The Medium Access Control

Sublayer

Vijay S. Katta 1

Channel Allocation
• Networks can be divided into two categories:
– those using point-to-point connections and
– those using broadcast channels.

• broadcast channels are sometimes referred to as

multi access channels or random access
channels.

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 Channel allocation issue in
Broadcast

• In any broadcast network, the key issue is

how to determine who gets to use the
channel when there is competition for it.

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MAC (Medium Access Control)

sub layer
• The protocols used to determine who goes next on a multi access
channel belong to a sublayer of the data link layer called the MAC
(Medium Access Control) sublayer.

• The MAC sublayer is especially important in LANs, many of which

use a multi access channel as the basis for communication.

• WANs, in contrast, use point-to-point links, except for satellite

networks. Because multi access channels and LANs are so closely
related,

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The Channel Allocation Problem

• Static Channel Allocation

• FDM
• TDM

• Dynamic Channel Allocation in LANs and

MANs

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Static Channel Allocation

• The traditional way of allocating a single channel,
such as a telephone trunk, among multiple
competing users is Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM).

• If there are N users, the bandwidth is divided into N

equal-sized portions, each user being assigned one
portion.

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 Static Channel Allocation

• Since each user has a private frequency band, there is

no interference between users.

• When there is only a small and constant number of

users, each of which has a heavy (buffered) load of
traffic (e.g., carriers‘ switching offices), FDM is a simple
and efficient allocation mechanism.

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Drawback of Static channel

allocation
• However, when the number of senders is large and continuously
varying or the traffic is bursty, FDM presents some problems.

• If the spectrum is cut up into N regions and fewer than N users are
currently interested in communicating, a large piece of valuable
spectrum will be wasted.

• If more than N users want to communicate, some of them will be

denied permission for lack of bandwidth, even if some of the users
who have been assigned a frequency band hardly ever transmit or
receive anything.

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Queuing theory for performance
of channel
• Queuing theory is a mathematical study of waiting lines
or queues.

• It helps analyze and optimize systems where

resources (like servers, machines, or people)
provide service to incoming tasks or customers.

• This theory is widely used in fields like

telecommunications, traffic engineering, healthcare, and
manufacturing.

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Performance of static channel

• The poor performance of static FDM can easily be seen with a
simple queuing theory calculation.

• Let us start by finding the mean time delay, T, on following

parameter
– to send a frame onto a channel of capacity C bps.
– We assume that the frames arrive randomly with an average
arrival rate of λ frames/sec, and
– the frames vary in length with an average length of 1/μ bits.

• With these parameters, the service rate of the channel is μC

frames/sec.

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 Performance of static channel
• A standard queueing theory result is

For example,
• if C is 100 Mbps,
• the mean frame length, 1/μ, is 10,000 bits, and
• the frame arrival rate, λ, is 5000 frames/sec,
then T = 200 μsec

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Performance of static channel

• Now let us divide the single channel into N
independent sub-channels, each with capacity C/N
bps.
• The mean input rate on each of the subchannels will
now be λ/N. Recomputing T, we get

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 TDM static channel allocation
• Precisely the same arguments that apply to FDM
also apply to other ways of statically dividing the
channel.

• If we were to use time division multiplexing

(TDM) and allocate each user every Nth time
slot, if a user does not use the allocated slot, it
would just lie fallow.

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Dynamic Channel Allocation

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 Assumptions for Dynamic Channel
Allocation in LANs and MANs
1. Station Model.

2. Single Channel Assumption.

3. Collision Assumption.

4. (a) Continuous Time.

(b) Slotted Time.

5. (a) Carrier Sense.

(b) No Carrier Sense.
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1. Station Model
• Independent Traffic. The model consists of N independent
stations (e.g., computers, telephones).

• The expected number of frames generated in an interval of length Δt

is λΔt,
– where λ is a constant (the arrival rate of new frames).

• Once a frame has been generated, the station is blocked and

does nothing until the frame has been successfully transmitted.

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 2. Single Channel.
• A single channel is available for all
communication.

• All stations can transmit on it and all can

receive from it.

• The stations are assumed to be equally

capable, though protocols may assign
them different roles (e.g., priorities).
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3.Observable Collisions
assumption
• If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, they
overlap in time and the resulting signal is garbled.

– This event is called a collision.

– All stations can detect that a collision has occurred.
– A collided frame must be transmitted again later. No errors other
than those generated by collisions occur.

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4. Continuous or Slotted Time
• Time may be assumed continuous, in which case
frame transmission can begin at any instant.
• Alternatively, time may be slotted or divided into discrete
intervals (called slots).
• Frame transmissions must then begin at the start of
a slot.
• A slot may contain 0, 1, or more frames, corresponding
to an idle slot, a successful transmission, or a collision,
respectively.

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5. Carrier Sense or No Carrier

Sense
• If there is no carrier sense, stations cannot sense the
channel before trying to use it. They just go ahead and
transmit.
• Only later can they determine whether the transmission
was successful.

• With the carrier sense assumption, stations can tell if

the channel is in use before trying to use it.
• No station will attempt to use the channel while it is
sensed as busy.

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 MULTIPLE ACCESS
PROTOCOLS

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Multiple Access Protocols

• ALOHA
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols
• Collision-Free Protocols
• Limited-Contention Protocols
• Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol.

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Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

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ALOHA
• ALOHA, the earliest random access method,
was developed at the University of Hawaii in
early 1970. It was designed for a radio (wireless)
LAN, but it can be used on any shared medium.
– Pure ALOHA
– Slotted ALOHA

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 Pure ALOHA
the first multiple-access protocol: a method for sharing a
transmission channel by enabling the transmitter to access
the channel at random times

ALOHA of U. of Hawaii

Computer
Center

413MHz at 9600bps
407MHz at 9600bps

Pure ALOHA
• The original ALOHA protocol is called pure ALOHA. This is a simple,
but elegant protocol.

• The idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame
to send.

• However, since there is only one channel to share, there is the

possibility of collision between frames from different stations.

• Systems in which multiple users share a common channel in a

way that can lead to conflicts are known as contention
systems.

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 Pure ALOHA
• We need to resend the frames that have been destroyed
during transmission.

• The pure ALOHA protocol relies on acknowledgments

from the receiver.

• If the acknowledgment does not arrive after a time-out

period, the station assumes that the frame (or the
acknowledgment) has been destroyed and resends the
frame.

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Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary
times.

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 ALOHA

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Vijay S. Katta

Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

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 Pure ALOHA (2)
Vulnerable period for the shaded frame.

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Pure ALOHA (3)

Throughput versus offered traffic for ALOHA
systems.

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 Performance of ALOHA
• Performance of ALOHA has been calculated with Poisson
distribution.(Annexure –A)

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The performance of ALOHA

•Let S be the arrival rate of new frames in units of frames/X seconds,
S is also the throughput of the system.
•Let G be the total arrival rate in units of frames/X seconds,
G contains the new and retransmissions and is the total load.
•e., Assume that aggregate arrival process resulting from new and
retransmitted frames has a Poisson distribution with an average number of
arrivals of 2G frames/2X seconds,

(2G)k
e-2G , k=0,1,2,…
P[k transmissions in 2X seconds] =
k!
Therefore, the throughput of the system is:

Throughput , S=G*P[no collision] =G*P[0 transmission in 2X seconds]

(2G)0
=G* e-2G =G e-2G
0! 34

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What results can be obtained from the graph?
1.peak value at G=0.5 with S=0.184
2.for any given S, there are two values of G, corresponding to
the two modes: occasional collision mode with S  G and
frequent collision mode with G >> S

0.2
0.18 0.184
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
S

0.08 Ge-2G
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 1 2 4
12
5 25 12
5
62
5 25 0.2
5 0.5
78 56 .03 0.0 0.1
00 0.01 0
0.

Throughput S versus load G for ALOHA

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Figure 6.17

Slotted ALOHA
Synchronize the transmissions of stations
–All stations keep track of transmission time slots and are allowed to initiate
transmissions only at the beginning of a time slot.

Suppose a packet occupies one time slot

–Vulnerable period is from t0-X to t0, i.e., X seconds long.

Therefore, the throughput of the system is:

S=GP[no collision] =GP[0 transmission in X seconds]

(G)0
=G e-G =G e-G
0!

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 Peak value at G=1 with S=0.368 for slotted ALOHA, double compared with ALOHA.
In LAN, propagation delay may be negligible and uncoordinated access of shared
medium is possible but at the expense of significant wastage due to collisions and at
very low throughput.

Throughput of ALOHAs is not sensitive to the reaction time because stations act
independently.
0.4
0.368
0.35

0.3

S 0.25
Ge-G
0.184
0.2

0.15

0.1
Ge-2G
0.05

0
0.25
0.03125

0.125

8
0.5
0.015625

0.0625

G
Throughput S versus load G for ALOHA and slotted ALOHA
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Figure 6.17

CSMA (Carrier sensing multiple

access)
• Problem with ALOHAs: low throughput
because the collision wastes
transmission bandwidth.
• Solution: avoid transmission that are
certain to cause collision, that is CSMA.
• Any station listens to the medium, if there
is some transmission going on the
medium, it will postpone its transmission.

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 Evolution of CSMA/CD

WCB/McGraw-Hill © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

Types of CSMA

• Persistent CSMA
– 1- persistent CSMA
– P- persistent CSMA

• Non Persistent CSMA

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols

non-persistent CSMA: the station transmits if the channel is idle,

if the channel is busy, it waits a random time and tries again
1-persistent CSMA: the station transmits with a probability of 1
whenever it finds the channel idle, if the channel is busy, it waits
until it becomes idle
p-persistent CSMA (slotted): the station transmits with a
probability of p whenever it finds the channel idle, with a
probability of 1-p, it waits until the next slot. If another station
has begun transmitting, it acts as if there had been a collision. It
waits a random time and starts again.

1-persistent CSMA

Problem with 1-persistent CSMA is “high collision rate”.

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 Non-persistent CSMA

Problem with non-persistent CSMA is that when the channel becomes

idle from busy, there may be no one of waiting stations beginning the
transmission, thus waste channel bandwidth,

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p-persistent CSMA

It is applied on slotted channel.

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols Collision Detection

1. Abort a transmission as soon as they detect a collision. Quickly

terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth.

2. After a station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission,

waits a random period of time, and then tries again, assuming
that no other station has started transmitting in the meantime.

CSMA with Collision Detection

CSMA/CD can be in one of three

states:
1) contention,
2) transmission, or
3) idle.

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 CSMA process

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Collision-Free Protocols(1)
Bit-map protocol.

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 Collision-Free Protocols (2)
The binary countdown protocol. A dash
indicates silence.

Limited-Contention Protocols

Acquisition probability for a symmetric

contention channel.

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 Limited-Contention Protocols
• Obviously, it would be nice if we could
combine the best properties of the contention
and collision-free protocols, arriving at a new
protocol that
– used contention at low loads to provide low delay,
but

– used a collision-free technique at high load to

provide good channel efficiency.

MAC Channel Allocation Protocol Comparison.

Two important performance measures for channel acquisition

strategies: delay at low load and channel efficiency at high load

Channel
efficiency
Light load Heavy load

Contention protocols Good bad

Contention-free protocols bad Good

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 Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
The tree for eight stations.

Annexure:- A - The Poisson

Distribution
• The Poisson Distribution was developed by the French
mathematician Simeon Denis Poisson in 1837.

• The Poisson random variable satisfies the following

conditions:
– The number of successes in two disjoint time intervals is
independent.
– The probability of a success during a small-time interval is
proportional to the entire length of the time interval.

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 Applications
• Apart from disjoint time intervals, the Poisson random variable also
applies to disjoint regions of space.
• The number of deaths by horse kicking in the Russian army (first
application)
• Birth defects and genetic mutations
• Rare diseases (like leukemia, but not AIDS because it is infectious
and so not independent) - especially in legal cases
• Car accidents
• Traffic flow and ideal gap distance
• Number of typing errors on a page
• Hairs found in mcdonald's hamburgers
• Spread of an endangered animal in africa
• Failure of a machine in one month

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Probability distribution of a
Poisson random variable
• The probability distribution of a Poisson random
variable X representing the number of successes
occurring in a given time interval or a specified region
of space is given by the formula:

x=0,1,2,3…
e={2.71828}
μ= mean number of successes in the given time interval or region of space
Back with solid fill

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