COMPUTER ORIENTED PRACTICAL

& VIVA VOCE

In Partial Fulfillment of
FULL TIME THREE-YEAR DEGREE PROGRAM
BBA
Batch (2023-2026)

Submitted to CCS University

Submitted by
Ayush Rathore
-------------------------------------
Roll No. 230935000114
BBA IV Semester
Faculty Signature ____________________

5
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to acknowledge and express my gratitude to all those who have supported me in
completing my computer-oriented practical and viva voce. I am sincerely thankful to my instructor,
Ms. Swati Rawat, for their guidance and expertise. I also appreciate the faculty members of the
BBA Program for their valuable lectures and assignments. I extend my appreciation to my
classmates and friends for their collaboration and feedback. The technical support staff deserve
recognition for their prompt assistance. Lastly, I am grateful to my family and loved ones for their
unwavering support.
Thank you all for contributing to my successful completion of the practical and viva voce.
Date- 21/03/25
Name - Ayush Rathore
Roll No-230935000114

6
INDEX
Sr No. Topic Page No.
1 E-Commerce 4
2 Understanding E-Commerce 4-5
3 How Does E-Commerce Work? 5-6
4 History of E-Commerce 6-7
5 Advantages and Disadvantages 7-9
6 E-Commerce Applications 10
7 E-Commerce Platforms and Vendors 10-11
8 Government Regulations 11
9 Types of E-Commerce 11-13
10 Types of E-Commerce Revenue Models 14-16
11 What Is an E-Commerce Website? 16
12 Network 17
13 What Is a Computer Network? 17
14 How Does a Computer Network Work? 18-20
15 Components of a Network 20
16 Types of Networks 21-24
17 Network Topologies 24-31
18 Network Protocols 32-35
19 Network Devices 36-39
20 Network Security 39
21 References 40

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 E-COMMERCE

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) refers to companies and individuals that buy and sell goods
and services over the internet. E-commerce operates in different types of market segments and can
be conducted over computers, tablets, smartphones, and other smart devices. Nearly every
imaginable product and service is available through e-commerce transactions, including books,
music, plane tickets, and financial services such as stock investing and online banking. As such, it
is considered a very disruptive teachnology.

● E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services over the internet.
● It is conducted over computers, tablets, smartphones, and other smart devices.
● Almost anything can be purchased through e-commerce today, which makes e-commerce
highly competitive.
● It can be a substitute for brick-and-mortar stores, though some businesses choose to
maintain both.
● E-commerce operates in several market segments including business-to-business,
business-to-consumer, consumer-to-consumer, and consumer-to-business.

Understanding E-commerce-

As mentioned above, e-commerce is the process of buying and selling tangible products and
services online. It involves more than one party along with the exchange of data or currency to
process a transaction. It is part of the greater industry that is known as electronic business (e-
business), which involves all of the processes required to run a company online.

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E-commerce has helped businesses (especially those with a narrow reach like small businesses)
gain access to and establish a wider market presence by providing cheaper and more efficient
distribution channels for their products or services. Target (TGT) supplemented its brick-and-
mortar presence with an online store that allows customers to purchase everything from clothes
and coffeemakers to toothpaste and action figures right from their homes.

Providing goods and services isn't as easy as it may seem. It requires a lot of research about the
products and services you wish to sell, the market, audience, competition, as well as expected
business costs.

Once that's determined, you need to come up with a name and set up a legal structure, such as a
corporation. Next, set up an e-commerce site with a payment gateway. For instance, a small
business owner who runs a dress shop can set up a website promoting their clothing and other
related products online and allow customers to make payments with a credit card or through a
payment processing service, such as PayPal.

How does e-commerce work?

E-commerce is powered by the internet. Customers use their own devices to access online stores.
They can browse products and services those stores offer and place orders.

As an order is placed, the customer's web browser communicates back and forth with the server
hosting the e-commerce website. Data pertaining to the order is relayed to a central computer
known as the order manager. The data is then forwarded to databases that manage inventory levels;
a merchant system that manages payment information using payment processing applications, such
as PayPal; and a bank computer. Finally, it circles back to the order manager. This ensures store
inventory and customer funds are sufficient for the order to be processed.

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After the order is validated, the order manager notifies the store's web server. It displays a message
notifying the customer that their order has been processed. The order manager then sends order
data to the warehouse or fulfillment department, letting it know the product or service can be
dispatched to the customer. At this point, tangible and digital products are sent to the customer, or
access to a service is granted.

Platforms that host e-commerce transactions include online marketplaces that sellers sign up for,
such as Amazon; software as a service (SaaS) tools that let customers rent online store
infrastructures; and open source tools that companies manage using their in-house developers.

History of E-commerce-

Most of us have shopped online for something at some point, which means we've taken part in e-
commerce. So it goes without saying that e-commerce is everywhere. But very few people may
know that e-commerce has a history that goes back to before the internet began.

E-commerce actually goes back to the 1960s when companies used an electronic system called the
Electronic Data Interchange to facilitate the transfer of documents. It wasn't until 1994 that the
very first transaction took place. This involved the sale of a CD between friends through an online
retail website called NetMarket.

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The industry has gone through so many changes since then, resulting in a great deal of evolution.
Traditional brick-and-mortar retailers were forced to embrace new technology in order to stay
afloat as companies like Alibaba, Amazon, eBay, and Etsy became household names. These
companies created a virtual marketplace for goods and services that consumers can easily access.
New technology continues to make it easier for people to do their online shopping. People can
connect with businesses through smartphones and other devices and by downloading apps to make
purchases. The introduction of free shipping, which reduces costs for consumers, has also helped
increase the popularity of the e-commerce industry.

Advantages and Disadvantages of E-commerce-

Advantages-

● Convenience: E-commerce can occur 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Although
eCommerce may take a lot of work, it is still possible to generate sales as you sleep or earn
revenue while you are away from your store.

● Increased Selection: Many stores offer a wider array of products online than they carry
in their brick-and-mortar counterparts. And many stores that solely exist online may offer
consumers exclusive inventory that is unavailable elsewhere.

● Potentially Lower Start-up Cost: E-commerce companies may require a warehouse

or manufacturing site, but they usually don't need a physical storefront. The cost to operate
digitally is often less expensive than needing to pay rent, insurance, building maintenance,
and property taxes.

● International Sales: As long as an e-commerce store can ship to the customer, an e-

commerce company can sell to anyone in the world and isn't limited by physical geography.

● Easier to Retarget customers- As customers browse a digital forefront, it is easier

to entice their attention towards placed advertisements, directed marketing campaigns, or
pop-ups specifically aimed at a purpose.

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Disadvantages-

● Limited Customer Service: If you shop online for a computer, you cannot simply
ask an employee to demonstrate a particular model's features in person. And although some
websites let you chat online with a staff member, this is not a typical practice.

● Lack of Instant Gratification: When you buy an item online, you must wait for it
to be shipped to your home or office. However, e-tailors like Amazon make the waiting
game a little bit less painful by offering same-day delivery as a premium option for select
products.

● Inability to Touch Products: Online images do not necessarily convey the whole
story about an item, and so e-commerce purchases can be unsatisfying when the products
received do not match consumer expectations. Case in point: an item of clothing may be
made from shoddier fabric than its online image indicates.

● Reliance on Technology: If your website crashes, garners an overwhelming amount

of traffic, or must be temporarily taken down for any reason, your business is effectively
closed until the e-commerce storefront is back.

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 ● Higher Competition: Although the low barrier to entry regarding low cost is an
advantage, this means other competitors can easily enter the market. E-commerce
companies must have mindful marketing strategies and remain diligent on SEO
optimization to ensure they maintain a digital presence.

Pros-

● Owners can generate revenue semi-passively

● Consumers can easily browse for specific products
● Greater earning potential as there are no limitations on physical location as long you can
ship there
● Reduced costs assuming digital presence costs less than building, insurance, taxes, and
repairs.
● Greater marketing control, including data extraction from customers, targeted ads, and pop-
up placement

Cons-

● Limited customer service opportunities as there is little to no face-to-face opportunities

● Lacks instant gratification as customers must believe in a product before seeing it in person
● Products can't been seen or handled until delivered (can't try before they buy)
● Loss of revenue or income when websites go down
● High reliance on shipping constraints
● Higher competition due to lower barriers of entry and greater customer potential

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E-commerce applications-

Many e-commerce apps use online marketing strategies to improve the customer experience and
get customers to use the platform. These include email, online catalogs, shopping carts, Electronic
Data Interchange (EDI), file transfer protocol, web services and mobile applications.

These approaches are used in B2C and B2B e-commerce activities, as well as other types of
outreach. They include emailing targeted ads and e-newsletters to subscribers and sending text
messages to mobile devices.

Sending unsolicited emails and texts is generally considered spam, so more companies now try to
entice consumers online, using tools such as digital coupons, social media marketing and targeted
advertisements.

Another area of focus for e-commerce companies is security. Developers and admins should
consider customer data privacy and security, data governance-related regulatory compliance
mandates, personally identifiable information privacy rules and information protection protocols
when developing e-commerce applications. Some security features are added during the design of
an application, while others must be continually updated to address evolving threats and new
vulnerabilities.

E-commerce platforms and vendors-

An e-commerce platform is a tool that's used to manage an e-commerce business. E-commerce

platform options range in size from ones for small businesses to large enterprises. They include
online marketplaces, such as Amazon and eBay, that simply require signing up for user accounts
and little to no IT implementation.

SaaS is another e-commerce platform model. Business owners subscribe to a service where they
essentially rent space in a cloud-hosted service. This approach doesn't require in-house
development or on-premises infrastructure. Other e-commerce trends include open source
platforms that require a cloud or on-premises hosting environment or complete manual
implementation and maintenance.

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Examples of e-commerce marketplace platforms include the following: Alibaba, Amazon, Chewy,
eBay, Etsy, Newegg, Rakuten, Walmart Marketplace and Wayfair. Vendors offering e-commerce
platform services for clients hosting their own online store sites include the following: Adobe
Commerce, BigCommerce, Ecwid, NetSuite Commerce, Salesforce Commerce Cloud, Shopify,
Squarespace and WooCommerce.

Government regulations for e-commerce

In the United States, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Payment Card Industry (PCI)
Security Standards Council are among the primary agencies that regulate e-commerce activities.
The FTC monitors activities such as online advertising, content marketing and customer privacy.
The PCI Security Standards Council develops standards and rules, including PCI Data Security
Standard compliance, which outlines procedures for the proper handling and storage of consumers'
financial data.

To ensure the security, privacy and effectiveness of e-commerce, businesses should authenticate
business transactions, control access to resources such as webpages for registered or selected users,
encrypt communications and implement security technologies, such as secure sockets layer and
two-factor authentication.

Types of E-commerce-

Depending on the goods, services, and organization of an ecommerce company, the business can
opt to operate several different ways. Here are several of the popular business models.

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Business-to-Consumer (B2C)

B2C e-commerce companies sell directly to the product end-user. Instead of distributing goods to
an intermediary, a B2C company performs transactions with the consumer that will ultimately use
the good.

This type of business model may be used to sell products (like your local sporting goods store's
website) or services (such as a lawn care mobile app to reserve landscaping services). This is the
most common business model and is likely the concept most people think about when they hear
the term e-commerce.

Business-to-Business (B2B)

Similar to B2C, an e-commerce business can directly sell goods to a user. However, instead of
being a consumer, that user may be another company. B2B transactions often entail larger
quantities, greater specifications, and longer lead times. The company placing the order may also
have a need to set recurring goods if the purchase is for recurring manufacturing processes.

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Business-to-Government (B2G)

Some entities specialize as government contractors providing goods or services to agencies or

administrations. Similar to a B2B relationship, the business produces items of value and remits
those items to an entity.

B2G e-commerce companies must often meet government requests for proposal requirements,
solicit bids for projects, and meet very specific product or service criteria. In addition, there may
be joint government endeavors to solicit a single contract through a government-wide-acquisition-
contract.

Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

Established companies are the only entities that can sell things. E-commerce platforms such as
digital marketplaces connect consumers with other consumers who can list their own products and
execute their own sales.

These C2C platforms may be auction-style listings (i.e. eBay auctions) or may warrant further
discussion regarding the item or service being provided (i.e. Craigslist postings). Enabled by
technology, C2C e-commerce platforms empower consumers to both buy and sell without the need
for companies.

Consumer-to-Business (C2B)

Modern platforms have allowed consumers to more easily engage with companies and offer their
services, especially related to short-term contracts, gigs, or freelance opportunities. For example,
consider listings on Upwork.

A consumer may solicit bids or interact with companies that need particular jobs done. In this way,
the e-commerce platform connects businesses with freelancers to enable consumers greater power
to achieve pricing, scheduling, and employment demands.

Consumer-to-Government (C2G)

Less of a traditional e-commerce relationship, consumers can interact with administrations,

agencies, or governments through C2G partnerships. These partnerships are often not in the
exchange of service but rather, the transaction of obligation.
For example, uploading your federal tax return to the Internal Revenue Services (IRT) digital
website is an e-commerce transaction regarding an exchange of information.

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Types of E-commerce Revenue Models-

In addition to crafting what type of e-commerce company a business wants to be, the business
must decide how it wants to make money. Due to the unique nature of e-commerce, the business
has a few options on how it wants to process orders, carry inventory, and ship products.

Dropshipping-

Often considered one of the easier forms of e-commerce, dropshipping allows a company to create
a digital storefront, generate sales, then rely on a supplier to provide the good. When generating
the sale, the e-commerce company collects payment via credit card, PayPal, cryptocurrency, or
other means of digital currency.

Then, the e-commerce store passes the order to the dropship supplier. This supplier manages
inventory, oversees the warehouse of goods, packages the goods, and delivers the product to the
purchaser.

White Labeling-

White-label e-commerce companies leverage already successful products sold by another

company. After a customer places an order, the e-commerce company receives the existing
product, repackages the product with its own package and label, and distributes the product to the

18
customer. Although the e-commerce company has little to no say in the product they receive, the
company usually faces little to no in-house manufacturing constraints.

Wholesaling

A more capital-intensive approach to e-commerce, wholesaling entails maintaining quantities of

inventory, keeping track of customer orders, maintaining customer shipping information, and
typically having ownership of the warehouse space to house products.
Wholesalers may charge bulk pricing to retailers or unit prices for consumers. However, the broad
approach to wholesaling is to connect to buyers of large quantities or many smaller buyers of a
similar, standardized product.

Private Labeling

Private labeling is a more appropriate e-commerce approach for companies that may not have large
upfront capital or do not have their own factory space to manufacture goods. Private label e-
commerce companies send plans to a contracted manufacturer who makes the product.

The manufacturer may also have the ability to ship directly to a customer or ship directly to the
company receiving the order. This method of e-commerce is best suited for companies that may
receive on-demand orders with short turnaround times but are unable to handle the capital
expenditure requirements.

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Subscription-

E-commerce companies can also leverage repeating orders or loyal customers by implementing
subscription services. For a fixed price, the e-commerce company will assemble a package,
introduce new products, and incentivize locking to a long-term agreement at a lower monthly price.
The consumer only places an order once and receives their subscription order at a fixed cadence.
Common subscription e-commerce products include meal prep services, agriculture boxes, fashion
boxes, or health and grooming products.

What Is an E-commerce Website?

An e-commerce website is any site that allows you to buy and sell products and services online.
Companies like Amazon and Alibaba are examples of e-commerce websites.

What Is the Difference Between E-commerce and E-business?

E-commerce involves the purchase and sale of goods and services online and is actually just one
part of e-business. An e-business involves the entire process of running a company online. Put
simply, it's all of the activity that takes place with an online business.

What Is an Example of E-commerce?

Dollar Shave Club offers customers personal grooming, health, and beauty products.7 Customers
can opt for what product(s) they want shipped to them and can sign up for long-term memberships
to have products sent to them on a recurring basis. Dollar Shave Club procures goods in bulk from
other companies, then bundles those products, maintains membership subscriptions, and markets
the products.

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 NETWORK

What is a computer network?

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data
and resources with each other. A network connection between these devices can be established
using cable or wireless media. Once a connection is established, communication protocols -- such
as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- are used to exchange
data between the networked devices.

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers, servers, printers,

and other hardware, that communicate with each other to share resources and information.
Networks can be as small as two devices connected in a home setting or as large as the global
Internet connecting billions of devices worldwide.

The first example of a computer network was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
This packet-switched network was created in the late 1960s by ARPA, a U.S. Department of
Defense agency.

A computer network can be as small as two laptops connected through an Ethernet cable or as
complex as the internet, which is a global system of computer networks.

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In modern computing, computer networks are essential for several reasons:

● Resource Sharing: Networks allow multiple users to share hardware resources like
printers, scanners, and storage devices, reducing costs and improving efficiency.

● Communication: Networks enable real-time communication through email, instant

messaging, video conferencing, and VoIP services, facilitating collaboration and
information exchange.

● Data Access: By connecting to networked servers and databases, users can access and
manipulate data from anywhere, increasing accessibility and productivity.

● Centralized Management: Networks provide centralized management of resources

and security policies, making it easier to control and maintain IT infrastructure.

● Internet Access: Networks connect devices to the Internet, granting access to a vast
array of online services, information, and resources essential for work, education, and
entertainment.

How does a computer network work?

Devices attached to a computer network use IP addresses that are resolved into hostnames through
a domain name system server to communicate with each other over the internet and on other

22
computer networks. A variety of protocols and algorithms are also used to specify the transmission
of data among endpoints.

Network systems must follow certain standards or guidelines to operate. Standards are a set of data
communication rules required for the exchange of information between devices and are developed
by various standards organizations, including IEEE, the International Organization for
Standardization and the American National Standards Institute.

For example, the Ethernet standard establishes a common communication language for wired or
physical networks, and the 802.11 standard specifies connectivity for wireless local area networks
(WLANs).

A computer network must be physically and logically designed in such a way that makes it possible
for the underlying network elements to communicate with each other. This layout of a computer
network is known as the computer network architecture.

The following are the two most common computer network architectures:

● Client-server. This model consists of many clients -- or nodes -- where at least one
network node acts as the central server. The clients in this model don't share resources, but
request the central server, as all the resources are installed on it.

● Peer-to-peer (P2P). Each connected device on this network behaves as the client, as
well as the server, and enjoys similar privileges. The resources of each peer are shared

23
 among the entire network, including memory, processing power and printing. Many
companies use the P2P architecture to host memory-intensive applications, such as three-
dimensional rendering, across multiple network devices.

A well-defined computer network also takes network capacity into account. A network's capacity
is how much traffic the network can support at any given time, while still meeting service-level
agreements. It's measured in terms of bandwidth, which is quantified by the theoretical maximum
number of bits per second that can pass through a network device.

Components of a Network:

The key components of a computer network include:

● Nodes: Devices connected to the network, such as computers, servers, routers, switches,
and printers.

● Links: Communication pathways that connect nodes and facilitate data transmission.
Links can be wired (e.g., Ethernet cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

● Protocols: Rules and conventions that govern data exchange between devices on the
network. Protocols define standards for addressing, routing, error detection, and data
formatting.

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Types of Networks:

Computer networks can be categorized into various types based on their geographic scope and
purpose:

Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN covers a small geographical area, such as a home,
office building, or campus. LANs typically use Ethernet or Wi-Fi technologies.

Advantages-

● High-speed data transfer within a limited geographical area.

● Cost-effective for small to medium-sized networks.
● Easy to set up and manage.

Disadvantages:

● Limited geographic coverage.

25
 ● Susceptible to congestion and bandwidth limitations.
● Vulnerable to single points of failure.

Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN spans large distances and connects multiple LANs
or other networks. The Internet is the largest example of a WAN.

Advantages:

● Connects geographically dispersed locations, including different cities or countries.

● Enables global communication and collaboration.
● Supports diverse network services like Internet access, voice, and video conferencing.

Disadvantages:

● High infrastructure costs, including leased lines, routers, and telecommunications

equipment.
● Susceptible to latency, packet loss, and bandwidth limitations over long distances.
● Complex network management and security challenges.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN covers a city or metropolitan area,

providing high-speed connectivity to businesses and organizations.

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Advantages:

● Covers larger geographical areas than LANs, suitable for city-wide connectivity.
● Provides high-speed communication between interconnected LANs.
● Supports centralized management and resource sharing.

Disadvantages:

● Higher implementation and maintenance costs compared to LANs.

● Requires coordination with multiple service providers and regulatory authorities.
● Limited scalability for extensive coverage.
●

Personal Area Network (PAN): A PAN is a network formed by personal devices, such as
smartphones, tablets, and wearable gadgets, typically connected via Bluetooth or NFC.

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Advantages:

● Provides connectivity for personal devices in close proximity, such as smartphones, tablets,
and wearable gadgets.
● Enables seamless data sharing and communication between personal devices.
● Low power consumption and wireless technologies like Bluetooth and Zigbee support.

Disadvantages:

● Limited range and coverage area.

● Interference from nearby devices and environmental factors.
● Security concerns related to unauthorized access and data interception.

Network topologies-

Definition and Types:

A network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of nodes and links in a network.

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Types-

Bus Topology: All nodes are connected to a single communication line, called a bus. Nodes
transmit data directly onto the bus, and each node receives all transmissions but only processes
those intended for it.

Advantages:

● Simple and inexpensive to implement.

● Requires less cabling compared to other topologies.
● Suitable for small networks with low to moderate traffic.

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Disadvantages:

● Single point of failure (the main bus) can disrupt the entire network.
● Limited scalability as adding more devices can degrade performance.
● Susceptible to collisions and signal interference.

Star Topology: All nodes are connected to a central hub or switch. Data transmitted by one
node passes through the central hub and is forwarded to the intended recipient.

Advantages:

● Centralized control and management with a single point of administration (the central hub
or switch).
● Easy to troubleshoot and isolate network issues.
● Scalable and flexible, allowing for easy addition or removal of devices.

Disadvantages:

30
 ● Dependency on the central hub or switch, which can become a bottleneck if it fails.
● Higher implementation costs due to the need for more cabling and active network devices.
● Limited fault tolerance as the failure of the central hub affects all connected devices.

Ring Topology: Nodes are connected in a circular fashion, where each node is connected to
exactly two other nodes, forming a closed loop. Data travels around the ring until it reaches its
destination.

Advantages:

● Even distribution of network traffic with no single point of control.

● Simple and easy to install, requiring less cabling compared to other topologies.
● Predictable data transmission paths with minimal collisions.

Disadvantages:

● Susceptible to ring breakdown if a single node or link fails, disrupting the entire network.
● Limited scalability as adding more devices can increase the risk of network congestion.
● Difficulties in troubleshooting and identifying the location of faults.

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Mesh Topology: Every node is connected to every other node in the network, creating
redundant paths for data transmission. Mesh topologies offer high fault tolerance but require more
cabling and configuration.

Advantages:

● High fault tolerance with redundant paths for data transmission.

● Scalable and adaptable to changing network requirements.
● Supports high-speed communication and minimizes network congestion.

Disadvantages:

● Complex and expensive to implement and maintain, requiring extensive cabling and
configuration.
● Difficulties in managing and monitoring network traffic across multiple paths.
● Overhead associated with maintaining routing tables and managing redundant links.

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Hybrid Topology: A combination of two or more basic topologies. For example, a hybrid
topology may feature a central star network with additional bus or ring networks connected to it.

Advantages:

● Offers flexibility and customization by combining multiple topologies to meet specific

network needs.
● Provides redundancy and fault tolerance by leveraging the strengths of different topologies.
● Scalable and adaptable to evolving network requirements and growth.

Disadvantages:

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 ● Increased complexity in design, implementation, and management compared to single-
topology networks.
● Higher costs associated with integrating and maintaining multiple topologies.
● Challenges in troubleshooting and optimizing performance due to the hybrid nature of the
network.

Comparison and Applications: Compare different topologies based on

scalability, fault tolerance, and performance, and analyze their suitability for
various network environments-

Bus Topology:

● Scalability: Limited scalability as adding more nodes can lead to signal degradation and
performance issues.

● Fault Tolerance: Low fault tolerance as a single point of failure (the main bus) can disrupt
the entire network.

● Performance: Moderate performance, but bandwidth decreases as more devices are added.

● Suitability: Suitable for small networks with a limited number of devices, such as small
offices or classrooms.

Star Topology:

● Scalability: Highly scalable as adding or removing nodes is straightforward without

affecting the entire network.

● Fault Tolerance: Moderate fault tolerance as the failure of a single node affects only that
node's connectivity.

● Performance: Good performance due to centralized traffic management, but the central
hub or switch can become a bottleneck.

● Suitability: Ideal for medium to large networks, such as corporate environments, where
scalability and centralized management are crucial.

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Ring Topology:

● Scalability: Limited scalability as adding more nodes can disrupt the entire ring and
require reconfiguration.

● Fault Tolerance: Low fault tolerance as the failure of a single node or link can break the
ring, isolating segments of the network.

● Performance: Moderate performance with predictable data transmission paths, but

bandwidth may decrease as more devices are added.

● Suitability: Suitable for small to medium-sized networks where data flows in a sequential
manner and simplicity is valued over scalability.

Mesh Topology:

● Scalability: Highly scalable as additional nodes increase redundancy and fault tolerance
without affecting overall network performance.

● Fault Tolerance: High fault tolerance due to redundant paths for data transmission,
minimizing the impact of node or link failures.

● Performance: Good performance with high resilience to congestion and network traffic,
but installation and maintenance costs can be high.

● Suitability: Ideal for critical applications and large-scale networks where reliability and
fault tolerance are paramount, such as telecommunications networks and data centers.

Hybrid Topology:

● Scalability: Scalability depends on the specific combination of topologies used in the

hybrid network.

● Fault Tolerance: Fault tolerance varies based on the topology mix, with some segments
offering higher redundancy than others.

● Performance: Performance characteristics depend on the individual topologies involved

and their interconnections.

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 ● Suitability: Suitable for complex network environments where different areas have unique
requirements, allowing for tailored solutions to specific needs.

Network Protocols

Protocol Stack:

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) model are two fundamental frameworks used to understand and
implement network protocols.

OSI Model:

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The OSI model consists of seven layers, each responsible for specific functions in data
communication:

● Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium,
including encoding, signaling, and hardware specifications.

● Data Link Layer: Ensures reliable point-to-point and point-to-multipoint

communication between adjacent network nodes. It handles framing, error detection, and
flow control.

● Network Layer: Manages logical addressing, routing, and packet forwarding to enable
end-to-end data transmission across multiple networks. The Internet Protocol (IP) operates
at this layer.

● Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end data delivery and error recovery mechanisms.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are key
protocols at this layer.

● Session Layer: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections between

applications. It manages session synchronization and dialog control.

● Presentation Layer: Deals with data translation, encryption, and compression to

ensure compatibility between different systems.

● Application Layer: Supports end-user applications and provides services such as file
transfer, email, and web browsing.

TCP/IP Model:

The TCP/IP model is a simpler, four-layer architecture widely used in modern networking:

● Link Layer: Similar to the OSI Data Link Layer, it handles physical addressing,
framing, and error detection.

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 ● Internet Layer: Corresponds to the OSI Network Layer, responsible for logical
addressing, routing, and packet forwarding using IP.

● Transport Layer: Combines the functionalities of the OSI Transport Layer, offering
reliable, connection-oriented communication (TCP) and connectionless, unreliable
communication (UDP).

● Application Layer: Similar to the OSI Application Layer, it supports end-user

applications and protocols like HTTP, FTP, DNS, and DHCP.

Common Protocols:

Several protocols play vital roles in data communication within computer networks:

● TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented

communication between applications by ensuring data delivery, sequencing, and flow
control.

● UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Offers connectionless, unreliable communication

with minimal overhead, suitable for real-time applications like video streaming and VoIP.

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 ● IP (Internet Protocol): facilities packet forwarding and routing across interconnected
networks, enabling end-to-end data delivery.

● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Supports the transfer of hypertext

documents on the World Wide Web, allowing web browsers to retrieve and display web
pages.

● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Enables the transfer of files between a client and a
server over a network, supporting upload, download, and file management operations.

● DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names (e.g., www.example.com)

into IP addresses, facilitating the identification of network resources.

● DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automates the assignment of

IP addresses, su bnet masks, and other network configuration parameters to devices on a
network.

Network Devices

Routers:

Routers are critical network devices that facilitate communication between different networks by
forwarding data packets between them.
Their primary functions include:

● Packet Forwarding: Routers examine the destination IP address of incoming packets

and determine the best path for forwarding them to their destination network.
● Routing: Routers use routing algorithms to calculate optimal paths based on factors like
network topology, traffic load, and administrative policies.

● Interconnectivity: Routers connect disparate networks, such as LANs, WANs, and the
Internet, allowing devices in one network to communicate with devices in another network.

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 ● Network Segmentation: By dividing a large network into smaller subnets, routers
enhance performance, security, and manageability.

Key features of routers include:

● Multiple Interfaces: Routers typically have multiple network interfaces to connect to

different networks, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and WAN interfaces.

● Routing Table: Routers maintain a routing table that contains information about
network destinations and their corresponding next-hop routers or interfaces.

● Routing Protocols: Routers use routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, and BGP to
exchange routing information with neighboring routers and dynamically update their
routing tables.

Configuration of routers involves setting up interfaces, configuring routing protocols, defining

access control lists (ACLs) for traffic filtering, and implementing security features such as firewall
rules and virtual private networks (VPNs).

Switches:

Switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and are responsible for
forwarding data frames within a single network.

Their primary functions include:

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 ● Frame Forwarding: Switches use MAC addresses to forward data frames between
devices within the same network segment, enabling efficient communication.

● Address Learning: Switches dynamically learn the MAC addresses of connected

devices by examining the source addresses of incoming frames and associating them with
the corresponding switch ports.

● Collision Prevention: Switches use full-duplex communication and dedicated switch

ports for each device, eliminating collisions and improving network performance.

● VLAN Support: Switches support virtual LANs (VLANs), allowing administrators to

logically segment a network into multiple broadcast domains for improved security and
traffic management.

Switches can be classified as managed or unmanaged:

● Managed switches: Provide advanced features such as VLAN configuration, Quality

of Service (QoS) prioritization, port mirroring, and SNMP-based monitoring and
management.

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 ● Unmanaged Switches: Have a plug-and-play setup with no configuration options,
making them suitable for small networks where simplicity is prioritized.

Firewalls:

Firewalls are essential network security devices that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules. Their main purposes include:

● Traffic Filtering: Firewalls inspect packets at the network and transport layers (Layers
3 and 4) and apply rules to permit or block traffic based on factors like source/destination
IP addresses, ports, and protocols.

● Stateful Inspection: Stateful firewalls maintain a state table to track the state of active
connections, allowing them to make context-aware decisions and enforce security policies
based on the connection's state.

● Application Layer Filtering: Application-layer firewalls (or proxy firewalls) operate at

the application layer (Layer 7) and inspect the contents of packets to identify and block
malicious or unauthorized traffic.

Types of firewalls include:

● Packet-Filtering Firewalls: Analyze packet headers and filter traffic based on

predetermined criteria, such as IP addresses and ports.

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 ● Stateful Firewalls: Maintain state information for active connections and make
filtering decisions based on the connection's state.

● Layer Firewalls: Inspect and filter traffic at the application layer, providing granular
control over specific protocols and applications.
●
Firewalls play a crucial role in protecting networks from common security threats, including
unauthorized access, malware infections, and denial-of-service attacks.

Network Security

Threats and Vulnerabilities:

Common security threats to computer networks include:

● Malware: Malicious software like viruses, worms, Trojans, and ransomware that can
compromise system integrity, steal data, or disrupt network operations.

● Phishing: Social engineering attacks that trick users into revealing sensitive information
like passwords or financial credentials.

● DDoS Attacks: Distributed Denial of Service attacks that flood a network or server with
traffic, rendering it inaccessible to legitimate users.

● Data Breaches: Unauthorized access to confidential or sensitive data, resulting in

exposure or theft of information.

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