THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC BIDA,

NIGER STATE, NIGERIA KM 1.5, DOKO ROAD,

BIDA NIGER STATE

DEPARTMENT: NETWORKING AND CLOUD COMPUTING

COURSE TITTLE: COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

PRESENTATION

ON

Discuss the following in details:

1. Instruction cycle
2. Register Set
3. Instruction Set
4. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

HND I
GROUP 1

DAVID GEORGE EMMANUEL

OGAR MICHAEL ABUAG
ADEBAYO SAMUEL OLASUKANMI
MAYOWA LUKE MOSES
ABDULLAHI MAIMUNA LADAN
MUHAMMAD AWAL SULEIMAN
TAIWO TAIYE SHARON
SHELIKA WEALTH YESOKO
MOHAMMED RABIU
ADAMU ALIYU
HAMIDU IBRAHIM

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. MR. YUSUF YAKUB
Q1: The instruction cycle: also known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle, is the process by which
a computer's central processing unit (CPU) executes instructions. It consists of a series of steps that
the CPU follows to execute a single instruction.

Step 1: Fetch (Instruction Fetch)

1. Program Counter (PC): The CPU retrieves the address of the next instruction from the program
counter.

2. Memory Access: The CPU sends the address to the memory, and the memory returns the
instruction at that address.

3. Instruction Register (IR): The instruction is stored in the instruction register.

Step 2: Decode (Instruction Decode)

1. Instruction Decode: The CPU decodes the instruction, determining what operation needs to be
performed.

2. Operand Fetch: The CPU retrieves the operands (data) needed for the instruction.

3. Control Signals: The CPU generates control signals that determine how the instruction will be
executed.

Step 3: Execute (Instruction Execute)

1. Execution: The CPU performs the operation specified by the instruction, using the operands and
control signals.

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations.

3. Results: The results of the instruction are stored in registers or memory.

Step 4: Store (Optional)

1. Store Results: If the instruction requires storing results, the CPU stores the results in memory
or registers.

Key Components

1. Program computer (PC): Keeps track of the address of the next instruction.

2. Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction.

3. Control Unit: Generates control signals to execute the instruction.

4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations.

5. Registers: Store operands and results.

Q2: Register Set: is a collection of registers that are used to store and manipulate data within a
computer's central processing unit (CPU). Here's a detailed description of the register set:

Types of Registers

1. General-Purpose Registers (GPRs): These registers are used to store temporary results,
variables, and pointers.

2. Index Registers: These registers are used as pointers to memory locations.

3. Stack Registers: These registers are used to manage the stack, which is a region of memory used
for storing function call information.

4. Program Counter (PC): This register stores the address of the next instruction to be executed.

5. Status Registers: These registers store information about the current state of the CPU, such as
flags, error codes, and interrupt masks.

6. Floating-Point Registers (FPRs): These registers are used to store floating-point numbers and
perform floating-point operations.

Characteristics of Registers

1. Small Size: Registers are small, typically ranging from 8 to 64 bits in size.

2. Fast Access: Registers provide fast access to data, with access times typically measured in clock
cycles.

3. Volatile: Registers are volatile, meaning that their contents are lost when the CPU is powered
off.

4. Addressing: Registers can be addressed directly using register names or indirectly using register
indices.

Operations Performed on Registers

1. Load: Loading data from memory into a register.

2. Store: Storing data from a register into memory.

3. Arithmetic Operations: Performing arithmetic operations, such as addition and multiplication,

on register contents.

4. Logical Operations: Performing logical operations, such as AND and OR, on register contents.

5. Shift Operations: Shifting the contents of a register left or right.

Advantages of Registers

1. Fast Access: Registers provide fast access to data, improving overall CPU performance.
2. Improved Code Density: Registers enable more efficient instruction encoding, leading to
improved code density.

Disadvantages of Registers
1. Limited Capacity: Registers have limited capacity, restricting the amount of data that can be
stored.

2. Volatile: Registers are volatile, meaning that their contents are lost when the CPU is powered
off.

Q3: Instruction Set: also known as an instruction set architecture (ISA), is a collection of basic
instructions that a computer's central processing unit (CPU) can execute. These instructions are the
fundamental building blocks of a computer's programming language.

Types of Instructions

1. Data Transfer Instructions: These instructions move data between registers, memory, and
input/output devices.

2. Arithmetic Instructions: These instructions perform mathematical operations, such as addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division.

3. Logical Instructions: These instructions perform logical operations, such as AND, OR, and
NOT.

4. Control Flow Instructions: These instructions control the flow of program execution, such as
jumping to a different location in the program or repeating a sequence of instructions.

5. Input/output Instructions: These instructions manage input/output operations, such as reading

from or writing to devices.

Instruction Format

1. Opcode: The operation code, which specifies the instruction to be executed.

2. Operands: The data or registers used by the instruction.

3. Addressing Mode: The method used to access the operands, such as immediate, register, or
memory addressing.

Characteristics of Instruction Sets

1. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing): Instructions perform multiple operations,

reducing the number of instructions needed.

2. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing): Instructions perform simple operations,

increasing the number of instructions needed.

3. VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word): Instructions are very long, allowing for multiple
operations to be specified in a single instruction.
 Advantages of Instruction Sets

1. Improved Performance: Optimized instruction sets can improve CPU performance.

2. Better Code Density: Instruction sets can be optimized to reduce code size, improving memory
efficiency.
Disadvantages of Instruction Sets

1. Complexity: Complex instruction sets can be difficult to design and implement.

2. Power Consumption: Instruction sets can impact power consumption, with complex
instructions potentially increasing power usage.

Q4: Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) refers to the design and organization of a computer's
instruction set, which defines how the computer's hardware executes instructions. (ISA) serves as
the interface between the computer's hardware and software, providing a set of instructions that can
be used to write programs.

Types of Instruction Set Architectures

1. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing): Instructions perform multiple operations,

reducing the number of instructions needed.

2. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing): Instructions perform simple operations,

increasing the number of instructions needed.

3. VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word): Instructions are very long, allowing for multiple
operations to be specified in a single instruction.

4. EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing): Instructions specify parallel

operations, allowing for improved performance.

Components of Instruction Set Architecture

1. Instructions: The set of basic instructions that the computer can execute, such as arithmetic,
logical, and control flow instructions.

2. Instruction Format: The format of the instructions, including the opcode, operands, and
addressing mode.

3. Addressing Modes: The methods used to access operands, such as immediate, register, or
memory addressing.

4. Registers: The set of registers available for storing and manipulating data.

5. Memory Organization: The organization of the computer's memory, including the memory
hierarchy and addressing scheme.
 Characteristics of Instruction Set Architectures

1. Instruction Length: The length of the instructions, which can vary from a few bytes to several
dozen bytes.

2. Instruction Encoding: The method used to encode the instructions, such as binary or
hexadecimal.

3. Address Space: The size of the address space, which determines the maximum amount of
memory that can be addressed.
4. Register File: The organization and size of the register file, which determines the number of
registers available.

Advantages of Instruction Set Architectures

1. Improved Performance: Optimized instruction sets can improve CPU performance.

2. Increased Flexibility: Instruction sets can be designed to support a wide range of applications
and programming languages.

3. Better Code Density: Instruction sets can be optimized to reduce code size, improving memory
efficiency.

Disadvantages of Instruction Set Architectures

1. Complexity: Complex instruction sets can be difficult to design and implement.

2. Power Consumption: Instruction sets can impact power consumption, with complex
instructions potentially increasing power usage.

3. Compatibility: Instruction sets can affect compatibility between different CPU architectures and
software applications.