a frequency
distribution. The basic difference between histogram and frequency
polygon is that in histogram, it is assumed that all scores in a given
class interval are spread uniformly over that class interval, while in
a frequency polygon, we assume that all scores in a given interval
are concentrated at the midpoint of that class interval. In other
words, while plotting a frequency polygon, the midpoint of an
interval is always taken to represent the entire interval.

To plot frequency polygon, we first need to convert raw data

into grouped frequency table as shown above in table no. 1. Then
we need to calculate the midpoint for each class interval and put
them on x axis. Then on y axis, we need to plot the frequency
corresponding to each class interval and then to join all these
points by straight line, e.g.,

Table No. 4

Class Interval Midpoints Frequency

129.5 -134.5 132 1
124.5 – 129.5 127 1
119.5-124.5 122 7
114.5-119.5 117 13
109.5 – 114.5 112 18
104.5 -109.5 107 8
99.5 -104.5 102 2

Midpoints are found by adding the upper and lower

boundaries and dividing by 2. For example, 99.5 + 104.5/ 2 =
102,104.5+109.5/ 2 = 107, and so on.

Fig.2 Polygon
 294

Some statistician, however, prefer to close both the ends of

the polygon by extending them to the base line as shown in above
figure. To do this, two hypothetical classes (one on each end) are
added to the frequency table, each with a frequency of zero.

The polygon is closed at the base by extending it on both its

sides (ends) to the midpoints of two hypothetical classes, at the
extremes of the distribution, with zero frequencies. See Fig.2

On comparing the Histogram and a frequency polygon, you

will notice that, in frequency polygons the points replace the bars
(rectangles). Also, when several distributions are to be compared
on the same graph paper, frequency polygons are better than
Histograms.

Comparison of Histogram and Polygon:

Though no one type of graph is good for all purposes, each
one has its own advantages and disadvantages.

1. Histogram is easier and best pictorial presentation if only one

distribution is to be shown. If two or more distributions are to be
compared, then polygon is better. For example, if we want to
show graphically the performance of a particular class on one
particular subject such as psychology, we can use histogram
and we will be able to say how many marks majority of the
students have got on that exam. On the other hand, if we want
to graphically present performance of the same students on
number of subjects such as English, Psychology, Political
Science, etc. then using polygon will be better for easier
comprehension of the results.
2. Frequency polygons are good for showing the shape of a
distribution. However, a frequency polygon is less precise than
a histogram because it assumes all the scores within a class
interval are at the midpoint which is not an accurate
representation.

16.4 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Though frequency distribution tells us how scores are

distributed in a given data but this does not give us a single score
that is “typical” of that data. Measures of Central Tendency are
those numbers that best represent the most typical scores of a
frequency distribution. These measures of Central Tendency are
used to represent the entire distribution of scores which are usually
found near the center of the data when arranged in order of size.
Different measures of central tendency are more or less average
values that represent a group value. Such a value is of great
significance because it depicts the characteristic of the whole
group.
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The most common measures of Central Tendency are

Mean, Median and Mode. The various measures of central
tendency have two important uses in psychology.

 They are an average which represent all of the scores made by

a group and as such gives a concise description of the
performance of the group as a whole.
 It enables us to compare two or more groups in terms of typical
performance. This comparison can be within one group or
between groups of data.

Now let us see how to compute mean, median and mode.

16.4.1 Mean:
Mean is also called as arithmetic mean or average. It is the
most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is simply the
sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. For
example,

a) The mean of 7, 12, 24, 20, 19 is (7 + 12 + 24 + 20 + 19) / 5

=16.4.
b) The mean of the numbers: 1+2+3+6+8=20/5=4.

The formula for mean is

In this formula, each letter and symbol has a specific meaning:

_
X =It is the symbol of mean.
∑ = It is sigma, the Greek letter for S, and it stands for “sum”, i.e.,
total.
X = It represents the scores in the distribution, so the numerator of
the formula says “sum up all the scores”.
N = N is the total number of scores in a distribution.

So, according to the formula, the mean is equal to the sum

of all the scores divided by the total number of scores, as shown in
above example.

This formula is useful when the data is not too big and is not
grouped in frequency distribution. But if the data is too large and
needs to be grouped then we need another method of computing
the mean.

Although the mean is usually the most representative

measure of central tendency because each score in a distribution is
included in the computation but mean is susceptible to the effects
of extreme scores in a distribution. It means, any unusually high or
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low score will pull the mean in its direction and you will not get
correct representation of the distribution.

16.4.2 Median:
Median is that value of a variable which divides a series in
two equal parts in such a manner that the number of items below it
is equal to the number of items above it. The median is a positional
average referring to the place of a value in a series. Median is
influenced by the position of items in a series and not by the size of
the items like the mean.

Median is used under following conditions:

(i) Median is used when the exact midpoint of the distribution is

wanted.

(ii) The median is useful for distribution containing open ended

intervals, since these intervals do not enter its computation.

(iii) The Median, is almost useful when the distribution has extreme
scores i.e.,

Median is most useful when a given distribution is skewed.

Computation of the Median:

When there is an odd number of scores in an ungrouped
data, the median is simply the middle number. For example, the
median of 2, 4, 7 is 4. Similarly, the median of 3, 5, 6, 9, 15 is 6.

When there is an even number of numbers, the median is

the average of the two middle numbers.

Thus, the median of the numbers 2,4,7,12 is 4+7 divided by2

=5.5.
Similarly, the median of 2, 7, 15, 20 is (7+15)/2 = 11.

16.4.3 Mode:
Mode is defined as the most frequently occurring value in a
given data. There are many situations in which arithmetic mean and
median fail to reveal the true characteristic of data. For example,
when we take the common habitat, attitude, behaviour, etc., we
have in mind mode and not the mean or median. The mean does
not always provide an accurate reflection of the data due to the
presence of extreme items. Median may also prove to be quite
unrepresentative of the data owing to an uneven distribution of the
series. Both these shortcomings can be overcome by the use of the
mode which refers to the value which occurs most frequency in a
distribution. Mode is used under following conditions:
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 We use mode with a quick and approximate measure of central

tendency is wanted.
 We use mode when information regarding the most typical case,
such as style of dress or shoes is all that is wanted.
 Mode is employed when the most typical value of a distribution
is desired.
 It is the most meaningful measure of central tendency in case of
highly skewed or non-normal distribution as it provides the best
indication of the point of maximum concentration.

Example:
a) For individuals having the following ages — 18, 18, 19, 20,
20,20, 21, and 23, the mode is 20.

b) Problem: Find the mode from the following data: 7, 13, 18,24, 9,
3, 18

Solution: Ordering the scores from least to greatest, we get: 3,7, 9,

13, 18, 18, 24

Answer: The score which occurs most often is 18, Mode = 18

c) Determine the mode of the following scores: 8, 11, 9, 14, 9,15,

18, 6, 9, 15. The mode of the above data is 9 as it is the most
frequently occurring value.

16.5 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

Measures of variability are also called as the measures of

dispersion or averages of the second order. Average is not always
a good measure of a given distribution. Two or more groups may
have the same average but different variabilities. Too much of
dispersion or spread of the data is not good. Hence, measures of
central tendency should always be accompanied by measures of
variability.

We can define measures of variability as statistics that

describe the amount of difference and how scores are spread out in
a data set. It is a measurement of the degree of differences within a
distribution.

There are many measures of variability. In this section, we

would discuss the two measures of variability which include the
Range, Standard Deviation. The Z-scores and normal curve we
shall discus in next section.

These various measures of variability are used for four basic

purposes:
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 To determine the reliability of an averages;

 To serve as a basis for the control of the variability;
 To compare two or more series with regard to their variability;
 To facilitate the use of other statistical measures that depends
on the variability;

16.5.1 Range:
The Range is one of the crudest, simple and straight-forward
measures of variability which can be defined as the difference
between the value of the smallest item and the value of the largest
item included in the distribution. In other words, range is the
difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a
distribution. (See the first step in frequency distribution in table no.1

 Range is not suitable for precise studies.

 It is only a rough measure of dispersion. It is useful to compare
groups roughly, when the measures are small. It can’t be used
to compare large groups.
 It takes into account the extreme measures only. It is generally
used when we need to know the highest and the lowest scores
so as to know the total variation.
 It is not a reliable measure of variability.
 It can’t be used when there are many gaps in the distribution.
 It can be used when the data are too scant or too scattered to
justify the computation of a precise measure of variability or
when we just want to know the extreme scores of the total
spread.

16.5.2 Standard Deviation:

The standard deviation indicates the “average deviation”
from the mean, the consistency in the scores, and how far scores
are spread out, around the mean of the distribution. In other words,
it can be defined as the square root of the sum of the squared
deviations from the mean of scores and divided by the number of
scores, in a distribution.

 It is one of the most reliable measures of variability.

 It is always positive.
 It is based on all the observations/scores of the data.
 It is a basic building block for analyzing our data.
 It provides insights into identifying outliers.
 It is important in inference.
 It is less affected by the fluctuations of sampling than most of
other measures of dispersion.

Let us take an example to see what are the steps needed to

compute standard deviation.
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Formula for standard deviation is :

SD =

Where
SD = the standard deviation of a sample
∑ = means sum of
X = each score in the data set
X = mean of all scores in the data set
N = number of scores in the data set

Steps to compute standard deviation (Refer Table No. 5)

Table No. 5

Score Mean Score – Mean (Score-Mean)

X X– Squared
(X – )2
155 124 31 961
149 124 25 625
142 124 18 324
138 124 14 196
134 124 10 100
131 124 7 49
127 124 3 9
125 124 1 1
120 124 -4 16
115 124 -9 81
112 124 -12 144
110 124 -14 196
105 124 -19 361
102 124 -22 484
95 124 -29 841
Sum (∑) =1860 ∑=0 ∑ = 4388
Mean ( ) =124
SD = √4388/15 = 17.10
1. Arrange the data in ascending order.
2. Add up all the scores in first column (you get sum = 1860).
 300

3. To get the mean, divide the sum of all the scores in first column
with the number of scores in that column. (1860/15 = 124).
4. Put the mean of the data against each score in second column.
5. In third column, for each score (X), we find the difference
between the X and X. When the mean is subtracted from a
score a score, the result is a deviation from the mean. Scores
that are above the mean would have positive deviations and the
scores that are below the mean would have negative deviations.
If the deviations from the mean are added together, the sum will
be 0 because the negative and positive deviations will cancel
each other out.
6. In mathematics, if a negative number is squared, it becomes
positive. So, to get rid of the negative deviations, we will square
off each deviation and put it fourth column. Then we calculate
the sum of these squared deviations.
7. To get standard deviation, we take the sum of squared
deviations and divide by the total number of cases, and take the
square root.

Standard Deviations a measure of absolute distribution, the

greater the amount of dispersion, the greater the standard
deviation. standard deviation is generally used under following
conditions:

 When further computations that depend on SD are needed.

 When we have to compare individuals score on two or more
tests.
 When interpretations related to the normal probability curve are
desired.

One of the greatest limitations of standard deviation is that it

is sensitive to extreme values.

16.6 Z – SCORES AND NORMAL CURVE

16.6.1 Z – Scores
Z - scores are one type of standard scores which represents
the differences between individual scores and the mean score
expressed in units of standard deviations. Z-scores are a
conversion or transformation of individual scores into a standard
form, where the transformation is based on knowledge about the
population’s mean and standard deviation.

Z – Score can be defined as a statistical measure which

indicates how far away from the mean a particular score is in terms
of the number of standard deviations which exists between the
mean and that score.
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A positive Z-score means that the score is above the mean,

while a negative Z-score means that the score is below the mean.
The larger the z-score, the farther away from the mean the score is.

There are two major uses of Z-score:

 It tells the exact location of a score in a distribution: For
example, Vijay is09 yrs. old and weighs 40 Kilograms. How
does his weight compare to other children of his age groups?
 Z-score allows us to compare two scores coming from different
distributions. Geeta scored 72 on her Psychology test and 61 on
her biology test, on which test did she perform better? It would
not automatically mean that she did better on Psychology test.
You cannot simply compare two marks from the two classes
because each class is composed of a different population. If
most of the students from Psychology class get scores in 90s,
then Geeta might be just performing in below average range
and if in biology most of the students have got marks in 50s
then Geeta’s performance comes in above average range. So
the only way to find out would be to convert her scores in the
two subjects into Z-scores.
 Z-scores take data of any form and put them into a standard
scale. High score in a distribution always has a positive z-score
and a low score in a distribution always has a negative z score.

The formula for computing Z-score is:

z=X–X
SD
X = Raw score
X = Mean
SD = Standard Deviation
Let us take an example from table no. 4

z = 149 -124 / 17.10 = 1.46

z= 115-124/17.10 = -.53

A z score of +1.46 indicates that a person scoring 149 marks

falls about one and a half standard deviation above the mean. On
the other hand, a person scoring 115 marks falls below the mean
and has negative z score. A score of 115 is a little more than one-
half a standard deviation below the mean.

16.6.2 Standard Normal Curve:

It is also called standard normal distribution. Normal Curve is
also called as the Normal Probability Curve, the Gaussian Curve
(after a great German mathematician who investigated its
properties and wrote the equation for it).
 302

Fig.3

It is also called as the Bell-Shaped Curve or Mesokurtic

Curve (Meso means middle or medium). Normal Curve is a special
frequency polygon in which the scores are symmetrically distributed
around the mean.

In this curve the mean, median and mode are located

exactly in the middle of the curve with scores decreasing as the
curve extends from the mean. If a line is drawn down its center, one
side of the curve is a mirror image of the other side.

Features of Normal Curve:

1. The normal curve is symmetrical about the mean. The number
of cases below the mean in a normal distribution is equal to
number of cases above the mean.
2. The height of the curve is maximum at its mean. Thus, mean,
median, and mode are equal in normal probability curve.
3. There is one maximum point of the normal curve which occurs
at the mean. The height of the curve declines as we go in either
direction from the mean. This dropping off is slow at first, then
rapid, and then slows again. This pattern is the reason the
normal curve is often described as “bell shaped”. Theoretically,
the curve never touches the base line. Its tail approaches but
never reaches the base line. Hence, the range is unlimited.
4. The point of inflection i.e., the points where the curvature
changes in direction are each plus or/and minus one standard
deviation from the mean ordinate.
5. If a variable is normally distributed, that is, if it has the standard
bell-shaped pattern, a person’s z-score can tell us exactly where
that person stands relative to everyone else in the distribution.
6. The total interval from plus one standard deviation to minus one
standard deviation contains 68.26% of the cases. Similarly,
99.44% of the total area will be included between the mean
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ordinate and an ordinate 2 standard deviation from the mean.

Similarly, 99.74% of the total area will be included between the
mean ordinate and a point 3 standard deviation away from the
mean.
16.6.3 Other Distribution Types
Besides the normal distribution, there are many different
types of distributions that we may get from a given data. Two such
distributions are Skewed Distributions (also called as Skewness)
and Bimodal Distributions:
Skewed Distribution:
It can be defined as a frequency distribution in which most of
the scores fall to one side of the distribution or the other side. The
word skewed means lacking symmetry or distorted.

Skewness shows the direction of symmetry. A distribution is

said to be skewed when the mean and the median fall at different
points in the distribution and the balance or center of gravity is
shifted to one side or the other. In normal distribution, the mean
equals the median and the skewness is of course, zero, the more
nearly the distribution approaches the normal form, the closer
together are the mean and the median and the less the skewness.
Types of Skewed Distributions: There are two types of Skewed
Distributions:
Negatively Skewed
The mass of distributions is concentrated on the right end of
the figure and are spread out more gradually towards the left. The
left tail is the longest.
Positively Skewed
The mass of distribution is concentrated on the left of the
figure and are spread out more gradually towards the right. The
right tail is the longest. See Fig.4

Fig.4
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All three types of distribution will look like Fig. 5

Fig.5

Bimodal Distributions:
Some frequency polygons show two high points rather than
just one, such a distribution is called as bimodal distribution. A
bimodal distribution is a frequency distribution in which there are
two high points rather than one. In a bimodal distribution, there are
two peaks in occurrences, so you should see two humps or spikes.
For example, a bimodal distribution would look like figure 6

Fig.6

16.7 THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

Correlation refers to the relationship between two variables.

It is a method of summarizing the relationship between two sets of
data. Correlation is expressed in terms of coefficient of correlation
or Correlation Coefficient. It is denoted as “r”.

Correlation requires two scores from the SAME individuals.

These scores are normally identified as X and Y. The pairs of
scores can be listed in a table or presented in a scatter plot. Usually
the two variables are observed, not manipulated.

A correlation coefficient is a number that represents the

strength and direction of a relationship existing between two
variables that tells us to what degree one variable varies with the
variations in the other.

Coefficient of correlation is a single number that varies from

+1.00 to 0.00 to -1.00. The number tells us about the magnitude or
 305

degree of relationship whereas signs, plus or minus, tells us about

the direction of relationship. A number close to 1 (whether positive
or negative) indicates a strong relationship, while a number close to
0 indicates a weak relationship. Thus +1.00 denotes perfect
positive correlation, whereas -1.00 denotes perfect negative
correlation. In psychology and other social sciences, it is very
difficult or rather impossible to get perfect correlation. Such perfect
correlations are usually obtained in physical sciences.

 A correlation coefficient close to zero indicates a weak linear

relationship between two variables.
 A correlation coefficient of zero would indicate that there is no
correlation, or relationship, between two variables. For example,
the correlation coefficient between shoe size and number of
books read.
 A positive correlation coefficient occurs when the values of both
variables increase together. That is, an increase in one variable
tends to be associated with an increase in the other variable.
For example, relationship between studying hard and high
grades in school. Those who study more, get higher grades in
school. Take another example of height and weight. Taller a
person is, heavier he will be.
 A negative correlation coefficient occurs when the increase of
one variable corresponds with the decrease of another variable.
That is an increase in one variable tends to be associated with a
decrease in the other variable in the same proportion. For
example, the more you study, less the chances of failure. Take
another example, the relationship between the height above the
sea level and temperature. As the height above the sea level
increases, the temperature drops and it gets colder.

So, when increase in one variable lead to simultaneous

increase in another variable or vice versa, it is called as positive
correlation. On the other hand, when increase in one variable leads
to decreases in other variable or vice versa it is called as negative
correlation. When increase or decrease in one variable does not
affect the other variable in any manner, then it is called as zero
correlation.

Correlation coefficient is computed by using following formula:

∑ ZxZy
Correlation coefficient = ----------------
N
Steps in Computation of Correlation Coefficient:
1. As mentioned above, correlation is computed between two
variables and for computation purpose we call them X and Y. To
compute a correlation coefficient, the data from both variables
 306

can be converted to z scores. So, each individual will have two z

scores – one for X variable and one for Y variable.
2. Each person’s two z scores are multiplied together.
3. All these cross products are added up
4. The sum of all cross products is divided by the number of
individuals.
Thus, correlation coefficient is the mean of the sum of the
products of the z scores for the two variables. In terms of z scores -

 In positive correlation, high z scores on one variable tend to be

multiplied by high z scores on the other variable and the low z
scores on one variable tend to be multiplied by low z score on
the other variable. However, the sum of cross products is
always positive in both cases, because when two negative
numbers are multiplied, they result in a positive number.
 In negative correlation, high z scores (which are positive) on
one variable tend to be multiplied by low z scores (which are
negative) on the other variable, and vice versa. This results in
negative cross products. So, when the sum of these negative
cross products is divided by N, the result is a negative
correlation coefficient.

The following figure depicts the graphic representation of

different types of correlation. Plotting two variables together creates
a scatter diagram or scatter plot.

As you can see in fig. 7 and Fig. 8, positive relationship

generally forms a line running from lower left to upper right. A
perfect negative relationship generally forms a line running from
upper left-hand corner of the graph to lower right-hand corner of the
graph.

The minimum coefficient is .00, which indicates there is no

consistent relationship between the two variables. From a z-score
point of view, when two variables are not related, the cross-
products are mixed, that is, some are positive and some are
negative. In other words, sometimes high z scores on one variable
go with high z scores on the other and low z scores on one variable
go with low z scores on the other. When the cross products for the
two variables are summed, the positive and negative numbers
cancel each other out, resulting in a 0 correlation.

From this minimum value, the coefficients increase in both

directions until -1.00 is reached on one side and +1.00 is reached
on the other side. Both -1.00 and +1.00 indicate perfect and close
relationship between the two variables. The sign of plus or minus
indicates the direction of the relationship while the number indicates
the magnitude of the relationship.
 307

Fig.7

Fig.8

Uses of Correlation Method:

1. Relationship: Correlation allows the researcher to investigate

naturally occurring variables that maybe unethical or impractical to
test experimentally. For example, it would be unethical to conduct
an experiment on whether smoking causes lung cancer. Correlation
allows the researcher to clearly and easily see if there is a
relationship between variables. This can then be displayed in a
graphical form.
2.Prediction: The coefficient is useful in predicting the
performance on the second variable by knowing the score on the
first variable.

Causality: However, correlation does not necessarily mean

causation. The fact that two variables are highly correlated does not
necessarily mean that one variable directly causes the other. For
example, there might be a strong correlation between ice-cream
sales and the sale of sunglasses. Can we say buying ice-cream
causes people to buy sunglasses also? NO, there can be other
reasons for positive correlation between the sale of ice-cream and
sunglasses and that is hot weather.
Experimental method is the only method that can give strong
scientific evidence of cause-and-effect relationship between two or
more variables.
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16.8 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics which helps us to

draw inferences about the population on the basis of sample. It
enables us to make confident decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Inferential statistics consists of statistical techniques that allow
researchers to determine how likely it is that a study’s outcome is
due to chance and whether the outcome can be legitimately
generalized to a larger population.

There are many different kinds of inferential statistical

methods. The method that is used depends on the design of the
experiment, such as number of independent and dependent
variables or the number of experimental groups. It allows
researchers to determine the difference between results of a study
that are meaningful and those that are merely due to chance
variations.
Statistical Significance:
Inferential statistics allows researchers to determine how
much confidence they should have in the results of a particular
experiment. If inferential statistics indicates that the odds of a
particular finding occurring are considerably greater than mere
chance, we can conclude that our results are statistically significant.
Statistically significant results indicate that we can conclude with a
high degree of confidence that the manipulation of the independent
variable, rather than simply chance, is the reason for the results. In
other words, statistical significance is a way to test differences to
see how likely those differences are to be real and not just caused
by the random variations in behavior that exist in everything
animals and people do.
Inferential statistics uses wide variety of statistical tests,
some of which include the T test, the F test, Chi Square, etc. For
example, t-tests are used to compare the means of two groups.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of
more than two groups.

Type I & Type II Error:

In psychology, we can’t be fully sure that our
intervention/manipulation only was responsible for the results that
we have got. We always have to deal with probabilities and not
certainties. Since researchers are dealing with probabilities, there is
always a small but real possibility of erroneously concluding that
study results are significant. Here the term error does not mean
mistakes or inaccuracies which may be committed in making
observations, counting and calculations, etc. It refers to the
difference between the true value of a parameter and its estimate
 309

provided by an appropriate sample statistic. There are two types of

errors that may occur – Type I error and Type II error.

A Type I error occurs when the results show that a difference

exists but in reality, there is no difference. So, the results of one
study should never be trusted completely. It is asserting something
that is absent, a false hit. To have greater confidence in a particular
effect or result, the study should be repeated or replicated. If the
same results are obtained in different studies, then we can be more
certain that our results about a particular effect are correct.

A Type II error occurs when a researcher fails to find a

significant effect, yet that significant effect really exists. It is failing
to assert what is present, a miss. A Type II error occurs when a
study does not have enough power. In other words, the study is not
strong enough to find the effect the researcher is looking for. Higher
power may be achieved by improving the research design and
measuring instruments or by increasing the number of participants
being studied.

Population vs. Sample:

A population is a complete set of something- people,
nonhuman animals, objects or events. For example, if I want to
conduct a study on the study habits of students in the age group of
18 to 25, residing in Mumbai and irrespective of stream they belong
to. They may be students of Arts, Science, Commerce, Medical or
Engineering stream or any other stream. Logistically, it won’t be
possible for me to cover each and every student in that age group
and residing in Mumbai. So to conduct such a study, the best way
is to take a small portion of this population, to serve as subjects in
this study.

A subset of population is known as Sample. The researchers

conduct study on the carefully chosen sample. They analyze the
results of this sample, using inferential statistics to make guesses
about what they would have found had they studied the entire
population. Inferential statistics enables researchers to take the
findings they get from a sample and apply them to a population.
Population here does not mean the population of a country.
Population is also defined as a specific segment of the society as
stated in above example.

16.9 SUMMARY

This unit began by discussing as to why psychologists use

statistics, followed by the definition of descriptive statistics and its
types. In descriptive statistics, we discussed the concept of
frequency distribution, histogram and frequency polygon. The
concept of normal curve as well as its characteristics was also
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discussed. We have also discussed the skewed distribution and its

types as well as bimodal distributions. Measures of central
tendency such as mean median and mode were discussed and its
computation for ungrouped data was demonstrated. Measures of
variability such as range and standard deviation were also
discussed. The concept of Z-score was explained. The concept of
inferential statistics as well as correlation coefficient was also
discussed. Inferential statistics included types of tests used, types
of errors and difference between population and sample.

16.10 QUESTIONS

1. Define Frequency distribution, Histogram and Frequency

Polygon with graphic representations.
2. Explain the following terms:
a. Normal Curve
b. Skewed Distribution
3. Discuss the different Measures of Central Tendency
4. Discuss the different Measures of Variability.
5. Write short notes on the following
a. Inferential Statistics – Statistical Significance
b. The Correlation Coefficient.

16.11 REFERENCES

1. Myers, D. G. (2013).Psychology.10th edition; International

edition. New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint
2013
2. Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian
subcontinent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley
(India)pvt ltd.
3. Baron, R. A., & Kalsher, M. J. (2008). Psychology: From
Science to Practice. (2nd ed.). Pearson Education inc., Allynand
Bacon
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