1

Resistor
Diode
Capacitor
Transistor
Coil - Inductor

Mosfet
Fuse
Voltage Regulator

Logic Gate
Chapter 1:
 Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are
used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias
active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-
power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may
be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test
loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change
slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can
be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp
dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical
activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits
and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete
components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits. The electrical function of a
resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal
value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on the
component.

➢ Denoting latter - “R, RN, PR, KR”

➢ Schematic Number - R98, RN42, PR1005
➢ Function - Divides Voltage, Limits Current
➢ Types - Series, Parallel, Network and Signal
Resistor
➢ How to Test - With Multimeter Diode Mode

➢ Measuring Unit -
 Series and parallel resistors
Resistor Combinations
The combination rules for any number of resistors in series or parallel can be derived with the use of Ohm's Law, the voltage law, and the current
law

Power dissipation
At any instant, the power P (watts) consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms)
is calculated as:
➢ Symbols
➢ Function: The primary function to limit the flow of electric current

Film Resistor Carbon Resistor

How to read Resistor color code

� Solid type Resistor. (Through-hole):
Resistors come with long pliable leads which can
be hand-soldered into a printed circuit board (PCB).

� SMD Type Resistor (Surface-mount device/technology):

The components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards (PCBs). An
electronic device so made is called a surface-mount device (SMD).

2 Leg SMD Resistors

�SMD Resistors (Without Printed Value) �SMD Resistors (With Printed
Value)

Network Resistors Available 4,8,10,12 Legs Ext..

� SMD Network Resistors
� Fusible Resistors � CLR Resistors (A Current Limiting Resistor)

Resistor Testing
� Step 1. Set Multimeter on Ohm Range.
� Ok Condition
� It Will Show Same Value (10% +/-) According to The Resistor Value.

� Faulty condition � Value Miss Matching.

� Open Condition: Value Not Showing - (NO VALUE).
� NOTE: LVR: (Low Value Resistor) Multimeter continuous beeping in continuity mode?
Because low value resistor continuous beep showing up. 70-ohms down value resistor has been continuous
beep showing now.

� HVR: (High Value Resistor) Multimeter not a beeping in continuity mode?

Because high value resistor showing value. Above 100-ohm resistor showing value.

How to read SMD Resistors.

How to read the values of SMD Resistors (Surface mount) in all its versions, that is, with 3-digit
and 4-digit numerical codes and also alphanumeric code (EIA-96). I will also show the standard
dimensions and the power that they can dissipate.
Three-digit codes
The easiest resistors to read are those with 3-digit
numerical codes. In them, the first two digits are the
numerical value while the third digit is the multiplier,
that is, the number of zeros that we must add to the
value. It is a system similar to the one used with
capacitors and that I explain in my article "How to
read the values of capacitors".
Let's see an example: a resistor with the number 472
is 4,700 ohms or (4.7K) because to the number "47"
(the first two digits) we must add 2 zeros (the number
"2" of the third digit). In the following figure I show
you graphically the system with some examples of
common values.

Three-digit codes for resistors with values less than 10 ohms

With the system described above, the smallest resistance value
that we can code is 10 ohms, which is equivalent to the code "100"
(10 + no zero). With resistance values less than 10 ohms, it is
necessary to find another solution because instead of adding zeros
we should divide the value of the first two digits. To resolve the
issue, manufacturers use the letter "R" which is equivalent to a
comma.

For example, a resistor code 4R7 equals 4.7 ohms because we

replaced the "R" with a comma. If the resistance value is less than
1 ohm, we use the same system of the letter "R", putting the R as
the first number. For example, R22 equals 0.22 ohms. As you can
see, it is quite easy.

Four-digit codes (precision resistors)

In the case of precision resistors, manufacturers have

created another coding system made up of 4-digit
numbers. In it, the
first three digits are the numerical value while the
fourth digit is the multiplier, that is, the number of
zeros that we must add to
the value. The fact of having three digits to encode
the value allows us a greater variety and precision of
the values.
 Four-digit codes for resistors with values
less than 100 ohms

With the 4-digit system, the smallest resistance

value that we can encode is 100 ohms, which is
equivalent to the code "1000" (100 + no zero).
With resistance values less than 100 ohms,
manufacturers have opted for the same 3-digit
system solution, which consists of adding a letter
"R" instead of the comma.

EIA-96 code (precision resistors)

Recently, manufacturers have introduced a new code system for precision resistors called EIA-
96, which is quite complicated to decipher if we do not have the reference table. Let me explain
better, in the three- and four-digit codes that we have seen, the printed number has all the
necessary information to know the resistance value. On the contrary, in the EIA-96 the first two
digits of the number read is an index number of a table in which we will find the equivalent value
while the final letter is equivalent to the multiplier.
To recognize if a resistance is coded in EIA-96, it is usually enough to check if the code has a
letter at the end. For reasons unknown to me personally, the 0.01 multiplier (resistors with values
between 1 ohm and 9.9 ohms) can be encoded with the letter Y or also with the letter R. The
same thing happens with the 0.1 multiplier (resistors between 10 ohms and 99 ohms) that can be
encoded with the letter X or also with the letter S. In the figure I show you the complete table to
decode the EIA-96 resistors.
Practical examples of EIA-96

In the figure we can see some practical examples

of this type of encoding.

Resistor Tolerances

As you've seen in the three coding systems

we've seen, the manufacturers have not provided
any way to indicate resistor
tolerance (the fourth color stripe on common
resistors). Although there are exceptions to the
rule, resistors coded with 3-digit
numbers have a 5% tolerance while resistors with
4-digit numbers and also EIA-96 coded resistors
have a 1% tolerance.

Resistor power

As in the case of resistors with legs, the power of

SMD resistors depends on their dimensions. The
smallest, which is the 0201 model, has really
small dimensions (0.6mm x 0.3mm) and its
power is 1/20W, that is, 0.05W. The 1/4W SMD
resistors are model 1210, with dimensions of
3.2mm x 2.5mm. In the table you can see the
different models with their respective powers.
Chapter 2:
➢ Capacitors are energy storage devices which have the ability to store an electrical
charge across its plates. This capacitors store energy as a result of their ability to
store charge and an ideal capacitor would not lose its stored energy.
The simplest construction of a capacitor is by using two parallel conducting metal
plates separated through a distance by an insulating material, called the dielectric
as summarized below.
The basic construction and symbol for a parallel plate capacitor is given as:

● A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a dielectric.

● The dielectric can be made of many insulating materials such as air, glass,
paper, plastic etc.
● A capacitor is capable of storing electrical charge and energy.
● The higher the value of capacitance, the more charge the capacitor can
store.
● The larger the area of the plates or the smaller their separation the more
charge the capacitor can store.
● A capacitor is said to be “Fully Charged” when the voltage across its plates
equals the supply voltage.
● The symbol for electrical charge is Q and its unit is the Coulomb.
● Electrolytic capacitors are polarized. They have a +ve and a -ve terminal.
● Capacitance is measured in Farads, which is a very large unit so micro-Farad
(μF), nano-Farad (nF) and pico-Farad (pF) are generally used.
● Capacitors that are daisy chained together in a line are said to be connected
in Series.
● Capacitors that have both of their respective terminals connected to each
terminal of another capacitor are said to be connected in Parallel.
● Parallel connected capacitors have a common supply voltage across them.
● Series connected capacitors have a common current flowing through them.
● Capacitive reactance, XC is the opposition to current flow in AC circuits.
● In AC capacitive circuits the voltage “lags” the current by 90°.
� Capacitor in Series Booster
� Capacitor in Parallel Filter
➢ Denoting latter - “C, PC, TC, EC”
➢ Schematic Number - C305, T2, EC26,
➢ Function - Allows AC – Blocks DC, Filters the
Voltage
➢ Types - Electrolytic, Ceramic-Polarized and Non-
Polarized

➢ How to Test - With Multimeter Diode Mode and

Capacitance Mode
(Available TRUE RMS Multimeters)
Measuring Unit -

 Types of Capacitors
 Real shape of Capacitor
 SMD Polarized Capacitors

 Testing of Capacitor
�On-Board Testing

�Step 1. Set Multimeter on Beep range (Continuity Mode).

� OK Condition � No beep from both sides.

� Faulty Condition � Continue beep from both sides.

�Off-Board Testing

�Step 1. Set Multimeter on Beep rang (Continuity Mode).

�Step 1. Red Probe on positive pole and black Probe on

negative pole(Value increase 0 to 1999 and lastly still on
1)
That’s means capacitor in charging mode (Charged)

�Step 1. Black proves on positive and red prove on negative pole.

(Now value decrease 1999 to 0 and again 0 to 1999
and lastly still on 1.)That’s means capacitor in
discharging mode and its again charged
� Ok condition � Capacitor continue charged/discharge then capacitor is ok condition.
� Faulty � Capacitor not charge/discharge
� Only charge
� Shortly � Capacitor giving continue beep. That’s means capacitor internally short.
� Open � Bothe side no beep/ no value.
• If you have using SMD tester or any tester which have capacitance measuring unit.

� Ok condition � Multimeter show same vale according to printed Farad value on

capacitor. (+\-10%)
� Faulty �Value miss-match.
A Coil – (Inductor) is a very well-known passive component. An inductor is made by a coil of conductive
wires. The main function of an inductor is to oppose the changes in current flowing through it. An inductor
always tries to block AC and allow DC. There are so many types of inductors available. So, in this article,
we are going to see all types of inductor symbols and diagrams.
The most common types of inductor are
 Normal Inductor
 Fixed Inductor
 Variable Inductor
 Variable Core Inductor
 Polarity Inductor
 Iron Core Inductor
 Ferrite Core Inductor
 Preset Inductor
 Shielded Inductor
 Bifilar Inductor
 Saturable Core Inductor
 Tapping Inductor

Inductors are some of the fundamental components in electronics, and play a critical role in power systems,
filtering, and isolation. Simply put, an inductor is a component that can store energy in the form of a
magnetic field. A typical example of an inductor is a coil of wire which can be found in air coils, motors, and
electromagnets. Another way to look at inductors is that they are components that will generate a magnetic
field when current is passed through them, or will generate an electrical current when in the presence of a
changing magnetic field.
Normal Generic Inductor Symbol Symbol of Fixed Inductor Variable Inductor Symbol

Here you can see the basic symbol of Here, you can see the symbol of Here, you can see the symbol of
inductor. It is the most common type Fixed Inductor. Fixed inductors are Variable Inductor. Variable inductors
of inductor used in most of the those whose inductance value are those whose inductance value
electrical and electronic circuits. It is cannot be changed or varied. Fixed can be changed or vary at any time.
very simple in design also. Before inductors are used in electrical and This type of inductors is used in
you going to know about other electronic circuits where variable electronic circuits where variable
inductors, you must know about this, inductance is not required. These inductance required such frequency
it’s working principle. inductors are also known as the coil, varying applications.
choke, etc.
Variable Core Inductor Symbol Polarity Inductor Symbol Symbol of Iron Core Inductor

Here, you can see the symbol of The symbol of polarity inductor is Here, you can see Iron Core Inductor
variable core inductor. almost the same as the normal Symbol. A core is nothing but a high
inductor. It has a dot sign at one side magnetic permeability material on
which indicates the current should be which the inductive coil is wounded.
entered from this side of the inductor. It is used to increase the inductance
This polarity uses when two inductors of the inductor. The core of the iron
are used together to increase the core inductor is made of iron
mutual inductance. (ferromagnetic material).
Ferrite Core Inductor Symbol Symbol of Preset Inductor Symbol of Shielded Inductor

Here, you can see the symbol of Here, you can see the preset inductor Here, you can see the shielded
Ferrite Core Inductor. The core of the symbol. Preset inductors are also inductor symbol. Shielded inductors
ferrite core inductor is made of ferrite variable inductor but their inductance are those, whose coils are placed
material. The main advantage of value cannot be changed during the inside the core. This technique is
ferrite material over iron is it provides operation. The inductance value of because the magnetic flux produce
high magnetic permeability but a very the preset inductance can be by the inductor cannot interface with
low electrical conductance. So, this changed or varied during the the other nearest component. This
increases the chances of low manufacturing of the circuit only. type of inductor is used in compact
electrical power loss. Once a value is set, it should be circuits.
constant during the operation.
Bifilar Inductor Symbol Symbol of Saturable Core Inductor

Here, you can see the symbol of bifilar Here, you can see the saturable core
inductor. The coil of the Bifilar inductor inductor symbol.
is made by two parallel conductors.

Why Inductor block AC and Capacitor block DC?

There is a very important difference between the property of inductor and capacitor that Inductor block AC
but pass DC whereas the capacitor block DC but pass AC. Now, the question is why and how they block
or pass AC and DC? In this article, we are going to discuss about it.
Why Inductor Block AC?
The answer to this question can be given in many ways. Let's find the answer from the below equation. We
know that inductor has inductive reactance property by which it opposes the flow of current through it.
The equation of inductive reactance is,

You can see in the above equation, frequency is there. So when we apply AC supply to the inductor, it will
oppose the flow of current because as the AC has some frequency, there will be inductive reactance occur.
The opposition by the inductor due to the inductive reactance property is proportional to the supply
frequency that means if supply frequency increases the opposition also be increased. For this reason, an
inductor can totally block the very high-frequency AC.

Why Inductor Pass DC?

Now if we apply DC supply to an inductor, the inductive reactance will be zero because the frequency of
DC is zero.

So, as the inductive reactance is zero it will not oppose the flow of current. So the inductor passes the DC
current, of course, it will offer very small resistance to the flow of current which depends upon the internal
resistance of the inductor material.

Why Capacitor Block DC?

Here also we will find the answer from the equation of the capacitor that is capacitive reactance. Capacitive
Reactance is the property of the capacitor by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current.
The equation of capacitive reactance is,

So, according to the above equation if we apply DC supply to the capacitor the
capacitive reactance will be indeterminate (we can say very high) because the
frequency of DC is zero.

So as the capacitive reactance is very high, the current cannot flow through the capacitor.

Why Capacitor pass AC?

Now if we apply AC supply to the capacitor, it will pass because AC has a frequency.
The blocking property of the capacitor is inversely proportional to the
frequency that means if supply frequency increases, the capacitive
reactance decreased so the capacitor will pass more current.

Testing of Coil: �Set Multimeter on Beep range (continuity mode).

�Continue beep both sides. � OK
�No beep both sides. � Faulty

➢ Denoting latter - “L, PL”

➢ Schematic Number - L4002, PL6
➢ Function - Blocks AC – Allows DC, Increases the
Current Value

➢ Types - Air Core, Iron Core, Ferrite Core...

➢ How to Test - With Multimeter Continuity Mode

Types of Fuse:
There are so many electrical protective and safety devices. Fuse is one of them. Fuse is a current
interrupting device. When an excessive current flow in a circuit, the fuse will break the circuit. Fuses are
most suitable to protect the devices or circuits from overload faults than short circuit faults. In earlier days,
the fuse was the only one best protective device and was used in most of the electrical and electronic
circuits.
There are different types of fuse categorized by current rating, voltage rating, breaking capacity, response
time, current vs time characteristics, etc. The symbol of fuse is also categorized by the different standards
such as IEC System, IEE/ANSI System, etc.
Some important types of fuse are

 Normal Fuse
 Thermal Fuse
 Fuse with Switch
 Fast Blow Fuse
 Slow Blow Fuse
 Fuse with Striker
 Oil Fuse
 Fuse with alarm Contact
 Fuse with Isolator
Basic Fuse Symbol - IEC and ANSI System

Symbol of Thermal Fuse Symbol of Fuse with Switch

Here, you can see the basic symbol Thermal fuse works on the principle The fuse with switch or fused
of fuse used everywhere means all of thermal or temperature sensing. switch is mostly used in electrical
the circuit diagrams, wiring It breaks the circuit when the or electronic devices. It performs
diagrams, electrical drawings, etc. temperature of the fuse element both functions - switching and
These are the same for cartridge reaches or crosses the threshold protecting. We can manually turn on
fuse, HRC Fuse, Glass Fuse. temperature. There is no current or off the device using this fused
threshold for breaking the circuit. switch. When a fault occurs, it will
Although, the excessive flow of automatically turn off the device by
current causes to raises the breaking the circuit.
temperature above the threshold.
And it breaks the circuit.
Fast Blow Fuse Symbol Slow Blow Fuse Symbol Symbol of Fuse with Striker

Fast Blow Fuse is categorized by Slow Blow Fuse is also categorized It is a fuse with indication. We can
response time and breaking by response time. It does not affect see from the outside that the fuse is
capacity. It breaks the circuit more by breaking capacity. The blown or not. Generally, it has a pin
instantly when the flow of current main function of a slow blow fuse is, type element connected to an
exceeds the threshold limit. Fast it can withstand high current flow for internal element and is visible from
blow fuses are used in highly a short time duration without being the outside. So, when the fuse is
sensitive circuits, devices, etc. blown. Slow blow fuses are blown, the striker pin will pull out.
where instant interruption is generally used in motor power So, we can confirm that the fuse is
required. Fast blow fuses are made circuits. The motor draws a very blown.
of thin fuse elements. high current in starting, so the slow
blow fuse can withstand this current
during starting of the motor.
 Symbol of Fuse with Alarm Contact
Oil Fuse Symbol Symbol of Fuse with Isolator

Oil fuses are designed in such a way It also works like the fuse with the It is inbuilt with an isolator system.
that the fuse element is immersed in striker. It has an inbuilt circuit for After blowing the fuse the isolator
oil. Oil is used as a coolant. The fuse alarm circuits. When the fuse is confirms the permanent and
element is immersed in oil to blown, the alarm circuit will be confirmed breaking of the circuit.
increase the breaking capacity and triggered, so we can know the fuse
response time. The Oil type fuses is blown or not.
are mostly used in medium to high
voltage switchgear protection
systems.
Fuse is a small safety part in an electrical device. It stops working if the electric currentis too
high. an electronic component,
➢ Denoting latter - “F”
➢ Schematic Number - F1
➢ Function - The fuse breaks the circuit if a fault in an
appliance causes too much current to flow. This protects the wiring and the
appliance if something goes wrong. The fuse contains a piece of wire that melts
easily.
➢ Measuring unit - AMPS
➢ How to Test - Set Multimeter Continuity Mode

� Continue beep both sides. � OK

� No beep both sides. � Faulty
A diode is an electronic semiconductor device that acts as a switch for electric current. Generally, a diode
allows the flow of current in one direction only without any restriction. Also, it allows the flow of current in
opposite direction with some conditions.
A diode is a two-terminal device named Anode and Cathode. The polarity of the diode is very important
when using in electrical or electronic circuits.
The diode is an active device because it cannot work without an external voltage. An external power supply
or biasing must be applied to the diode to work.

The different types of Diode are

 PN Junction Diode
 Zener Diode
 Schottky Diode
 Shockley Diode
 Avalanche Diode
 Constant Current Diode
 Tunnel Diode
 Varactor Diode
 Step Recovery Diode
 PIN Diode
 Gunn Diode
 Laser Diode
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

PN Junction Diode Symbol Zener Diode Symbol Schottky Diode Symbol

PN Junction diode is the simplest Zener Diode also almost does the Schottky Diode is also known as a
diode among others. It is a two- same work as a PN Junction diode. hot-carrier diode or hot barrier
terminal device. In normal It also allows the flow of current in diode. Schottky diode is formed by
conditions, it allows the flow of one direction only. Just the the junction of a semiconductor with
current in one direction only. The difference is, it allows the flow of a metal. The advantages of a
main application of the PN Junction current in the reverse direction Schottky diode over a normal diode
Diode is AC to DC converter or when its terminal voltage crosses are, it has a very low forward
Rectifier Circuit. Here you can see the Zener voltage. Here, you can voltage drop, very fast switching
the symbol of PN Junction Diode. see the symbol of the Zener Diode. speed. Here, you can see the
symbol of the Schottky diode.

Tunnel Diode Symbol Varactor Diode Symbol Constant Current Diode Symbol

The tunnel diode is also known as Varactor Diode is a voltage- The constant current diode is also
Esaki Diode. It is a semiconductor dependent semiconductor device. It known as the current limiting diode
device that has effective negative always works in reverse bias or current regulating diode. The
resistance due to the quantum conditions. The main characteristic main function of this diode is to limit
effect. Tunnel Diode is a heavily of the varactor diode is, its internal the flow of current through it under
doped PN Junction Diode. Here, capacitance varies with the varying a certain value. Here, you can see
you can see the symbol of the of reverse voltage. It is also known the symbol of the constant current
Tunnel Diode. as Varicap diode or varying diode.
capacitor diode. Here, you can see
the symbol of varactor diode.
 Avalanche Diode Symbol Step Recovery Diode Symbol Shockley Diode Symbol

Avalanche Diodes are those which Step Recovery Diode is also known It is a PNPN layer diode. Its
work in avalanche breakdown mode as a snap-off diode or charge construction is almost the same as a
without damaging themselves. In storage diode. It is a specially thyristor without the gate terminal.
general, it does not allow current, but designed extremely short pulse Shockley has two PN Junctions.
when the voltage across it crosses signal. The doping density of the Also, it may have multiple PN
the breakdown voltage it starts step recovery diode is extremely Junctions. Until the applied voltage
conducting current. Here, you can low. Here, you can see the symbol of crosses the triggered voltage it does
see the symbol of Avalanche Diode. the step recovery diode. not allow the flow of current. Once
the applied voltage crosses the
triggered voltage, its resistance
decreases to low and current start
flow. Here, you can see the symbol
of Shockley Diode.
PIN Diode Symbol Gunn Diode Symbol Laser Diode Symbol

A PIN Diode is made up by inserting Gunn diode is an electronic A laser Diode is also a
an undoped intrinsic semiconductor semiconductor device made up of semiconductor device almost similar
material between the P-type only N-type semiconductor material. to a light-emitting diode. It emits
semiconductor and N-type There is no P-type semiconductor coherent light from its PN junction.
semiconductor regions. So, it has an material in the Gunn diode. Gunn The Laser Diode uses the process of
extra layer between the P and N Diodes are mainly used to create "Light Amplification by Stimulated
Junctions. This differs the PIN diode microwave signals. Gunn diode also Emission of Radiation". Here, you
from a regular diode. Here, you can has negative resistance property. can see the symbol of Laser Diode.
see the symbol of the PIN Diode. Here, you can see the symbol of
Gunn Diode.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Symbol

➢ Denoting latter - “D, PD”
➢ Schematic Number - D109, PD2, D246
➢ How to Test - Set Multimeter Diode Mode

➢ Function - A diode is a semiconductor device that A light-emitting diode or

essentially acts as a one-way switch for current. It allows LED is a special type of
current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts diode that emits light when
current from flowing in the opposite direction. connected to a power
supply in the forward bias.
In reverse bias, it cannot
work or emit light. LED
made up of a special type of
semiconductor material
such as Aluminum indium
gallium phosphide
(AlInGiP). Here, you can
see the symbol of LED.
A transistor is an electronic semiconductor device. Its main function is to switch or amplify electronic signals.
The transistor is a very useful active electronic component and is used in all digital electronic circuits as
well as some analog electronic circuits. The transistor is a three-terminal device and it requires an external
voltage or biasing for its operation. According to construction, operation, working principle, and applications,
there are so many different types of transistors available.

Different types of Transistor

 Bipolar Junction Transistor or BJT

 PNP Transistor
 NPN Transistor
 Field Effect Transistor or FET
 Junction Field Effect Transistor or JFET
 N-Channel JFET
 P-Channel JFET
 Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor or MOSFET
 Unijunction Transistor or UJT
 Depletion mode N-Channel MOSFET
 Depletion mode P-Channel MOSFET
 Enhancement Mode N-Channel MOSFET
 Enhancement Mode P-Channel MOSFET
 NPN Darlington Transistor
 PNP Darlington Transistor

BJT or Bipolar Junction transistor

is the simplest transistor among
others. It is a three-terminal
device named - Collector, Base,
and emitter. Here, you can see
the symbol of BJT or Bipolar
Junction Transistor.

NPN Transistor Symbol PNP Transistor Symbol

NPN transistor is a type of bipolar junction PNP transistor also a type of Bipolar
transistor. It has two N-type layers and one Junction Transistor. It has two P-Type
P-Type layer. NPN transistors are most layers and one N-type layer. In some
suitable for high-frequency applications and electronic circuits, the PNP transistor is
have so many advantages over PNP more useful than the NPN transistor.
Transistors. Here, you can see the symbol Here, you can see the symbol of the PNP
of the NPN transistor. Transistor.

N-Channel JFET Symbol P-Channel JFET Symbol

Field Effect Transistor or FET is a voltage control device. This means when a voltage is applied to its gate
terminal it starts conducting current. There are two types of Field Effect transistors - JFET and MOSFET.
In an N-channel JFET electrons is In a P-Channel, JFET holes are
the charge carrier. Here, you can the majority charge carrier. Here,
see the symbol of N-Channel JFET. you can see the symbol of P-
Channel JFET.
Why NPN Transistors are mostly used than PNP Transistors?

You may notice NPN transistors are mostly used than PNP
transistors in electronic circuits but why? There are so
many important and useful advantages of NPN transistor,
for which, they are widely used in electronic circuits. The
advantages are explained below.

Electron Mobility

Electron mobility is a property which tells how quickly

an electron can move through a semiconductor when
it pulled by an electric field.
We know that in PNP transistor the majority charge carrier is Holes but in NPN transistor the majority carrier is
electrons. As the electrons have higher or faster mobility than holes, the conductivity also more. For this reason,
NPN transistors are more preferable than PNP transistors because the NPN transistor provides more conductivity.

Negative Ground

We know that in electronic circuits all the negative(-ve) or common terminals are grounded. In the case of PNP
transistor, the +ve lines become a common point for both input and output which cannot be grounded.

But in the case of NPN transistor, -ve lines

become a common point for both input and
output which can be grounded. So, the using of
NPN transistor instead of PNP transistor helps
to ground the negative terminal.
Switching
When the transistors are used in electronic
circuits for switching purpose, then the NPN
transistor is more preferable than the PNP
transistor because the switching speed of the
NPN transistor is greater than the PNP
transistor.
Manufacturing Facility

The manufacturing of NPN transistors is more economical than PNP transistors because the PNP requires
almost three times more silicon chip surface area than NPN.
Amplification

For small amplifier circuits using BJT, NPN transistor is more suitable because the response time and switching
speed of NPN transistor are very fast due to electron mobility. NPN transistor has a better frequency response
than the PNP transistor.

Common Emitter Configuration

The widely used configuration for amplification is a common emitter configuration. For the common emitter
configuration, the NPN transistor is best because, in common emitter configuration, the -ve line becomes a
common point for both input and output signal. But if we use PNP transistor in common emitter configuration, the
+ve line becomes a common point for both input and output signals which cannot be grounded.
Reliability
NPN transistor provides more reliability than the PNP transistor along with its higher speed, smaller size,
low cost, etc.
 MOSFET full form Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
The transistor is one of the most important and useful components in electronics engineering. There are
various types of transistors available, all are having different construction, features, working principles.
MOSFET is one of the most important and widely used transistors. MOSFET full form Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor. There are various types of Field Effect Transistors, MOSFET is one
of them. MOSFET is a very important and useful device due to its ultra-fast switching characteristics and
high efficiency.

MOSFET Symbol
There are mainly two types of MOSFET - 1.
Enhancement Type and 2. Depletion Type.
Both of them also have two types - 1. N-
Channel and P-Channel. So you can see the
symbol of all types of MOSFET. In the symbol
of enhancement type MOSFET, there no
connection between the drain and source
which represents that there is no permanent
fabricated channel between drain and source.
On the other hand, you can see in the symbol
of depletion type MOSFET, there is a
connection between Drain and Source which
represents that there is a permanent
fabricated channel available between the
Drain and Source.

MOSFET Terminal Identification MOSFET Construction

MOSFET is a three-terminal device. The terminals of the PNP transistor also a type of Bipolar Junction
MOSFET named - Gate, Drain, and Source Transistor. It has two P-Type layers and one N-type
When you hold a MOSFET IC towards your face then the layer. In some electronic circuits, the PNP transistor
left terminal is the Gate Terminal, the middle terminal is is more useful than the NPN transistor. Here, you can
the Drain Terminal, and the right terminal is the Source see the symbol of the PNP Transistor.
Terminal. The Drain terminal is connected to the metal
body of the MOSFET. See the below diagram to better
understand.

You can see in the above diagram, there is a permanent channel in the depletion MOSFET
but in the Enhancement MOSFET, there is no Channel. A temporary channel is produced
when we applied a voltage across the MOSFET. The gate of the MOSFET is completely
insulated by the metal oxide layer of silicon.
MOSFET is a voltage-controlled Device, not Current Controlled. It is the great advantage of
a MOSFET that, almost zero current required to control the load current. MOSFET can be
used for both switching and amplifying purpose although it mostly used for switching
purposes only.
In normal conditions, MOSFET does not allow the flow of current through the Drain and
Source terminals, but when we applied a voltage to the gate terminal above the threshold
voltage it starts to conduct the load current through Drain and Source Terminals. Like a BJT
MOSFET also has Cut-off Region, Linear or Ohomic Region, and Saturation Region. In the
cut-off region, MOSFET does not conduct any current. In the linear or ohmic region, load
current increases with the increase of gate voltage. In the saturation region, the load current
through the MOSFET got stable, it will not increase even in the increase of gate voltage.
MOSFET Uses and Features

1. MOSFET is a semiconductor switching device that is used as an electronic switch.

2. MOSFET also used in power amplifier circuits.
3. MOSFET used in small inverter, rectifier circuits.
4. MOSFET used in automatic LED Driver circuits.
5. MOSFETs are used in Motor Driver, Motor Controller Circuits.
Difference between NMOS, PMOS, CMOS Transistor with Symbols

The main difference between NMOS, PMOS, and CMOS transistors is the NMOS transistor
conducts current when there is a voltage across the gate, the PMOS transistor conducts current
when there is no voltage across the gate, and the CMOS Transistor have dual characteristics.
MOSFET or Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor is a very fast switching transistor
and it is used in almost all electronic circuits, ICs, devices. According to the construction and uses
of substrates, there are mainly two types of MOSFET,
N Chanel MOSFET or NMOS Transistor
P Channel MOSFET or PMOS Transistor
Another newly developed MOSFET is the CMOS Transistor that is built with the combination of
both N channel and P channel MOSFET. Nowadays, CMOS transistors are widely used due to
their low power loss, high reliability, low noise, etc.
What is NMOS Transistor?

N channel MOSFET to NMOS is a type of MOSFET whose source is constructed by the N-type
substrate and drain is constructed by the P-type substrate. The carrier in the NMOS transistor
are electrons that mean the electrons are responsible for the current conduction. In normal
conditions, there is no conductive channel between the source and drain, when a voltage is
applied across the gate, holes from the gate or p-type substrate start driven away in the body and
it creates an n-channel between the source and drain. Once the n-channel is created current can
conduct from the source to drain.
So the basic concept is that when there is a minimum voltage available across the gate terminal
a connection is built up between the source and drain terminal or they act as a closed circuit when
there is no voltage or zero voltage across the gate terminal the connection is removed or
disconnected between the source and drain terminals or they act as an open circuit.
N-channel MOSFET or NMOS also have two types - enhancement type and depletion type
MOSFET. NMOS Logic or NMOS technology built the logic gates and other different types of
digital circuits using NMOS transistors.

NMOS Transistor Symbol PMOS Transistor Symbol

What is CMOS Transistor?

CMOS means Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. The CMOS Transistor is constructed
by both NMOS and PMOS Transistors. It is basically an integrated circuit built with those two
transistors. As both the transistors are used, the CMOS has both characteristics. The NMOS
transistors in the CMOS creates a low resistance path between the source and drain when the
gate voltage is high and the PMOS transistor in the CMOS creates a low resistance path between
the source and drain when the gate voltage is low

Difference between PMOS and NMOS and CMOS

1. The carrier in the PMOS Transistor is a hole. The

carrier in the NMOS transistor is an electron. The
carrier in the CMOS transistor is electrons and holes
both.
2. PMOS and NMOS are the simple enhancement or
depletion type devices whereas the CMOS is an
integrated circuit built with both PMOS and NMOS
transistors.
3. PMOS and NMOS have a single characteristic
whereas the CMOS transistor has dual characteristics
that exist between both NMOS and PMOS.
4. CMOS has more functions, low noise, high speed
than NMOS and PMOS transistors.

Why diode is connected across IGBT and MOSFET? Body or Intrinsic Diode
We are going to know why diodes are connected in antiparallel with IGBT and MOSFET, what is
the body diode or intrinsic diode in a power MOSFET. Generally, low power MOSFETs have not
any Body Diode or Intrinsic Diode but the high power rated power MOSFETs have. The body
diode is also called parasitic diode or internal diode. We need to connect an external diode in
antiparallel with the low power MOSFETs for certain applications.
Why we need to connect external diodes in antiparallel across IGBT and MOSFET?
We need to connect the external diode to provide a path for reverse current. We know that
MOSFET or IGBT is a unidirectional device, they only conduct current in forward bias and block
the current in reverse bias.
So when an inductive load is connected with MOSFET a reverse voltage appears across the
MOSFET which produced by the inductive load. This reverse voltage may damage the
MOSFET. For this reason, an external diode is connected across the MOSFET or IGBT or SCR
to provide a path for reverse current.

Sometimes an external diode is connected across the MOSFET (low power rated) in parallel as
a body diode for high-speed switching applications because the internal diode cannot work
properly in high-speed switching or H-Bridge applications.

What is Body Diode in MOSFET?

As I told before low power MOSFETs does not have any Body diode but high power diodes
have body diode. Generally, the body diode is connected between drain and source. The body
diode in a MOSFET is nothing but a normal PN Junction Diode. The voltage and current rating
of the body diode are the same as the rating of MOSFET itself.

The structure of the body diode is inherent in the construction of the MOSFET and it points to the body of
the MOSFET, that is why it is also called an Intrinsic Diode.
The body diode in a MOSFET used for the following reasons.
1. The body diode provides a path for reverse drain current or freewheeling purpose when the MOSFET is
connected with inductive load.
2. The body diode in a MOSFET acts as a camper and maintain the gate voltage with respect to the source
and drain under an appropriate level.
3. The body also provides very reverse recovery time for high-speed switching applications.
What is Vcc, Vss, Vdd, Vee in Electronics? Differences and Full Forms
You may notice electronic ICs have these pins Vcc, Vss, Vdd, Vee. Some ICs has Vcc and GND, some
have Vdd and Vss, some have Vcc and Vee. Now the question is what is the full form or meaning of these
pins and why different names are used for different ICs. You may also notice; in electronic circuits these
names are used with their power supply terminals. So, let's know why different names are used.
Full Forms of Vcc, Vss, Vdd, Vee
Vcc = Voltage Collector Collector
Vdd = Voltage Drain Drain
Vss = Voltage Source Source
Vee = Voltage Emitter Emitter
GND = Ground
Now you may think why there is double terms are used such as Collector Collector, Drain Drain, etc.
These double terms refer that the particular pin connected to the many transistors, not to a single transistor.
For example, the Vcc not connected only to a single transistor, it connected with many transistors.
What is Vcc, Vss, Vdd, Vee?
Vcc and Vdd are the positive supply voltage to an IC or circuit.
Vss and Vee are the negative supply voltage to an IC or electronic circuit.
Why different names are used?
We know that BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) has three terminal named as Emitter, Base, and Collector.
FET (Field Effect Transistor) also has three terminals named as Gate, Drain, and Source.
So when an electronic circuit or IC is made using Bipolar Junction Transistors then the supply voltage pins
are denoted as Vcc and Vee
Vcc refers that the supply voltage pin is connected to the collector of the transistors.
Vee refers that the supply voltage pin is connected to the emitter of the transistors.

When an electronic circuit or IC is made using Filed Effect Transistors the supply voltage pins are denoted
as Vdd and Vss
Vdd refers that the supply voltage pin is connected to the drain of the transistor.
Vss refers that the supply voltage pin is connected to the source of the transistor.

BJT FET
Supply Voltage (Bipolar Junction (Field Effect
Transistor) Transistor)
Positive Supply
Vcc Vdd
Voltage
Negative Supply
Vee Vss
Voltage

MOSFET Types
About voltage regulation and voltage regulators. In both electrical and electronic power systems, circuits,
equipment, devices, voltage regulation is required. Voltage is the electrical pressure or potential difference
that causes to flow of the electric current in a closed circuit. So, any fluctuation in the voltage can affect the
flow of current. So the concept of voltage regulation came from the process of stabling or make constant
the voltage. Here, we also see the voltage regulator circuits, Applications, and their working principle.

The voltage regulation is the system or process that always maintains a constant voltage in its output while
its input voltage or connected load is varying. And the circuit or device or component that does the voltage
regulation process is called Voltage Regulator. So, the main objective or function of a voltage regulator is
to regulate the voltage from a fluctuating voltage to a constant voltage. Voltage regulators use voltage step
down, voltage step-up, current limiting, the current bypassing principles for their operations.

There are different types of voltage regulators are available and all of them work in different ways. But the
function of all the voltage regulators is the same which means they all work to maintain a constant output
voltage while input voltage and loads are varying.

Some voltage regulators work on the principle that they continuously compare the input voltage and output
voltage with a precise reference voltage. When the input voltage increase it steps down the voltage. When
the input voltage is decreased, it adds some extra voltage to the circuit from a reference voltage source
and maintains a constant output voltage.

Some voltage regulators are working on the principle that they bypass the excess current when the input
voltage increased from the output voltage. So the voltage across the load resistance always be constant.
But remember, these voltage regulators are helpful when voltage is increased. If voltage is decreased under
a certain level it cannot maintain the constant voltage at the output.
This circuit will help you to understand easily how a voltage regulator works. This is a very simple circuit.
Here, you can see a Zener diode rated of 6V is connected in parallel with opposite polarity to the circuit.
Here, the main function of the Zener diode is when the reverse bias voltage goes above 6V it will start to
conduct current. So when the input voltage of the circuit goes above 6V the Zener diode will start to bypass
the excess current. Due to that a voltage drop will occur in the series resistance so the output voltage will
remain constant at 6V.

There are mainly two types of voltage regulators such as,

Linear Voltage Regulators
Switching Voltage Regulators
Linear voltage regulators are further divided into two types-
Series Voltage Regulators
Shunt Voltage Regulators

Linear Voltage regulators are those which work on the principle of voltage dividing, Current Limiting, or
current bypassing. These regulator does not on or off the power supply, they working with continuous
current flow.

Series linear voltage regulators are working on the principle of voltage drop and current limiting. The
variable component of the circuit is connected in series with the load and power supply. This series element
provides variable resistance voltage drop to maintain the constant output voltage.

Shunt linear voltage regulators are those which work on the principle of current bypassing. Here, the
variable component of the circuit is connected in parallel with the load and power supply. So when the
voltage increases above the limit, it bypasses the extra current, so at the load side voltage and current
remain constant.

1. The main advantage of Linear Voltage Regulators is no interruption in load current.

2. Simple Circuit Design.
3. Less Noise and Ripples.

The main disadvantage of the linear voltage regulator is power loss. Yes, as it works with resistance, so
much power loss happens. Other disadvantages are low efficiency, voltage boosting, or voltage step-up
not possible.

Read Also: Fan Regulator Connection Diagram and Internal Circuit Explanation

Switching voltage regulators are working on the principle of high-frequency switching. They have ultra-fast
semiconductor switches such as MOSFET, IGBT, and feedback control circuits. The output voltage
depends upon the speed of switching. So the feedback circuit continues to monitor the output voltage and
control the speed of switching to maintain the constant output voltage.

The main advantages of switching voltage regulators are high efficiency and voltage boosting or voltage
step up.
The main disadvantage of switching voltage regulators is high noise, complexity, and expense.

1. Voltage regulation system is used in electrical power transmission and distribution systems.

2. Electronic voltage regulators are used in computers and other sensitive electronic devices.

3. Voltage regulators are also used in motor controller circuits, driver circuits, etc.

Series regulator: Control Element in series with load between input and output.
Shunt regulator: Shunt voltage regulator is connected in shunt with the load.

1.Step-up Switching circuit: Boost the input voltage its also called BOOST REGULATOR. input voltage
is lower than its output voltage.
2.Step-Down Regulator: A "buck" or "step-down" switch-mode voltage regulator is one in which the
output voltage is lower than its input voltage.

LDO: A low-dropout or LDO regulator is a DC linear voltage regulator that can regulate the output
voltage even whenthe supply voltage is very close to the output.
Fixed LDO: Output Fixed.
Adjustable LDO: Output set by adjust pin.
In digital electronic circuits, logic gates are the basic fundamental component or building blocks. Every
digital circuit, devices are consists of logic gates. Logic gates have one or multiple inputs and one output.
Generally, logic gates are made of transistors. In this article, we are going to see the symbol of logic gates.

An AND gate has a minimum of two inputs. The output of the AND gate will be high when both of the input
is high. If anyone input is low the output also be low. Here, you can see the symbol of AND Gate.

An OR Gate also has a minimum of two inputs. The output of the OR Gate will be high when anyone input
is high. The output will be low when both of the inputs is low. Here, you can see the symbol of OR Gate.
A NOT gate is also known as an inverter. It has a single input and a single output. When the input of the
NOT gate is high the output will be low and vice versa. Here, you can see the symbol of NOT Gate.

NAND gate is the combination of AND Gate and NOT gate. It also has a minimum of two inputs and one
output. The output of the NAND Gate will be high when anyone input is low. The output will be low when
both of the inputs are high. Here, you can see the symbol of NAND Gate.

A NOR Gate is the combination of OR Gate and NOT Gate. NOR gate also have a minimum of two inputs
and one output. The output of the NOR gate will be high when both of the input is low. The output of the
NOR gate will be low when anyone input is low. Here, you can see the symbol of NOT Gate.
XOR gate also has two inputs and one output. Here, you can see the symbol of XOR Gate.

XNOR Gate also has two inputs and one output. Here, you can see the symbol of XNOR Gate.