Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and

electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of
the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because
the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor
can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more
are found embedded in integrated circuits.

Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed the concept of a field-effect

transistor in 1926, but it was not possible to actually construct a working device at that
time.[1] The first working device to be built was a point-contact transistor invented in
1947 by American physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while working under
William Shockley at Bell Labs. They shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their Assorted discrete
achievement.[2] The most widely used transistor is the MOSFET (metal–oxide– transistors. Packages in
order from top to bottom:
semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, which was
TO-3, TO-126, TO-92, SOT-
invented by Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla with Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at 23.
Bell Labs in 1959.[3][4][5] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could
be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[6]

Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved

the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and
computers, among other things. The first transistor and the
MOSFET are on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics.[7][8]
The MOSFET is the fundamental building block of modern
electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic
systems.[9] An estimated total of 13 sextillion MOSFETs have
been manufactured between 1960 and 2018 (at least 99.9% of
all transistors), making the MOSFET the most widely
manufactured device in history.[10]
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor
Most transistors are made from very pure silicon, and some (MOSFET), showing gate (G), body (B), source (S)
and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from
from germanium, but certain other semiconductor materials can
the body by an insulating layer (pink).
also be used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge
carrier, in a field-effect transistor, or may have two kinds of
charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller, and
require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high
operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers.

Contents
History
Bipolar transistors
MOSFET (MOS transistor)
 Importance
Simplified operation
Transistor as a switch
Transistor as an amplifier
Comparison with vacuum tubes
Advantages
Limitations
Types
Field-effect transistor (FET)
Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs
Other transistor types
Part numbering standards/specifications
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association (EECA)
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
Proprietary
Naming problems
Construction
Semiconductor material
Packaging
Flexible transistors

See also
References
Further reading
External links

History
The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and
long-distance telephony. The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial
amount of power. In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode oscillator.[11]
Austro-Hungarian physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a field-effect transistor (FET)
in Canada in 1925,[12] which was intended to be a solid-state replacement for the triode.[13][14]
Lilienfeld also filed identical patents in the United States in 1926[15] and 1928.[16][17] However,
Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any

Julius Edgar specific examples of a working prototype. Because the production of high-quality semiconductor
Lilienfeld proposed materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would not have found
the concept of a field- practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such a device had been built.[18] In 1934, German
effect transistor in inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device in Europe.[19]
1925.

Bipolar transistors
From November 17, 1947, to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New
Jersey, performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, a signal
was produced with the output power greater than the input.[20] Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw the
 potential in
this, and over
the next few
months
worked to
greatly expand
the knowledge
of

John Bardeen, William Shockley and

Walter Brattain at Bell Labs in 1948.
They invented the point-contact
transistor in 1947 and bipolar
junction transistor in 1948.

A replica of the first working transistor, a point-

semiconductors. The term transistor was coined by John R. contact transistor invented in 1947.
Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance.[21][22][23]
According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, authors of a
biography of John Bardeen, Shockley had proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect
and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell
Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not
new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor.[18] In
acknowledgement of this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics
"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".[24][25]

Shockley's research team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET), by trying to modulate the conductivity of a
semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and
copper compound materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind their failure to build a working
FET, this led them to instead inventing the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors.[26][27]

In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert
Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a
Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris. Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal
rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II. Using this
knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947. By June 1948,
witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, Mataré produced consistent results using
samples of germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had
accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented
the transistor before them, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for
Herbert Mataré in amplified use in France's telephone network and filed for his first transistor patent application on
1950. He August 13,1948.[28][29][30]
independently
invented a point- The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, which applied
contact transistor in for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and
June 1948. Morgan Sparks had successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying
germanium transistor. Bell Labs had announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in
a press release on July 4, 1951.[31][32]
The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier
germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953, capable of
operating up to 60 MHz.[33] These were made by etching
depressions into an N-type germanium base from both sides
with jets of Indium(III) sulfate until it was a few ten-
thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into the
depressions formed the collector and emitter.[34][35]

The first "prototype" pocket transistor radio was shown by

INTERMETALL (a company founded by Herbert Mataré in
1952) at the Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf
between August 29, 1953 and September 9, 1953.[36] The first
"production" pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1,
released in October 1954.[25] Produced as a joint venture
between the Regency Division of Industrial Development
Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas Instruments of
Dallas Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis,
Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio featuring 4 transistors
Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and
and one germanium diode. The industrial design was
produced in 1953
outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil.
It was initially released in one of four different colours: black,
bone white, red, and gray. Other colours were to shortly follow.[37][38][39]

The first "production" all-transistor car radio was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and it was announced in the
April 28th 1955 edition of the Wall Street Journal. Chrysler had made the all-transistor car radio, Mopar model 914HR, available
as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars which first hit the dealership showroom
floors on October 21, 1955.[40][41][42]

The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market penetration of
transistor radios.[43] The TR-63 went on to sell seven million units worldwide by the mid-1960s.[44] Sony's success with
transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s.[45]

The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954 by Morris Tanenbaum. The first commercial
silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of
high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs.[46][47][48]

MOSFET (MOS transistor)

Semiconductor companies initially focused on junction transistors in the early years of the semiconductor industry. However, the
junction transistor was a relatively bulky device that was difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited it to
a number of specialised applications. Field-effect transistors (FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives to junction
transistors, but researchers could not get FETs to work properly, largely due to the troublesome surface state barrier that prevented
the external electric field from penetrating into the material.[6]

In the 1950s, Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla investigated the surface properties of silicon semiconductors at Bell Labs,
where he proposed a new method of semiconductor device fabrication, coating a silicon wafer with an insulating layer of silicon
oxide so that electricity could reliably penetrate to the conducting silicon below, overcoming the surface states that prevented
electricity from reaching the semiconducting layer. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the
semiconductor industry as it later made possible the mass-production of silicon integrated circuits.[49][50] He presented his
 Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right) invented the MOSFET (MOS transistor) at Bell Labs in 1959.

findings in 1957.[51] Building on his surface passivation method, he developed the metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS)
process.[49] He proposed the MOS process could be used to build the first working silicon FET, which he began working on
building with the help of his Korean colleague Dawon Kahng.[49]

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Mohamed
Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.[3][4] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-
produced for a wide range of uses.[6] With its high scalability,[52] and much lower power consumption and higher density than
bipolar junction transistors,[53] the MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits,[5] allowing the integration
of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC.[54]

CMOS (complementary MOS) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963.[55] The
first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967.[56] A double-gate MOSFET was
first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi.[57][58] FinFET
(fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his
team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989.[59][60]

Importance
Transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics. Many thus consider the transistor to be one of the
greatest inventions of the 20th century.[61]

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, is by far the most widely
used transistor, used in applications ranging from computers and electronics[50] to communications technology such as
smartphones.[62] The MOSFET has been considered to be the most important transistor,[63] possibly the most important invention
in electronics,[64] and the birth of modern electronics.[65] The MOS transistor has been the fundamental building block of modern
digital electronics since the late 20th century, paving the way for the digital age.[9] The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it a
"groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world".[62] Its importance in today's society rests on its
ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low
per-transistor costs.

The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.[66] The list of IEEE Milestones also
includes the inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the MOSFET in 1959.[67]

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) MOS transistors every
year,[68] the vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply
chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic
gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 3 billion
transistors (MOSFETs).[69] "About 60 million transistors were built in 2002… for [each] man, woman, and child on Earth."[70]

The MOS transistor is the most widely manufactured device in history.[10] As of 2013, billions of transistors are manufactured
every day, nearly all of which are MOSFET devices.[5] Between 1960 and 2018, an estimated total of 13 sextillion MOS
transistors have been manufactured, accounting for at least 99.9% of all transistors.[10]

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have
replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard
microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system to
control that same function.

Simplified operation
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a
small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much
larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It
can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, which is
proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a
circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current
is determined by other circuit elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how
A Darlington transistor opened up so the
they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled
actual transistor chip (the small square) can
base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is,
be seen inside. A Darlington transistor is
flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much effectively two transistors on the same chip.
larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field- One transistor is much larger than the other,
effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a but both are large in comparison to
voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. transistors in large-scale integration
because this particular example is intended
The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will for power applications.
flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in
the base. Because internally the base and emitter connections behave like
a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this
voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Transistor as a switch
Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for
high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates. Important
parameters for this application include the current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching speed, characterised by the
rise and fall times.

In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector
currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage
difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load
resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter freely.
When saturated, the switch is said to be on.[71]
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the
use of bipolar transistors as switches. The transistor provides
current gain, allowing a relatively large current in the collector
to be switched by a much smaller current into the base
terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the
type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies
depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch
circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base
current to ensure the transistor will be saturated.

In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as

possible, the ideal switch having the properties of open circuit
when off, short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition
between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the
"off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect
connected circuitry, the resistance of the transistor in the "on"
state is too small to affect circuitry, and the transition between A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a n–p–
n bipolar transistor.
the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect.

Transistor as an amplifier
The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change
in voltage (Vin) changes the small current through the base of the
transistor; the transistor's current amplification combined with
the properties of the circuit means that small swings in Vin
produce large changes in Vout.

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible,

with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some
both.

From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products BJT used as an electronic switch, in grounded-
include amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, emitter configuration.
and signal processing. The first discrete-transistor audio
amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power
and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.

Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive.

Comparison with vacuum tubes

Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves") were the main
active components in electronic equipment.

Advantages
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications are

no cathode heater (which produces the characteristic orange glow of tubes), reducing power consumption,
eliminating delay as tube heaters warm up, and immune from cathode poisoning and depletion;
 very small size and weight, reducing equipment size;
large numbers of extremely small transistors can be
manufactured as a single integrated circuit;
low operating voltages compatible with batteries of
only a few cells;
circuits with greater energy efficiency are usually
possible. For low-power applications (e.g., voltage
amplification) in particular, energy consumption can be
very much less than for tubes;
complementary devices available, providing design
flexibility including complementary-symmetry circuits,
not possible with vacuum tubes;
very low sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration,
providing physical ruggedness and virtually eliminating
shock-induced spurious signals (e.g., microphonics in
audio applications);
not susceptible to breakage of a glass envelope,
leakage, outgassing, and other physical damage.

Limitations
Transistors have the following limitations:
Amplifier circuit, common-emitter configuration with
they lack the higher electron mobility afforded by the a voltage-divider bias circuit.
vacuum of vacuum tubes, which is desirable for high-
power, high-frequency operation — such as that used
in over-the-air television broadcasting
transistors and other solid-state devices are susceptible to damage from very brief electrical and thermal events,
including electrostatic discharge in handling; vacuum tubes are electrically much more rugged;
they are sensitive to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened chips are used for spacecraft
devices);
In audio applications, transistors lack the lower-harmonic distortion — the so-called tube sound — which is
characteristic of vacuum tubes, and is preferred by some.[72]

Types
Transistors are categorized by

structure: MOSFET (IGFET), BJT, JFET,

insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), "other PNP P-channel
types";
semiconductor material: the metalloids
germanium (first used in 1947) and silicon (first
used in 1954)—in amorphous, polycrystalline and
monocrystalline form—, the compounds gallium
arsenide (1966) and silicon carbide (1997), the
alloy silicon-germanium (1989), the allotrope of NPN N-channel
carbon graphene (research ongoing since 2004),
etc. (see Semiconductor material);
electrical polarity (positive and negative): n–p–n,
p–n–p (BJTs), n-channel, p-channel (FETs); BJT JFET
maximum power rating: low, medium, high;
maximum operating frequency: low, medium, BJT and JFET symbols
high, radio (RF), microwave frequency (the
maximum effective frequency of a transistor in a common-emitter or common-source circuit is denoted by the
term fT, an abbreviation for transition frequency—the frequency of transition is the frequency at which the
transistor yields unity voltage gain)
application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta, matched pair;
 physical packaging:
through-hole metal,
through-hole plastic,
surface mount, ball
grid array, power P-channel
modules (see
Packaging);
amplification factor
hFE, βF (transistor
beta)[73] or gm
(transconductance). N-channel

JFET MOSFET enh MOSFET dep

JFET and MOSFET symbols

Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, n–p–n, low-power, high-frequency switch.

A popular way to remember which symbol represents which type of transistor is to look at the arrow and how it is arranged.
Within an NPN transistor symbol, the arrow will Not Point iN. Conversely, within the PNP symbol you see that the arrow Points
iN Proudly.

Field-effect transistor (FET)

The field-effect transistor, sometimes called a
unipolar transistor, uses either electrons (in n-
channel FET) or holes (in p-channel FET) for
conduction. The four terminals of the FET are
named source, gate, drain, and body
(substrate). On most FETs, the body is
connected to the source inside the package,
and this will be assumed for the following
description.
Operation of a FET and its Id-Vg curve. At first, when no gate
In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via voltage is applied. There is no inversion electron in the channel, the
a conducting channel that connects the source device is OFF. As gate voltage increase, inversion electron density in
region to the drain region. The conductivity is the channel increase, current increase, the device turns on.
varied by the electric field that is produced
when a voltage is applied between the gate
and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the
gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially for VGS
below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (IDS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain
current begins)[74] in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices,
for example, at the 65 nm technology node.[75]

For low noise at narrow bandwidth the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous.

FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known
as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the
insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source
and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly,
forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input
impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.

Metal–semiconductor FETs (MESFETs) are JFETs in which the reverse biased p–n junction is replaced by a metal–
semiconductor junction. These, and the HEMTs (high-electron-mobility transistors, or HFETs), in which a two-dimensional
electron gas with very high carrier mobility is used for charge transport, are especially suitable for use at very high frequencies
(microwave frequencies; several GHz).

FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or off
with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the
conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the
channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices
and a lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias
and conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.

Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET), also known as the metal–oxide–
silicon transistor (MOS transistor, or MOS),[5] is a type of field-effect transistor that is fabricated by the controlled oxidation of a
semiconductor, typically silicon. It has an insulated gate, whose voltage determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to
change conductivity with the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The MOSFET
is by far the most common transistor, and the basic building block of most modern electronics.[9] The MOSFET accounts for
99.9% of all transistors in the world.[10]

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction
transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin
layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type
semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p transistor). This construction produces two p–n
junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base
region (two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor).

BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a collector. They are
useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current.[76] In an
n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the
junction), and the base-collector junction is reverse biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction),
and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-
biased base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base,
which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. As well, as the base is lightly doped (in comparison to the emitter and
collector regions), recombination rates are low, permitting more carriers to diffuse across the base region. By controlling the
number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.[76] Collector current
is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal
transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

Unlike the field-effect transistor (see below), the BJT is a low-input-impedance device. Also, as the base–emitter voltage (VBE) is
increased the base–emitter current and hence the collector–emitter current (ICE) increase exponentially according to the Shockley
diode model and the Ebers-Moll model. Because of this exponential relationship, the BJT has a higher transconductance than the
FET.

Bipolar transistors can be made to conduct by exposure to light, because absorption of photons in the base region generates a
photocurrent that acts as a base current; the collector current is approximately β times the photocurrent. Devices designed for this
purpose have a transparent window in the package and are called phototransistors.

Usage of MOSFETs and BJTs

The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor for both digital circuits as well as analog circuits,[77] accounting for
99.9% of all transistors in the world.[10] The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was previously the most commonly used transistor
during the 1950s to 1960s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available in the 1970s, the BJT remained the transistor of choice
for many analog circuits such as amplifiers because of their greater linearity, up until MOSFET devices (such as power
MOSFETs, LDMOS and RF CMOS) replaced them for most power electronic applications in the 1980s. In integrated circuits, the
desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits in the 1970s. Discrete
MOSFETs (typically power MOSFETs) can be applied in transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators,
amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

Other transistor types

field-effect transistor (FET):

metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor

(MOSFET), where the gate is insulated by a shallow
layer of insulator;

p-type MOS (PMOS);

n-type MOS (NMOS);
complementary MOS (CMOS);

RF CMOS, for power electronics;

multi-gate field-effect transistor (MuGFET);

fin field-effect transistor (FinFET), source/drain

region shapes fins on the silicon surface; Transistor symbol created on Portuguese
thin-film transistor, used in LCD and OLED pavement in the University of Aveiro.
displays;
floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), for non-volatile
storage;
power MOSFET, for power electronics;

lateral diffused MOS (LDMOS);

carbon nanotube field-effect transistor (CNFET), where the channel material is replaced by a carbon
nanotube;
junction gate field-effect transistor (JFET), where the gate is insulated by a reverse-biased p–n junction;
metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MESFET), similar to JFET with a Schottky junction instead of a
p–n junction;

high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT);

inverted-T field-effect transistor (ITFET);
fast-reverse epitaxial diode field-effect transistor (FREDFET);
organic field-effect transistor (OFET), in which the semiconductor is an organic compound;
ballistic transistor (disambiguation);
FETs used to sense environment;

ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (IFSET), to measure ion concentrations in solution,

electrolyte–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (EOSFET), neurochip,
 deoxyribonucleic acid field-effect transistor (DNAFET).
bipolar junction transistor (BJT):

heterojunction bipolar transistor, up to several hundred GHz, common in modern ultrafast and RF circuits;
Schottky transistor;
avalanche transistor:
Darlington transistors are two BJTs connected together to provide a high current gain equal to the product of
the current gains of the two transistors;
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) use a medium-power IGFET, similarly connected to a power BJT, to
give a high input impedance. Power diodes are often connected between certain terminals depending on
specific use. IGBTs are particularly suitable for heavy-duty industrial applications. The ASEA Brown Boveri
(ABB) 5SNA2400E170100 ,[78] intended for three-phase power supplies, houses three n–p–n IGBTs in a
case measuring 38 by 140 by 190 mm and weighing 1.5 kg. Each IGBT is rated at 1,700 volts and can
handle 2,400 amperes;
phototransistor.
emitter-switched bipolar transistor (ESBT) is a monolithic configuration of a high-voltage bipolar transistor and
a low-voltage power MOSFET in cascode topology. It was introduced by STMicroelectronics in the 2000s,[79]
and abandoned a few years later around 2012.[80]
multiple-emitter transistor, used in transistor–transistor logic and integrated current mirrors;
multiple-base transistor, used to amplify very-low-level signals in noisy environments such as the pickup of a
record player or radio front ends. Effectively, it is a very large number of transistors in parallel where, at the
output, the signal is added constructively, but random noise is added only stochastically.[81]
tunnel field-effect transistor, where it switches by modulating quantum tunnelling through a barrier.
diffusion transistor, formed by diffusing dopants into semiconductor substrate; can be both BJT and FET.
unijunction transistor, can be used as simple pulse generators. It comprise a main body of either P-type or N-type
semiconductor with ohmic contacts at each end (terminals Base1 and Base2). A junction with the opposite
semiconductor type is formed at a point along the length of the body for the third terminal (Emitter).
single-electron transistors (SET), consist of a gate island between two tunneling junctions. The tunneling current
is controlled by a voltage applied to the gate through a capacitor.[82]
nanofluidic transistor, controls the movement of ions through sub-microscopic, water-filled channels.[83]
multigate devices:

tetrode transistor;
pentode transistor;
trigate transistor (prototype by Intel);
dual-gate field-effect transistors have a single channel with two gates in cascode; a configuration optimized
for high-frequency amplifiers, mixers, and oscillators.
junctionless nanowire transistor (JNT), uses a simple nanowire of silicon surrounded by an electrically isolated
"wedding ring" that acts to gate the flow of electrons through the wire.
vacuum-channel transistor, when in 2012, NASA and the National Nanofab Center in South Korea were reported
to have built a prototype vacuum-channel transistor in only 150 nanometers in size, can be manufactured
cheaply using standard silicon semiconductor processing, can operate at high speeds even in hostile
environments, and could consume just as much power as a standard transistor.[84]
organic electrochemical transistor.
solaristor (from solar cell transistor), a two-terminal gate-less self-powered phototransistor.

Part numbering standards/specifications

The types of some transistors can be parsed from the part number. There are three major semiconductor naming standards; in each
the alphanumeric prefix provides clues to type of the device.

Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)

The JIS-C-7012 specification for transistor part numbers starts
JIS transistor prefix table
with "2S",[85] e.g. 2SD965, but sometimes the "2S" prefix is not
marked on the package – a 2SD965 might only be marked Prefix Type of transistor
"D965"; a 2SC1815 might be listed by a supplier as simply 2SA high-frequency p–n–p BJT
"C1815". This series sometimes has suffixes (such as "R", "O", 2SB audio-frequency p–n–p BJT
"BL", standing for "red", "orange", "blue", etc.) to denote
2SC high-frequency n–p–n BJT
variants, such as tighter hFE (gain) groupings.
2SD audio-frequency n–p–n BJT
2SJ P-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)
European Electronic Component
2SK N-channel FET (both JFET and MOSFET)
Manufacturers Association (EECA)
The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme, begins with
two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C for materials like GaAs); the second
letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then
two digits, for industrial types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g.
"C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C[86]) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating
(e.g. BUK854-800A[87]). The more common prefixes are:
 Pro Electron / EECA transistor prefix table
Prefix
Type and usage Example Equivalent Reference
class
Germanium small-signal AF Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/N
AC AC126 NTE102A
transistor TE102A.pdf)
Germanium AF power Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AD AD133 NTE179
transistor e179.pdf)
Germanium small-signal RF Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AF AF117 NTE160
transistor e160.pdf)
Germanium RF power Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AL ALZ10 NTE100
transistor e100.pdf)
Germanium switching Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/N
AS ASY28 NTE101
transistor TE101.pdf)
Germanium power switching Datasheet (http://www.weisd.com/store2/nt
AU AU103 NTE127
transistor e127.pdf)
Silicon, small-signal transistor Datasheet (https://www.mccsemi.com/pdf/P
BC BC548 2N3904
("general purpose") roducts/2N3904(TO-92).pdf)
Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/d
BD Silicon, power transistor BD139 NTE375
s/BD/BD135.pdf)
Silicon, RF (high frequency) Datasheet (http://www.onsemi.com/pub_lin
BF BF245 NTE133
BJT or FET k/Collateral/BF245A-D.PDF)
Silicon, switching transistor Datasheet (http://www.fairchildsemi.com/d
BS BS170 2N7000
(BJT or MOSFET) s/BS/BS170.pdf)
Silicon, high frequency, high Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.or
BL BLW60 NTE325
power (for transmitters) g/datasheet/philips/BLW60.pdf)
Silicon, high voltage (for CRT Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.or
BU BU2520A NTE2354
horizontal deflection circuits) g/datasheet/philips/BU2520A.pdf)
Gallium arsenide small-signal Datasheet (https://web.archive.org/web/201
CF microwave transistor CF739 — 50109012745/http://www.kesun.com/pdf/r
(MESFET) f%20transistor/CF739.pdf)
Gallium arsenide microwave Datasheet (http://www.datasheetcatalog.or
CL CLY10 —
power transistor (FET) g/datasheet/siemens/CLY10.pdf)

Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)

The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device (dual-gate field-effect
transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device
properties (although early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium). For example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power
transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer
variant, but rarely gain groupings.

Proprietary
Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices are second-
sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable
indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a
PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a
2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices).
Military part numbers sometimes are assigned their own codes, such as the British Military CV Naming System.

Manufacturers buying large numbers of similar parts may have them supplied with "house numbers", identifying a particular
purchasing specification and not necessarily a device with a standardized registered number. For example, an HP part 1854,0053
is a (JEDEC) 2N2218 transistor[88][89] which is also assigned the CV number: CV7763[90]

Naming problems
With so many independent naming schemes, and the abbreviation of part numbers when printed on the devices, ambiguity
sometimes occurs. For example, two different devices may be marked "J176" (one the J176 low-power JFET, the other the
higher-powered MOSFET 2SJ176).

As older "through-hole" transistors are given surface-mount packaged counterparts, they tend to be assigned many different part
numbers because manufacturers have their own systems to cope with the variety in pinout arrangements and options for dual or
matched n–p–n + p–n–p devices in one pack. So even when the original device (such as a 2N3904) may have been assigned by a
standards authority, and well known by engineers over the years, the new versions are far from standardized in their naming.

Construction

Semiconductor material
Semiconductor material characteristics
Junction forward Electron mobility Hole mobility Max.
Semiconductor
voltage junction temp.
material m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C m2/(V·s) @ 25 °C
V @ 25 °C °C
Ge 0.27 0.39 0.19 70 to 100
Si 0.71 0.14 0.05 150 to 200
GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200
Al-Si junction 0.3 — — 150 to 200

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and
high-performance versions now employ the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor
alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental.

Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used to make transistors are given in the adjacent table; these
parameters will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level, strain, and sundry other factors.

The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a
specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table
are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the
better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current
decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C.[91] In some circuits special
compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a function of the electric field forming the channel and of various
other phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities, called dopants, are introduced deliberately in
making a MOSFET, to control the MOSFET electrical behavior.
The electron mobility and hole mobility columns show the average speed that electrons and holes diffuse through the
semiconductor material with an electric field of 1 volt per meter applied across the material. In general, the higher the electron
mobility the faster the transistor can operate. The table indicates that Ge is a better material than Si in this respect. However, Ge
has four major shortcomings compared to silicon and gallium arsenide:

Its maximum temperature is limited;

it has relatively high leakage current;
it cannot withstand high voltages;
it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.
Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n transistor
tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is
for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-mobility
transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high
speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium
nitride and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for
various applications.

Max. junction temperature values represent a cross section taken from various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature
should not be exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.

Al–Si junction refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–semiconductor barrier diode, commonly known as a Schottky
diode. This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between
the source and drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance, but sometimes it is used in the circuit.

Packaging
Discrete transistors can be individually packaged transistors or unpackaged
transistor chips (dice).

Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see image). The

two main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also
known as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest
surface-mount package (currently only for large integrated circuits). It has solder
Assorted discrete transistors
"balls" on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have
shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency characteristics but
lower power rating.

Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The package
often dictates the power rating and frequency characteristics. Power transistors
have larger packages that can be clamped to heat sinks for enhanced cooling.
Additionally, most power transistors have the collector or drain physically
connected to the metal enclosure. At the other extreme, some surface-mount
microwave transistors are as small as grains of sand. Soviet KT315b transistors

Often a given transistor type is available in several packages. Transistor

packages are mainly standardized, but the assignment of a transistor's functions to the terminals is not: other transistor types can
assign other functions to the package's terminals. Even for the same transistor type the terminal assignment can vary (normally
indicated by a suffix letter to the part number, q.e. BC212L and BC212K).
Nowadays most transistors come in a wide range of SMT packages, in comparison the list of available through-hole packages is
relatively small, here is a short list of the most common through-hole transistors packages in alphabetical order: ATV, E-line,
MRT, HRT, SC-43, SC-72, TO-3, TO-18, TO-39, TO-92, TO-126, TO220, TO247, TO251, TO262, ZTX851.

Unpackaged transistor chips (die) may be assembled into hybrid devices.[92] The IBM SLT module of the 1960s is one example
of such a hybrid circuit module using glass passivated transistor (and diode) die. Other packaging techniques for discrete
transistors as chips include Direct Chip Attach (DCA) and Chip On Board (COB).[92]

Flexible transistors
Researchers have made several kinds of flexible transistors, including organic field-effect transistors.[93][94][95] Flexible
transistors are useful in some kinds of flexible displays and other flexible electronics.

See also
Band gap Transistor count
Digital electronics Transistor model
Moore's law Transresistance
Optical transistor Very-large-scale integration
Semiconductor device modeling

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Further reading
Books

Horowitz, Paul & Hill, Winfield (2015). The Art of Electronics (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0521809269.
Amos SW & James MR (1999). Principles of Transistor Circuits. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-
4427-3.
Riordan, Michael & Hoddeson, Lillian (1998). Crystal Fire. W.W Norton & Company Limited. ISBN 978-0-393-
31851-7. The invention of the transistor & the birth of the information age
 Warnes, Lionel (1998). Analogue and Digital Electronics. Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-333-65820-8.
The Power Transistor - Temperature and Heat Transfer; 1st Ed; John McWane, Dana Roberts, Malcom Smith;
McGraw-Hill; 82 pages; 1975; ISBN 978-0-07-001729-0. (archive) (https://archive.org/details/ThePowerTransistor/)
Transistor Circuit Analysis - Theory and Solutions to 235 Problems; 2nd Ed; Alfred Gronner; Simon and Schuster;
244 pages; 1970. (archive) (https://archive.org/details/TransistorCircuitAnalysis/)
Transistor Physics and Circuits; R.L. Riddle and M.P. Ristenbatt; Prentice-Hall; 1957.

Periodicals

Michael Riordan (2005). "How Europe Missed the Transistor" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080214002109/htt

p://www.spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155). IEEE Spectrum. 42 (11): 52–57. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2005.1526906 (http
s://doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2005.1526906). Archived from the original (http://spectrum.ieee.org/print/2155)
on February 14, 2008.
"Herbert F. Mataré, An Inventor of the Transistor has his moment" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090623050755/
http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inventor24feb03.htm). The New York Times.
February 24, 2003. Archived from the original (http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2003/Transistor-Matare-Inven
tor24feb03.htm) on June 23, 2009.
Bacon, W. Stevenson (1968). "The Transistor's 20th Anniversary: How Germanium And A Bit of Wire Changed
The World" (https://books.google.com/?id=mykDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover). Bonnier Corp.: Popular
Science, Retrieved from Google Books 2009-03-22. 192 (6): 80–84. ISSN 0161-7370 (https://www.worldcat.org/is
sn/0161-7370).

Databooks

Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDataBook_35122751); 1985; Fairchild

(now ON Semiconductor)
Small-Signal Transistor Databook (https://archive.org/details/MotorolaSmallSignalTransistorDataBook1984);
1984; Motorola (now ON Semiconductor)
Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices5ed_46325378); 1982; SGS (now
STMicroelectronics)
Discrete Databook (https://archive.org/details/NationalSemiconductorDiscreteDatabook1978); 1978; National
Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)

External links
BBC: Building the digital age (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7091190.stm) photo history of transistors
The Bell Systems Memorial on Transistors (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041118/http://www.porticus.or
g/bell/belllabs_transistor.html)
IEEE Global History Network, The Transistor and Portable Electronics (http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Th
e_Transistor_and_Portable_Electronics). All about the history of transistors and integrated circuits.
Transistorized (https://www.pbs.org/transistor/). Historical and technical information from the Public Broadcasting
Service
This Month in Physics History: November 17 to December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor (http://www.
aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm). From the American Physical Society
50 Years of the Transistor (https://web.archive.org/web/20070714010051/http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/19
97/Dec/hour1_121297.html). From Science Friday, December 12, 1997

Pinouts

Common transistor pinouts (https://web.archive.org/web/20141030170632/http://hamradio.lakki.iki.fi/new/Datash

eets/transistor_pinouts/)

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