Audio

UNIT 9 AUDIO COMMUNICATION Communication

Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Types of Radio Receivers
Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver
Superheterodyne Receiver
9.3 AM Receiver
RF Stage
Mixer
Intermediate Frequency (IF) Section
Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
9.4 AM Transmitter
9.5 FM Communication
FM Receiver
Stereo FM System
9.6 Satellite Radio
9.7 Summary
9.8 Terminal Questions
9.9 Solutions and Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication of voice signal over a metal wire was proven by the invention of
telephone. However wireless communication of audio signals remained a challenge.
Dr. Jagdish Chandra Bose
Beginning with our own Dr. Jagdish Chandra Bose and the Italian physicist (1858-1937) worked in
Guglielmo Marconi, wireless communication of signals has come a long way now. many different fields of
sciences-from Physics to
Botany! He was pioneer in
The audio communication in daily life is experienced by us in the form of radio. designing the first
Radio plays an important role in providing information and entertainment. You must semiconductor detector for
have already experienced the use of radio as an educational tool in the form of detecting radio waves. He
IGNOU's radio phone-in programmes. The advances in technology have brought the also invented many new
commonplace microwave
size of a radio receiver from a table-mounted box to a tiny bead that could be fitted in components.
a ring or wristwatch. Due to the use of semiconductor transistor device in these small
radios, they are now generically known as transistors. You may remember that
cellular mobile telephone communications are also sometimes referred to as mobile
radio communication since, in essence, every mobile handset is a tiny radio
transmitter and receiver. Since the early nineties, digital techniques are also being
used in audio communication systems.

In this unit we will discuss various forms of radio communication like amplitude
modulated (AM) and frequency modulated (FM) transmission. We discuss the block
diagrams of transmitters and receivers for both these types of radio communication. In
recent days, it is possible to gain access to radio signals from satellites. We will take a
brief review of these new advances. There are also some higher sensitivity precision
receivers mainly used by scientists or military personnel. A brief description of such
special receivers is given as an Appendix to this Unit.

In Sec. 9.2 you will learn about the two main types of radio receivers viz. Tuned
Radio Frequency (TRF) receiver and superheterodyne receiver. In Sec. 9.3 we discuss
the basic blocks of an AM receiver along with some special circuits like mixers;
intermediate frequency (IF) circuits and automatic gain control (AGC) circuit. The
construction and working of AM transmitters is explained in Sec. 9.4. You have
already learnt about frequency modulators and demodulators in Unit 5. In Sec. 9.5 we
describe the FM communication system. Here we will also describe stereo FM
communication. A brief overview of satellite radio broadcast is taken in Sec. 9.6. 5
Communication
Systems Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss the construction and working of TRF receiver;
 describe the base blocks of superheterodyne receiver;
 list the advantages of superheterodyne method;
 explain with typical circuits working of mixer and automatic gain control;
 discuss the critical parameters determining the performance of AM receivers; and
 explain the working of FM stereo broadcast.

9.2 TYPES OF RADIO RECEIVERS

The function of any receiver is to select the desired signal from the other signals,
amplify and demodulate it, and display it in the desired manner. The major difference
between receivers of various types is essentially dependent on the way in which they
demodulate the received signal. In turn, this depends on the type of modulation
employed in transmission, be it AM or FM.

Of the various forms of receivers proposed over the years, only two have any real
practical or commercial significance: the tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver and
the superheterodyne receiver. Presently, only the second type is used to a large extent,
but it is necessary to understand the operation of the TRF receiver first since it is the
simplest form of a receiver.

9.2.1 Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver

Prior to 1945, most radio receivers were of the TRF type. A block diagram of a
typical TRF receiver is shown in Fig. 9.1.

Fig. 9.1: The TRF receiver

The TRF receiver is a simple "logical" receiver with simplicity and high sensitivity.
You must remember that when the TRF receiver was first introduced, it was a great
improvement on the types of receiver in use previously: crystal, regenerative and
super regenerative receivers.

In TRF receivers typically two or three RF amplifiers, all tuned to the same frequency,
are employed to select and amplify the frequency of interest and simultaneously reject
all others. After the signal is amplified to a suitable level, it is demodulated (detected)
and fed to the loudspeaker after being passed through the appropriate audio
amplifying stages. Such receivers are simple to design and work well at medium
wave (MW) broadcast frequencies (535 to 1640 kHz), but they present difficulties at
6 higher frequencies. This is mainly because of the risks of instability associated with

Each ra
high gain multistage amplifier. Consider an amplifier with a gain of 50,000. All that Audio
is needed is 1/50,000 of the output of the last stage to get fed back at the input of the Communication
first stage in phase with the input signal, to provide regenerative feedback and begin Each radio broadcast station is
allotted a fixed frequency from
oscillations. This situation is almost inevitable at high frequencies and hampers the the range of broadcast band.
operation of a good receiver. The station has to transmit only
at that frequency with assigned
frequency bandwidth.
Another limitation faced by the TRF receiver is a variation in bandwidth over the
tuning range. Consider a tuned circuit required to have a bandwidth of 10 kHz at a
frequency of 535 kHz. The Q of this circuit must be Q = f/f = 535/10 = 53.5. At the
other end of the broadcast band, i.e., at 1640 kHz, the inductive reactance (and Table 9.1: Typical AM Radio
Frequency Bands.
therefore the Q) of the coil should in theory have increased to 164. In practice,
however, various losses dependent on frequency will prevent so large an increase. Band Frequency
Thus the Q at 1640 kHz is not likely to exceed 120 resulting in a bandwidth of Medium Wave
520-1700 kHz
f = 1640/120 = 13.7 kHz. It means that the receiver will pick up signals from an (MW)
Short Wave-1
adjacent station as well as the one to which it is tuned. (SW-1)
4.39-5.18 MHz
Short Wave-2
5.72-6.33 MHz
Now consider a TRF receiver required to tune to 36.5 MHz, the upper end of the (SW-2)
shortwave band. If the Q required of the RF circuits is again calculated, still on the
basis of a 10 kHz bandwidth, we have Q = 3650! It is obvious that such a Q is
impossible to obtain with ordinary tuned circuits and the bandwidth of tuning circuit is
very large. The problems of instability, insufficient adjacent-frequency rejection, and
bandwidth variation can all be solved by the use of a superheterodyne receiver.

9.2.2 Superheterodyne Receiver

As you learnt in the case of a TRF receiver, the straightforward way to listen to any
radio station would be to tune to the radio frequency (RF) of that station using a
variable capacitor and then amplify the signal at that frequency. This is necessary
because the signal caught by the antenna (aerial) of the radio set is very weak and
cannot be used as it is.

Now, typically the AM radio at medium wave frequencies operates between 535 kHz
to 1640 kHz and short wave bands from about 1700 kHz to 36 MHz. To build such a
wide bandwidth amplifier, working linearly throughout the frequency range is almost
impossible and if at all possible, is a very expensive affair. Instead, if an amplifier of
narrow band, operating at low frequency is used then it can be quite cost effective and
easy to design.

With this principle, the concept of superheterodyne (superhet) receiver was devised.
Here the incoming signal of any above-mentioned frequency is mixed with a local
oscillator frequency so as to produce difference or beat frequency. The frequency of
the local oscillator is varied in such a way that for any selected input frequency of the
receiver the output at the beat frequency generator or mixer (discussed in Sec. 9.3.2)
is a constant frequency. Generally this frequency is kept at 455 kHz in the AM radio
receivers. This frequency is called an intermediate frequency (IF). Since the
incoming signal is now at reduced frequency, its amplification can be done quite
efficiently, using low frequency amplifiers. Such receivers using intermediate
frequency are called the superheterodyne receivers.

You will appreciate that since most of the signal processing now is occurring at a
fixed frequency of 455 kHz, the manufacturing of the electronic components can be
standardised and hence their bulk production is quite cost effective and hence the cost
of modern radio receivers is quite less. Use of semiconductor technology has also
helped in miniaturisation and cost reduction of the radio sets in recent years.
The block diagram of basic superheterodyne receiver is shown in Fig. 9.2. In the
superheterodyne receiver, the signal voltage is mixed with the local oscillator voltage
such that the resultant component of difference frequency is the intermediate
frequency. The IF signal contains the same modulation as the original carrier, which 7
Communication can be amplified and demodulated to reproduce the original information. There is an
Systems additional block of automatic gain control in this diagram, about which we will be
discussing in the next section. The superhet thus has the same essential components
as the TRF receiver, with additional blocks of mixer, local oscillator and intermediate-
frequency (IF) amplifier.

Fig. 9.2: The superheterodyne receiver

A constant frequency difference is maintained between the local oscillator and the RF
circuits, normally through capacitance tuning, in which all the capacitors are ganged
together and operated in unison by one control knob. The IF amplifier generally uses
two or three transformers, each consisting of a pair of mutually coupled tuned circuits.
With this large number of double-tuned circuits operating at a constant, specially
chosen frequency, the IF amplifier fulfils most of the gain (and therefore sensitivity)
and bandwidth requirements of the receiver. Since the characteristics of the IF
amplifier are independent of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned, the
selectivity and sensitivity of the superhet are usually fairly uniform throughout its
tuning range and not subject to the variations as in the case of TRF receiver.

You may now like to attempt an SAQ.

Spend SAQ 1
2 Min.
Which of the following statements is not true?
The superheterodyne receiver replaced the TRF receiver because the latter suffered
from:

i) gain variation over the frequency coverage range;

ii) insufficient gain and sensitivity;
iii) inadequate selectivity at high frequencies;
iv) instability.

Let us now discuss the various components of an AM receiver.

8
 Audio
9.3 AM RECEIVER Communication

The most popular form of radio communication in India over the last 50 years has
been medium and shortwave AM broadcast. Recently FM broadcast is being used in
some metropolitan cities however, AM continues to have the widest spread in rural
India. In this section we will be discussing the functioning of an AM receiver we
have in our home. All these radio sets use superheterodyne principle; hence we will
focus our discussion on such receivers only.

9.3.1 RF Stage You have already learnt

about the tuned RF
A typical superheterodyne AM receiver has an RF section, which is a tuneable circuit amplifiers in Unit 4 of the
course on Electrical Circuits
connected to the antenna terminals. It selects the wanted frequency and rejects the
and Electronics (PHE-10)
unwanted frequencies picked up by the antenna. The signal picked up by the antenna
is then passed on to an RF amplifier. The advantages of using an RF amplifier in the
RF stage of the receiver are:

 better sensitivity;
 better selectivity; and
 improved image frequency rejection.

A typical transistorised transformer-coupled RF amplifier is shown in Fig. 9.3. This is

a tuned amplifier circuit. Here the load impedance is supplied by a resonant circuit
(C4- primary of T2), with parallel resonance, which is used to obtain the necessary
high load impedance. Utilisation of resonance circuit makes the tuned amplifier
frequency selective. Thus only the frequencies in the vicinity of the tuned load are
amplified.

Fig. 9.3: Transistorised RF amplifier

In the present circuit, there are tuning circuits at the input and the output of the
amplifier. Both these are designed to be resonant at the operating frequency of the
amplifier. This tuning enhances the frequency selectivity of the circuits to a great
extent.

Sensitivity
You have already learnt in the first unit (Sec. 1.3.2) that the sensitivity is defined in
terms of the ratio of output signal and input signal. The characterisation of the system
can be done by applying standard input signals.

For AM broadcast receivers, several of the relevant test parameters have been
standardised. Typically a 30 percent modulation by a 400 Hz sine wave is used, and
the signal is applied to the receiver through a standard coupling network known as a
9
Communication dummy antenna. The standard output is 50 mW, and for all types of receivers the
Systems loudspeaker is replaced by a load resistance of equal value as shown in Fig. 9.4a.

Sensitivity is often expressed in microvolts or in decibels below 1 V and is measured

at three points along the tuning range while testing. A typical sensitivity curve is
shown in Fig. 9.4b. It indicates that sensitivity varies over the tuning band. At
1000 kHz, this particular receiver has a sensitivity of 12.7 V, or 98 dBV (dB below
1V).

For professional receivers, it is a practice to quote the sensitivity in terms of signal

power required to produce a minimum acceptable output signal with a minimum
acceptable signal-to-noise ratio. The measurements are made under the conditions
described, and the minimum input power is quoted in dB below 1 mW or dBm. Thus,
under the heading of sensitivity in the specifications of a receiver, you may find an
entry like, "85 dBm 1 MHz signal, 30 percent modulated with a 400 Hz sine wave
will, when applied to the input terminals of this receiver through a dummy antenna,
produce an output of at least 50 mW with a signal-to-noise ratio not less than 20 dB
in the output".

The sensitivity plot in Fig. 9.4b belongs to a rather good domestic or car radio.
Portable and other small receivers used only for the broadcast band might have a
sensitivity in the vicinity of 150 V, whereas the sensitivity of quality communication
receivers may be better than 1 V in the HF band.

The most important factors determining the sensitivity of a superheterodyne receiver

are the gain of the IF amplifier(s) and that of the RF amplifier. You will agree that the
Fig. 9.4: a) Sensitivity
measurement setup; and noise figure also plays an important part in deciding the sensitivity.
b) sensitivity curve for a
typical radio receiver Selectivity
The selectivity of a receiver is its ability to reject (adjacent) unwanted signals. Fig. 9.5
shows the attenuation that the receiver offers to signals at frequencies away from its
tuned frequency. Selectivity is measured at the end of a sensitivity test with same
conditions as for sensitivity, except that now the frequency of the generator is varied
to either side of the tuned frequency. The output of the receiver falls as the input
frequency goes away from the tuned frequency. Thus the input voltage must be
increased until the output is the same as it was at tuned frequency. The ratio of the
voltage required for off resonance frequency to the voltage required when the
generator is tuned to the receiver's frequency is calculated at a number of points and
then plotted in decibels to give a typical selectivity curve. In the curve of Fig. 9.5 you
will find that at 10 kHz below the receiver tuned frequency, an input signal would
have to be 20 dB greater than the resonant signal to result into the same amplitude.
You will appreciate that the selectivity determines the adjacent-channel rejection of a
receiver.

There is one more characteristic of a receiver, which is called fidelity. It characterises

Fig. 9.5: Typical selectivity the variation of output over the range of modulating frequency (typically 20-20kHz
curve
for audio signals). It is expected that over this width of frequency band, the output is
linear. When very sharp selectivity is applied, the fidelity gets affected.

Image Frequency and Its Rejection

In a standard superheterodyne broadcast receiver the local oscillator frequency o is
kept higher than the incoming signal frequency, which is always equal to the signal
frequency plus the intermediate frequency. Thus o = s + i i.e. s = o  i, no
matter what the signal frequency may be. When o and s are mixed, the difference
frequency, which is one of the by-products, is equal to i. As such, it is the only one
passed and amplified by the IF stage.
10
If a frequency x = o + i, that is, x = s + 2i manages to reach the mixer then this Audio
frequency will also produce i when mixed with o. As an effect, this spurious Communication
intermediate-frequency signal will also be amplified by the IF stage and will therefore
cause interference. This has the effect of two stations being received simultaneously
and is naturally undesirable. The term x is called the image frequency and is
defined as the signal frequency plus twice the intermediate frequency i.e. we have

x = s + 2i (9.1)

or

fx = fs + 2fi (9.1a)

The rejection of an image frequency by a single-tuned circuit, i.e. the ratio of the gain
at the signal frequency to the gain at the image frequency, is given by

  1  Q 22 (9.2)

where

ωx ωs
ρ  ; (9.3)
ωs ωx

and Q is the loaded quality factor of the tuned circuit.

If the receiver has an RF stage, then there are two tuned circuits, both tuned to s. In
such case, the rejection of each will be calculated by the same formula, and the total
rejection will be the product of the two. Remember here that, whatever arithmetic
applies to gain calculations also applies for rejection.

The image frequency rejection depends on the front-end selectivity of the receiver and
must be achieved before the IF stage. Once the spurious frequency enters the first IF
amplifier, it becomes impossible to remove it from the useful signal.

SAQ 2 Spend
4 Min.
In a superheterodyne receiver having no RF amplifier, the loaded Q of the antenna
coupling circuit (at the input to the mixer) is 100. If the intermediate frequency is
455 kHz, calculate (a) the image frequency and its rejection ratio at 1000 kHz, and
(b) the image frequency and its rejection ratio at 25 MHz.

While solving the above SAQ, you must have realised that although image frequency
rejection need not be a problem for a MW AM broadcast receiver without an RF
stage, special precautions must be taken at HF.

Double spotting
This is a well-known phenomenon observed while tuning a radio set at short wave
(SW) frequency. In this case the receiver picks up the same short wave station at two
nearby points on the receiver dial. It is caused by poor front-end selectivity, i.e.
inadequate image frequency rejection. Here, the front end of the receiver does not
select different adjacent signals very well, but, of course, the IF stage takes care of
eliminating almost all of them. It is obvious that the precise tuning of the local
oscillator determines, which signal will be amplified by the IF stage.

Consider a receiver at HF, having an IF of 455 kHz. If there is a strong station at

(say) 15 MHz, the receiver will naturally pick it up. Note that, when it does, the local 11
Communication oscillator frequency will be 15.455 MHz. However, the receiver will also pick up this
Systems strong station when it (the receiver) is tuned to 14.090 MHz. When the receiver is
tuned to the second frequency, its local oscillator will be adjusted to 14.545 MHz.
Since this is exactly 455 kHz below the frequency of the strong station, the two
signals will produce 455 kHz when they are mixed, and of course the IF amplifier will
not reject this signal. If there had been an RF amplifier in this receiver, the 15 MHz
signal would be rejected before reaching the mixer, but in the absence of RF amplifier
the 15 MHz signal cannot be adequately rejected when the receiver is tuned to 14.09
MHz.

Double spotting is harmful because a weak station may be masked by reception of a

nearby strong station at the spurious point on the dial.

Spend SAQ 3
2 Min.
How can double spotting be used to calculate the intermediate frequency of an
unknown receiver?

As expected, an improvement in image-frequency rejection will produce a

corresponding reduction in double spotting.

9.3.2 Mixer
The mixer or frequency changer, also referred to as beat frequency generator is a
circuit in the superheterodyne receiver which converts the input RF signal into
intermediate frequency (IF) signal.

Since a new frequency is to be generated, a mixer has to contain a circuit component

(device) which is working in the non-linear range of its operation. The most common
choice of the devices are diodes, bipolar junction transistors (BJT) or field effect
transistors (FET). Fig. 9.6 shows an input-output (or transfer) curve of a typical
device.

The input-output relationship can be expressed as a linear equation if the signal swing
is over a small part of the curve and we can write

vo = A vi (9.4)

However, when the signal swing is large the output can be expressed as power series:

vo  Avi  Bvi2  Cv i3  Dvi4 +... (9.5)

In a mixer, we add the signal coming from the RF stage with the signal generated by
the local oscillator (LO). The frequency of LO is varied in unison with the input RF
Fig. 9.6: Transfer curve of a tuning such that the difference between the two frequencies is always equal to IF. The
non-linear device amplitude of the incoming RF signal is quite small (of micro- or nano-volt level) and
may not make the device operate in the non-linear range, however, if the LO output
has enough amplitude, it provides a large swing in the input voltage to take the device
into non-linear operating range.

It is advantageous to use FET as a mixer device since it can operate in the entire range
from cut off to saturation with a square law relationship between the input and output.
Hence we can rewrite Eq. (9.5) as

vo  Avi  Bvi2 (9.6)

12 in case of FET.
When two sine waves (RF input and LO output) are added, the resultant vi is Audio
Communication
vi = vx + vy = Vx sin xt + Vy sin yt (9.7)

Hence the output will be of the form:

vo = A (vx + vy) + B (vx + vy)2 (9.8)

Simplifying, we obtain.

vo  Avx  Bvx2  Av y  Bv 2y  2Bvx v y (9.9)

You will recollect that this
As we discussed in Sec. 1.4.1 (Eq. (1.9)), the last term in the above expression results is the same process of
creating side bands in the
into sum-difference of frequencies x and y. amplitude modulation.

2Bvx vy = B Vx Vy cos (x  y)t  B Vx Vy cos (x + y)t. (9.10)

Since the difference between the LO frequency and input RF tuned frequency is equal
to IF, the term (x  y) corresponds to IF. The radian frequency (x  y) is
equivalent to a cycle frequency of (fx  fy). By tuning the IF amplifier to (fx  fy), the
other frequency components in Eq. (9.10) can be eliminated and only the signal
corresponding to IF is amplified.

A typical mixer circuit using n-p-n transistor is shown in Fig. 9.7. Here, the LO
output is connected to the base of the transistor and the RF signal to the emitter. The
LC circuit (C-primary of T1) is tuned at IF to give output corresponding to ( fx  fy).

Fig. 9.7: Transistor mixer

A front end of a typical superheterodyne AM receiver is shown in Fig. 9.8.

Fig. 9.8: Front end of AM receiver 13

Communication A typical circuit of LO and mixer is shown in Fig. 9.9. Here, one device acts as a mixer
Systems while the other supplies the necessary oscillations. In this case, Q 1, the FET, is the
mixer whose gate is connected to the output of Q 2, the bipolar transistor Hartley
oscillator. As discussed earlier, the FET is well suited as a mixer because of the
square-law characteristic of its drain current. The RF input is given to the source of
Q 1.

Fig. 9.9: FET mixer and transistorised local oscillator

You must have noticed the ganging together of the tuning capacitors across the mixer
and oscillator coils. Both these circuits are provided in practice with trimmer
capacitors (CTr) across them for fine adjustment. Note further that the output is taken
through a double-tuned transformer (the first IF transformer) in the drain of the mixer
and fed to the IF amplifier. This arrangement is most common at higher frequencies.

9.3.3 Intermediate Frequency (IF) Section

Choice of IF
The choice of intermediate frequency (IF) of a receiving system is usually a
compromise, since there are reasons why it should be neither low nor high, nor in a
certain range between the two. The following are the major factors influencing the
choice of the intermediate frequency in any particular system.
 If the intermediate frequency is too high, poor selectivity and poor adjacent-
channel rejection result unless sharp cut-off filters are used in the IF stages.
 As the intermediate frequency is lowered, image-frequency rejection becomes
poorer. From Eq. (9.3) we can conclude that the rejection improves as the ratio of
image frequency to signal frequency is increased, and this naturally requires a
high IF.
 A very low intermediate frequency can make the selectivity too sharp, cutting off
the sidebands. This problem arises because the Q must be low when the IF is low,
and hence the gain per stage is low.
 If the IF is very low, the frequency stability of the local oscillator must be made
correspondingly higher because any frequency drift is now a larger proportion of
the low IF than of a high IF.
 The intermediate frequency must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver,
or else instability will occur and heterodyne whistles will be heard, making it
impossible to tune to the frequency band immediately adjacent to the intermediate
frequency.
In all our discussion so far we consider 455 kHz as IF. This is the most commonly
used IF for AM receivers. However, there are some other standard values of IF which
emerged from above mentioned criteria for different applications. These are given in
Table 9.2.
14
 Table 9.2: IF frequencies for various application Audio
Communication
S.No. Application Frequency of Operation I.F.

1. AM medium wave Radio 535-1640 kHz 455 kHz

2. FM Radio 88-108 MHz 10.7 MHz

VHF: 54-223 MHz
3. TV Receiver 26 MHz, 46 MHz
UHF: 470-940 MHz
Microwave and Radar 30 MHz, 60 MHz,
4. 1-10 GHz
Receiver 70 MHz
70 MHz, 140 MHz,
5. Cellular Communication 450-2000 MHz
240 MHz

SAQ 4 Spend
1 Min.
What should be the rage of LO to operate in an FM radio receiver tuneable to
88 MHz -108 MHz band?

By and large, services covering a wide frequency range have IFs somewhat below the
lowest receiving frequency, whereas other services, especially fixed-frequency
microwave, may use intermediate frequencies as much as 40 times lower than the
receiving frequency.

IF Amplifier
The IF signal coming from the output of a mixer is actually a frequency down
converted AM signal. Since the intermediate frequency is quite lower than the RF
signal, designing of IF amplifiers is much simpler than the RF amplifiers used in TRF
receivers. A typical stage of IF amplifier is shown in Fig. 9.10. There can be multiple
such stages to achieve high gain.

Fig. 9.10: IF amplifier with diode detector

You must have noticed a diode circuit at the output of this amplifier. This is the diode
envelop detector for AM detection. You have learnt about the AM detectors in Unit 5
of this course. The detected signal is the audio signal, which is the actual intelligence.
This signal is passed through audio amplifier stage to boost the power of voice signal
before feeding it to the speaker. These amplifiers have to be good quality, less
distortion types. Class A or AB amplifiers are preferred choices.

9.3.4 Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

The AM waves travel through atmospheric turbulences while reaching the receiver.
Some transmitters have high power or they are nearer to the receiver than the other
15
Communication transmitters, and hence the signals received from them are stronger. Also atmospheric
Systems fade effects keep on altering the strength of the signal received from the same
transmitter. If these variations in signal strength are faithfully reproduced at the
output of the receiver, the audio signal we hear will have constant fluctuations and the
listening experience will not be a pleasure. In order to compensate for the amplitude
variations in the received signal, a circuit called automatic gain control (AGC) is
used. In case of audio signals specifically, these circuits are referred to as automatic
volume control (AVC).

In Fig. 9.11 we show a typical AGC circuit using a junction field effect transistor
(JFET) Q1 used as a voltage controlled resistance. For small-signal operation with

Fig. 9.11: Automatic Gain Control circuit using FET

drain voltage near zero, the JFET operates in the Ohmic region and offers resistance
of rds(on) to ac signal. This resistance can be controlled by the gate voltage. More
negative the gate-source voltage VGS is, larger rds(on) becomes. For a typical JFET, the
value of rds(on) may vary from 100  to more than 10 M. In our circuit we have
chosen R3 = 100 k. R 3 and rds(on) form a voltage divider and depending on the value
of rds(on) feed 0.001 vin to vin at the input P of amplifier A. Therefore the input of the
amplifier can vary over a 60 dB range.

The output voltage of the amplifier is given to the base of bipolar junction transistor
Q2 through coupling capacitor C1. Since the emitter of p-n-p transistor Q2 is at ground
potential, it remains cut off, till the output voltage is not less than 0.7V. In such a
condition C2 remains uncharged and whole of VEE appears through R5 at the gate of
Q1. This cuts off the JFET. Under cut off, rds is maximum and entire vin appears at
the input of the amplifier A. Now, if the amplitude of vin (received signal) increases
suddenly, the amplifier amplifies it and large output voltage appears at the base of Q2.
A negative swing below 0.7V switches Q2 on and C2 charges through this conducting
transistor. Due to the voltage on C2, the gate voltage of Q1 raises above the quiescent
level of VEE. This reduces rds(on) and the output of voltage divider R3- rds(on) at P. It
means that the voltage at amplifier input reduces, effectively reducing output voltage.

In this way, the increase in the received signal is used to effectively reduce the total
gain of the circuit and give stable output at AGC circuit. You must remember here
that the control action taking place is valid over only a limited amplitude range of
16 input signal. If there is a drastic change in the received signal amplitude, it will drive
the amplifier into saturation and the circuit will not operate in its linear mode of Audio
operation. In such case there will not be any AGC action. Communication

SAQ 5 Spend
2 Min.
Choose the proper statement:

In a radio receiver with AGC

i) the sensitivity is reduced at higher signal levels;

ii) the RF stage gain is normally controlled by the AGC;
iii) frequency selectivity is dependent on AGC performance;
iv) the AGC circuit operates device in non-linear region.

After understanding the details of various aspects of AM receivers, now we briefly

discuss the AM transmitters.

9.4 AM TRANSMITTER
A block diagram of basic AM transmitter is shown in Fig. 9.12a. This simple type of
transmitter is used in some special dedicated communication systems like wireless

Fig. 9.12: a) Basic AM transmitter and b) MOPA transmitter

set ups but is not suitable for commercial broadcast transmission. The main
limitations of these transmitters are i) limited output power and ii) poor frequency
stability. It is not possible to get a great deal to power through an oscillator.
Modulating the signal directly on the oscillator brings in instability in the operating
frequency of the oscillator. To overcome these difficulties, the transmitter circuit is
modified as shown in Fig. 9.12b. In this transmitter an additional stage of power
amplifier is added and the modulating point is shifted from oscillator to this amplifier.
Now the oscillator is running at a single predetermined fixed frequency and acts as a
master oscillator (MO). Due to master oscillator and power amplifier in this system, it
is referred to as MOPA transmitter. The power amplifier in this system provides
higher power level of radiation. However there are some more modifications done in
the sophisticated transmitters to make them more efficient and give better
performance. A typical practical broadcast transmitter block diagram is shown in
Fig. 9.13.

In this system a buffer amplifier is introduced between the master oscillator and the
remaining circuit. This protects the oscillator from any stray feedback of modulating
frequency from further circuit components and enhances the stability of the oscillator
frequency. The oscillators used in typical AM broadcast transmitters can be Hartley,
Colpitts or crystal controlled oscillators.

17
Communication
Systems

Fig. 9.13: Block diagram of a practical AM transmitter

In some cases the frequency of the oscillator is not adequate for using directly in
radiation. In such cases, the oscillator is up converted by using frequency multipliers.
In order to enhance the signal amplitude, usually some driver (amplifier) stages are
added before letting the signal modulation in the power amplifier. All the amplifiers
used here are of Class C type, which have advantage of higher power efficiency. You
have already learnt about the amplitude modulators using transistorised circuits in
Unit 5 of this course.

The last stage of a typical transmitter is a power stage. The output of this amplifier is
fed to the radiating antenna for signal transmission. The coupling between the final
stage and antenna is critical, so that only the desired frequencies should be
transmitted.

For any broadcast transmitter the maximum allowed power that can be radiated is
limited by the government regulations. Typically these powers are in the range of
500 W to 50 kW for radio transmitters. The limit assigned to a transmitter has to be
observed; otherwise the signal from one transmitter may start interfering with another
transmitter signal, which is prohibited.

Now, when there is restriction on maximum transmitter power, the use of this
available power has to be carried out for communicating the signal with maximum
possible efficiency. It means that the power is to be utilised only for the purpose it is
allotted for and any undesired frequencies are not transmitted. Hence it is necessary
to filter out any stray frequencies present in the signal before it is transmitted. This
can be achieved by using coupling circuits before the antenna. A typical coupling
arrangement between the final stage and the antenna is shown in Fig. 9.14.

Fig. 9.14: Final stage of a typical commercial broadcast transmitter

18
The coupling circuit also performs the job of impedance matching between the output Audio
impedance of the amplifier and the load, which may be the input impedance by Communication
another amplifier or the antenna impedance.

In its function as a power transmitting unit, a coupling circuit is generally expected to

transform load impedance in order to accomplish a particular purpose. For example,
in inter-stage coupling, a typical requirement is the transfer of a specified amount of
RF power from the driver to the input of the power output stage. Given the power
specification, say Pout, the relationship between the RF voltage, VRF, at the output of
the driver stage and its (the driver's) load resistance, Rload, is

2
V RF
Pout  (9.11)
Rload

However, if the driver stage is class C amplifier, then, usually the peak-to-peak value
of the RF voltage is equal to 2VCC, or, VRFp = VCC. Therefore,

VCC
V RF (effective)  (9.12)
2
and

2
VCC
2
V RF  (9.13)
2

More precisely, if the collector saturation voltage, VCE(sat), is known, then

(VCC  VCE ( sat ) ) 2

2
V RF  (9.14)
2

Hence the amount of load resistance that must be presented to the driver stage in order
to achieve the desired power level is

(VCC  VCE ( sat ) ) 2

Rload  (9.15)
2 Pout

If the input impedance of the output stage (the driver stage) is not equal to this value
of Rload, the coupling circuit is designed to transform that impedance to match this
required value. Please remember here that the match is not necessarily to achieve
maximum power transfer, but to achieve the transfer of a specified amount of power.

The coupling circuit between the final stage of a transmitter and the transmitter load-
usually an antenna at the end of a transmission line must serve a similar purpose. The
circuit is designed to transform the transmission line/antenna load so that it matches
the value of an Rload, as seen by the output stage, required to produce a specified
amount of RF power.

Coupling circuits of many different forms can be devised to accomplish this. An "L"
circuit (so-called because of its shape) composed of two reactances of opposite types
is a simple and common coupling circuit used to transform the value of a component,
or load, connected to its output terminals as shown in Fig. 9.15a. When we redraw the
circuit as in Fig. 9.15b it becomes obvious that the overall circuit, including RL, is
parallel LC circuit. Let us assume that the resistance of inductance L is negligible
compared to RL. This is a reasonable assumption for most practical cases. Then, at fo,
the frequency that makes the circuit anti-resonant, the network will appear to be a pure
19
Communication resistance, Rin. The value of Rin is that of RL transformed to its parallel equivalent
Systems (refer to Fig. 9.15c).

Fig. 9.15: a) Up transformation of impedance: L network; b) simplified L network; and

c) equivalent impedance at resonance

This configuration makes the circuit a low-pass filter that can attenuate the second and
higher-order harmonics of the carrier and other spurious signals. Formulae for
calculating values for XL and XC to obtain desired Rin/RL transformation ratio are:

If n  Rin / RL with n > 1, then

Rin
X L  Rin RL  RL2  n 1 (9.16)
n
and
Rin RL Rin
XC   , (9.17)
XL n 1

Rin
with Q 1  n 1 . (9.18)
RL

This L network transforms the load resistance up, i.e. for a potential source (such as a
transmitter output stage), a load resistance appears larger in value than it actually is,
when seen through the network.

A down transformation can be obtained with only a slight change in the circuit.
Connect XC in parallel with RL, instead of at the input to the network as shown in
Fig. 9.16a. The XC - RL parallel circuit can now be transformed to an equivalent series
circuit (see Fig. 9.16b). This circuit forms a series resonance. Thus, at fo, the
frequency at which the circuit is resonant, Rin for the network is equal to the
transformed value of RL (RL series), if we neglect the resistance of L.

Fig. 9.16: L network for down transformation: a) L network for transforming an RL to lower value;
b) L network transformed to equivalent series circuit; and c) equivalent L network at
resonance
20
The formulae for designing impedance down transforming circuit of this type are as Audio
follows: Communication

Let n = RL / Rin, with n > 1; then

X L  Rin RL  Rin2  Rin n  1 ; (9.19)

Rin RL n
and XC   Rin , (9.20)
XL n 1

RL
with Q 1  n 1 . (9.21)
Rin

As can be seen from the equation for Q of the L network, the Q cannot be controlled
by the design of the network (Q = n  1 ), since it is a function of the transformation
ratio only. This can be a distinct disadvantage. A simple modification of the circuit
allows Q to be chosen by the designer. The modification is in the form of a capacitive
reactance X C connected in series with the inductance of the circuit as shown in
1

Fig. 9.17. Design equations for this circuit then become: Fig. 9.17: L network
modified to permit choice
of Q
For a desired value of Q,

XL = Q Rin (9.22)

X C1  X L  Rin n  1 (9.23)

n
X C2  Rin (9.24)
n 1 A signal power level is
attenuated by approximately
The attenuation of harmonic and/or other spurious signals is an essential requirement 6 dB when the power is cut
to one-fourth of the input
of the output circuits of a transmitter. Coupling circuits used to transform impedances value.
invariably provide significant attenuation of this type. It is generally true that each
separate reactive component in a low-pass filter provides attenuation of 6 dB octave1. Two frequencies are an
octave apart when the higher
frequency is twice that of
Hence, if a coupling network contains two reactances, as with the L network, the the lower one.
attenuation is 12 dB octave1. When additional attenuation is required additional
reactances must be incorporated in the network between the output stage and the
antenna.

SAQ 6 Spend
4 Min.
A transmitter power output stage is to drive a 50  antenna load. The transmitter
supply voltage, VCC = 12.5 V. It is desired to match the stage to the antenna load so
that Pout(RF) = 2.5 W. The operating frequency is 27.5 MHz.

a) Determine Rin, the equivalent load that the transistor must see in order to produce
the desired amount of power assuming class C operation.
b) Design an L network that will provide the required match.

After discussing the amplitude modulation let us now discuss the frequency
modulation used in commercial broadcasting.

21
Communication
Systems 9.5 FM COMMUNICATION
In recent days, the radio transmission is slowly getting converted from AM to FM
mode. The FM transmission has some distinct advantages over the AM transmission
and provides better sound quality. In India also we have started receiving FM radio
signals in the last decade and they are becoming more and more popular day-by-day.
The Government has begun to licence private broadcasters on FM bands and hence
there are more players in the field of FM broadcast now. Even the educational channel
of IGNOU (Gyan-Vani) has started FM broadcast transmission and you can receive it
from the nearest transmitter.

The FM transmitter essentially contains an oscillator, where frequency is varied

depending on the input audio signal. After enhancing the power of the frequency
modulated signal (output of oscillator), it is fed to the transmission antenna.

There are some specific precautions taken like frequency stabilisation mechanism for
the base frequency of the oscillator. These circuits are also termed as automatic
frequency control (AFC) circuits. These are necessary because each FM transmitter is
assigned a particular band of frequency and not allowed to drift away from it, since
that may interfere with neighbouring frequency band signals.

In a communication system, it is observed that the effect of noise is more significant

on the higher modulating frequencies than on the lower ones. Thus, if the signals
corresponding to higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and
Fig. 9.18: Frequency
response of pre-and de- correspondingly attenuated at the receiver, it improves the noise immunity. This
emphasis circuits boosting of the higher modulating frequencies is termed as pre-emphasis and the
compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis.

These circuits are typically simple R-C filters. The high pass filter has lesser
attenuation (higher gain) at higher frequencies as seen in the upper curve of Fig. 9.18.
Hence it is used at the transmitter end as a pre-emphasis circuit. The lower curve in
the figure corresponds to a low pass filter. Since it has higher attenuation at higher
frequencies, it can be used as a de-emphasis circuit at the receiver end.

Spend SAQ 7
3 Min.
Draw the circuits used for pre-and de-emphasis in the FM communication system.

We have extensively discussed about the transmitter used for FM communication in

Sec. 5.7. Now we discuss some salient features of a FM receiver system.

9.5.1 FM Receivers
A number of blocks of the FM receiver correspond exactly to those of other receivers
already discussed. For example, the same criteria apply in the selection of the
intermediate frequency, and IF amplifiers are basically similar.

A block diagram of a typical FM receiver is shown in Fig. 9.19.

This is a superheterodyne receiver, which is quite similar to an AM receiver. The

basic differences between the two are:
 operating frequency in FM are much higher;
 need for amplitude limiting and de-emphasis in FM; and
 different methods of demodulation.

22
 Audio
Communication

Fig. 9.19: FM receiver block diagram

You have already learnt the demodulation schemes for FM signals in Sec 5.8.

In order to make full use of the advantages offered by FM, an amplitude limiter must
precede a demodulator. Since any amplitude changes in the signal fed to the FM
demodulator are spurious, they must be removed if distortion is to be avoided. This
point is significant, since most FM demodulators react to amplitude changes as well as
frequency changes. You know that the limiter is a form of clipping device, a circuit
whose output tends to remain constant despite changes in the input signal. Most
limiters behave in this fashion, provided that the input voltage remains within a
certain range. In Unit 5, while solving SAQ 7, you have drawn one such circuit.

9.5.2 Stereo FM System

The word stereo comes from a Greek word meaning solid or firm, in the sense of
three-dimensional. The experience of listening to music reproduced on a stereophonic
sound system consisting of multiple speakers is perceived as being more real or life-
like than listening to the same music reproduced by a monophonic sound system. At
the very minimum, a stereo system includes two speakers with separation.

Separation implies two elements: a physical separation of the speakers, from the
listener's point of view; and a separation of the signals driving the speakers. The
physical distance between the speakers must be significant compared to the distance
of the listener from the speakers. If the listener is, say 5 m from the speakers, the
speakers should be kept at least a meter apart.

To create the perception of realism the speakers must be driven by signals picked up
using separate microphones at physically separated positions at the location where the
music (or sound signal) is actually produced. If the stereo reproduction scheme is part
of a radio broadcast system, the system must be capable of transmitting the two
separate signals simultaneously. The two signals are universally designated the L (for
left side) and R (for right side) signals.

The broadcast of signals for stereo reproduction has been a part of the FM broadcast
system since the 1950s. A few AM stations are just beginning to broadcast signals for
stereo reproduction. In each instance, FM and AM, the regulations make it mandatory
that the stereo broadcasts should be receivable and reproducible by existing
monophonic receivers. It means that, the introduction of stereo broadcasting is
required to be compatible with the systems, as they existed previously. Though this is
a simple, reasonable and logical requirement, technically it influenced significantly
the choice of the form of signals to be broadcast, and thereby, the design of the
equipment used to generate, transmit, and receive the signals.
23
Communication In the FM system, a stereo broadcast consists of the multiplex transmission of two
Systems information signals and a pilot carrier. However, the two signals are not just simple L
signal and an R signal. Such a broadcast would not be compatible with a monophonic
receiver. The two signals are (L+R) component and (LR) component. The (L+R)
component is receivable in a normal way by a monophonic receiver. The
reproduction of that signal by the monophonic receiver is indistinguishable from a
monophonic broadcast. On the other hand, a receiver designed to receive and
reproduce stereo broadcasts incorporates a special section that decodes the two signals
(L+R) and (LR); and recombines them so as to produce separate L and R signals.
A stereo receiver will have a two-channel audio section (two complete audio
amplifiers) which processes the signals and drives two separate speaker systems.

A block diagram of the stereo section of an FM transmitter is shown in Fig. 9.20. The
process starts with the conversion of sound into electrical signals by means of two
separate microphones, a left mike and a right mike. The signals from these two are
processed by individual audio channels (amplifiers). The (L+R) signal is produced by
adding these separate L and R signals, in phase, in an appropriate linear circuit called
an adder. The FM transmitter is frequency modulated by this signal. The result, at
this point, is indistinguishable from a monophonic transmission; it is the mono-
compatible component of a stereo broadcast.

Fig. 9.20: Stereo section of FM transmitter

The R signal is also fed to a phase inverter which shifts its phase by 180, producing a
R signal, which is combined with the L signal in a second adder to produce an LR
signal.

Simultaneously, 19 kHz signal, called a pilot carrier is continuously produced by a

separate oscillator. It is called a pilot carrier because it is transmitted at relatively low
amplitude and is not modulated directly. It is transmitted to provide a carrier at the
receiver for the detection of the (LR) signal. The frequency of the 19 kHz signal is
doubled in the 38 kHz doubler and then fed to the balanced modulator. As you know,
this modulator produces amplitude modulation of a carrier but suppresses the carrier
in its output. It produces two AM-type sidebands with the carrier suppressed. The
FM transmitter is modulated by 19 kHz pilot carrier and the 38-kHz double-sideband,
suppressed carrier (DSBSC) signal.

Fig. 9.21: Frequency

The frequency spectrum of the signals modulating the stereo FM carrier is shown in
spectrum of signals in FM Fig. 9.21. Remember that the 50 Hz to 15 kHz (L+R) signal is equivalent to a
stereo standard monophonic FM broadcast signal. The 19-kHz pilot carrier is transmitted as
an aid in detecting the 38 kHz DSBSC (LR) signal at the receiver. The (LR) signal
will be recombined with the (L+R) signal in the receiver to produce the separate L and
24
R signals. The concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is incorporated into Audio
this process and there are three distinct groupings of frequencies: the 0 to 15 kHz Communication
band, the 19 kHz pilot carrier, and the 38 kHz DSBSC band. The FM carrier is
modulated simultaneously by all three signals. Each produces its set of side
frequencies; each can be separated from the other at the receiver by appropriate
filtering.

Let us now discuss the working of the stereo decoding section of a receiver.

A typical scheme for decoding FM stereo broadcasts is shown in Fig. 9.22. FM stereo
and mono receivers are identical up to the output of the FM detector. In a stereo
receiver, the output of the detector is passed to the stereo decoder. The first function
the decoder performs is to separate the three signal components. It performs this task
by means of appropriate, frequency-selective filters: a low pass filter is used to
separate the 0 to 15 kHz signal from the others; a narrow band filter selects out the
19 kHz pilot carrier; and a 23 to 53 kHz band-pass filter provides for the separation of
the (L-R) signal.

Fig. 9.22: Stereophonic FM receiver

The 38 kHz DSBSC signal requires a more involved demodulation process than the
(L-R) signal. This processing takes up a very small but definite amount of time.
Since the two signals must be recombined in the exact time phase with which they
were created, the (L+R) filter incorporates a time delay to match the delay of the
(L-R) processing.

The decoder section amplifies the 19 kHz pilot carrier and uses it to lock in a 19 kHz
local oscillator. The 19 kHz local oscillator, when locked in, is in precise
synchronism with the 19 kHz carrier at the transmitter. The frequency of the output of
this oscillator is doubled and fed to a balanced demodulator, together with the (L-R)
signal. By this means the (L-R) signal is recovered.

The recovered (L-R) signal is recombined with the (L+R) signal in two separate
forms. It is combined in an adder in its normal form to produce a 2L signal:
(L+R) + (L-R) = 2L. It is inverted to - (L-R) and combined with (L+R) in a second
adder to produce 2R signal: (L+R) - (L-R) = 2R.

These separate L and R signals are processed further in two separate audio amplifier
channels and are used to drive separate L and R speakers, or speaker systems.

After studying about the FM broadcast in details, let us take account of another
modern variant of audio communication, i.e. satellite radio.

25
Communication
Systems 9.6 SATELLITE RADIO
So far we have discussed about the audio wave communication using terrestrial
transmission. Both AM and FM (including stereo) radio stations use terrestrial
antennas to broadcast their signals. However, with the advent of technology, the radio
broadcast has also slowly started using satellite communication as the medium of
broadcasting. In this case, the signals are sent and received in digital format. Due to
all the advantages of digital communication (like noise immunity, higher bandwidth
and easier implementation of multiplexing), the quality of this broadcast is much
better than analog transmission. The satellite radios are therefore commonly referred
to as digital radios.

The audio signals are first converted into digital from by the techniques you have
already learnt in earlier units. Since the frequency bands of satellite communication
are typically in the microwave range, these digitised audio signals are modulated over
the satellite uplink frequencies generally using frequency division multiplexing
(FDM) techniques similar to the ones used to step-wise enhancement of carrier
frequency in telephone systems.

The basic advantage of satellite radio is the wide area covered by the footprint of a
satellite. This allows reaching of signals to remote areas, without installing any
terrestrial transmitters.

A typical satellite radio receiver consists of an antenna for receiving signals from the
satellite; a demodulator; a digital decoder that decodes the signal and digital to analog
converter. The signal is amplified using certain amplifier circuits before feeding the
signal to the speakers.

At present, the satellite radio systems are operated by private service providers and the
user has to subscribe to these services. The receiver sets used by each service
provider are proprietary items useful only for that particular provider's broadcast. The
main hindrance in popularising satellite radio is the prohibitive cost of managing these
systems. As you will learn in later units, the satellites are very costly, due to limited
payload capacity and power constraints; the numbers of satellite channels available
are restricted and hence cost more.

However, in India, there are efforts to regularise the access to satellite radio, through
authorities like Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI). The following
frequency bands are available to India for providing Satellite Radio Services:

'L' Band : 1452-1492 MHz

'S' Band : 2310-2360 MHz and
2535-2655 MHz.

Hence as you will observe, India is also gearing up for the new trends in audio
communication and soon we can hope to use the new generation radio widely.

Let us now summarise the points we covered in this unit.

9.7 SUMMARY
 The audio receivers are usually of two types: Tuned Radio frequency (TRF)
receiver and Superheterodyne receiver.
 TRF are not very popular due to need of broad band RF amplifier.

26
 Superheterodyne receivers reduce the incoming RF frequency to intermediate Audio
frequency (IF) by mixing a local oscillator frequency of incoming signal. Communication

 IF frequency circuits are stable and low cost.

 AM receiver consists of RF stage, mixer, IF amplifier, demodulator, audio
amplifier and speaker.
 RF stage provides sensitivity, frequency selectivity and improves image frequency
rejection.
 Mixer operates in the non-linear operating region of the device. FET is an ideal
mixer due to its square law characteristics.
 IF in AM receivers is 455 kHz while in FM radio receiver it is 10.7 MHz.
 Automatic Gain Control varies the gain of the circuit such that fluctuations in the
incoming signal amplitude get smoothed out and audio amplitude is constant.
 AM transmitter needs to be coupled to the antenna circuit with proper impedance
matching, in order to ensure fixed frequency (band) and power transmission; L
networks can be used as couplers.
 In stereo FM systems, signal from left and right mike are collected separately and
are sent over as (L+R) and (L-R) signals. These are decoded at the receiver using
the pilot carrier signal sent along by the transmitter.
 Satellite or digital radio is the next generation of audio communication systems.

9.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS Spend 25 Minutes

1. When a superheterodyne receiver is tuned to 555 kHz, its local oscillator output
frequency is 1010 kHz. What is the image frequency? The receiver is connected
to a mixer via a tuned circuit with loaded Q of 40. What is the rejection ratio for
the calculated image frequency?

2. Amongst the frequencies to be rejected by a superheterodyne receiver, why is

image frequency the most significant? What steps could be taken to improve the
image frequency rejection of a receiver?

3. How is frequency tracking achieved in a superheterodyne receiver?

4. Though AGC is a need of communication circuits, it is not preferred in the

circuits collecting scientific data. Comment on this statement.

5. Why is it necessary to use proper coupling between the output stage of transmitter
and the antenna?

6. In a stereo transmitter, why are the signals from L-mike and R-mike not sent out
directly as L and R signals?

9.10 ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS

Self Assessment Questions

1. (ii)

2. (a) fx = 1000 + 2  455 = 1910 kHz

1910 1000
   1.910  0.524  1.386
1000 1910
  1  1002  1.3862  1  138.62  138.6
27
Communication This is 42 dB and is considered adequate for domestic receivers in the MF
Systems band.

(b) fx = 25 + 2  0.455 = 25.91 MHz

25.91 25
   1.0364  0.9649  0.0715
25 25.91
  1  1002  0.07152  1  7.152  7.22

This is less than 20 dB and it is obvious that this rejection will be insufficient for
a practical receiver in the HF band.
3. The spurious point on the dial showing double spotting is exactly at double the IF
below the correct frequency.

4. The range of LO frequency should be 98.7 to 118.7 MHz.

5. (i)

6. (a) Assuming that VCE(Sat) is negligible,

Rin 
VCC2

12.52  31.25 
2 Pout 2  2.5

(b) Since Rin is less than RL, we select a network of the type shown in Fig. 9.16.
Then,

RL 50
n   1.6
Rin 31.25
X L  Rin n  1  31.25 1.6  1  24.21
X 24.21
L L   0.14H
2f 2  27.5(106 )

XC 
n
Rin 
1.6
31.25  64.55
n 1 1.6  1
1 1
C   89.66 pF
2fX c 2  27.5(106 ) (64.55)

7. Please refer to Fig. 9.23.

Fig. 9.23: a) Pre-emphasis; and b) De-emphasis circuits

Terminal Questions

1. Input frequency = fs = 555 kHz.

LO frequency = fo = 1010 kHz
IF = fi = 1010 - 555 = 455 kHz
Image frequency fx = fs + 2fi = 555 kHz + 2(455 kHz) = 1465 kHz

28
 Audio
Rejection ratio   1  Q 2  2 Communication
2
1465 555 
= 1  (40) 2

 555 1465 
= 1  (1600) (5.11)  90.4  19.6 dB.

2. Please refer Sec. 9.3.1.

3. The LO and input RF tuner are ganged to achieve a constant output from the
mixer for different receiver tuned frequencies.

4. AGC circuit provides a gain control, where a constant output level is maintained
irrespective of fluctuations in input signal. This is done for a good listening
experience. However, in scientific data collection, every small fluctuation in the
incoming signal may be a significant from the research point of view. Same is the
case with the medical diagnostic techniques. Hence in such cases, the receiver
circuit introducing a gain fluctuation (in response to fluctuation in incoming data)
may result into wrong recording of data.

5. Please refer to Sec. 9.4.

6. Please refer to Sec. 9.5.2.

Reference Material:

1. Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy, George; (III Edition) (Tata

McGraw-Hill)
2. Electronic and Radio Engineering by Terman, F.E; (IV Edition) (Tata McGraw-
Hill)

29