WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Unit – 1 Elements of cellular Radio system Design

Basic Cellular system:

A cellular system in wireless communication is a technology that allows mobile devices
to connect wirelessly over large areas. The system works by dividing a geographic region
into smaller sections called "cells," each equipped with a base station that
communicates with mobile phones and other devices. A base station in wireless
communication is a crucial component that acts as the bridge between mobile devices
(like phones) and the wider network. It typically consists of antennas, transmitters, and
receivers located at a fixed point, such as a tower or building. A Cellular Network is
formed of some cells. The cell covers a geographical region and has a base station
analogous to 802.11 AP which helps mobile users attach to the network and there is an
air interface of physical and data link layer protocol between mobile and base station. All
these base stations are connected to the Mobile Switching Center which connects cells
to a wide-area net, manages call setup, and handles mobility.

Types of basic cellular system:

There are mainly two types of Basic Cellular System:
1. Circuit Switched : Circuit-switched communication in wireless networks is a
traditional method for establishing a connection between two parties for
communication, commonly used in older technologies like 2G systems for voice
calls.In a circuit-switched system, each traffic channel is dedicated to a user until its
cell is terminated.

There are two types of circuit switched:

a). Analog circuit switched System : An analog circuit-switched system in wireless
communication is a method used in early mobile networks, such as 1G (first-generation
networks), for transmitting voice calls. It works similarly to traditional wired telephone
networks and uses analog signals for communication

b). Digital circuit switched System : A digital circuit-switched system is a communication

method where a dedicated path (circuit) is established between the sender and receiver
for the duration of the communication. Unlike analog systems, it uses digital signals to
transmit data, making it more efficient and reliable.

2. Packet Switched: Packet switching in wireless communication is a method used to

send data efficiently by breaking it into smaller packets. Unlike circuit switching
(used in traditional telephone networks), packet switching doesn't require a
dedicated line between the sender and receiver. Instead, it uses shared network
resources to route data dynamically.
A cellular packet-switched system has six elements as follows:
1. MS (Mobile Station)
2. Node B
3. RNC (Radio Network Controller)
4. SGSN (Service GPRS Support Node)
5. GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)
6. CGF (Changing Gateway Function

Performance criteria:
Main components of Performance criteria are as follows:
1. Voice Quality
2. Data Quality
3. Picture/Vision Quality
4. Service Quality
5. Special Features

1. Voice Quality: Voice quality refers to the clarity, intelligibility, and over-all experience
of voice calls in a cellular network. Voice quality in wireless communication refers to how
clearly and accurately a person's voice is transmitted and heard during a call.
Factors affecting the Voice Quality:
Factors Affecting Voice Quality:
• Signal Strength: Poor signal strength can result in dropped calls, distorted voices, or
silence.
• Latency: High latency in voice calls can cause delays, making
conversations feel out of sync.

2. Data Quality: Data quality refers to the ability of the cellular network to support
high-speed data transmission with minimal errors or interruptions.

Factors Affecting Data Quality:

1.Speed: The rate at which data is transmitted, measured in bits per second (bps).
Higher throughput results in faster downloads ,uploads, and streaming.

2.Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from the source to thedestination.
Low latency is critical for real-time applications like videocalls, gaming, and live
streaming.

3.Picture Quality : Picture quality pertains to the clarity, sharpness, and smoothness of
images and video transmitted over the cellular network. This is especially important for
video calls, streaming, and mobile TV services.

4.Service quality: Service quality refers to the overall user experience with the network,
which includes the reliability and consistency of services like voice calls, data access,
SMS, and other network functionalities.

5.special Features: Special features refer to additional functionalities that enhance the
user experience beyond basic voice and data services. These features may include
advanced network capabilities, personalized services, and value-added features.

Components of cellular System:

1. Mobile Devices : Mobile devices (such as smartphones, tablets, and other wireless
devices) that interact with the cellular network to send/receive calls, data, and text
messages.

2. Cellular Base Station : The base station is responsible for communicating with the
mobile devices within a specific cell. It serves as the link between the mobile device
and the rest of the cellular network.

3. Cell: A cell is the geographic area covered by a base station. The size of the cell can
vary depending on factors like population density, terrain, and frequency used.
4. Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC is a key component of the core network in
older cellular systems (2G/3G). It handles call routing, mobility management, and
connects the mobile network with external systems like landline networks or the
internet.
Functions:
▪ Establishes and terminates calls between mobile devices or
between mobile devices and landline networks.
▪ Manages mobile device registration and location tracking.

▪ Handles handoff decisions when the mobile device moves

between cells.
▪ Provides signaling and data transfer services.

Operations:
1. Call Setup and Termination
Call Setup: The process where a mobile device communicates with the base station to
establish a connection (either voice or data) with another device. It involves checking
the availability of channels and resources in the network.

Call Termination: The process of disconnecting the call after it is completed, which
involves releasing the resources back to the network.

(IMP for 10 marks)

2. Handoff : In cellular telecommunications, the terms handover or handoff refers to
the process of transferring an ongoing call or data connectivity from one Base
Station to another Base Station. When a mobile moves into a different cell while
the conversation is in progress then the MSC (Mobile Switching Centre) transfers
the call to a new channel belonging to the new Base Station.
When a mobile user A moves from one cell to another cell then BSC 1 signal
strength loses for the mobile User A and the signal strength of BSC 2 increases and
thus ongoing calls or data connectivity for mobile users goes on without
interrupting.
 Types of Handoff
1. Hard Handoff
2. Soft Handoff
3.Delayed Handoff
4.Mobile-Assisted Handoff

Hard handoff: When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from
one Base Station to another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and
MSC because the switching takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the
users. The connection quality is not that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before
make’ policy.
It is generally implemented in Time Division Multiplexing and Frequency Division
Multiplexing when a user connects to the base station with a fluctuating radio
frequency.
• Hard Handoff is cheaper in cost as compared to soft Handoff because only one
channel needs to be active at a time.
• It is more efficient than soft handoff, that’s why hard handoffs are widely
implemented.

Soft Handoff :
Soft Handoff is a mechanism in which the device gets connected with two or more base
stations at the same time. At least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added
or removed to the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. If
a channel is in power loss then another channel will always be on standby mode so this
makes it best in terms of quality as compared to Hard handoff. Soft handoffs are used in
devices supporting CDMA/WDMA networks
• High Transmission speed as more than one repeater can transmit signals.
• It has a very low delay in signals.
• It can’t be implemented on devices supporting GSM or LTE networks.

Delayed Handoff:
Delayed handoff occurs when no base station is available for accepting the transfer. The
call continues until the signal strength reaches a threshold, and after that, the call is
dropped. Generally, it happens when the user is out of the network coverage area, or at
some dead spots where network reach is very low.
Mobile-Assisted Handoff :
Mobile-Assisted handoff is generally used when a mobile phone helps a base station to
transfer the call to another base station with better-improvised connectivity and more
signal strength. This handoff is used in TDMA technique-based GSM devices.

3.Frequency Management : The cellular systemuses frequency reuse techniques

to efficientlyutilize the available radio spectrum. The network assigns frequencies to
different cells in a way that minimizes interference and maximizes the capacity of the
network.

4. Resource Allocation :The network allocates radio resources (like time slots,
frequency channels, or codes) to users to support various services (voice, video,
data).Efficient resource allocation ensures that the network can handle high volumes of
traffic and provide quality service.

Planning a Cellular System:

Planning a cellular system in wireless communication involves designing and organizing
the infrastructure to ensure efficient, reliable, and high-quality wireless communication
over a defined area. The goal is to optimize the system's performance while meeting
user demand and minimizing costs. Below are the key steps involved in planning a
cellular
System:
1. Cell Design:I t involves Dividing the service area into smaller regions (cells) for
coverage. Determining the size of cells based on factors like population density and
terrain.

2. Frequency Allocation: it involves Assigning radio frequencies to cells while

minimizing interference. Implementing frequency reuse to maximize spectrum
efficiency.
3. Capacity Planning: Estimating the number of users and their communication needs.
Ensuring the system can handle peak demand without congestion.
4. Base Station Placement: Strategically locating base stations to provide optimal
coverage and signal strength. Considering factors like geography, building density,
and line-of-sight for antennas.
5. Handoff Strategy: it involves Designing mechanisms to ensure seamless handoff
when users move between cells. Ensuring no call drops or interruptions during
transitions.
Analog cellular system:
Analog systems were the first generation of cellular technology (1G) and transmitted
data using continuous analog signals, similar to radio waves. Analog system is one that
uses continous time signal or analog signal which is a sinusoidal waveform. Analog
system transmits the output in their raw form reducing the time of translation. The
amplitude of the signal varies continuously with the time. Analog signals are used to
represent sound, temperature, light intensity etc.
Features of Analog Systems
1.Uses Continuous Signals: Analog systems use continuous signals to represent
information, such as electrical voltages or sound waves
2.Real-World Representation: Analog systems are better suited for representing real-
world phenomena such as sound and light, which are continuous in nature.

3.Smooth Transitions: Analog systems provide smooth and continuous transitions

between different values, which can be important in certain applications such as music
or video.

4.Complexity: Analog systems can be more complex than digital systems due to the
need for additional circuitry to process and transmit the signals.

Digital cellular system:

A digital system is one whose signal has a finite number of discrete values. So, the digital
system works on digital signals and is limited to binary values 0 or 1. Digital systems are
used to process information in digital form. The digital system has wide applications in
digital instruments like calculators, computers, Telephones, etc.
Features of Digital Systems
1. Uses Binary Code: Digital systems use binary code, which is a combination of zeros
and ones, to represent information.

2. Accuracy: Digital systems are more accurate than analog systems because the
information is represented in a precise and consistent manner.

3. Processing Speed: Digital systems are capable of processing large amounts of data
quickly and accurately.

4. Noise Immunity: Digital systems are immune to noise and interference, which
means that the transmitted information is less likely to be corrupted.
Frequency Reuse: Frequency reuse is the technique of using the same radio
frequencies across several cell sites in a cellular network. Frequency Reuse is the
scheme in which allocation and reuse of channels throughout a coverage region is done.
Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels or Frequency sub-bands
to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell. The shape of the cell is
Hexagonal. The process of selecting and allocating the frequency sub-bands for all of the
cellular base stations within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency Planning.
Features Frequency Reuse:
1.Frequency reuse improves spectral efficiency and signal Quality (QoS).
2.The frequency reuse classical scheme proposed for GSM systems offers protection
against interference.
3.In the Frequency Reuse scheme, the total bandwidth is divided into different sub-
bands that are used by cells.

Frequency Reuse Factor: In cellular networks, the frequency reuse factor is a critical
parameter that determines how efficiently the available radio spectrum is utilized. It
represents the ratio of the number of cells within a cluster that can use the same
frequency channels.

Co-channel interference:
Co-channel cells are those cells that use the same frequency in a given coverage area.
Interference from these cells is called co-channel interference. In co-channel
interference, the cells are clustered as close together as possible to reduce the co-
channel interface and provide sufficient isolation. Increasing the co-channel reuse ratio
improves the transmission quality because of the smaller level of co-channel
interference. An example of co-channel interference is when a radio transmitter is
operating on the same frequency.

The reasons behind Co-channel interference are:

• Bad weather condition
• Poor frequency planning

Reduction Factor:
In wireless communication, the term reduction factor generally refers to a parameter or
concept used to improve system performance by reducing certain effects or optimizing
resources. It can vary depending on the specific context in which it is used.
DESIRED C/I FROM A NORMAL CASE IN AN
OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA SYSTEM:
The desired Carrier-to-Interference Ratio (C/I) in a normal omnidirectional antenna
system depends on the cluster size KK and the geometric arrangement of co-channel
interfering cells.
There are two cases to be considered:
1) the signal and co-channel interference received by the mobile unit and
2) the signal and co-channel interference received by the cell site.

As long as the received carrier-to-interference ratios at both the mobile unit and the cell
site are thesame, the system is called a balanced system.In a balanced system, we can
choose either one of the two cases to analyze the system requirement; the results from
one case are the same for the others.
Calculating Desired C/I:
The approximate formula for theoretical C/I is given by:
C/I≈(DR)n\text{C/I} \approx \left( \frac{D}{R} \right)^n
Where:
• DD is the distance to the nearest co-channel interfering cell.
• RR is the cell radius.
• nn is the path loss exponent (typically n=4n = 4 for urban areas).
For a cluster size KK, the frequency reuse distance DD is related to RR as:
D=R⋅3KD = R \cdot \sqrt{3K}
Substituting D/RD/R into the C/I equation:
C/I≈(3K)n\text{C/I} \approx \left( \sqrt{3K} \right)^n
Example for K=7K = 7:
1. Substitute K=7K = 7 and n=4n = 4 (for urban areas): $$ \text{C/I} \approx. ( \sqrt{3
\cdot 7} )^4 $$
2. Calculate: 3⋅7=21≈4.58\sqrt{3 \cdot 7} = \sqrt{21} \approx. 4.58
3. Raise to the power of 4: (4.58)4≈441(4.58)^4 \approx. 441
Thus, the desired C/I is approximately 441 (linear scale) or about 26 dB (logarithmic
scale).

Cell splitting:
Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing a cell into smaller cells each with its own Base
Station. On splitting, new cells with smaller radius are added called microcells. Each new
cell created is independent and has reduced antenna height and transmitter power. The
creation of new smaller cells increases the capacity of the system as a whole. Cell
Splitting increases the frequency reuse factor. A higher frequency reuse factor increases
the capacity of the cellular system in Cell Splitting.

Advantages:
• Increases the capacity of the channel considerably.
• Enhances dependability of cellular networks.
• Increases the frequency reuse factor.
• Increases signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.
• Reduces interference.

Disadvantages:
• For each individual cell, an individual base station is required so a huge number of
base stations are needed in this process.
• Handoff occurs frequently.