DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (4 credit)

Course Code: BEE1101

(1ST AND 2ND SEMESTER)

SYALLABUS

MODULE-I (10 HOURS)

DC Networks: Kirchhoff's laws, node and mesh analysis, Delta-star and star-delta
transformations. Superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton's theorem. Transients in R-
L, R-C and R-L-C circuits with DC Excitation.
Single Phase AC Circuits: Single phase EMF generation, average and effective
values of sinusoids, j operations, complex representation of impedances, phasor
diagrams, power factor, power in complex notation, solution of series and parallel
circuits. Introduction to resonance in series RLC circuit.
Three Phase AC Circuit: Three phase EMF generation, delta and star connection,
Line and Phase quantities. Solutions of 3-phase circuits with balanced load. Power
in 3-phase balanced circuits.
MODULE-II (10 HOURS)
Magnetic Circuits: B-H Curve, Hysteresis, Permeability and reluctance, solution of
simple magnetic circuits, Hysteresis and Eddy current losses.
DC Generator: Different types, Principle of Operation of DC generator, EMF
equation, methods of excitation. DC Motor: Back e.m.f., speed and torque of a DC
Motor, Conditions for maximum Power. Speed control of DC shunt motor.
Transformers: Construction and Principle of operation of single-phase transformer,
EMF equation, Single-phase autotransformer.
MODULE-III (10 HOURS)
Three phase Induction Motor: Construction and principle of operation, types; Slip-
torque characteristics.
Synchronous Machines: Construction & principle of operation of Synchronous
generator and motor. EMF equation, Voltage regulation, Applications and starting
of Synchronous motor.
Introduction to single-phase induction Motor.
MODULE-IV (10 HOURS)
Measuring Instruments: DC PMMC instruments, Extension of range by shunts and
multipliers. Moving iron ammeters and voltmeters, Dynamometer type Watt
meters, Induction type Energy Meter.
Power supply systems: Principle of generation - thermal, hydel and nuclear.
Transmission and distribution of electric energy. Introduction to Electric Heating
& Welding.
TEXT BOOK
[1]. Edward Hughes (revised by Ian McKenzie Smith). "Electrical & Electronics
Technology" Pearson Education Limited. Indian Reprint 2002.
REFERENCE BOOKS
[2]. H.Cotton, “Advanced Electrical Technology", CBS Publishers, New Delhi,
7th Edition.
[3]. C.L. Wadhwa, “Electrical Engineering”, New Age International Publishers.
[4]. D.Kulshreshtha, “ Basic Electrical Engineering” TMH
[5]. S. Parker Smith: “Problems in Electrical Engineering" Asia Publications.
 MODULE-I

D.C NETWORKS
1.1 Kirchoff’s Laws:-

1.1.1. Kirchoff’s current law or point law (KCL)

Statement:- In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents

meeting at a point is zero.
Σ I = 0 ……………………at a junction or node

Assumption:- Incoming current = positive

Outgoing current = negative

1.1.2. Kirchoff’s voltage law or mesh law (KVL)

Statement:- The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in

each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.
Σ IR +Σemf = 0 …………………………..round the mesh
Assumption:- i) Rise in voltage (If we go from negative terminal of the
battery to positive terminal) = positive
ii) Fall in voltage (If we go from positive terminal of the battery to negative
terminal) = negative
iii) If we go through the resistor in the same direction as current then there is
a fall in potential. Hence this voltage is taken as negative.
iv)If we go through the resistor against the direction of current then there is a
rise in potential. Hence this voltage drop is taken as positive.
 Example:- Write the loop equation for the given circuit below
(Supplementary exam 2004)
E1
r1
i

r2

E2

r3
E3
Solution: Apply KVL to the loop,
− ir1 − E 1 − ir2 + E 2 − ir3 − E 3 = 0
⇒ E 1 − E 2 + E 3 = − ir1 − ir2 − ir3
⇒ E 1 − E 2 + E 3 = − i ( r1 + r2 + r3 )

1.2. MAXWELL’S LOOP CURRENT METHOD (MESH ANALYSIS)

Statement:- This method determines branch currents and voltages across the
elements of a network. The following process is followed in this method:-

• Here, instead of taking branch currents (as in Kirchoff’s law) loop currents
are taken which are assumed to flow in the clockwise direction.
• Branch currents can be found in terms of loop currents
• Sign conventions for the IR drops and battery emfs are the same as for
Kirchoff’s law.
• This method is easier if all the sources are given as voltage sources. If there
is a current source present in a network then convert it into equivalent
voltage source.
 Explanation:-

Consider a network as shown in Fig. below. It contains two meshes. Let I1 and
I2 are the mesh currents of two meshes directed in clockwise.

Apply KVL to mesh-1,

V1 -I1 R 1 - ( I1 -I 2 ) R 3 = 0

Apply KVL to mesh-2,

-I 2 R 2 -V2 - ( I 2 -I1 ) R 3 =0

When we consider mesh-1, the current I1 is greater than I2. So, current through
R3 is I1-I2. Similarly, when we consider mesh-2, the current I2 is greater than I1.
So, current through R3 is I2 – I1.

Example: Find I1, I2 and I3 in the network shown in Fig below using loop
current method

10Ω 40 V E 10Ω
A 20Ω G
B

10 V 50 V
20Ω
10 V I1 I2 I3
10Ω

D C F H

Solution:- For mesh ABCDA,

 -I 1 × 1 0 - ( I 1 -I 2 ) × 2 0 -1 0 = 0
⇒ 3 I 1 -2 I 2 = -1 (1 )

For mesh BEFCB,

4 0 -I 2 × 2 0 + 1 0 - ( I 2 -I 3 ) × 1 0 - ( I 2 -I 1 ) × 2 0 = 0
⇒ 2 I 1 -5 I 2 + I 3 = -5 (2 )

For mesh EGHFE,

-1 0 I 3 + 5 0 − ( I 3 − I 2 ) × 1 0 − 1 0 = 0
⇒ I 2 -2 I 3 = -4 (3 )

Equation (2) x 2 + Equation (3)

4 I1 -9 I 2 = -1 4 (4 )
Solving eqn (1) & eqn (4)

I1 = 1 A, I2 = 2 A, I3 = 3 A

1.3. NODAL ANALYSIS

Statement:- This method determines branch currents in the circuit and also
voltages at individual nodes.

The following steps are adopted in this method:-

! Identify all the nodes in the network.

! One of these nodes is taken as reference node in at zero potential

! The node voltages are measured w.r.t the reference node

! KCL to find current expression for each node

! This method is easier if all the current sources are present. If any voltage
source is present, convert it to current source
 ! The number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n-1) where ‘n’
is the number of independent nodes.

Explanation:-

At node ‘a’ I1+I2 = I3

E1 −Va E −V V
By ohms law, I1 = , I2 = 2 a , I3 = a
R1 R2 R3
Therefore, 1 1 1  E E
Va  + + − 1 − 2 =0
 R1 R2 R3  R1 R2
1 1 1  E E
or, Va  + + − 1 − 2 =0
 R1 R2 R3  R1 R2

1 1 1 E E
or, Va  + +  − 1 − 2 = 0
 R1 R2 R3  R1 R2
Hence,

! Node voltage multiplied by sum of all the conductance connected to this

node. This term is positive

! The node voltage at the other end of each branch (connected to this node
multiplied by conductance of this branch). This term is negative.
Example:- Use nodal analysis to find currents in the different branches of the
circuit shown below.

(Supplementary Exam July- 2004)

Solution:-

Let V1 and V2 are the voltages of two nodes as shown in Fig below

Applying KCL to node-1, we get

12 − V1 0 − V1 V 2 − V1
+ + =0
2 1 3
⇒ 36 − 3V1 − 6V1 + 2V 2 − 2V1 = 0
⇒ − 11V1 + 2V 2 = 36...............(1)
Again applying KCL to node-2, we get:-
V1 − V 2 0 − V2 6 − V2
+ + = 0
3 5 4
⇒ 2 0V1 − 4 7 V 2 + 9 0 = 0
⇒ 2 0 V 1 − 4 7 V 2 = − 9 0 ...............( 2 )

Solving Eq (1) and (2) we get V1 = 3.924 Volt and V2 = 3.584 volt

12-V1 12-3.924
Current through 2 Ω resistance = 2 = 2
=4.038 A

0-V1
Current through 1 Ω resistance = 1 =-3.924 A

V1 -V2
Current through 3 Ω resistance = =0.1133 A
3

0-V2
Current through 5 Ω resistance = =-0.7168 A
5

6-V2
Current through 4 Ω resistance = 4 =0.604 A

As currents through 1Ω and 5Ω are negative, so actually their directions are

opposite to the assumptions.

1.4. STAR-DELTA CONVERSION

Need:- Complicated networks can be simplified by successively replacing delta

mesh to star equivalent system and vice-versa.

In delta network, three resistors are connected in delta fashion (∆) and in star
network three resistors are connected in wye (Y) fashion.
 Fig. 1.4.1.

a) Delta connection b) Star connection

1.4.1. Delta to Star Conversion:- From Fig. 1.4.1 (a), ∆ : Between A & B,
there are two parallel path.
Resistance between terminal A & B = RAB ( RBC + RCA )
RAB + RBC + RCA
From Fig. 1.4.1 (b), STAR: Between A & B two series resistances are
there RA + RB. So, terminal resistances have to be the same.

R AB ( R BC + RCA ) .................(1)
RA + RB =
R AB + R BC + RCA

R BC ( RCA + R AB )
RB + RC = .................( 2 )
R AB + R BC + RCA

RCA ( R AB + R BC )
RC + R A = .................( 3 )
R AB + R BC + RCA
Eq {(1)-(2)}+(3) & Solving,-

R AB × RCA
RA = .................(4)
R AB + R BC + RCA
R AB × R BC
RB = .................(5)
R AB + R BC + RCA
 RCA × R BC
RC = .................( 6 )
R AB + R BC + RCA

Easy way to remember:-

Pr oduct of two adjacent arms of delta

Any arm of star connection =
sum of arms of delta

1.4.2. Star to Delta conversion

Eq {(1) X (2)}+(2) X (3)+ (3) X (1) & Simplifying,-

R A R B + R B RC + RC R A R R
R AB = = RA + RB + A B
RC RC
R R
R B C = R B + R C + B C

R A

R R
R C A = R C + R A + C A

R B

Easy way to remember:- Resistance between two terminals of delta = sum of star
resistance connected to those terminals + product of the same to resistance
divided by the third resistance.
Example(delta to star):- Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent
Star Network.

NETWORK THEOREMS

• SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
• THEVENIN’S THEOREM
• NORTON’S THEOREM
• MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

1. Superposition theorem
Statement:- In a network of linear resistances containing more than one
generator (or source of emf), the current which flows at any point is the sum
of all the currents which would flow at that point if each generator were
considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being
by resistances equal to their internal resistance
resistance.
Example:- By means of superposition theorem, calculate the currents in the
network shown.

Step 1. Considering 10 V battery

2 × 18
R eq = + 1 = 2 .8 Ω
2 + 18
10
I1b = = 3 .5 7 A
2 .8
18
I 2b = 3 .5 7 × = 3 .2 1 A
20
I3b = I1b − I 2b = 0 .3 6 A
 Step 2. Considering 20 V battery
I1c I2c
I3c
1Ω 18 Ω 2Ω

20 V

1×18
R eq = + 2 = 2 .9 5 Ω
1 + 18
20
I 2c = = 6 .7 8 A
2 .9 5
18
I1c = 6 .7 8 × = 6 .4 2 A
19
I3b = I 2c − I1c = 0 .3 6 A

Step 3. Results

I1 = I1b − I1c = 3.57 − 6.42 = −2.85A

I 2 = I 2c − I 2b = 6.78 − 3.21 = 3.57A
I3 = I3b + I3c = 0.36 + 0.36 = 0.72A

2. SOURCE CONVERSION:-
Statement: A voltage source (V) with a series resistance (R) can be
converted to a current source (I=V/R) with a parallel resistance (R) and vice-
versa.
 Proof:-

V
IL = (1)
RX + RL
RX
IL = I (2)
RX + RL

From Eq. (1) & (2)

V = IR X (3)

• STATEMENT: The two circuits are said to be electrically equivalent if they

supply equal load currents with the same resistance connected across their
terminals.

• voltage source having a voltage V and source resistance Rx can be replaced

by I(= V/Rx) and a source resistance Rx in parallel with current source.

• Current source I and source resistance Rx can be replaced by a voltage

source V (=IRx) and a source resistance Rx in series with V.

3. THEVENIN’S THEOREM:-
Statement:- Any pair of terminals AB of a linear active network may be
replaced by an equivalent voltage source in series with an equivalent
 resistance Rth. The value of Vth (called the Thevenin’s voltage) is equal to
potential difference between the terminals AB when they are open circuited,
and Rth is the equivalent resistance looking into the network at AB with the
independent active sources set to zero i.e with all the independent voltage
sources short-circuited and all the independent current sources open-
circuited.
Example:- Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B
12 Ω 4Ω A
•
+

30 V +
_ 6Ω 2Ω VX
_
•
B

Solution:- step1. First remove everything to the right of A-B.

12 Ω 4Ω A
•

30 V +
_ 6Ω

•
B

( 3 0 )( 6 )
V AB = = 10V
6 + 12

Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4 Ω resistor (A-B) is open. Thus
there can be no voltage across the resistor.

Step 2. To find Rth

We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen
looking in these terminals.
 12 Ω 4Ω A
•

6Ω

•
B

RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 Ω

Step 3. To find Vx

After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this to the load in order to
find VX.

RTH A
•
8Ω +
+
VTH _ 10 V 2Ω VX
_
B
•

( 10 )( 2 )
VX = = 2V
2+8

4. NORTON’S THEOREM:
Statement: Any two terminal linear active network (containing independent
voltage and current sources), may be replaced by a constant current source
IN in parallel with a resistance RN, where IN is the current flowing through a
short circuit placed across the terminals and RN is the equivalent resistance
of the network as seen from the two terminals with all sources replaced by
their internal resistance.
Example: Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B for
the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent circuit to the load
and find the current in the 50 Ω resistor.

10 A

20 Ω 40 Ω A
•

+
_ 50 V 60 Ω 50 Ω

Solution:
•
B
10 A

20 Ω 40 Ω

+
_ 50 V 60 Ω
ISS

Fig. Circuit to find INORTON

I SS =10.7 A
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources,We find the resistance
looking into terminals A-B is RN = 55 Ω
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit. The Norton
equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.

10.7 A 55 Ω 50 Ω
5. MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:
• Statement: For any power source, the maximum power transferred from the
power source to the load is when the resistance of the load RL is equal to the
equivalent or input resistance of the power source (Rin = RTh or RN).
• The process used to make RL = Rin is called impedance matching.

Explanation:

VTH
I=
R TH + R L
VTH 2 R L
PL = I2 R L =
(R TH + R L ) 2
dPL
For PL to be maximum, =0
dR L
Or, R L = R TH
VTH 2 R L VTH 2
So, Maximum power drawn by R L =I R L = 2
=
( 2R L )
2
4R L
VTH 2
Power supplied by the source=
( R TH + R L )
 TRANSIENTS

Statement: Sudden change in electrical circuit.

• Amplitude dies out and frequency is more

• Transient disturbances are produced whenever:-
" An apparatus or circuit is suddenly connected to or disconnected from the
supply.
" A circuit is shorted
" There is a sudden change in the applied voltage from one finite value to
another.
" Transients are produced whenever different circuits are suddenly
switched on or off from the supply voltage.

Resultant current consists of two parts:-

" A final steady state or normal current

" A transient current superimposed on the steady state current

• Transient currents are not driven by any part of the applied voltage but
are entirely associated with changes in the stored energy in inductors and
capacitors.
• Since there is no stored energy in resistors, there are no transients in pure
resistive circuit.

Transient in R-L Series circuit:-

When Switch ‘S’ is connected to ‘1’,

 di
V = R i+ L
dt
i = i s s + i tr
V
i ss =
R
di
i tr = R i + L = 0
dt
di R
+ i= 0
dt L
di −R
= i
dt L
di − R
= dt
i L
− R
−R t
ln i = t ; i tr = K e L
L

V
i s s =
R
- R
t
i t r = K e L

− R
V t
i = + K e L
R

At t=0, i=0 So,

V
0 = +K
R
-V
K =
R
V  
− R
t
i = 1 − e L

R  
 L R
λ= is called time constant and is called damping coefficient of the circuit
R L
 -t 
VR = iR=V 1-e λ 
 
di
Emf of self inductance is -L = i t R
dt

If t=λ, then it = I0 e-1 = I0e-1=I0/e =I0/2.718 = 0.37 I0

Hence, time period of a circuit is the time during which the transient current
decrease to 0.37 of its initial value.

Transient in R-C Series Circuit:

Consider an ac circuit containing a resistor of resistance R ohms and a capacitor of

capacitance C farad across an a.c source of rms voltage V volts as shown in Fig.
below:-
Charging of RC

V =V R + VC

When switch is connected to ‘1’ (charging):-

V =V R +V c

1
V = iR +
C
∫ id t
di i
R + =0
dt C
di 1
+ i= 0
dt R C
-t
R C
i= K e
-t
+ τ
A t t= 0 ;i= I 0 e
− t
V V
K = ;So,i = e RC
R R
− t − t
V R = iR = I 0 e τ R = V e τ

t − t
1 1
V c =
C
∫ id t =
C
∫ I0e τ
0
t

( − τ ) 
1 − t  1 V
V = I  = (− R C )
 τ 
c 0
C 0 C R
 − t

V c = − V  e τ − e 0

 
 − t

V c = V  1 − e τ

 
Discharging of RC

When connected to ‘2’ in the Fig. above,

1
Ri +
C
∫ id t = 0
di i
R + = 0
dt C
− t
i = K e RC

−V
At t = 0; i = (voltage across capacitor starts disch arg ing in opposite direction to the original current direction)
R
-t -t
R C τ
i= -I 0 e = -I 0 e
Transient in R-L-C Series Circuit

• Two types of energy:- Electromagnetic and electrostatic. So any sudden

change in the conditions of the circuit involves redistribution of these two
energies.
• Transient current produced due to this redistribution may be unidirectional
and decaying oscillatory.

From the above Fig,

di 1
iR + L
dt
+
C
∫ id t = V
di d 2i i
R +L 2
+ =0
dt dt C
d 2i R di 1
2
+ + i= 0
dt L dt LC
-b ± b 2 -4 a c
α±β=
2a
2
-R  R  4
±   -
L  L  LC
α±β=
2
2
−R  R  1
α ± β = ±   −
2L  2L  LC
2
−R  R  1
α = and β =   −
2L  2L  LC
 Solution of differential equation is:-
i=K 1e P1t +K 2 e P2 t
Roots are:α+β=P1 ;α-β=P2
K 1 &K 2 depends on boundary condition
2
 R  1
Case 1: High loss circuit:-   〉 i.e Overdamped
 2L  LC
In this case, β is positive real quantity. Hence P1 and P2 are real but unequal.
P1 t P2 t
i= K 1e +K 2 e
i = K 1e ( )t
e( )t
α + β α − β
+ K 2

i = K 1eα t e β t
+ K 2 eαte − β t

i = eα t
 K 1 e β t
+ K 2 e − β t


The expression of ‘i’ is over damped transient non-oscillatory current.

2
 R  1
CASE 2:- Low-loss circuit:   < i.e Underdamped
 2L  LC

In this case, β is imaginary. Hence roots are complex conjugate

P1 = α + j β ; P2 = α − j β
i = K 1 e P1 t + K 2 e P2 t
i = K 1e (
α + j β )t
+ K 2e(
α − j β )t

i = K 1eα t e jβ t
+ K 2 eα t e − jβ t

i = e α t  K 1 e jβ t
+ K 2e− jβ t


The expression of ‘i’ is damped oscillatory

2
 R  1
CASE 3:   = i.e Critical damping
 2L  LC

In this case β =0, Hence roots P1 & P2 are real and equal.
P1 = α + 0 = α ; P 2 = α -0 = α
i= K 1e αt + K 2 te αt

The above expression is of critical damping because current is reduced to almost

zero in the shortest possible time.

Example: A coil having a resistance of 2Ω and an inductance of 1 H is switched

on to a 10 V D.C supply. Write down the expression of current i(t) in the coil as a
function of time

Ans: R = 2Ω, L=1 H, V=10 V

Time constant (τ) = L/R=1/2=0.5 sec

Steady current = V/R = 10/2= 5 A

V  -t

i (t )=  1 - e τ

R  
 -t

i ( t ) = 5  1 - e 0 .5
 A
 
 SINGLE PHASE A.C CIRCUIT

Single phase EMF generation:

Alternating voltage may be generated

1) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

2) By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil

The value of voltage generated depends upon

1) No. of turns in the coil 2) field strength 3) speed

Equation of alternating voltage and current

N= No. of turns in a coil

Φm= Maximum flux when coil coincides with X-axis

ω= angular speed (rad/sec) = 2πf

At θ=ωt, Φ= flux component ⊥ to the plane =Φm cos ωt

According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

dφ d
e= -N = -N φ m C osω t = ω N φ m S in ω t............(1)
dt dt

Now, e is maximum value of Em , when Sinθ = Sin 90° = 1.

i.e Em = ωNΦm ………………………………………...(2)

From Eqn (1) & (2), e = Em Sin ωt volt

Now, current (i) at any time in the coil is proportional to the induced emf (e) in the
coil. Hence, i = Im Sin ωt amp

A.C terms:

• Cycle:- A complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating

quantity is known as cycle.

• Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one

cycle is called time T.
• Frequency: It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. f = 1/T
f = PN/120 where, P= No. of poles, N= Speed in rpm
• Waveform: A curve which shows the variation of voltage and current w.r.t
time or rotation.
 • Phase & Phase difference:

e A = E m A S in ω t
In phase: e = E S in ω t
B mB

Out of phase: i) B leads A

eA = E m S in ω t
Phase difference Φ. e = E S in (ω t+ α )
B mB

ii) A leads B or B lags A

e A = E m S inω t
e B = E m S in(ω t- α )
Root mean Square (RMS) or effective or virtual value of A.C:-

i12 +i 2 2 +.....+i n 2
I rms = =Square root of the mean of square of the instantaneous currents
n

• It is the square root of the average values of square of the alternating

quantity over a time period.
1 T 2
I rm s = ∫ i (ω t)d ( ω t )
T 0

Average Value (or mean value):

• It is the arithmetic sum of all the instantaneous values divided by the number
of values used to obtain the sum
i 1 + i 2 + .....+ i n
I av =
n
T
1
I av =
T 0
∫ i ( ω t )d ( ω t )

Form factor (Kf):- is the ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating
quantity. (Kf = Irms/Iav)

Peak factor (Ka) or crest factor:- is the ratio of peak (or maximum) value to the
rms value of alternating quantity (Ka = Imax/ Irms)
Example: An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz
has an RMS value of 20 A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value
and find this value a) 0.0025 sec b) 0.0125 sec after passing through a positive
maximum value. At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will the
instantaneous current be 14.14 A?

Im =20 2 = 2 8 .2 A
Ans: ω = 2 π × 5 0 = 1 0 0 π ra d /s

The equation of the sinusoidal current wave with reference to point O as zero time
point is

i= 28.2 sin 100πt Ampere

Since time values are given from point A where voltage has positive and maximum
value, the equation may itself be referred to point A. In this case, equation becomes

i= 28.2 cos 100πt

i) When t= 0.0025 second

i = 28.2 cos 100π X 0.0025 ………….angle in radian
= 28.2 cos 100 X 180 X 0.0025 ………….angle in degrees
= 28.2 cos 45° = 20 A ……………………point B

ii) When t = 0.0125 sec

I =28.2 cos 100 X 180 X 0.0125
= 28.2 cos 225° = 28.2 X (-1/√2)
= -20 A …………………………point C
iii) Here i = 14.14 A
14.14 = 28.2 COS 100 X 180 t
Cos 100 X 180 t = ½
Or, 100 X 180 t = cos-1(1/2) = 60°, t=1/300 sec …………..point D

Phasor & Phasor diagram:

Phasor: Alternating quantities are vector (i.e having both magnitude and
direction). Their instantaneous values are continuously changing so that they
are represented by a rotating vector (or phasor). A phasor is a vector rotating at
a constant angular velocity
Phasor diagram: is one in which different alternating quantities of the same
frequency are represented by phasors with their correct phase relationship

Points to remember:
1. The angle between two phasors is the phase difference
2. Reference phasor is drawn horizontally
3. Phasors are drawn to represent rms values
4. Phasors are assumed to rotate in anticlockwise direction
5. Phasor diagram represents a “still position” of the phasors in one particular
point
A.C through pure ohmic resistance only

v vm
v = iR or i = = sinωt ( in phase )
R R
A.C through pure inductance only

di
v= L = V m sin ω t
dt
Vm
i=
L
∫ sin ω t
V
i= - m co sω t
ωL
 π
i= I m sin  ω t-  (cu rren t lag s b y 9 0 • )
 2
ω L = 2 π fL = X L = in d u ctive reactan ce(in Ω )
 A.C through pure Capacitance only

dv d
i= C =C ( V m S in ω t )
dt dt
= ω C Vm cosω t
 π  V  π 
= ω C V m s in  ω t+  = m s in  ω t+ 
 2  1  2 
ωC
 π 
= I m s in  ω t+  (c u r re n t le a d s b y 9 0 ° )
 2 
1 1
=X C = = c a p a c itiv e r e a c ta n c e ( in Ω )
ωC 2 π fC

‘j’ operator: j is a operator which rotates a vector by 90° in anticlockwise

direction

j 2 = -1 ;j= -1

Note: ‘i’ is used for current hence ‘j’ is used to avoid confusion

Mathematical representation of vectors:

→
1. Rectangular or Cartesian form :- V = a ± j b
→
2. Polar form : V = V ∠± θ
→
3. Trignometrical form : V = V ( cos θ ± j sin θ )
→
± jθ
4. Exponential form : V = V e
 Note:: rectangular form is best suited for addition and subtraction & polar
form is best suited for multiplication and division

IMPEDANCE:
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the
current in an alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance extends the concept of
resistance to AC circuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike
resistance, which has only magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct current
(DC), there is no distinction between impedance and resis
resistance;
tance; the latter can be
thought of as impedance with zero phase angle.

Where X=Total reactance of the network (Both inductive and capacitive)

R=Resistance of the network in ohm.
!=
= Phasor angle in degree/Radian.
Note:
I. If ! =0 degree then the load is purely
purelyResistive.
II. If !=-90
90 degree then the load is purely inductive.(lagging)
.(lagging)
III. If !=90
=90 degree then the load is purely capacitive.(leading)
.(leading)

Z=R+jX
Where Z=impedance of the electrical network in ohm.
 R=Resistance of the network in ohm.
X=Reactance of the electrical network in ohm.
Admittance:
In electrical engineering, admittance is a measure of how easily a
circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined as the inverse of
impedance. The SI unit of admittance is the siemens (symbol S).
Admittance is defined as:

Y = 1/Z
Where

Y is the admittance, measured in siemens

Z is the impedance, measured in ohms

The synonymous unit mho, and the symbol ℧ (an upside-down uppercase omega
Ω), are also in common use.

Resistance is a measure of the opposition of a circuit to the flow of a steady

current, while impedance takes into account not only the resistance but also
dynamic effects (known as reactance). Likewise, admittance is not only a measure
of the ease with which a steady current can flow, but also the dynamic effects of
the material's susceptance to polarization:

Y=G+jB
Where
Y is the admittance, measured in siemens.
G is the conductance, measured in siemens.
B is the susceptance, measured in siemens.
AC Equivalent Circuits:

1. Impedances in series add together to give the equivalent impedance while the
admittance in parallel add together to give the equivalent admittance.
2. Impedances in parallel gives equivalent impedance by reciprocating the
reciprocal sum of the impedances and to obtain the equivalent admittance in series
same procedure has to be followed.
Instantaneous and Average Power

The most general expressions for the voltage and current delivered to an arbitrary
load are as follows:

v(t) = V cos(ωt − θV )

i(t) = I cos(ωt − θI )
Since the instantaneous power dissipated by a circuit element is given by the
product of the instantaneous voltage and current, it is possible to obtain a general
expression for the power dissipated by an AC circuit element:

p(t) = v(t)i(t)= V I cos(ωt) cos(ωt − θ )

It can be further simplified with the aid of trigonometric identities to yield

p(t) = V I/2cos(θ ) +V I/2 cos(2ωt − θ )

where θ is the difference in phase between voltage and current

The average power corresponding to the voltage and current signal can be obtained
by integrating the instantaneous power over one cycle of the sinusoidal signal. Let
T = 2π/ω represent one cycle of the sinusoidal signals. Then the average power,
Pav, is given by the integral of the instantaneous power,

p(t), over one cycle:

since the second integral is equal to zero and cos(θ ) is a constant.

In phasor notation, the current and voltage are given by

impedance of the circuit elementdefined by the phasor voltage and currentto be

The expression for the average power using phasor notation

Power Factor

The phase angle of the load impedance plays a very important role in the
absorption of power by load impedance. The average power dissipated by an AC
load is dependent on the cosine of the angle of the impedance. To recognize the
importance of this factor in AC power computations, the term cos(θ ) is referred to
as the power factor (pf). Note that the power factor is equal to 0 for a purely
inductive or capacitive load and equal to 1 for a purely resistive load; in every
other case,0<pf<1.If the load has an inductive reactance, then θ is positive and the
current lags (or follows) the voltage. Thus, when θ and Q are positive, the
corresponding power factor is termed lagging. Conversely, a capacitive load will
have a negative Q, and hence a negative θ. This corresponds to a leading power
factor, meaning that the load current leads the load voltage.A power factor close to
unity signifies an efficient transfer of energy from the AC source to the load, while
a small power factor corresponds to inefficient use of energy .Two equivalent
expressions for the power factor are given in the following:

Complex Power

The expression for the instantaneous power may be further expanded to provide
further insight into AC power. Using trigonometric identities, we obtain the

following expressions:

Recalling the geometric interpretation of the impedance Z

|Z| cos θ = R and |Z|sin θ = X

are the resistive and reactive components of the load impedance, respectively. On
the basis of this fact, it becomes possible to write the instantaneous power as:

Since Pav corresponds to the power absorbed by the load resistance, it is also
called the real power, measured in units of watts (W). On the other hand, Q takes
the name of reactive power, since it is associated with the load reactance. The units
of Q are volt-amperes reactive, or VAR. Note that Q represents an exchange of
energy between the source and the reactive part of the load; thus, no net power is
gained or lost in the process, since the average reactive power is zero. In general, it
is desirable to minimize the reactive power in a load.

The computation of AC power is greatly simplified by defining a fictitious but very

useful quantity called the complex power, S:

where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate You may easily verify that this
definition leads to the convenient expression

The complex power S may be interpreted graphically as a vector in the complex S

plane
The magnitude of S, |S|, is measured in units of volt-amperes (VA) and is called
apparent power, because this is the quantity one would compute by measuring the
rms load voltage and currents without regard for the phase angle of the load.The
complex power may also be expressed by the product of the square of the rms
current through the load and the complex load impedance:

or, equivalently, by the ratio of the square of the rms voltage across the load to the
complex conjugate of the load impedance:
 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

Fig. Power Triangle

2 2 2
S =P +Q
S = P + jQ
• Apparent power, S: is the product of rms values of the applied voltage and
circuit current. It is also known as wattless (idle) component
S=VI=IZx I=I2Z volt-amp
• Active power or true power, P: is the power which actually dissipated in
the circuit resistance. It is also known as wattful component of power.
P=I2R=I2ZcosΦ=VI cosΦ watt
• Reactive power, Q:- is the power developed in the reactance of the circuit.
Q=I2X=I2ZsinΦ=VIsinΦ VAR

Example: In a particular R-L series circuit a voltage of 10 V at 50 Hz

produces a current of 700 Ma while the same voltage at 75 Hz produces 500
mA. What are the values of R and L in the circuit.
Ans. i)
R 2 + (2π× 50 L ) =
2
Z= R 2 + 9 8 6 9 6 L2

V = IZ o r 1 0 = 7 0 0 × 1 0 -3 (R 2
+ 9 8 6 9 6 L2 )
(R 2
)
+ 9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 1 0 /7 0 0 × 1 0 -3 = 1 0 0 /7
o r R 2 + 9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 1 0 0 0 0 /4 9 ..............(i)
 ii) In the second case

Z= R 2 + (2 π × 7 5 L )
2
= (
R 2 + 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 )
1 0 = 5 0 0 × 1 0 -3 (R 2
+ 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 )
(R 2
)
+ 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 = 2 0
R 2 + 2 2 2 0 6 6 L 2 = 4 0 0 . ...............( i i )
s u b tra c tin g e q (i) fro m e q (ii), w e g e t
2 2 2 0 6 6 L 2 -9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 4 0 0 -( 1 0 0 0 0 / 4 9 )
1 2 3 3 7 0 L2 = 1 9 6
L = 0 .0 3 9 8 H = 4 0 m H
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a lu e o f L i n e q ( i i ) ,w e g e t
R 2 + 2 2 2 0 6 6 ( 0 .3 9 8 ) 2 = 4 0 0
R = 6 .9 Ω

Introduction to resonance in series & parallel circuit

Resonance:

Definition: An AC circuit is said to be in resonance when the circuit current is in

phase with the applied voltage. So, the power factor of the circuit becomes unity at
resonance and the impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance.

Series Resonance: In R-L-C series circuit, both XL and XC are frequency

dependent. If we vary the supply frequency then the values of XL and XC varies. At
a certain frequency called resonant frequency (fr), XL becomes equal to XC and
series resonance occurs.

At series resonance, XL =XC

2πfrL=1/2πfrC

fr= 1/2π√LC

Impedance of RLC series circuit is given by:

Z= R 2 + ( X L -X C )
2
(Since,X L =X C )

Z= R 2
Z=R
R R
cosφ= = =1
Z R

Properties of series resonance:-

In series resonance,

• The circuit impedance Z is minimum and equal to the circuit resistance R.

• The circuit current I= V/Z = V/R and the current is maximum
• The power dissipated is maximum, P=V2/R
• Resonant frequency is fr = 1/2π√LC
• Voltage across inductor is equal and opposite to the voltage across capacitor
• Since power factor is 1, so zero phase difference. Circuit behaves as a purely
resistive circuit.
Example: A series RLC circuit having a resistance of 50Ω, an inductance of
500 mH and a capacitance of 400 µF, is energized from a 50 Hz, 230 V, AC
supply. Find a) resonant frequency of the circuit b) peak current drawn by the
circuit at 50 Hz and c) peak current drawn by the circuit at resonant frequency

Ans.

1 1
a)f 0 = = =11.25 H z
2π LC 2π 500×10 -3 ×400×10 -6
b) R =50Ω
X L =ωL=2π×50×500×10 -3 =157Ω
1 1
XC = = =7.9Ω
ωC 2π×50×400×10 -6
X =X L -X C =157-7.9=149.1Ω
Z= R 2 +X 2 = 50 2 +149.12 =157.26Ω
Peak supply voltage,Vm = 2 Vrm s = 2 (230)=325.26 V
Vm 325.26
H ence peak curr ent at 50H z I m = = =2.068
Z 157.26
c)At resonance, Z 0 =R =50Ω
Vm 325.26
So,peak current during resonance, I m o = = =6.5025A
R 50
Parallel resonance:

Points to remember:
• Net susceptance is zero, i.e 1/XC =XL/Z2

XL x XC =Z2

Or L/C =Z2

• The admittance equals conductance

• Reactive or wattless component of line current is zero
• Dynamic impedance = L/CR Ω
 • Line current at resonance is minimum and V/L/CR but is in phase
with the applied voltage
• Power factor of the circuit is unity

THREE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

Three phase EMF Generation:-

If the 3-coil windings W1, W2 and W3 arranged at 120° apart from each other on
the same axis are rotated, then the emf induced in each of them will have a phase
difference of 120°. In other words if the emf (or current) in one winding (w1) has a
phase of 0°, then the second winding (w2) has a phase of 120° and the third (w3)
has a phase of 240°.
Star (Y) connection:-
Phasor diagram:-

Here, ER, EY, EB are phase voltages and VRY, VYB, VBR are line voltages
VRY = ER2 + EY 2 + 2ER EY cos60o
= ER2 + ER2 + 2ER ER cos60o
= 3 ER
Hence,

• Line voltage =√3 x phase voltage

• Line current = phase current
• Line voltages are also 120° apart
• Line voltage are 30° ahead of respective phase voltages
• The angle between line voltage and line current is (30°+Φ)

Power: Total power = 3 x phase power

=3 x Vph x I ph x cosΦ
=√3 VL IL cosΦ
Φ is the angle between phase voltage and current

Example: A balanced star connected load of (8+j6)Ω per phase is connected

to a balanced 3-phase 400 V supply. Find the line current, power factor,
power and total volt-amperes.

Ans.
Z ph = 8 2 + 6 2 = 10 Ω
400
V ph = = 231 V
3
Vph 231
I ph = = =23.1 A
Z ph 10
(i) I L =I ph =23.1 A
R ph 8
(ii)p.f=cosΦ = = =0.8(lag)
Z ph 10
(iii)Pow er P= 3 VL I L cosΦ
= 3×400×23.1×0.8
=12,800 W [Also,P=3I ph 2 R ph =3(23.1) 2 ×8=12,800 W ]
(iv)T otal volt-amperes,
S= 3 VL I L = 3×400×23.1=16,000 V A
Delta-connection:
 Fig. Phasor Diagram
I L =I R -I B
I L = I R 2 +I B 2 +2I R I B cos60 o = I R 2 +I R 2 +2I R I R cos60 o = 3I R

Hence,
• Line current =√3 phase current
• Line voltage = phase voltage
• Line currents are also 120° apart
• Line currents are 30° behind the respective phase currents
• Angle between line current and line voltage is 30°+Φ

Power: Total power = 3 x phase power

= 3 x Vph Iph cosΦ

= 3 x VL x IL/√3 x cosΦ

= √3 VL IL cosΦ

Note: For both star and delta system:

Active & True power = √3 VL IL cosΦ

Reactive power =√3 VL IL sinΦ

Apparent power =√3 VL IL

MODULE-II

Magnetic Circuits:

The Magnetic Field and Faraday’s Law:

Magnetic fields are generated by electric charge in motion, and their effect is

measuredbytheforcetheyexertonamovingcharge.Asyoumayrecallfromprevious

physics courses, the vector force f exerted on a charge of q moving at velocity u in

the presence of a magnetic field with flux density B is given by

f = qu×B

Where the symbol × denotes the (vector) cross product. If the charge is moving at a

velocity u in a direction that makes an angle θ with the magnetic field, then the

magnitude of the force is given by

f = quBsin θ

and the direction of this force is at right angles with the plane formed by the

vectors B and u.